BC Social and Emotional development
Shared and nonshared environments
"Niche-picking" - Build environment that is compatible with predispositions - Treatment due to temperament, activities involved in, physical/cognitive abilities = differences in treatment
Culture
- "Set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people, communicated from one generation to the next" (Matsumoto, 1997). ----Help interpret what is acceptable - Provides meaning to behaviors - Determines whether relationships are acceptable
Emotional script
- A schema that enables a child to identify the emotional reaction likely to accompany a particular event 3-4: identify situations that lead to specific emotions 5: understand situations that lead to a particular emotion with a specific facial display/behavior 7: can describe situations that elicit more complicated emotions with no obvious facial or behavioral expressions
interactions
- A social exchange between two individuals ----Each person is a stimulus for other child's behavior, and a response for other child's behavior - Dyadic behavior that is interdependent - Can be positive and negative - Children's behaviors do vary
What is a family?
- A social unit - share economic, social, and emotional rights and responsibilities and a sense of commitment and identification - Family structure varies, but all families have similar functions: Develop social connections ---Establish patterns of attachment ---Share memories and expectations ---Standard against which other relationships are judged
earned secure
- Able to overcome insecure relationships and develop secure ones with spouse, children ----This is a result of therapy, working through some of their unresolved experiences of the past - Asked to reflex ton relationship with parents - Relies on retrospective memories and current stay of attachment
What do babies learn from face-to-face interactions?
- Adults are responsive to them - They can control other people's behavior - They can alter the course of the interaction with emotional expression - Turn taking - Rules of social exchanges
autnomous
- Adults who have had very consistent responses of parenting - More confident in themselves and relationships with parents
Early Childhood: developmental effects
- Attracted to "like" peers -----Similarity in age, gender, or behavioral tendencies (behavioral homophily- quiet, playing) - Friendships are marked by supportiveness & exclusivity ---What predicts the ability to make friends? - Friends engage in more negative behaviors than nonfriends ----Tactics for resolving conflict also differ ----Will negotiate with friends, but non friends tend to remain firm in opinions and do not have the level of commitment with a friend - Emotional maturity and increase social cognitive ability - understanding the other perspectives = friendship qualities
Coping Strategies
- Avoid situation all together - Cognitive coping strategies -----re-evaluate the situation -----focus on certain aspects -----not think about it all 1. Change the immediate situation 2. Change the thought process associated with it
Developmental Origins of Self Concept
- Babies as young as 18 weeks of age will look at their reflection in a mirror but do not realize that they are looking at themselves ----Separation distress; they can recognize that and it is cognitive consciousness/object permanence - Rouge test as assessment of self-recognition ---Recognize own image by age 2 ----Observe child's reaction to image in mirror- laugh, touch noise, name ----Then turn them away and have them put something on their face; turns them back to see if they realize themself
How do peer relationships differ from those with adults?
- Briefer, freer, more equal - Involve shared positive emotions and conflicts - Opportunities for new types of interpersonal exploration - Offer children a cultural community of their own
Groups
- Can form spontaneously or formal structure - A collection of interacting individuals - Reciprocal influence over each other - Properties exclusive to groups ----Cohesiveness ----Hierarchy ----Homogeneity --------Consistency in members of age, interests ----Norms
biological perspective
- Charles Darwin- human infants, notes similarity in facial expressions across various countries - Argued emotions are innate and universal; based on biological factors - inborn and the same in all countries - Facial expressions are the same in different cultures - All infants began to smile at 46 weeks post conception (regardless of how much they have been exposed) - Identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins in smiling, fear responses, and emotional inhibition
Social Comparison
- Children compare themselves with their peers - Important for self-esteem - Viewed as adaptive - Happens most at school - link w how child feels about themselves and school performance ----Popular people are happier, validated
Advancing Social Understanding : Individual Differences in Perspective Taking Abilities
- Children who have higher levels of social understanding also do better on standard intelligence tests - They also exhibit more frequent prosocial behavior, such as helping and sharing, on the playground and in the classroom (Eisenberg and her colleagues)
theory of mind
- Children's understanding that people have mental states such as thoughts, beliefs, and desires that affect their behavior. - It allows children to get beyond people's observable actions and appearances and respond to their unseen states.
Groups: peer relationships/friendships
- Collection of interacting individuals; reciprocal influence over each other - Changes in configurations of and involvement in cliques and crowds.overlapping in groups
Preoccupied
- Controllable to resistance, Group C babies??? - Confused about attachment - Hyper tuned into earlier attachment issues, but do not know how to make sense of them - Less coherence in narratives and memories of when younger, and into their relationships right now - These adults may be preoccupied because parents were incoherently available
unresolved
- D babies - Fear in relationships - Disoriented in relationships - Some traumatic experience: early parent death, abuse
Our developmental perspective is based on 3 major assumptions
- Development involves quantitative and qualitative change - Later competencies emerge from earlier competencies - There is coherence over time reflecting both continuity and change
Toddlers: Relationships with developmental effects
- Direct behaviors more with familiar than unfamiliar playmates - Relationships do exist because they direct positive behaviors to those who did it to them, conflict to those who have brought conflictual behaviors - Respond to social partner - Lay foundations for learning how to establish/maintain a friendship
Toddlers: groups
- Dominance hierarchies - Greater interest in members vs. nonmembers - Individual differences in popularity & influence
Find fear by using "the visual cliff"
- Eleanor Gibson; used it to document evidence of babies emerging capacity to understand depth perception - Made the barbies scared they were going to drop down when a flat table had a tricked depth perception/ a drop with plexy glass - Knows depth perception at young age - If the mother reciprocates the babies scared face, they won't cross - If the mother poses a smile or a nonverbal communication that is encouraging, the child is more likely to cross over to her
Constructionist Perspective
- Emotions are not singular events - They have varying causes, are influenced by core affect, and are constructed by differing processes - 2 dimensions Pleasure-displeasure Activation-deactivation
functional perspective
- Emotions serve functions - Achieve social and survival goals - Provide feedback that guides others people's behaviors - Memories of past emotions shape responses to new situations ----Child making new friends or being shy from approaching others
Parents as Positive Partners What do children learn through interactions with parents?
