BA final exam study guide
describe the three phases of an A-B-A reversal design.
A - initial baseline B - intervention A - return to baseline
what is a functional relationship and how is it demonstrated in behavior analytic research?
A predictable change in behavior (DV) can be reliably produced by systematic manipulation of some aspect of person's environment (IV) Experimentally determining the effects of environmental manipulation on behavior and demonstrating that those effects can be reliably produced
identify some advantages and limitations of a functional analysis.
Advantages: Yields a clear demonstration of variables that relate to the occurrence of problem behavior Serve as the standard to which all other forms of FBA are evaluated Enable development of effective reinforcement-based treatment Limitations: May temporarily strengthen problem behavior May result in behavior acquiring new functions Acceptability may be low Difficult to use for serious, low frequency behaviors If conducted in contrived settings, may not identify idiosyncratic variables related to problem behavior Requires time, effort, and professional expertise
describe the various methods for gathering descriptive functional behavior assessment data and under what circumstances each is appropriate.
ABC continuous: observer records occurrences of the targeted problem behaviors and selected environmental events in the natural routine Targeted environmental events (antecedents and consequences) are recorded whenever they occur, regardless of whether problem behavior occurred ABC narrative: data are collected when behaviors of interest are observed Recording is open-ended Less time-consuming than continuous recording Scatterplot: recording the extent to which a target behavior occurs more often at particular times than others Divide day into blocks of time Analyzed for patterns of specific time periods that are typically associated with problem behavior
describe the different types of multiple baseline designs.
Across behaviors: 2 or more different behaviors of the same subject Across settings: a single behavior is targeted in 2 or more different settings or conditions Across subjects: 1 target behavior for 2 or more subjects in same setting Multiple probe: analyzes relation between IV and acquisition of skill sequences Probes provide basis for determining if behavior change has occurred prior to intervention Delayed multiple baseline: initial baseline and intervention begin, and subsequent baselines are added in delayed or staggered fashion Nonconcurrent: AB designs across subjects at different points in time
identify the advantages and limitations of the changing criterion design.
Advantages: Does not require reversal of improved behavior Only 1 target behavior required Best used for evaluating effect of instructional techniques on stepwise changes in rate, frequency, accuracy, duration, or latency Limitations: Only for use with behaviors that are in the subject's repertoire and lend themselves to stepwise modification Not appropriate for shaping behaviors May impede optimal learning rates
identify the advantages and limitations of the multiple baseline design.
Advantages: Does not require withdrawal of an effective treatment Ideal for multiple behavior changes sought by many practitioners Concurrent measurement assesses generalization Relatively easy to conceptualize Limitations: Does not demonstrate experimental control (inferred by no change in other behaviors) Provides more info about effectiveness of treatment variable than function of target behavior Can require treatment being withheld for some behaviors/settings/subjects for a long time Required time and resources
describe advantages and possible limitations of a multielement design.
Advantages: Doesn't require treatment withdrawal Speed of comparison Minimizes irreversibility problem Minimizes sequence effects Can be used with unstable data Can be used to assess generalization of effects Intervention can begin immediately Disadvantages: Multiple treatment interference Unnatural nature of rapidly alternating treatments Limited capacity → max. of 4 conditions Selection of treatments → should be significantly different from one another
identify the three strategic approaches to intervention that can be determined by FBA.
Alter antecedent variables Alter consequent variables Teach alternative behaviors
define and give examples of motivating operations.
Alters the current value of stimulus changes as reinforcement or punishment Satiation and deprivation Ex: food will not be an effective reinforcer for someone who has just eaten a lot; someone who is hungry is more likely to be reinforced by food
describe the multiple baseline technique.
Analyze effects of an independent variable across multiple behaviors, settings, and/or subjects without having to withdraw the treatment variable to verify that the improvements in behavior were a direct result of the application of treatment
what is the three-term contingency and why is it described as the "basic unit of analysis in the analysis of operant behavior"?
