Biblical Heritage II Midterm

Gnostics

- Claimed that special knowledge "gnosis" is what is necessary for salvation. § Did not follow the adoption idea, but believed that Jesus' Baptism was the moment when a divine being entered him and he became the Christ. This gave him the ability to perform miracles and teach on behalf of God. Right before his death this divine being left him and returned to heaven.

Tobit

Helped provide comfort to those experiencing persecution. The Book of Tobit, named after its principal character, combines Jewish piety and morality with folklore in a fascinating story that has enjoyed wide popularity in both Jewish and Christian circles. Prayers, psalms, and words of wisdom, as well as the skillfully constructed story itself, provide valuable insights into the faith and the religious milieu of its unknown author. The book was probably written early in the second century B.C.; it is not known where.

Purpose of Gk. Additions to Esther

The Hebrew version of Esther is in the Jewish and Protestant Bible, but the Rabbis up until at least the 3rd century CE argued over whether it should be accepted as scripture; they argued over the lack of the mention of God, and that the festival of Purim did not originate with Moses. The Greek additions (ca. 2nd Cent. BCE) to Esther sought to remedy this and were added to the end and given Deuterocanonical status in the Roman Catholic Bible.

Diaspora

The Jewish diaspora or Exile refers to the dispersion of Israelites, Judahites, and later Jews out of what is considered their ancestral homeland (the Land of Israel) and the communities built by them across the world. The Book of Esther deals with life in the Diaspora and has no concern for the land of Israel or its institutions

Programmatic passage in Luke (Luke 4:16-30)

Luke is quoting from Isaiah 61:1-2 - Jesus presents that passage from the Old Testament as talking about him and his mission. Luke does not emphasize this as much as Matthew but he also sees Jesus as the fulfillment of the Old Testament, and the healing stories that follow this are a fulfillment of what Jesus does. Jesus in Luke is more of a prophet than teacher.

The Synoptic Gospels

Matthew, Mark, and Luke

516

Temple Rebuilt - Davidic Monarchy not reestablished - Some hope that Zerubbabel may be the figure to restore the monarchy. See the Messianic language in Zech. 4:6-10

Textual Criticism

Text critics analyze the various manuscripts of the NT that have been preserved over the centuries, comparing them, dating them, and employing various techniques to determine which are the most reliable. Their goal is to reconstruct what the original manuscripts probably said, noting also "variant readings" when one or more of the copies that have been made over the years says something different. Significant variant readings are sometimes noted in footnotes in English Bibles.

Romance Novella

o A type of romance novella featuring a prominent Jewish hero showing great resolve and commitment to his or her people and religion in dealing with these foreign rulers. o Written to entertain and instruct on how to live in this situation o Provide comfort to those experiencing persecution o Includes Esther, Tobit, Daniel 1-6, and Judith

Forgiveness in the Gospel of Matthew

o Forgiveness is addressed fairly frequently in the Gospel of Matthew and also interwoven into the purpose of Jesus' life as well as his actions. o Passages touching on the issue of forgiveness § 1:21; 3:1-12; 5:3-12, 21-26, 38-42, 43-48; 6:12, 14-15; 7:1-5; 9:1-8; 12:32; 18:21-35; 20:28; 26:28 § Those in bold have a parallel in the Gospel of Mark. This suggests Matthew has a particular interest in this when studied in light of Mark. o For Matthew the idea that Jesus came to enact God's forgiveness is the primary reason why people are commanded to forgive others. o Jesus teaches on forgiveness and he also lives it. This is consistent with the Gospels being ancient biography written about a person to serve as an example and instruct people in right actions.

Disciples of Jesus in Mark

Ask about in class. (14)

Misunderstanding in Mark

Ask about in class. (14)

Purpose of the Rhetorical features in Mark (the purpose of misunderstanding and the unfinished story)

Ask about in class. (14)

586

Babylonians destroy the Jerusalem temple and exile the people to Babylon. The people struggle to understand why this happened and it results in texts being written and revised. Israelite religion begins to change as the temple is no longer standing and these writings, such as the finalized Torah, gain in importance and slowly begin the process of becoming canonized.

Authorship and Audience of the Gospel of Matthew

Check lecture 11

Pompey 63 BCE

Conflicts within the Hasmonean state made the Judeans vulnerable to conquest. In 63 BCE under general Pompey, Rome took control of Judea. It would remain under Roman control well beyond the second temple Period.

539

Cyrus of Persia Conquers Babylon and allows the exiles to return. Judeans are allowed to rebuild the temple

Antiochus' "laws"

• Various documents including 1 Maccabees claim that Antiochus IV Epihanes instituted a number of new laws stating that Jews must: • adopt foreign cultural practices • abandon all observance of feasts and holy days, including the Sabbath • abandon all sacrifice and offering at the Temple • discontinue circumcision, that central rite that defined the Jewish males identity as a son of Abraham • abandon the practice of purity, that crucial distinction between what is holy and what is profane, maintained in ritual observance • adopt another religion and actively participate in the worship of other gods through sacrifice and other means • destroy any and all Jewish scriptures

Logos

• What is the "Word" -Greek Logos of John 1 o Stoics saw the Logos as the rational principle by which all things exist; all things that exist have sprung from the logos o Philo - (First Century Jew influenced by Plato and his disciples) - explains the logos referring to an ideal man, or the primal man, from which all people derive o Translation - inner thought, reason, science - or some sort of speech hence the reason for the translation "word" but it connects more to the idea of message rather than a single act of speech. Logos and Wisdom - Proverbs and the connection to the Wisdom of God - There are some passages in the Old Testament and other Second Temple texts that personify wisdom and give it a role in creation. • Prov. 8:22-30 - Aids God in creation similar to the way the Logos does in John 1; first of God's creative acts • Wisdom 7:22-8:1 "for wisdom, the fashinor of all things, taught me." • Ecclesiasticus (Sirach) 24 - Wisdom dwells in heaven, but seeks a resting place on Earth. It finds that resting place in Jacob/Israel 24:8 § The opening verses of John echo what we read in Prov. 8:22-30 dealing with the first of God's creative acts and the "artisan " who played a role in this process. • Difference in that John 1 has no explanation for the existence of the Logos. The Logos just exists unlike wisdom, which was the first of God's creative acts.

Introduction to Luke - Luke 1:1-4

• Written in excellent Greek and follows the patterns of what we find in other historical works of the time. • Luke's purpose centers on his belief that the stories of Jesus are true and they are capable of being confirmed by using the methods of historical inquiry available to him. • While the Gospel is anonymous, many have connected it with an individual named Luke known from elsewhere in the New Testament. Sometimes the author writes in the first person and connects himself to Paul, as one of his traveling companions.