- Encode/decode emotions - helps with emotion understanding and learning how to decipher emotions - Regulate emotions - Learn social intentions - why things happen and you do actions - Solve social problems - Observe parents interacting
The influence of the parent-child relationship
- Erikson: autonomy vs. shame and doubt - Sander: when basic trust is strong, toddlers can strive towards autonomy while continuing an emotional partnership with caregivers - 'Attachment theorists: secure attachment lays the groundwork for active exploration, especially when parents are clear about limits
What happens when emotional development goes wrong?
- Excessive anger may lead to aggression/violence - Excessive fear can be problematic for families - Can lead to relational problems
Learning Perspective
- Explains individual differences in emotional expression - Children's learned expressions are modified by the environment - Learn through parent's facial expressions, conditioning, and parent's behavior
jealousy
- Expressed when caregiver directs attention away from them towards another ---Younger children: distressed ---Older children: anger/sadness
Goodness of Fit
- Fit between temperament & environment - Early Transactional Model (Sameroff & Chandler, 1975) --- Over time, genes influence parenting, and parenting could influence genetic predispositions like temperament - Complex interaction between parent and child ---Key point: well being of children is promoted when parents sensitivity and correctly responds to child's needs
How does temperament influence children and their development?
- From the moment children are born, they are different in crying, gazing and everything; sleep, irritability, quiet and scan surroundings - Differences reflect the infants temperament
why are emotions important
- Generate views in world - Linked to children's social success and mental/physical health
How do sibling interactions change with age?
- Hierarchical and reciprocal aspects of their relationship - Quality of interactions in childhood and adolescence - Sibling rivalry and ambivalence tend to diminish and intimacy between siblings typically increases with age ---Middle and later adolescence, the older sibling serves as a confidant and the younger child looks up too- older child helps and they become mutual supports - Until the age of 4, they are not very reciprocal of older siblings behavior because they are too young
4-year Assessment
- Hypothesized an inhibition of speech & fewer smiles for high reactive as compared to low reactive Two sessions - 1-hour session with an examiner - Session with 2 unfamiliar peers - Coded for comments & smiles
Getting to know me, getting to know you...
- Increased independence from parents and increased self-reliance - Increased awareness of the self and of others - More mature forms of social interaction - The beginnings of self-control - A broader range of emotional responses
Anxious Avoidant Attachment (Group A)
- Infant shows independent exploration readily separates to explore toys little affective sharing affiliative to stranger when caregiver absent (little preference) - Infant actively avoids caregiver upon reunion turns away, looks away, moves away, ignores may mix avoidance with proximity avoidance more extreme on second reunion no avoidance of stranger ---Insecure is avoidant — they do not go to mother after reunion
Anxious Resistant Attachment (Group C)
- Infant shows poverty of exploration difficulty separating to explore, may need contact even prior to separation wary of novel situations and people - Infant has difficulty settling upon reunion may mix contact seeking with resistance (hitting, kicking, squirming, rejecting toys) behaviors: cry, fuss, stricking passivity --- dont explore as much, warms up to toys, wary of stranger and wants to stay with mom -- inconsistent with comfort by mother
secure attachment - group B
- Infant uses caregiver as a secure base for exploration readily separates to explore toys affective sharing of play affiliative to stranger in caregiver's presence readily comforted when distressed (promoting a return to play) - Infant actively seeks contact or interaction upon reunion If distressed: Immediately seeks and maintains contact and contact reduces distress If not distressed: Active greeting behavior, strong initiation of interaction - Researchers who model behavior over time have found that securely attached babies are more curious, persistent, pro social, engage in more peer relationships
Development of Emotional understanding
- Infants: use others to guide their emotional behavior - Toddlers: social referencing - Older children: much more sophisticated process that involves insight into another's emotional experience
Self-Regulation
- Internalized standards for behavioral control - Emotionally independent - Emergence of emotional display rules - Children encouraged to say positive emotions, and become better at hiding negative emotions Can modify emotions even when adult is not around; to a larger extent, they can manage things on their own
What role does the parent-child attachment relationship play?