Antecedent (A) - Behavior (B) - Consequence (C) All ABA procedures involve manipulation of 1 or more components
describe the basic procedure of a functional analysis. be able to interpret graphic representations of functional analysis data.
Antecedents and consequents representing those in the natural environment are arranged so their effects on problem behavior can be observed and measured Typically have 4 conditions: 3 test conditions: contingent attention, contingent escape, alone Control condition
identify and explain the 7 defining characteristics of applied behavior analysis.
Applied: socially significant behaviors with immediate important to participants Behavioral: precise measurement of actual behavior in need of improvement; participants behavior changed Analytic: experimental control over occurrence and non-occurrence of behavior (functional relation) Technological: written description of all procedures so others can replicate Conceptual: behavior change interventions are derived from basic principles of behavior Effective: improves behavior sufficiently to produce practical results for participants (clinical or social significance) Generality: produces behavior changes that last over time; appear in other environments; spread to other behaviors
what is the importance of social validity in research?
Assessing applied value of behavior changes and treatments responsible
define and give examples of behavior, response, and response class.
Behavior: portion of organism's interaction with the environment Used in reference to a larger set or class of responses sharing certain physical characteristics or functions Response: specific instance of behavior Response class: a group of responses with the same function Each response in the group produces same effect on the environment
identify and know the difference between the three interrelated domains of a science of behavior analysis.
Behaviorism: philosophy of the science of behavior Watson's stimulus-response behaviorism: should study observable behavior Skinner's radical behaviorism → explain all behavior, including thinking/feeling EAB (experimental analysis of behavior): basic research Skinner identified operant behavior ABA (applied behavior analysis): developing a technology for improving behavior Fuller → conditioning arm raising response Allyon and Michael → "The Psychiatric Nurse as a Behavioral Engineer" 1968 → Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA), "Some Current Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis"
what are two major limitations of the A-B-A-B reversal design?
Can become redundant Irreversibility Social, educational, and ethical concerns
why is it important to systematically manipulate independent variables?
Can produce changes in the behavior (dependent variable) Know what is causing behavior change → IV or confounding variable
what is the value of establishing a steady baseline in applied behavior analysis?
Can use subject's performance in the absence of IV as an objective basis for detecting change Baseline data may reveal behavior targeted for change does not warrant intervention
define and give examples of conditioned and unconditioned reinforcement.
Conditioned reinforcers: have been associated with unconditioned reinforcers Ex: money, grades Unconditioned reinforcers: do not have to experience it in the past to know it is reinforcing Ex: food, water, warmth
describe the role functional behavior assessment plays in intervention and prevention of problem behavior.
Decrease reliance on default technologies → contribute to more effective interventions Can contribute to prevention/emergence of problem behavior Identify conditions that pose risks for future development of problem behaviors
how does evaluating the external validity of a study contribute to the field of applied behavior analysis?
Degree to which a functional relation in an experiment will hold under different conditions (generalization) Those with greater degrees of generality make greater contributions to ABA
how does assessment of internal validity contribute to the strength of a research experiment.
Demonstrates clear functional relation
what is a behavioral contingency?
Dependent and/or temporal relations between operant behavior and its controlling variables
what are the three levels of scientific understanding?
Description: collecting facts Prediction: certain events systematically covary; correlation Control: experimental control, manipulate variables
how can threats to the accuracy and reliability of behavioral measurement be minimized?
Design a good measurement system Train observers carefully Evaluate extent to which data are accurate and reliable
what are some benefits to obtaining and reporting interobserver agreement?
Determine competence of new observers Detect observer drift Judge clarity of definitions and system Increase believability of data
identify and explain the primary attitudes of science.
Determinism: universe is lawful and orderly place, all phenomena occur as result of other events Empiricism: objective observation Experimentation: controlled comparison of some measure of phenomenon of interest (dependent variable) under 2 or more different conditions in which only 1 factor at a time (independent variable) differs from 1 condition to another Replication: repetition of experiments to determine reliability and usefulness of findings Parsimony: simple, logical explanations Philosophic doubt: continuous questioning
how is experimental control determined when employing a multielement design?