Second Temple Period

--516 BCE - 70CE - Second temple period (post exilic period) --During the Second temple period foreign empires dominate the Jews; these empires included the Persians (539-332), Alexander the Great and Hellenistic rule (331- 323), the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-198), the Seleucid Dynasty (198-167), and the Roman Empire (63BCE -313 CE). --This left the Jews to ponder the best course of action for how to live under this oppression.

Principles of Textual Criticism

--Do we have the original writings of the New Testament? About 5800 different manuscripts with fragments containing parts of the New testament and many of them contain differences. • Criteria used in an attempt to determine the original meaning o Manuscripts o Text Types o External Evidence - Manuscript Evidence o Internal Evidence - Based on which the author would have been more likely to have written or what a scribe would have been more likely to have added

Essenes

-Ascetic separatists who lived in private communities -Connected to the community in Qumran and preserved the Dead Sea Scrolls -Advocated strict dietary laws and other rigorous paths to holiness -Espoused messianic beliefs and harbored apocalyptic ideas about imminent judgement and divine deliverance -Never mentioned in NT, and there is no sure indication that any New testament figure knew about them or had any contact with them

Samaritans

-Lived primarily in Samaria -Claimed that they were the true Israel and that the Jews represented a heretical splinter group that had gotten its start when Eli set up a rival sanctuary in Shiloh -Had their own temple of Mount Gerizim and claimed that it was the original sanctuary; they regarded the temple in Jerusalem as a secondary sanctuary built by heretics -Did not accept any scripture but the Pentateuch, and they had their own version of the Pentateuch, which differed at key points from that of the Jews -Claimed that their version of the Pentateuch was the original and that the Jews had a falsified text produced by Ezra during the Babylonian exile -Samaritans and Jews were not to enter each others' territories or even speak to one another -During NT period, Samaria was under Roman rule, and the Romans did not recognize Samaria and Judea as separate countries; they simply grouped them together as one realm with a single ruler

Herodians

-Political coalition of Jews who supported the family and dynasty of Herod, which included many Roman leaders who ruled various areas of Palestine at various times -In NT they are mentioned as collaborating with Pharisees to trip Jesus up politically and to establish grounds for having him banished or destroyed

Gentiles

-Prominent in Palestine -Mostly lived in large urban center -Jewish attitudes toward Gentiles varied -Jesus' view of Gentiles is mixed -Even Paul, who devoted the latter part of his life to bringing salvation to the Gentiles, does not always seem to have thought highly of them -The attitude of Gentiles toward Jews was also somewhat varied -NT study was particularly interested with those Gentiles called "God-fearers" -God-fearers were half converts--Gentiles who embraced Jewish theology, worship, and morality but who did not follow ritual purity laws, which they regarded as specific for ethnic Jews--they were allowed to attend synagogues, but were typically not circumcised -God-fearers became prime candidates for conversion to Christianity

Zealots

-Radical anti-Roman Jews who advocated armed rebellion against the Roman forces -Included the sicarii, knife-wielding assassins who mingled in with the crowds and stabbed Jews suspected of collaborating with the Romans -Responsible for leading the Jews into a disastrous war against Rome in 66-73 CE -Probably not mentioned in NT itself, though one of Jesus' disciples was called "Simon the Zealot" -May not have appeared as an organized force in Palestine until a few years after the time of Jesus

Pharisees

-generally middle class -power base outside of Jerusalem -closely associated with synagogues -primarily teachers and scholars -theologically committed to maintaining Israel's relationship with God through obedience to the law -accepted as scripture most of what Christians call the "Old Testament" -believed in resurrection of humans to a life of beyond death -recognized existence of spiritual beings, including angels and demons -regarded as social moderates who objected to imposition of Roman authority but did not advocate armed revolt against the Roman powers -in the New Testament, they argue with Jesus over matters of law, but are only peripherally connected to the plot to have Jesus put to death -the primary forebears of modern Judaism

Sadducees

-mainly upper class -power base in Jerusalem -closely associated with the temple -primarily priests -theologically committed to maintaining Israel's relationship with God through the sacrificial system -accepted only the Torah (Pentateuch) as scripture -did not believe in resurrection to a life beyond death -skeptical of beliefs regarding different spiritual beings -regarded as social conservatives who sough collaboration with the Roman authorities in ways that would ensure their own place in the status quo -in the New Testament, they are primarily architects of the plot to put Jesus to death -disappear from history after the disastrous Jewish war with Rome in 66-73 CE

Two main ideas of the Messiah in the 2nd temple period with examples

1. An earthly ruler who functions as king/priest and warrior/judge usually associated with the line of David. This kingly figure will fight battles against the enemies of God's people freeing them from oppression. This is the more dominant view. • 2 Sam. 7 and God's covenant with David that he would always have a descendant upon the throne of Israel- see especially 2 Sam. 7:12-16 • Israel's prophets foretold of the coming of royal Davidic descendant who at times seems to be more than human o Isa. 9:6-7 o Isa. 11:1-5 o Jer. 23:5-6 o Ezek. 34:23-24; 37:24-28 2. Heavenly figure often brining apocalyptic reversal of the present oppressive situation o Qumran - 11QMelchizedek 2:4-18 "'He said to proclaim liberty to the captives' (Isa.61:1). Its interpretation is that He will assign them to the Sons of Heaven and to the inheritance of Melchizedek; for He will cast their lot amid the portions of Melchizedek, who will return them there and will proclaim to them liberty, forgiving them the wrong-doings of all their iniquities... And this thing will occur in the first week of the jubilee that follows the nine Jubilees. And the Day of Atonement is the end of the tenth Jubilee, when all the Sons of Light and the men of the lot of Melchizedek will be atoned for. And a statute concerns them to provide them with their rewards. For this is the moment of the year of Grace for Melchizedek. And he will, by his strength, judge the holy ones of God, executing judgment as it is written... o Enoch 71:14-17 - "And that angel came to me, and greeted me with his voice, and said to me, You are the Son of Man who was born to righteousness, and righteousness remains over you, and the righteousness of the Head of days will not leave you... And so there will be length of days with that Son of Man, and the righteous will have peace, and the righteous will have an upright way in the name of the Lord of Spirits for ever and ever."

Purim

A Jewish holiday that commemorates the saving of the Jewish people from Haman, who was planning to kill all the Jews. This took place in the ancient Persian Empire. The story is recorded in the Biblical Book of Esther.

Marcion

110-160 CE - Influenced by early Gnosticism and was very anti Jewish; removed references to the Jewish God in Paul's writings; didn't consider the Hebrew Bible to be scripture. He then created his own list of what he thought the scriptures should be.