- Learn competencies necessary for social interaction - Provides context to explore the social world - Develop internalized model of relationships with others
Why is emotion regulation important
- Learns rules of conduct - Crucial to developing social competence - Can achieve goals and interact with peers - Related to academic success, close relationships, & absence of behavior problems
Developmental Origins of the Self
- Margaret Mahler: separation-individuation process = psychological separation from the caregiver ----Facilitated by caregivers' support of this process - Kierkegaard: "The loving mother teaches her child to walk alone..."
Facial expressions in Infancy
- Maximally discriminative facial movement ---Figure out emotional expressions in babies ---Brows/ eyes, nose, cheeks/ mouth, lips, chin = 3 sections to make an emotion
The Importance of Early Care
- Maybe it is a problem to put babies in daycare and take them away from their mothers Questioned if babies were negatively affected? - Result: They can still have secure relationships even if they were away from mothers - However, could create anxious risks - Better quality daycares tend to lead to better outcomes
The Role of Parents
- Modeling - Parenting practices -----Red light, yellow, green light - Emotional Climate of the Family -----Secure in attachment; can use parents as knowledge, comfort in times of distress = can rely on parents to regulate emotions
Co-rumination
- Negative thoughts/feelings are shared & discussed - Common among close friendships especially early adolescent girls - Girls who talked about problems excessively reported having more high-quality friendships BUT, they experienced more symptoms of anxiety and depression than what was found in boys - Girls are encouraged to talk more
How are infants prepared to develop attachments
- Newborns are pre-adapted to participate in social exchanges - They signal psychological and physiological needs - They detect contingencies in the environment - They have a built-in attraction to social stimuli - They have a built-in inclination to fall in step with the caregiver's behavior
What are the special advantages of being either an only child or a child with siblings?
- Only children: positive consequences from benefiting from undivided parent attention = perform as well/better in cognitive function/social functioning skills; intelligence tests too - Parental expectations and pressure to succeed Parents also have to make sure they have a good relationship with the one child; tend to have more positive relationships which leads to more positive relationships with others - Developmental outcomes do not differ by being an only child ---Won't have better outcomes of social skills Similarities in characteristics w first born children because parents expect child to maintain core values and believers the parents do, want the first child to be just like them; not room for divergent options or different traits from parents = pressure to conform
Individual Differences in Emotion Regulation
- Parent-child attachment relationship - Temperament - Gender expectations - ----Girls are encouraged to express sadness, guys anger ----More emphasis on girls to be nice, guys to not cry - Other important relationships
The Family System
- Parents influence their children; children also influence their parents - Families are embedded within the larger physical, cultural, social, and historical settings and events around them - Families are not static; change is expected as family members influence one another both directly and indirectly - Children influence parents, and vis vera
7.5 year Assessment
- Parents questionnaire ----Afraid of animals; afraid of the thunder/lightening ----Has nightmares; quiet in unfamiliar situations - Telephone interview with parents that rated their children's level of anxiety - Observational assessment
Peer Experiences and Later Adjustment
- Peers are models = deciding what to wear, risky behavior More likely to imitate older peers - Toddlers imitate - Older children learn social rules - Teenagers copy peer models Peers influence intrapersonal behavior & interests (especially in adolescence)
Self-representations and personal narratives
- Personal pronoun use and internal state language; use name; assert independence -----Developing theory of mind - Understand others have thoughts, intentions, feelings, or beliefs that may be different - Recount stories together with parents that become part of their autobiographical memories - Self-representations are created in the context of early relationships
Fear
- Phase 1: 3-7 months; develop wariness when they encounter something they do not understand - Phase 2: 7-9 months, show genuine fear; stranger distress Social referencing reaction may depend on how caregiver responses Use caregivers response, when uncertain, to figure out how they should respond
How does this sense of self affect social interactions?
- Play with others more - Awareness of self is critical because they do things others cant do, influence how people are with them, how people will play with them
Understanding Psychological Trait Labels
- Preschoolers describe others in terms of physical characteristics; gradually use psychological descriptions - Age 5-7 recognize that people have psychological or personality attributes that distinguish them from each other and are stable enough to predict how people will act at different times and in different situations - Age 9-10 describe another person's actions less in terms of good or bad and more in terms of stable psychological traits - Adolescence realize that people are full of complexities and contradictions
Emotional Expression
- Primary emotions: joy, disgust, anger, fear, surprise - Secondary emotions: pride, shame, guilt, jealousy, embarrassment, empathy ----These more complex emotions do not emerge until 2 year; children are beginning to distinguish between themselves and others ---these emotions do required a rudimentary sense of self
Other developmental changes
- Prosocial behavior is more commonplace caring , increases with age - Nature of conflict changes - Increased time spent conversing
development involves change
- Quantitative (continuous) - qualitative (discontinuous) change - Behavioral reorganization ***These changes involve logical connections between past and present
Friendships
- Reciprocal relationships - Reciprocity of affection = trust, caring, loyalty for foundation - Voluntary = not an obligation, want to be in it - Influenced by other relationships = how you might think and act in relationships; parents can encourage or discourage
We begin to see that children....