Different levels of response in different treatments
what is meant by stimulus control? give examples.
Differential rates of operant responding observed in the presence of absence of antecedent stimuli Due to pairings in the past, antecedents acquire ability to control operant behavior Ex: stopping your car at a red light but not at a green light
why is it important for researchers to be flexible when designing research experiments?
Each experimental design should be unique Good experimental design is any IV manipulation that produces data that convincingly addresses the research question
what is a multielement (alternating treatments) design?
Efficient for comparing effects of 2 or more treatments
explain how experiments should be conducted to control for various threats to internal validity.
Eliminate as many uncontrolled variables as possible Hold constant the influence of all other variables except the IV
why is the individual subject of central importance in applied behavior analysis?
Enables applied behavior analysts to discover and refine effective interventions for socially significant behaviors
describe the different procedures for measuring behavior.
Event recording: procedures for detecting and recording number of times a behavior is observed Digital counters, masking tape, paper clips, etc. Timing: procedures to measure duration, response latency, and interresponse time Computer, stopwatch, clock, tape recorder Time sampling: observing and recording behaviors during intervals or at specific moments in time Whole-interval: at end of interval, record if behavior occurred throughout Partial-interval: at end of interval, record if behavior occurred at any time during interval Momentary time sampling: record whether behavior is occurring at end of interval Planned activity check: at end of interval, measure number of students engaged in target activity
identify the essential components of experiments in applied behavior analysis research.
Experimental question Subject or participant Behavior (DV) Setting Treatment or intervention condition (IV) System for measuring the behavior and ongoing analysis of data Manipulations of the IV so that its effects on the DV, if any, can be detected
know the difference between the function and topography of behavior.
Function: cause/reason for the behavior Topography: form of the behavior Environmental influences do not make distinctions between desirable and undesirable topographies of behavior Same topography can serve different functions for different individuals Topography often reveals little useful info about conditions that account for it Identifying function suggests what conditions need to be altered to change the behavior
state the different methods of conducting a functional behavior assessment.
Functional (experimental analysis) Descriptive assessment Indirect assessment
what are the relative strengths and limitations to each method of conducting a FBA?
Functional analysis is most precise but most difficult Indirect assessments are least precise but require least time, resources, etc Direct observations are in the middle
identify and explain the four step process of a functional behavior assessment.
Gather info via indirect and descriptive assessments Interpret info and formulate hypotheses Test hypotheses using functional analysis Develop intervention options based on the function of problem behavior
review the criteria for assessing the social significance of potential target behaviors.
Habilitation: degree to which person's behavior repertoire maximizes short and long term reinforcers and minimizes short and long term punishers Relevance of behavior after intervention Necessary prerequisite for other useful skills Increased access to reinforcers Impact on behavior of others Behavior cusp: behaviors that open person's world to new contingencies (crawling, reading, generalized imitation) Pivotal behaviors: once learned, produces changes in other untrained behaviors Age-appropriateness: normalization, achieving greatest possible integration of people with disabilities into society Replacement behaviors: cannot eliminate or reduce a behavior without teaching a replacement Actual target goal or indirectly related: on-task vs work completion Talk vs real behavior of interest: primary importance is actual behavior Focus on behavior, not end product: weight loss or exercise and diet
why is it important to measure behavior?
How scientists operationalize empiricism Measure behavior to answer questions → basis for talking about behavior Need to evaluate effects of intervention, guide decision making, prevent mistakes
describe the three greatest threats to the accuracy and reliability of behavioral measurement (and their subcategories).
Human error Poorly designed measurement systems Inadequate observer training Unintended influences on observers
why is assessment a critical component of applied behavior analysis?
Identify relevant factors that may inform or influence intervention Discover function of behavior
explain how single-subject research employs the inductive logic known as "affirmation of the consequent."