Herod the Great

37-4BCE - Half Jewish and ruled on behalf of Rome

Genre of the Gospels and the characteristics of this genre

A genre is a category of literature that shares a certain set of conventions related to form, style, and subject matter. When reading the Gospels it is important to know what people expected from them in the ancient world. Scholars first thought the Gospels in the New Testament presented a unique genre unlike anything else. Now scholars think they are similar to an ancient genre, specifically Greco-Roman Biographies or ancient biographies. o Characteristics of Ancient Biographies (Powell83-84): § They are compilations - contain a variety of materials § Influenced by Jewish literature (specifically the gospels) § Ancient not modern - primarily for providing instruction and a model of how one might live based on what characteristics a person should embrace and what pitfalls or vices one should avoid. § Fictive narrative style - not overly concerned with strict chronology or focused on telling a history, but with demonstrating the character of the figure by detailing his or her speeches, acts, and some life events. § Evangelistic - attempting to convince people to emulate this person

Epicureanism

A philosophical system that emphasized free will, questioned fate, and encouraged the attainment of true pleasure through avoidance of anxiety, concentration on the present, and enjoyment of all things in moderation.

Cynicism

A philosophical system that emphasized radical authenticity, repudiation of shame, simplicity of lifestyle, and a desire to possess only what is obtained naturally and freely.

Stoicism

A philosophical system that emphasized the attainment of virtue through acceptance of fate, based on the notion that all things are predetermined and that there is logic to all that transpires in the universe.

Christology

A study of the person of Christ

Narrative Criticism

Also used primarily with the Gospels (and the book of Acts), narrative criticism draws upon the insights of modern literary analysis to determine the particular effects that the biblical stories were expected to have on their readers. Like redaction criticism, narrative criticism is interested in treating each book on its own and discerning what is distinctive about it, but whereas redaction criticism focuses on composition (how the author organized and edited his material), narrative criticism focuses on reception (how readers are expected to be impacted or affected by the work). Narrative critics often analyze a Gospel the way literary critics interpret a short story: they pay attention to how the plot is advanced, how characters are developed, how conflict is introduced or resolved, and how rhetorical features such as symbolism and irony affect the reader's perception of what is happening.

Secrecy in the Gospel of Mark/Messianic Secret

Elements of the "Secrecy Theme" 1. Jesus silences the demons who know him (1:34; 3:11-12). 2. Jesus tells people who are healed not to tell anyone about him (1:44-45; 7:35-37). 3.Jesus speaks in parables so that people won't understand what he says (4:11-12). 4. Jesus' own disciples do not understand who he is (4:41). William Wrede says Mark uses the secrecy motif as a way to present information about Jesus that was not historically accurate. Mark is reporting things about Jesus for which there is no historical substantiation, and he gets away with this by claiming that these things were secrets. Paul Achtemeier says the secrecy motif is used to downplay those aspects of Jesus' identity or biography that Mark does not find particularly helpful. Jack Dean Kingsbury says the secrecy motif is a literary device. The proper question to ask is "What effect was the secrecy theme intended to have on readers of Mark's narrative?" One significant factor is that the readers are in on the secret. The readers are told that Jesus is the Christ and Son of God in the first verse of this Gospel, and as the story develops, the readers will realize that they know something that characters in the story do not.

Ptolemaic Empire

Established by Ptolemy I of Egypt. The two most important kingdoms in the immediate aftermath of Alexander's death were the Ptolemaic empire in Egypt and the Seleucid Empire in the North, based in Antioch Syria. These two empires sort of played tug of war with Israel and fought for control of this territory. The Ptolemaic empire initially ruled Judea and allowed the Jews relative independence during the 3rd century.

Seleucid Empire

Established by Seleucus I of Syria. The two most important kingdoms in the immediate aftermath of Alexander's death were the Ptolemaic empire in Egypt and the Seleucid Empire in the North, based in Antioch Syria. These two empires sort of played tug of war with Israel and fought for control of this territory. The Ptolemaic empire initially ruled Judea and allowed the Jews relative independence during the 3rd century. Power over Judea shifted to the Seleucids when they took control of Palestine in 198.

175 BCE

Eventually in 175 BCE Antiochus IV Epiphanes took the throne, taxed the Judeans, and sought to culturally unify his empire. He, more than any other ruler, established a program of Hellenization.

Antiochus IV Epiphanes

Eventually in 175 BCE Antiochus IV Epiphanes took the throne, taxed the Judeans, and sought to culturally unify his empire. He, more than any other ruler, established a program of Hellenization.

Holofernes

In the deuterocanonical Book of Judith, Holofernes (Hebrew הולופרנס) was an invading general of Nebuchadnezzar. Nebuchadnezzar dispatched Holofernes to take vengeance on the nations of the west that had withheld their assistance to his reign. Holofernes occupied all the nations along the sea coast and destroyed all the gods of the nations, so that all nations would worship Nebuchadnezzar alone. Holofernes was warned by Achior, the leader of the children of Ammon, against attacking the Jewish people. Holofernes and his followers were angered by Achior. They rebuked him, insisting that there was no god other than Nebuchadnezzar. The general laid siege to Bethulia, commonly believed to be Meselieh, and the city almost surrendered. Holofernes's advance stopped the water supply to Bethulia. The people lost heart and encouraged Ozias and their rulers to give way. The leaders vowed to surrender if no help arrived within five days.[2] Bethulia was saved by Judith, a beautiful Hebrew widow who entered Holofernes's camp and seduced him. Judith then beheaded Holofernes while he was drunk. She returned to Bethulia with the severed head, and the Hebrews defeated the enemy. Hebrew versions of the tale in the Megillat Antiochus and the Chronicles of Jerahmeel identify "Holoferenes" as Nicanor whence the name "Holofernes" in the Greek version would be a deliberately cryptic name similar to the use of "Nebuchadnezzar" for Antiochus.

Alexander the Great

In the late fourth century the Greeks prevailed and became the new dominant empire of the world. They took over western Asia, including Judea, and even pushed into Egypt. Alexander the Great (334-332) was the driving force behind this.

Kingdom of God

Jesus often teaches about the "kingdom of God." Sometimes he appears to be talking about the present reign of God in human lives; other times he appears to be talking about a future realm where people will live forever with God in heaven. Frequently, his references to "the kingdom of God" appear to entail both meanings. The kingdom of God is a phenomenon that cannot be limited by time or space: it is both present reign and future realm.

Incarnation

John 1:14 - The light that was mentioned in the intervening section is now being equated with God becoming tangibly present in the world. As of yet, the word has not been identified with a particular individual, which serves a narrative function to build towards the climax. o This verse discusses what theologians refer to as the incarnation - meaning God becomes human. The Greek word used here for dwelling in the phrase "the word became flesh and made his dwelling among us" literally means tabernacle. The word is connected to the tabernacle in the Old Testament, the place where God set up his dwelling amidst the people.