- Recognize self in photos - Exhibit embarrassment and shame - Self assertion ("terrible twos") - Personal pronoun use - Create personal memories
Parents as Coaches
- Reinforce children's prosocial behavior - Teach children a general concept or strategy - Give examples of successful behaviors - Guide the child through multiple rehearsals of a particular action
Psychological Adjustment: Externalizing
- Rejection leads to delinquency - More aggression/conduct problems -- Difficulties in school ------Leads to a lot of problems - emotional problems, eternalizing problems
Individual differences in Emotional Expressiveness
- Related to what children learn from caregivers - Related to temperament - Related to child's overall adjustment - Gender differences and smiles - Cultural differences ----European males and females differ more in smiling rates compared to AfricanAmerican smiles ---They are treated more equally for AA than European Americans - Related to how caregivers respond to their child
Deviancy training
- Rewarding bad behavior through praise, imitation, encouragement from peers - Encourages aggression & antisocial behavior in peers based on reactions/urge to imitate
How is the amygdala related to inhibition?
- Sensitive to novelty - Necessary for acquiring conditioned (i.e., learned) reactions to fear Inhibited Children - Low threshold in amygdala - High reactive Uninhibited Children - High threshold in amygdala - Low reactive
Moving towards independence...
- Separate from caregivers to play and explore - Interaction across a distance - Less of a need for physical contact and more for psychological contact
Middle Childhood
- Shift in frequency, context, and supervision of interactions - Peer interactions now without the presence of adults- less supervised -----Children are spending more time w peers and those groups are much larger Feelings: View friends as sharing values and social understanding Focus on trust, self-disclosure, and loyalty Friendships are stable Best friendships differ for boys and girls
Social comparison theory
- Sibling relationships provide an area for comparison - Self esteem can be influenced by treatment by parents - This can lead to relational problems; competition Siblings develop unique person qualities; de-identification processes
Early Childhood: groups
- Social dominance hierarchy -----Develop naturally -----Are these hierarchies helpful or harmful?
Interactions
- Social exchange between two individuals - Changes in the frequency and form of behaviors over time Infancy: interactions are fragmented, during the first year of life they direct behaviors to play partners ----Clear social interest, but don't recognize who others are until 2nd year because they have person permanence Toddler: gains in movement, upright, increases complexity of social exchanges and can coordinate behaviors with play partners/social actions, imitate each other, turn taking, help/sharing, appropriate response, conflict
Changes in the functioning of the American family and diversity in the way families are structured:
- Some families are headed by single and/or divorced parents - Some families are headed by gay or lesbian parents - Partners are becoming parents at later ages - More parents are adopting children - Children are born to teenage parents
Relationships
- Succession of interactions between two people ----Expectations of ongoing interactions, based on past ones to anticipate future ones - Marked by commitment, shared belongingness, rules of conduct, shared culture - Role differentiation ----Children more dominate, or more controlling, more passive, more nurturing - Vulnerable
Origins of the Framework: Evolutionary Theory: charles darwin
- The father of the theory of evolution - Not a theory of child development but of the development and adaptation of the species - Provides a useful starting point for thinking about how development of any kind takes place
Parent-Child Attachment
- The role of the internal working model ------Secure attachment: fosters the child's active exploration of the social environment ------Insecure attachment: learn that interpersonal relationships are rejecting & neglectful Internal working model: a mental representation of our relationship with our primary caregiver that becomes a template for future relationships and allows individuals to predict, control and manipulate their environment. ---Account for stability and attachment over time
The difference of parental treatment can lead to differences between the siblings
- The unfavorited child = more sibling rivalry, increase stress - Favored child = burden of expectation, could feel guilt,
What makes peer relationships a unique context for understanding social and emotional development?
- They provide opportunities for play and social learning ----Important for a sense of belonging and identity in a larger group - The social world of peers is distinct from the social world of adults - The experience of not having friends puts children at risk for later adjustment problems
14- & 21-month Assessment
- Unfamiliar social & nonsocial events ---Examiner / a "stranger" ---A clown and a robot Measured: - Heart rate (using electrodes) - Blood pressure (using blood pressure cuff) - Cortisol levels (sample from child's tongue)
Peers as Facilitators of Peer Acceptance
- Unpopular children benefit from interacting with younger children - Interacting with both genders can be helpful - Transition to junior high -----Related to school structure, it being bigger, feeder schools with new people, variety
Middle Childhood: developmental effects
- View friends as sharing values and social understanding - Focus on trust, self-disclosure, and loyalty - Friendships are stable - Best friendships differ for boys and girls ---Girls = tell secrets, open up, intimacy/self disclosure --Boys: same team
What influences the security of attachment? The quality of care and attachment security (parents)
- look at the parent child interactions when very young and asses - insecure attachments are more likely to relate to malnurtition babies --- D babies, disorganized - Group A babies tend to be associated with a indifferent caregiver who is emotionally unavailable; ignored by mother so they ignore mother back
So what can we conclude about temperament?