If the independent variable were not applied, the behavior, as indicated by the baseline data path, would not change If A then B statement Eliminates other factors as responsible for changes in behavior
what are the benefits of graphic display and visual analysis of behavioral data?
Immediate access to record of behavior Variations prompt exploration Provides judgemental aid Conservative method for determining significance of behavior change Encourages independent judgement and interpretation Effective source of feedback for clients
explain common threats to measurement validity.
Indirect measurement: measuring behavior other than behavior of interest Measuring a dimension that is irrelevant or ill suited to reason for measuring behavior Measurement artifacts: misleading data resulting from the way behavior is measured Discontinuous measurement Poorly scheduled observations Insensitive or limiting measurement scales
explain what it means to say that interventions should be functionally equivalent to problem behavior.
Intervention must match the function of the problem behavior to be effective If the problem behavior has an escape function, the intervention should provide escape for an alternative behavior or alter task demands to make escape less reinforcing Intervention should provide desired outcome for alternative behavior or alter antecedent conditions to make attention and/or tangibles less reinforcing
describe the four major methods of obtaining assessment information. know if these are indirect or direct assessment procedures and why.
Interview (indirect): identify list of potential target behaviors; identify environmental events that correlate with behavior; avoid "why?" Checklist (indirect): descriptions of specific behaviors and conditions under which each should occur Tests (direct): compares performance to specified criteria Direct observation (direct): in natural environment; identifies potential target behaviors; preferred method
what is meant by default technologies? what role does FBA play in default technologies?
Intrusive, coercive, or punishment-based interventions Conducting FBAs and understanding why a behavior occurs decreases reliance on default technologies and contributes to more effective interventions (reinforcement-based)
discuss why reintroducing the B condition is the preferred tactic in demonstrating a functional relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Know that IV is responsible for behavior change if repetition of baseline and treatment phases approximate the original phases Replications present more convincing demonstration of functional relation
what are the fundamental properties of behavior change over time?
Level: value on the vertical axis around which a series of behavioral measures converge Trend: overall direction taken by a datapath (increasing, decreasing; gradual or steep) Variability: frequency and extent to which multiple measures of behavior yield different outcomes
describe the primary types of graphs used in applied behavior analysis.
Line graphs* Bar graphs Cumulative record Semilogarithmic charts (standard celeration chart) Scatterplots
why might a B-A-B design be considered a preferable tactic in applied research?
May be appropriate with dangerous behaviors Ethics of withholding effective treatment
explain the procedure for measuring behavior by permanent products.
Measuring behavior after it has occurred by measuring its effects on environment Products can be natural or contrived
describe the relative importance of validity, accuracy, and reliability of behavioral assessment.
Need validity and accuracy for trustworthy data Poor reliability reveals problems with accuracy
what is the most common convention for reporting IOA in ABA?
Percentage of agreement (smaller # / larger # x 100)
identify advantages of measurement by permanent product.
Practitioner free to do other tasks Possible measurement of otherwise inaccessible behavior More accurate, complete, continuous Easier data collection Measurement of complex behavior
describe how an A-B-A reversal design incorporates baseline logic (prediction, verification, and replication).
Predict that behavior would remain the same if intervention was not added Prediction is verified by withdrawing intervention conditions and behavior returns to baseline Replications of adding and removing the intervention condition
what is a behavior principle and how is it similar or different than a behavior change tactic?
Principle of behavior: describes a functional relation between behavior and one or more of its controlling variables Basic behavior-environment relation → describes how behavior works Reinforcement, punishment, extinction Behavior change tactic: research-based, technologically consistent method for changing behavior that has been derived from 1 or more basic principles of behavior Shaping, chaining, etc
define and give examples of positive punishment and negative punishment.