Material in the Gospels - Parables, Miracles...

Parables, miracle stories, pronouncement stories, individual sayings, and passion and resurrection narratives.

Christology of John

John is considered to have a high Christology in comparison to the other Gospels. John identifies Jesus as God right from the beginning - see the discussion above on the prologue - "the word was God" John 1:1 o John 20:28 - Doubting Thomas says "my Lord and my God" o John 14:10-11 - a unity of God and Jesus - "I am in the father and the father is in me" o John 10:30 "The Father and I are one" o These images of Jesus in this Gospel led to the development of the trinity - the explanation that God could be understood as three in one. (God, Jesus, Holy Spirit) § There is a connection here to the Jewish understanding of wisdom as personified and with God at the beginning as mentioned above in reference to Proverbs 8:22-30, but in some way wisdom was not God.

Poverty and Wealth in Luke

Luke Shows more of a concern than any of the other Gospels or books in the New Testament for the disadvantaged in society. A look at the Beatitudes in Luke 6 demonstrates this. Example = Blessed are the poor vs. Blessed are the poor in spirit. • Emphasis on the Poor and animosity toward the rich - o Luke's primary concern is for people who are economically deprived o Attitude toward the rich - For Luke people are poor because of injustice and he seeks to bring a message of hope to the downtrodden. This message of brining "good news to the poor" (Luke 7:22) is combined with an animosity toward the rich. o Luke is teaching that God's kingdom ushers in a reversal of expected values. People who are followers of God will sell their possessions 12:33; 14:33; 18:22 and help the poor 3:11; 14:13; 18:22. This provides hope for them now combined with the teaching that says the poor will be abundantly blessed in the life to come 6:20; 14:21; 16:22), not so for the wealthy. o It appears for Luke, the ideal society centers on one where people do not seek wealth, life is not about an earthly bank account or 401K, but rather a heavenly bank account, that is the place you are to store your treasure. You do so by selling your goods and giving to the poor (Luke 12:33; 18:21).

Luke vs. Matthew - Genealogy

Luke's Genealogy - in contrast to Matthew's is traced back to Adam. This emphasized Jesus' connection with all humanity (3:23-38).

Pre Easter/Post Easter Jesus

Modern historians are not concerned with, as some have said, "the Christ of faith" or probably a better phrase, "the post Easter Jesus." They attempt to make a distinction between faith-based events and those events that can be proven based on rigorous historical methods. They focus on "the pre-Easter Jesus." o The post Easter Jesus is the subject of theological reflection and religious devotion o The pre Easter Jesus is the subject of historical study

Mordecai

Mordecai resided in Susa (Shushan or Shoushan),[1] the metropolis of Persia (now Iran). He adopted his cousin (Esther 2:7), Hadassah (Esther), an orphan child, whom he brought up as if she were his own daughter. When "young virgins" were sought, she was taken into the presence of King Ahasuerus and was made queen in the place of the exiled queen Vashti. Mordecai was referred to subsequently as one of those who "sat in the king's gate" to indicate his position of closeness to the king. While holding this office, he discovered a plot of the king's chamberlains Bigthan and Teresh to assassinate the king. Because of Mordecai's vigilance, the plot was foiled. His services to the king in this matter were duly recorded in the king's royal diary.

Basis for NT ethics

New Testament ethics, unlike Greco-Roman philosophy and ethics, is centered on an event or person, namely Jesus. It suggests that something redemptive happened in Jesus that asks for a response and for people to live in a certain way oriented around what he taught and did. It asks simple questions such as the following: What should I do? How should I act so as to do what is good? This based on a response to the belief that something happened in Jesus.

Parables

Parables are brief metaphorical narratives. About 1/3 of Jesus' teaching comes in the form of Parables. Many of Jesus' parables are famous and have spawned numerous famous expressions that are ingrained in many people's minds. Sayings such as "the good Samaritan" or "the prodigal son" are a couple that come to mind.

Peter's Confession

Peter's confession: "You are the Messiah" (8:27-30). The shift centers on Peter's confession in 8:27-30, which is the highlight and center of the Gospel, "You are the Messiah." Based on the types of things he has done up to this point in the Gospel, it starts to become clear that he is the Messiah. Now, his ministry shifts towards teaching and explaining exactly what that looks like. He must explain what this means because those around Jesus don't understand it. (See below for the theme of misunderstanding). The most important part of this is Peter's confession. What we see is that Peter begins to understand who Jesus is after these 8 chapters. But Peter only partially understand and misreads what his confession means. This is where Jesus' teaching really begins and he starts to explain what it means that he is the Messiah. This is where we see the three predictions of suffering 8:31; 9:30; 10:32. From Peter's confession to the end Jesus is explaining to Peter how to understand what it means that he is the Messiah.

Pontius Pilot

Roman Governor. Ruled Judea as a prefect or procurator from 26 to 36 BCE. He is portrayed in some literature as a cruel ruler who hated the Jews and did not understand their religion. The NT reports that Pilate was the governor who sentenced Jesus to be crucified while also declaring him to be innocent.

Criteria for determining the likelihood of historicity

Scholars use various criteria to determine which events can be verified historically. While they all disagree, there are some general principles that are typically used as they evaluate ancient sources. • Multiple attestations o Typically the earlier the source the more reliable • Memorable Form or Content • Language and Environment • Embarrassment • Dissimilarity or Distinctiveness • Plausible Influence • Coherence • Congruity with a modern view of reality

Historical Jesus

The "historical Jesus" movement is an attempt by modern historians to determine what about Jesus' life is historically verifiable. These scholars are not focused on what Christians should believe about Jesus, but rather they are focused on using the accepted standards of historical science to determine what we can know about Jesus based on those standards.

Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls

The Dead Sea Scrolls refer to ancient Hebrew scrolls that were accidentally discovered in 1947 by a Bedouin boy in Israel's Judean Desert. The documents at Qumran (The Dead Sea Scrolls) interpret many passages from Isaiah as pertaining to the Messiah. Check Lecture 5 for more on this.

Hasmonean Dynasty

The Maccabees eventually ruled Jerusalem and inaugurated the Hasmonean Dynasty. Judea would remain independent for about 100 years until the Romans came in and took them over under Pompey in 63 BCE. The Hasmonean Dynasty believed in acceptance and accommodation, martyrdom, apocalyptic response, and messianic expectations.