1. By about one year of age, parents and observers generally agree in their descriptions of particular temperamental qualities Babies become more settled, comfortable in themselves and see greater stability in temperament 2. There is little evidence for stability in temperamental characteristics, though some appear to be more stable than others (e.g., reactivity) 3. Physiological factors are related to temperamental differences 4. It is not clear exactly how genetics and experience work together to produce temperamental differences 5. What does seem to matter is the "goodness of fit" between the child and the caregiving environment
Family
1. Subsystems of the family, including relationships between and among marital partners, parents and children, and siblings 2. The effects of socioeconomic status and ethnicity on the family
Guided Self-Regulation
18 months: "guided" self regulation, regulate on own but also supported/guided by caregiver ---Language developing, gradually acquiring self control 24 months: focuses on causes and consequences of emotions -- Guided self regulation; on own but supported/guided by caregiver -- Talking about feelings
Self-Descriptions: Developmental Origins of Self Concept
3-4 years - observable physical features, preferences, possessions, social characteristics - Physical features 5-7 years - competencies 8-10 years - more complex descriptions that focus on abilities and interpersonal attributes
Average babies
35% Not so extreme to be described as easy or difficult
dismissing
A babes
Attachment Q-sort
A method for assessing the quality of attachment between ages 1 and 4 years through home observations of a variety of attachment-related behaviors. - Makes ratings through 90 cards that are attachment related behaviors; rater has to arrange cards into detailed categories that are most relevant and least relevant Keep dividing cards into piles— creates a standardized sort that you compare to the standard sort of baby ----The higher the correlation = the more like a securely attached child Examples of higher correlation: hugs mother without needing too, happy and affectionate with mother after playtime
Collective Self
A person's concept of self within a group, such as a group based on race or gender
Attachment theory
A secure attachment promotes an expectation that others will help them, promote them, take care of them; these models can influence their feelings about other relationships (even siblings) -- They expect positive qualities in relationships -- They can internalize different relationships based on the parent Attachments to the parents — to the siblings - Motherly attachment plays the more important role = more + treatment to and from their siblings Explaining differences between siblings in early development
Emotional Understanding
Ability to recognize emotions in the self and the other using situational and expressive cues
TEMPERAMENT: How should we define and measure temperament?
Activity, rhythmicity, approach withdrawal, adaptability, intensity, threshold, mood, distractibility, persistence of attention
Recognizing Emotions in Others
Age 3-4: children recognize happiness, sadness, anger, fear (label in self and friends) 5-6: different events elicit different emotions; individual differences 10-12: mixed emotions; desire to do something but also might miss out
Relational Self
Aspects of the self that involve connections to other people and develop out of interactions with others
Individual Self
Aspects of the self that make a person unique and separate from others; seeing yourself as smart, funny, hardworking - how YOU view yourself
John bowlby
Attachment (1969) Separation (1973) Loss (1980)
Emotion Regulation & Attachment
Attachment relationship may be a precursor to emotion regulation - Teach that feelings can be managed; critical importance of responsive caregiver
Social learning theory
Bandara: children gain new beliefs through observing, and this creates new behaviors/attitudes More relevant for middle childhood/sibling rivalry
Two categories of children
Based on level of reactivity Inhibited: shy, fearful, & timid Uninhibited: bold, sociable, & outgoing
Biological "preparedness" for social interaction: How are babies prepared?
Beyond faces and voices: ---Primed to be a social partner Infants prefer face-to-face play to other activities They are capable of regulating interactions with gaze ---If too stimulating, infants turn away, cry, or distract themselves Some infant-parent dyads have difficulty ---e.g., cocaine exposed infants, infants of depressed mothers
The stability of temperament
By one year of age, it tends to be relatively stable - Stability and differences could be inborn; influences infant-caregiver relationship, which could impact future development - parents expectations may play a role in how temperament is viewed
Social Determinants of Self-Esteem
Changes in caregiving during the toddler period - given more autonomy and choices (in food) • Some cultural differences: • Efe foragers of Central Africa • Gusii of East Africa • Fathers' involvement with children - more involved after infancy period/nursing Changes dramatically what happens to child w new involvement Fathers behavior is more involved with challenging toddlers, play behavior • Influences on self-esteem, empathy, education, and behavior problems
Experiences Outside the Family
Child "brokers" who serve as go-betweens between immigrant parents and social institutions such as schools, hospitals, courts They have to explain to their parents what is going on
Cultural Influences
Children across cultures acquire theory of mind understanding at roughly the same age. However... Children's use of trait terms to describe other people becomes aligned with the values of their cultural community
Displays rules vary by culture
Children are encouraged to express positive and negative emotions Children are encouraged to suppress their emotions
Developing Knowledge about Others: Advancing Social Understanding: Parental Influences
Children in families who frequently talk about mental states are more likely to succeed on theory-of-mind tasks Good to include and explain because and why
the amygdala
Contains receptors responsible for the display of fearful behavior - The amygdala regulates and controls distress reactions - Unconditioned w presence of an unfamiliar adult, the amygdala helps process the fear reaction of an unknown response - When the baby is put in a new situation, the amygdala is responsible for the distressed reaction
Self-regulation
Control - self-control - self-regulation (Kopp) Self regulation = children can use own plans and strategies to behave and or resist behaviors in the absence of parents around
he biology of temperament
Cortisol - linked to low adaptability and high emotional negatively = associated with higher levels of cortisol - Relates to temperamental differences (in textbook) - If it appears early on, it is believed to be influenced by genetics
critisim of ekman
Criticism #1: dependency of a response is based on what other pictures are present Criticism #2: forced choice format; lack of contextual cues Given a list of words to correspond with one word and how they are feeling How do you decide their expressions? Criticism #3: free labeling responses combined into one category People might have different ideas
A framework for understanding HOW and WHY developmental changes occur
Development depends on three factors: - Genes - past development - current environment The timing of normative development and the pathway of individual development are influenced by context
early roots of true social interaction
Developmental changes lead to mutual coordinated exchanges, or reciprocity, between partners Depends on parents' attunement to their infant's needs and emotional states
coping strategies 2
Developmental differences in strategies used (e.g., seek out pleasurable activities or distractions) to deal with negative emotions: - Young Children (~8 yrs.): Situational - seek out an alternative activity to distract themselves (e.g., I'm going to ride my bike) - Older Children (~13 yrs): Mentalistic - seek out an activity to alter thinking (e.g., I'm going to ride my bike to forget)
Why are siblings so different?