Punishment: if behavior is followed closely in time by a stimulus event and as a result the future frequency of that type of behavior decreases Positive: adding unpleasant stimulus Physical (hitting, kicking, etc) Negative: removing positive stimulus Taking away phone, time out, speeding ticket
define and give examples of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
Reinforcement: if behavior is followed closely in time by a stimulus event and as a result that future frequency of that type of behavior increases Positive: adding positive stimulus Giving toys, food, etc. Negative: removing unpleasant stimulus Taking away loud sound
identify the measurable dimensions of behavior.
Repeatability or countability: behavior can be counted Count, rate/frequency, celeration Temporal extent: duration Temporal locus: when behavior occurs Response latency, interresponse time
what is steady state strategy?
Repeatedly exposing subject to condition while trying to eliminate or control extraneous influences on behavior and obtaining a stable pattern of responding before introducing next condition
explain the difference between respondent conditioning (learning by association) and operant conditioning (behavior is modified by its consequences).
Respondent conditioning: behavior is elicited by antecedent stimuli Stimulus-response relations (reflexes) Habituation → gradually diminishing response strength Operant conditioning: future frequency of behavior is determined by its history of consequences Selected, shaped, maintained by consequences Reinforcement has taken place when response frequency increases Consequences select response classes, not individual responses Occurs automatically
state a major strength of the A-B-A-B reversal design.
Reversal design strengthened by reintroducing IV
identify practical and ethical considerations in using the reversal design and alternating treatments design.
Reversal designs require withdrawal of treatment → may not be appropriate in harmful situations Get full support of everyone involved
what is baseline logic? list and define the three elements of baseline logic.
Serves as a control condition Prediction: can predict future behavior under similar conditions on basis of repeated measures showing little variation Verification: verification of a previously predicted level of baseline responding by termination or withdrawal of the treatment variable (demonstrate baseline responding would stay unchanged if IV not introduced) Replication: replication of the experimental effect accomplished by reintroducing the treatment variable
name the functions that a problem behavior can serve.
Social positive reinforcement: immediate attention from others Tangible reinforcement: access to reinforcing stimuli Automatic positive reinforcement: behaviors directly produce their own reinforcement (social reinforcers must first be ruled out) Social negative reinforcement (escape): terminating or postponing aversive events/tasks Automatic negative reinforcement: directly terminate aversive stimulation as an automatic outcome of the response
in what three ways is social validity assessed in applied behavior analysis?
Social significance of target behavior Appropriateness of procedures Social importance of results
what are the four types of baseline data patterns?
Stable baseline Ascending and descending baseline Variable baseline
define stimulus and stimulus class.
Stimulus: energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells Stimulus class: any group of stimuli sharing a predetermined set of common elements in 1 or more of these dimensions Formal dimensions Temporal locus Behavioral functions
what is meant by indirect functional behavior assessment? give examples.
Structured interviews, checklists, rating scales, or questionnaires Identifies possible conditions or events in the natural environment that correlate with problem behavior Does not involve direct observation of the behavior
review the concept of habilitation and the "relevance of behavior" rule.
Target behavior should be selected only when it can be determined that the behavior is likely to produce reinforcement in the person's natural environment
what are the relevant criteria for prioritizing target behaviors?
Threat to health or safety Frequency Longevity Potential for higher rates of reinforcement Importance (skill development, independence) Reduction of negative attention Reinforcement for significant others (social validity) Likelihood of success Cost-benefit
explain the importance of social validity in regard to selecting target behaviors.
Unacceptable to change behavior primarily for benefit of others To what extent will proposed change improve the person's life?
describe the changing criterion design technique. why would it be used?
Used to evaluate effects of a treatment applied in a graduated fashion to a single target behavior Initial baseline phase followed by series of treatment phases that serve as baseline for increased criterion of the next phase
know the differences between validity, accuracy, and reliability.
Validity: measures dimension of the behavior relevant to the question Accuracy: observed values match true values of an event Reliability: measurement yields same values across repeated measurement of same event
identify possible limitations that may impact the analysis of a multiple treatment reversal design.
Vulnerable to sequence effects → effects on behavior in given condition due to experience with prior condition