164 BCE Hanukkah

The Maccabees responded with armed rebellion that took on the character of a Guerrilla war. Under the leadership of Matthias and his five sons they eventually won a number of battles and they succeeded in gaining control of Jerusalem in 164 BCE and purified the temple from the abominations (the abomination that makes desolate in Daniel) that had taken place there. This purification is commemorated as the festival of Hanukkah. Matthias died and his son Judas became the leader. He took on the nickname of Judas Maccabeus (hammer).

Judas Maccabeus

The Maccabees responded with armed rebellion that took on the character of a Guerrilla war. Under the leadership of Matthias and his five sons they eventually won a number of battles and they succeeded in gaining control of Jerusalem in 164 BCE and purified the temple from the abominations (the abomination that makes desolate in Daniel) that had taken place there. This purification is commemorated as the festival of Hanukkah. Matthias died and his son Judas became the leader. He took on the nickname of Judas Maccabeus (hammer).

Matthias (The Maccabees)

The Maccabees responded with armed rebellion that took on the character of a Guerrilla war. Under the leadership of Matthias and his five sons they eventually won a number of battles and they succeeded in gaining control of Jerusalem in 164 BCE and purified the temple from the abominations (the abomination that makes desolate in Daniel) that had taken place there. This purification is commemorated as the festival of Hanukkah. Matthias died and his son Judas became the leader. He took on the nickname of Judas Maccabeus (hammer).

Rhetorical Criticism

The focus of rhetorical criticism is on the strategies employed by biblical authors to achieve particular purposes. Rhetorical critics are interested not only in the point that a work wishes to make, but also in the basis on which that point is established (the types of arguments or proofs that are used): sometimes external evidence or documentation may be cited; sometimes the trustworthy character of the writer is invoked; at other times, an appeal is made to the readers' emotions or sense of logic.

The Teacher of Righteousness

The Qumran documents mention repeatedly both "the teacher of righteousness" and the "wicked priest. " There appears to be conflict between these two priestly individuals. The wicked priest may be a reference to the Hasmonean high priest in Jerusalem and the Teacher of Righteous is the priestly ruler at Qumran.

Q

The Two-Source Hypothesis suggests that when Matthew and Luke agree with each other concerning material that is not found in Mark, they must have both been drawing on an outside source. This hypothetical source has been labeled Q, likely after the German word for source "Quelle." § If Matthew and Luke did not know one other how do we explain the material they have in common. They must have derived it from another source now called Q. • This material in Matthew and Luke demonstrates strong verbal agreements and in many cases contains word for word correspondence. • It shares other linguistic connections and has a theological consistency • Often presented in the same general sequence

Interpretation of Parables - Allegory, Jülicher, Blomberg

The Understanding of Parables in the Early Church-Allegory. Many early Christians, including Origen and Augustine, treated parables as allegories. They likely did so because of the way that Jesus explained some of his Parables. (Parable of the Weeds) A scholar named Adolf Jülicher pointed out the difficulties of this approach showing how anyone could come up with their own meaning for any parable and there was no control in a method like this. He argued that each parable made one point and the details were not important. The details just use the elements of first century Judea to support the one main point of the parable. Blomberg claims that parables can have one, two, or three main points and this largely depends on how many main characters/items are in the parable. § Parable of the Prodigal son has three main points because it has three main actors - The father and the two sons.

Form Criticism

The discipline of form criticism seeks to classify different materials found in the NT according to literary genre or type ("form") and to draw conclusions relevant to interpretation based on these classifications. Different types of material can be discerned: genealogies, parables, miracle stories, speeches, hymns, creeds, proverbs, and many more. Form critics are usually interested in identifying the Sitz im Leben ("setting in life") that each of these types of literature would have served, which implies certain assumptions about its purpose: a joke might be employed for the purpose of entertainment, while a prayer might be employed for the purpose of worship. Form critics often have practiced their discipline in tandem with source criticism but with a view to discerning oral source that stand behind the NT texts.

Source Criticism

The discipline of source criticisms attempts to move behind the NT texts to posit hypotheses regarding materials that the biblical authors might have used in composing their documents. In 1 Corinthians 11:23-26 Paul quotes from an early Christian liturgy, and he appears to incorporate a Christian hymn into his letter to the Philippians. The authors of our four Gospels also appear to have possessed some written materials about Jesus that they drew upon when writing their books. Source critics try to identify these materials, and sometimes they even attempt to reconstruct them.

Esther

The genre of the book of Esther is Narrative History. Its author is anonymous however; some believe Mordecai, (Esther's cousin and guardian), wrote it. It was written approximately 470 B.C. in Persia. Esther became queen in 479 B.C. The key personalities are Esther, Mordecai, King Ahasuerus (or Xerxes), and Haman. Its purpose is to demonstrate God's love and sovereignty in all circumstances. It is a post-exile story about Jews who stayed behind after most returned to Jerusalem after captivity. Babylon was conquered by Persia and Esther miraculously becomes the queen of the land, and saves her people. • In chapter 1-2, Esther becomes the queen to Ahasuerus of Persia. She was personally chosen by the King. "The king loved Esther more than all the women, and she found favor and kindness with him" (2:17), probably because of her beauty and intelligence. • Chapters 3-4, Mordecai (Esther's guardian) refused to bow down and pay homage to Haman a high official of the king. Haman becomes infuriated and plots to destroy all the Jews in the kingdom because of his pride. Mordecai hears of the plot and reports it to his Esther. "For if you remain silent at this time, relief and deliverance will arise for the Jews from another place and you and your father's house will perish. And who knows whether you have not attained royalty for such a time as this?" (4:14). • From chapters 5-10, Esther outwits Haman and takes her petition to the king and pleas for the protection of her Jewish people from Haman's wicked stratagem. The king out of anger, has Haman hung on the gallows, which he had built to destroy all the Jews. Esther's faith and courage saves her people.

The intended effect of a Parable

The parables are not mere illustrations but they are designed to evoke a sharp response in the audience of either acceptance or rejection. They are essentially designed to shock the audience to show how their expectations needed to drastically change in some cases. It shows how if you act like the one figure you are condemned and if you act the other way it leads to salvation and in each case the way that leads to salvation will surprise. The hearers are to respond and associate with one group or the other. Some have said parables function like jokes, a joke fails if the punch line has to be explained. So if a parable does not surprise its audience it has failed as well.

John 1:1-18; Gen. 1; Prov. 8:22-30

The prologue starts "in the beginning," any Jewish individual at this time would have immediately thought of the first three words of Genesis "in the beginning." It makes an explicit connection to the creation of the world. Prov. 8:22-30 - Aids God in creation similar to the way the Logos does in John 1; first of God's creative acts.