Differential treatment and other influences on sibling relationship quality Gene-environment interaction: Passive - Parents use own inherited predisposition on their children Intelligent parents may provide more books- which enhances the child's inherited ideas to be bright, and curious Evocative - Genes influence environment through inherited tendencies to evoke responses Active - Actively seeking out experiences that are compatible with out inheritance
Temperament
Difficult - aggressive-rejected ---Fussy when young, highly reactive ---aggressive /rejected children that are more likely to have behavior problems Inhibited - shy-rejected --More timid, vigilant, fearful with new stimuli, easily aroused, more trouble regulating themselves Sociable - popular
Sense of agency
During the 2nd year, toddlers begin to understand that they are agents of action - They can be in charge of their own behavior - They can make things happen Their emotional responses are consistent with this awareness - "I did it" they exclaim with pride - They may feel pleasure in completing a puzzle or distress in not being able to solve a problem on their own
Facial Affect Program (Ekman 1972)
Each emotion is expressed by a distinct group of facial muscles - Triggers a particular pattern of facial movements for each particular emotion - Focus on eyes, mouth - Qualitative differences in facial patterns - 6 basic emotions: fear, disgust, surprise, happiness, and sadness
adolescence stages
Early adolescence - interpersonal attributes, social skills, competencies, emotions; recognize different selves in different contexts Mid adolescence - introspective and preoccupied with what others think of them; begin to question self descriptions, especially when there are contradictions Late adolescence - emphasize personal beliefs, values, and moral standards; think about future and possible selves
middle childhood: groups
Emergence of cliques - Voluntary, friendship-based groups - Serve to maintain homogeneity Primary organization of groups is the "popularity hierarchy" - Sociometric vs. perceived popularity - Sociometric = ask a room of kids who is the most popular - Perceived = asking one on one without other influences Popularity Seen at a group level Does a child need to be accepted to be popular? Acceptance: dyadic level kindness, Popularity: group level status, attention, power
Emotional Competence
Emotional expression - Development of children's facial expressions Emotional understanding - Understand and recognize emotions in themselves and others Emotional regulation - How do children regulate, manage, and control emotional reactions
The Sibling System
Families are affected by: Number and gender of children Spacing between births Sibling relationships and birth order Advantages of only child - Birth order affects parent-child interactions
Self-Perceptions
Five Domains of Self Perceptions (Harter) -Scholastic Ability -Athletic Competence -Physical Appearance -Behavioral Conduct -Social Acceptance These are informed by self judgements and a environment- differ from global self esteem Must construct individual profiles across domains
What determines the degree of closeness?
Frequency of contact, strength of relationship, length of time`
Cognitive Complexity
Functional play - sensorimotor Constructive play - creation Dramatic play - engage in pretense - Experience the feelings of others - Teaches children to coordinate activities with others - Enhances communication skills
Trends in research approaches
G. Stanley Hall (1904) Used questionnaires to study children's feelings and behaviors John Watson (1913) Demonstrated that behaviors and emotional responses could be acquired through conditioning principles Arnold Gesell (1920s) Carefully tracked patterns of physical and motor development at different ages Robert Plomin (1990s) Studied the interaction between genes and environment and especially similarities and differences between siblings
interactions: middle child
Gossip: Reaffirms children's membership into a group — about dress, actions, what you do better than others do Reveals attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that are the basis for inclusion or exclusion
Dyadic Regulation
How to learn emotions in the way of the parents; ER is helped by the parent 0-6 months: caregiver responds to his/her infant's signals 6 months: true "dyadic regulation" of caregiver and infant; the infant begins to play a role in regulating emotions -----True dyadic; both parents and child playing a role ----Attachment relationship is forming in this period -----Might regular themselves by sucking thumb, but still need help and not on their own yet - finding ways to calm down End of 1st year: continue to discover ways to calm down
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment (Group D)
Infant shows inexplicable or conflicted behavior patterns that do not fit other categories - sequential contradictory behavior (e.g., contented play interrupted by extreme anger) --- Source of distress should be enough to calm the baby and have them return to play - simultaneous contradictory behaviors (e.g., fearful smile, simultaneous approach and avoidance) ----Scared of the mother; could be because of abuse (malnutrition, neglected, emotional abuse, physical abuse) - ----No clear strategy of behaviors ----Show contradictory behavior wanting to play, then not and get angry behaviors: Approach the mom, but then want to leave; could be fearful of the mom, might bang themselves and lie on the floor/odd movements
What influences the security of attachment? Temperament and attachment (babies)
Infants behave differently with each parent and caregiver— securities will be different - Temperament: it would be the same if it was based on the baby; therefore claiming there is more and it is due to the past/have to focus on attachment - As stress increases, a secure baby could become insecure — varies due to stress in the environment - Temp refers to a style of the behavior without taking into account who they are interacting with; explains what constitutes sensitive care - See how parents change with each child - They all have in common = a contact with caregiver
Social Determinants of Self-Esteem
Influence of Peers and Mentors • Peers become increasingly influential across development • Children who perceive teachers to be supportive of them have higher self-esteem • Mentoring programs have positive effects on self-esteem Look at themselves in comparison to others; important with shaping feelings about self; self worth Praising Children and Boosting • Research suggests that praising children for their talent and intelligence does not help them achieve success; it sets them up for disappointment "You are the best on the team" More likely to have difficulty when they are in a difficult situation; efforts fail and lost
Developing Knowledge about Others: Advancing Social Understanding: Siblings and Friends
Interactions also involve discussions about shared concerns, interests, and goals Have to think about others, so do better on false belief tests
Other views on heredity and environment: philosophical approaches
John Locke (1632-1704) tabula rasa Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) naturally unfolding development
What influences the security of attachment?The context of caregiving
Life stress - Those who care for infants without help, have more financial pressures and stress - Linked quality = support and or stress; can improve if stress gets better Social support Caregiver's developmental history - Parents adult attachment issues corresponds to the security-attachment with their own babies
unhibited children
Minimal motor movements Minimally distressed Minimal avoidance/fear Low reactive 40%
What is Emotion Regulation
Monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions ---If something happens before class, you can manage emotions to focus in class- allows control and adjustment for situation you are in Monitor = emotional experience --"I feel fearful" Evaluate = cognitive appraisla ---I see spider Modify = behavioral coping response --I need to run away from it
inhibited children
Motor movements (e.g., arching back) Easily distressed to unfamiliar (fretting, crying) Avoidant, fearful High reactive - more shy and timid; 20%
Joy
Newborns display reflex smiles 6-8 weeks: smiles in response to external stimuli 2-6 months: social smile
angry
Newborns do not express anger 2-3 months: reliability display anger
There is an interplay between normative and individual development
Normative development - General changes and reorganizations that virtually all children share as they grow older Individual development: - Individual variation around the normative course of development - Continuity within each child's developmental pathway overtime
Types of Interactions Childhood: toddler
Onlooker behavior: through the first year --Children observe other children but do not engage in the behavior (1 year olds) Parallel play: common among 2 year olds ---Playing side by side, coordinating exchanges Associate play: common among 3-4 year olds ----Play with other children but do not share the same goals; same activity Cooperative play: typical of 4 year olds ---Reciprocate, share common playing goal
development is
Orderly Cumulative Directional
Variations in Infant Reactivity
Over 500 4-month olds Battery of visual, auditory, & olfactory stimuli Coded movements, vocalizations, facial expressions, & heart rate - Babies more inhibited, low threshold, react a lot and cry to new stimuli
Reinforce & Punish Behaviors
Peers dictate how children should behavior - Praise or criticize - Deviancy training Peer pressure increases with age
the development of attachment relationships
Phases in the development of attachment 0-2 months Pre-attachment 2-7 months Attachment in the making 7-24 months Attachment 24 months on Goal-corrected partnership
Do inhibited infants become shy adults?
Possibly... BUT it is uncommon for children at the "extremes" - Either high or low in reactivity to switch completely - Those at extremes self select for certain type of professions, social activities
Socialization by Other Children
Pretend play, dialogue = understand other people's feelings
Pride and Shame
Pride: feeling pleased with one's accomplishments
How do parents provide opportunities for social interaction?
Select neighborhood, schedule play dates/social activities, monitoring (direct involvement, checking in)
Is self esteem stable? Gender variations?
Self-esteem may rise during childhood, then decline in late childhood/early adolescence, gradually increase in late adolescence, and then fall again in later adulthood • Girls have lower global self-esteem than boys beginning in middle childhood and this difference increases in adolescence • Why? - Boys are more dominant and assertive than girls, which may contribute to a feeling of greater power - Differences in appraisal of physical appearance based on societal ideals
Social Cognitive Skills
Skills required to approach others, talk to others, ask for information Better at theory of mind
slow to warm up babies
Somewhat difficult at first but become easier over time as they had repeated contact with new objects, people, and situations. 15% Fall in the middle or irregularity, reaction to new situations, adapt after regular expose but start out mildly negative, low in activity level and react with low to moderate intensity to new stimuli
Independent wishes and asserting their wishes
Terrible twos Multiple wants and wishes
Negative side to self esteem
The dark side of self-esteem - High self-esteem may foster experimentation, early sexual activity, and drinking - High self-esteem can also be related to prejudice and antisocial behavior Therefore, promoting self-esteem for all children may have pitfalls
Self Esteem
The evaluative component of the self taps how positively or negatively people view themselves in relation to others - Children who have high self-esteem view themselves as competent, capable, and are pleased with who they are are happier than those with low self-esteem - High self-esteem in childhood is linked to: • school success • good relationships with parents and peers • less anxiety and depression
What is the basis for attachment? How are they formed?