Typology

The recognition of a correspondence between New and Old Testament events, based on a conviction of the unchanging character of the principles of God's working, and consequent understanding and description of the New Testament in terms of the Old Testament model. (Check lecture 11 for more notes)

Judith

The story revolves around Judith, a daring and beautiful widow, who is upset with her Jewish countrymen for not trusting God to deliver them from their foreign conquerors. She goes with her loyal maid to the camp of the enemy general, Holofernes, with whom she slowly ingratiates herself, promising him information on the Israelites. Gaining his trust, she is allowed access to his tent one night as he lies in a drunken stupor. She decapitates him, then takes his head back to her fearful countrymen. The Assyrians, having lost their leader, disperse, and Israel is saved. Though she is courted by many, Judith remains unmarried for the rest of her life. The Book of Judith is a deuterocanonical book, included in the Septuagint and the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christian Old Testament of the Bible, but excluded from Jewish texts and assigned by Protestants to the Apocrypha. The book contains numerous historical anachronisms, which is why many scholars now accept it as non-historical; it has been considered a parable or perhaps the first historical novel.[2] It is not recognized as canonical in most Christian Sects because of its historical contradictions, for example: The events are stated as occurring during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, who is called the king "who reigned over the Assyrians in the great city of Nineveh." (Judith 1:1, 7 [1:5, 10, Dy]) The introduction and footnotes of this translation point out that Nebuchadnezzar was king of Babylonia and never reigned in Nineveh, since Nineveh had been destroyed earlier by Nebuchadnezzar's father Nabopolassar. The name Judith (Hebrew: יְהוּדִית, Modern Yehudit, Tiberian Yəhûḏîṯ ; "Praised" or "Jewess") is the feminine form of Judah.

Markan Priority

The synoptic problem refers to scholars' attempts to understand the relationship among the gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke (known as the synoptic gospels because they have so much material in common). Two solutions to this problem—the Q or two-source hypothesis and the Farrer hypothesis—begin with the premise that the first gospel to be written was Mark. Strengths • Mark's details are often the most explicit - Mark 1:32 - after sunset Mark 6:39 the green grass; Mark 14:51 - "the fleeing young man" material like this omitted in Matthew and Luke even when everything else is parallel, to them it seems unnecessary; why would Mark omit the Lord's prayer, the beatitudes, if he knew Matthew and Luke. • Mark is the shortest Gospel, but with the passages that all three have in common Mark is typically the longest. Matthew and Luke wanted to add in other information so they may have abbreviated what Mark already had. Not as likely that Mark removed material from Matthew or Luke especially when there would have been room left on the scroll. • Very little material that is unique to Mark • Mark narrates material that could be deemed embarrassing; often softened or changed in the other gospels o Statement that Jesus " could work few miracles in Nazareth in Mark 6:5 (cf. Matt. 13:58 and Luke 4:24). o The reply to the rich young ruler Mark 10:18 "why do you call me good" (cf. Matt 19:17) o Mark 5:24-34 and Matthew 9:20-22 - Does Jesus know who touched him o Mark 6:49-53 and Matthew 14:25-34 - Depiction of the disciples is more favorable in Matthew during the stilling of the storm Weaknesses • Patristic Testimony • Some agreement between Matthew and Luke against Mark • Large section of Mark is absent from Luke (Mark 6:45-8:26). • Changes do not seem as drastic if Mark wrote last

Hellenization

This marks the beginning of the Hellenistic period. In this period the process of Hellenization began. As the Greeks moved into these areas they brought with them their language, their culture, and their philosophy, which had a profound effect on all civilizations in this area. This included Jewish culture and the early Christian movement. (e.g. The New Testament is written in the common dialect of Greek.)

Redaction Criticism

Used mainly in Gospel studies, redaction criticism tries to determine the particular intentions of NT authors by analyzing how they arranged and edited their source materials. The discipline typically involves two methods: (1) composition analysis looks at how various units are arranged within the particular book--the order or placement of individual units, the sequence of material, and the overall organization of the book; (2) emendation analysis looks at alterations that the Gospel author probably made in his source material--additions, omissions, and other changes that reveal the author's priorities and preferences.

The Synoptic Problem

When the first three Gospels—Matthew, Mark, and Luke—are compared, it is unmistakable that the accounts are very similar to one another in content and expression. As a result, Matthew, Mark, and Luke are referred to as the "Synoptic Gospels." The word synoptic basically means "to see together with a common view." The similarities among the Synoptic Gospels have led some to wonder if the Gospel authors had a common source, another written account of Christ's birth, life, ministry, death, and resurrection from which they obtained the material for their Gospels. The question of how to explain the similarities and differences among the Synoptic Gospels is called the Synoptic Problem.

Development of the Canon (Canon)

o Leader writes a letter or a gospel o The community reads these documents in worship together with Torah, prophets and some of the writings o The early Christian communities copy and share writings with other early Christian communities o These communities begin to collect some writings to read together with Torah... o New writings emerge outside of what was apostolic Christianity o Leaders begin to list the important writings and exclude others; debates ensue over which were the true writings. o Lists develop over time • Canonizing because of conflict - The idea of canonizing the New Testament likely began sometime in the second century because of certain individuals teaching what appeared to be contrary to what apostolic Christianity was teaching. • Based on these factors, Christians began the process of identifying which books they considered authoritative. At this point lists begin to appear. From these lists we can see that most of the books in the New Testament were accepted as authoritative apostolic teaching. • The development of the canon becomes an attempt to define apostolic Christianity in light of these competing claims and then to eliminate those claims by showing which books were in line with apostolic Christianity.

Qumran

o Many of the Hasmonean rulers acted as both king and high priest o The establishment of these rulers as high priest when they were not from a priestly family upset some within society. The Qumran community may have been started due to conflicts over matters related to the priesthood. The Qumran documents mention repeatedly both "the teacher of righteousness" and the "wicked priest. " There appears to be conflict between these two priestly individuals. The wicked priest may be a reference to the Hasmonean high priest in Jerusalem and the Teacher of Righteous is the priestly ruler at Qumran. o Many groups within Judea believed they were the true descendants of the nation of Israel or the ones about which the scriptures were talking.

Apostolic tradition

o New communities of Christians were developing in diverse geographical areas; new documents began to arise which taught doctrines not in line with the apostolic tradition. At this point Christianity starts to become diverse and there are various groups who believed different things about Jesus. Each group created their own writings.

John 1 and wisdom

§ Logos and Wisdom - Proverbs and the connection to the Wisdom of God - There are some passages in the Old Testament and other Second Temple texts that personify wisdom and give it a role in creation. • Prov. 8:22-30 - Aids God in creation similar to the way the Logos does in John 1; first of God's creative acts § The opening verses of John echo what we read in Prov. 8:22-30 dealing with the first of God's creative acts and the "artisan" who played a role in this process. • Difference in that John 1 has no explanation for the existence of the Logos. The Logos just exists unlike wisdom, which was the first of God's creative acts.

Fulfillment theme in Matthew

§ Remember our discussions from a couple of weeks ago about how the various groups at this time were in conflict. Each group was attempting to show how their group and members were the true heirs of the Scriptures, the true descendants of Abraham. They likely competed in the same towns and were trying to demonstrate that the religious heritage of the Hebrew Bible was theirs. § This gives an example of why Matthew was concerned with both demonstrating that Jesus is the fulfillment of the Jewish scriptures and at the same time critiquing the leaders of Judaism. "They do all their deeds to be seen by others; for they make their phylacteries broad and their fringes long." § Matthew discusses the fulfillment theme about 20 times - 1:22-23; 2:6, 15, 17-18, 23; 4:14-16; 8:17; 12:17-21; 13:35; 21:4-5; 27:9-10 (13:14-15) § Matthews Genealogy - Demonstrates that Jesus is the Jewish Messiah • Descendant of Abraham who received the promise of land, kings, and to be a blessing - Jesus is that blessing to all nations not just the Jews. o 5 women mentioned in the genealogy all with a questionable sexual background, and all except Mary have gentile connections - 1:3, 5, 6 - shows the universal nature of Jesus mission and that he can save all people. • Descendant of King David -Messianic connections (the # 14 and David's name) § Explicit fulfillment formula - • Matt. 1:22-23 - "All this took place to fulfill what had been spoken by the Lord through the prophet" • Matt 2:15 - "This was to fulfill what had been spoken by the Lord through the prophet," • Matt. 2:17 - "Then was fulfilled what had been spoken through the prophet Jeremiah" • Matt. 5:17 - "I have not come to abolish but to fulfill" • Andy many more...

Sermon on the Mount - What is it and how should we interpret it. Look at the views of Aquinas, Lutheran, Anabaptist, Kingdom Theology

§ Sermon on the Mount - Matt. 5:21-26; 6:12-15 • There is a connection between forgiving others in order for God to forgive as drawn out in Matt. 6:14-15; 18:35 "For if you forgive others their trespasses, your Heavenly Father will also forgive you." § Thomas Aquinas and traditional medieval Catholic Teaching -Two tiers of Christians. The more strenuous commands are to be applied by those in the clerical or monastic order not by the average follower § Lutheran - a difference between enacting the principles in personal life and applying these to the public sector. This would not apply if you were a Christian soldier. Also saw these demands as pushing people to repent because it showed them they could not keep all of God's commands, similar to the way he viewed the Law in the Hebrew Bible. § Anabaptists - Applied these literally and so promote pacifism § Kingdom Theology - Jesus teaching about the kingdom of God suggests that in some way the kingdom was partially realized in Jesus' day but would only be fully realized in the future when he returned a second time. These are then demands that Christians are to strive for, but because the kingdom is only partially realized they will not be realizable until a future time.

Stock Imagery in the Parables

• Jesus' audience would have known exactly what he was talking about because the imagery would have resonated with their culture. Just like images from the stories I read might resonate with you. Some have called this the stock imagery of the parables. • When someone heard the word Samaritan, or inheritance it automatically invoked a certain image in his or her mind. They developed preconceived notions immediately upon hearing these words. Just like when we hear something like government, capitalism, communism, organized religion, big business, environmentalist - you automatically have an image pop into your head, either positive or negative.

I am sayings in John's Gospel

• John Demonstrates who Jesus is throughout the Gospel by using these strategic I am sayings. In some sense they serve as a framework for presenting who Jesus is. John has his high Christology in focus throughout the Gospel. • 7 Metaphorical I am sayings • Jesus also uses the phrase "I am" many other times throughout the gospel. • This contrasts with others making "I am not" statements in the Gospel - John 1:20, 21, 27; 3:28 • Many have connected these statements of Jesus to statements in the Old Testament made by Yahweh (God) The seven metaphorical statements noted above have Jesus compare himself to something outside of himself. This typically corresponds to a particular sign he has just performed. • These sayings are designed to confirm who Jesus is by looking at what he does and what he says connected to Powell's show and tell Pg. 81. The sign shows, the phrase I am... tells. • Just like in Exodus 3, the I am statements, which harken back to that passage, reveal who God is and what he is about to do. In Exodus 3 he is about to reveal himself through the mighty acts of the Exodus, now he is going to reveal himself through Jesus, the new expression of the "I Am." The revelation of God's name in Exodus 3 then is affirmed by the actions carried out in Egypt. The revelation of God in Jesus using these "I am" statements is also affirmed in all of these new signs that Jesus is performing. "Signs" is the word for miracles in the Gospel of John. • The same God who revealed himself in those acts during the time of the Exodus is revealing himself again in Jesus.

Signs (book of Signs)

• Just like in Exodus 3, the I am statements, which harken back to that passage, reveal who God is and what he is about to do. In Exodus 3 he is about to reveal himself through the mighty acts of the Exodus, now he is going to reveal himself through Jesus, the new expression of the "I Am." The revelation of God's name in Exodus 3 then is affirmed by the actions carried out in Egypt. The revelation of God in Jesus using these "I am" statements is also affirmed in all of these new signs that Jesus is performing. "Signs" is the word for miracles in the Gospel of John.