Theoretical viewpoints: - Cognitive developmental theory - Psychoanalytic theory - Learning theory
The genetics of temperament
Twin studies ---Identical are more related- suggests more genetic If treated more similarity, there would be an increasing similar temperament because of how they are being cared for ---Fraternal show very little relation with temperament - Some aspects of temperament may have a genetic foundation (e.g., reactivity) - Others may be influenced more by the environment (e.g., sociability)
What is needed to understand emotions?
Understand facial expressions ----How other might be feeling ----Children become more accurate with age ----Early on: easier to understand the positive emotions Understand emotion-eliciting situations Understand others' inner states Different from their own ---Put themselves in the position of the other ---Pretend play when little = good at this Take into account information about other Understand emotion within the context of a relationship
peer vs friend
What is a peer? Same age, short interactions, minimal commitment What is a friend? Special relationship, sustained interaction, reciprocal
Physical Appearance
When children are shown face that are attractive, they assume good personality compared to the other faces that are assumed to be mean
sadness
When parent is not there, does not respond - 8-12 months: separation can lead to sadness
Guilt
Younger: outward expressions Older child: subtle expressions
Temperament x3A
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity of behavior across contexts Activity - Intensity & frequency of behavior - Difficulty sitting still vs low energy and can tolerate a low structured environment and not much movement Attention - Attention span and persistence - Staring, persist on a frustrating task - Do they get easily distracted with the environment? Can they concentrate? Affect - Quality of mood: biologically either positive or negative Either smile could be a happy baby compared to one who cries
Adult Attachment Interview
autonomous, dismissing, preoccupied, unresolved, earned secure, intergenerational idea of attachment patterns transmiss onto children
Easy babies
babies who have a positive disposition; their body functions operate regularly, and they are adaptable - 40% Friendly, happy, adaptable, high biological regularly, highly adaptable, mostly positive, react to stress in low to moderate intensity
Difficult babies
babies who have negative moods and are slow to adapt to new situations; when confronted with a new situation, they tend to withdraw 10% Withdraw, low in adaptability, intense negative moods, irritable, cry a lot, sleep and eating cycles irregular, upset with new situations, more challenging
Mary Ainsworth
developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment "The Strange Situation": Seven 3-minute episodes: Parent + Baby Parent + Baby + Stranger Baby + Stranger Parent + Baby (1st reunion) Baby Baby + Stranger Parent + Baby (2nd reunion)
Harlow's research with monkeys
food or security? Contact comfort is more important than feeding in the formation of infant-mother attachment in rhesus monkeys.
Infant Attachment and Later Development: Internal working models
give the cognitive representations of 1. the caregiver's availability and responsiveness = If mom responds to baby, baby will feel like they are wanted 2. the self as worthy of care and effective in obtaining it --If the baby expressed in need, they know they will be helped These models may be what account for, stability in attachment classifications, associations between attachment and other aspects of social and emotional development
emotions
hard to define, complex, subjective, accompanied by a a physiological - Expressions: smiles, frowns, clenched teeth - Physiological: sweat, tear productions, heart rate - Coping behaviors: running towards, seeking comfort - Cognitions: thought processes that are part of emotional experiences "I have been insulted"
Insecure babies
have more of a trouble, may be angry, because do not have a base; could hinder their exploratory behavior because they do not have confident caregiver will be there
Only children:
more mature, advantages over families with more than 3 children, don't have to adapt to displacement, high achievers
The process of developing the capacity for self
regulation is facilitated by: - The capacity to delay gratification and tolerate frustration - The ability to differentiate the self from others - The understanding that others may have needs that are different from their own
First born:
reign supreme, all the love until displaced by a new sibling, overrepresented in who is who, support status quo, more fearful, anxious, guilt, less self confidence Helps guide them towards safe decision making, serve as a resource in times of stress
securely attached
should feel free enough to explore, and return to mother as a base
How do peer relationships change with development?
social complexity - The Individual — finds themselves in interactions with other people — bring in characteristics about yourself/temperament — relationships; influenced by past and future interactions; embedded in long term relationships - groups; relationships embedded in a larger group; boundaries well defined in cliques, teams... know who is in it or not
Second born sons:
support innovative theories Second: more creative, take more risks, trying to differentiate from first born
factors that affect peer acceptance
tempermant, physical apperance, social cognitive skills
Social Determinants of Self-Esteem: Family Influences
• Children's higher self-esteem associated with parents who: - Support their exploration of the world - Set clear and consistent limits and rules • How do parents do this? - Participate in efforts to communicate - Scaffolding How parent's structure children's social interactions that allow them to engage in more and more activities Guidance and availability to situations - Guided self-regulation Like other self regulation activities; better at regulating themselves Parents participate in child's efforts to communicate, learning environment - Be accepting, affectionate, and involved with their children, use noncoercive disciplinary tactics, and consider the child's views in family decisions
Attachment relationships and the developing self
• It is within an interpersonal context that children develop critical self-related competencies ----Teach that their needs are important ----Close relationships provide support needed • In turn, the emerging sense of self contributes to ongoing and future relationships