Theories on the historical Jesus

• Man of the Spirit - Marcus Borg- Jesus as a charismatic figure trying to revitalize Israel. He had an intimate spiritual connection with God that he saw as empowering him to accomplish his mission. This centered on beginning a religious movement that would prioritize compassion over cultic purity. This impacted the social and political world around him and he became a subversive figure as he upended some of the religious views of the time. • Holy man - Geza Vermes - Pious Charismatic Jew who claimed he could draw on the power of God in ways that others could not and therefore could preform miracles; considered to be similar to earlier Israelite prophets like Elijah and Elisha. • Rebellious wisdom sage - John Dominic Crossan - radical peasant rebelling against the authorities and subverting their norms. Influenced by cynic philosophy taught a new wisdom ethic. He resisted the economic and social standards of his day and preached about a life centered on God's "radical Justice." He adopted this ethic and chose to live in poverty performing healings and exorcisms without charge demonstrating an egalitarian lifestyle by associating with those on the fringes of society, the people deemed to be outcasts. • Jewish Sage - Ben Witherington III - A wiseman drawing upon the Israelite wisdom tradition; taught about God by appealing to revelation through nature and observations on life; did not speak as a prophet but rather used riddles, parables, beatitudes; saw himself as the personification of divine wisdom Matt. 11:19, 25-27, the wisdom of God descended to earth in human form. • Social actor defying a hierarchical society - Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza - attacked patriarchy saying that no one but God had the authority of a father; attempted to create a new community that allowed women and other lesser groups to become prominent; stressed the wisdom tradition over the purity regulations; encouraged people to wosrship God as "woman wisdom" the female figure portrayed in the wisdom tradition that personified divine wisdom. • Prophet/teacher with a focus on Eschatology (end times) o Paula Fredriksen - Great teacher with a popular apocalyptic message stating that the end was near. Never claimed to be the Messiah, but others made that claim about him leading the authorities to crucify him. (Mark 14:25). Not a social reformer or political revolutionary; not reforming his religion of Judaism o John Meier - Marginal Jew with a focus on Eschatology - a Jewish teacher living on the fringes of society preaching and teaching in ways that conflicted with the authorities. This action garnered suspicion. Focused on calling people to repent because God was going to break into society to come gather his people and to rule as king. His miracles allowed him to claim that God's reign was already present and beginning in him. o E. P. Sanders - Eschatological prophet preaching of a great future event that was about to take place where God was going to break into history and eliminate all evil. He was going to do so working within a Jewish framework as Jesus was the new Israel, 12 disciples = 12 tribes of Israel. This restoration would not be undertaken by military means, but Israel was to be restored. Over time this message becomes spiritualized. • Prophet of social Change - Richard Horsley - Like the Israelite prophets Jesus is someone concerned with the social and political circumstances of his day. As a peasant he dealt with poverty, oppression, protest, and revolt, and his ministry begins a social revolution on behalf of his fellow peasants. He sought to bolster peasant society not to lead a rebellion against the authorities. • Jesus as Savior - N.T. Wright - Jesus saw himself as enacting what God said he would do as both a prophet and Messiah. He was a truer form of Israel fulfilling prophecy and creating a community that would be the New Israel. He could symbolically die on behalf of Israel for the judgment that he announced would come. God would vindicate him and initiate the New Covenant of Israel with God reigning as king of the world. Jesus attempted to do and to be what scripture said God alone could do and be.

Binding the Strong Man

• Mark 3:20-27 -Parable about Healing - "The Binding of the Strong Man" o Sheds light on ancient ideas about demons and spirits o Highlights how this Gospel often focuses on people's misunderstanding of who Jesus is (see below) o This passage highlights the purpose of Jesus' healing and miracles; he is binding the power of Satan and unleashing the kingdom of God by performing these miracles. The Kingdom of God is now being realized in partial form. It is not yet fully realized and only will be when the Son of Man comes again.

Messiah

• Messianism is an important part of New Testament background because the New Testament is centered on the belief that Jesus was the Messiah expected by Israel, the Christ. As described in the New Testament He is the completion of the Old Testament's traditions. • Messiah derives from the Greek word messias which is a transliteration of the Hebrew mashiach meaning "anointed one." The Greek equivalent of this is Christos. • Messianic expectations refer to the belief that an "anointed" person will come to deliver Israel from its oppression. This would either be focused on military expectations or that the Messiah would inaugurate a reign of peace through interpretation of the Law in a sort of ethical reign of peace.

What are the historical Jesus Scholars concerned with and how does this differ from theology?

• Modern Jesus Scholars are not concerned with, as some have said, "the Christ of faith" or probably a better phrase, "the post Easter Jesus." They attempt to make a distinction between faith-based events and those events that can be proven based on rigorous historical methods. They focus on "the pre-Easter Jesus." • Some of these scholars are not attempting to tell people what they should believe about Jesus or what the New Testament teaches about Jesus, but rather they are attempting to approach this issue and the sources as any historian would. • Historians cannot privilege one set of documents over another. Even if they believe theologically speaking that the Bible is Holy Scripture they cannot simply say that something is true because one document says it is true, they have to evaluate events based on their ability to stand up to historical rigor not based on beliefs.

Salvation in Luke

• Salvation is in part something to be experienced now. o Today a Savior is Born Luke 2:11 o For my eyes have seen your salvation Luke 2:30 o All flesh shall see the salvation of God -Luke 3:6 o Today salvation has come to this house Luke 19:9 • Why would Luke emphasize the present aspect of salvation? o Bringing hope to the poor? o Second coming of Jesus may not be as immanent as presented in Mark (Luke 12:38, 45; 19:11; 21:24). • Salvation in the Gospel of Luke is not explicitly connected to Jesus death on the Cross as in other Gospels. Jesus is still the savior, but his salvation often has to do with deliverance from one's current plight. (Luke 2:11; 19:10).

Diversity in early Christianity

• Scripture for the early Christians was the Jewish Scriptures. They were not quite canonized at this time, but at least the Torah and the Prophets were accepted as Scripture. The early Christians saw these writings as pointing toward what God did anew in Jesus and looked to passages like Jer. 31:31-34 describing a New Covenant to demonstrate that Jesus was what the New Covenant in Jeremiah pointed to. • In former times God spoke through the prophets, but now he spoke through Jesus. By at least the 2nd Century CE the early Christians also believed that certain writings testifying to Jesus should be considered scripture and eventually these writings became known as the New Covenant writings or the more common name for this, the New Testament. New Testament means New Covenant. o New communities of Christians were developing in diverse geographical areas; new documents began to arise which taught doctrines not in line with the apostolic tradition. At this point Christianity starts to become diverse and there are various groups who believed different things about Jesus. Each group created their own writings.

Esther - Two Versions

• The Hebrew version of Esther is in the Jewish and Protestant Bible, but the Rabbis up until at least the 3rd century CE argued over whether it should be accepted as scripture; they argued over the lack of the mention of God, and that the festival of Purim did not originate with Moses. The Greek additions (ca. 2nd Cent. BCE) to Esther sought to remedy this and were added to the end and given Deuterocanonical status in the Roman Catholic Bible.

Solutions to the Synoptic Problem

• The Two-Source Hypothesis suggests that when Matthew and Luke agree with each other concerning material that is not found in Mark, they must have both been drawing on an outside source. This hypothetical source has been labeled Q, likely after the German word for source "Quelle" o According to this theory this source must exist because the evidence suggests Matthew and Luke were produced independently of one another. If they were produced independently of one another, how can we explain the agreements between them that are not found in Mark. § Neither Matthew nor Luke ever contains the others additions to Mark • Temple cleansing Mark 11:15-19; Matt. 21:12-17; Luke 19:45-48 - The additions of Matthew are not in Luke. § Omission of material is difficult to explain if Luke knew Matthew § When Matthew and Luke share material that is not in Mark it never appears in the same place, if one knew the other we would expect this to happen on occasion • Woes against the Pharisees in Matthew 23:13-36 is at the end of Jesus life, but in Luke it is while he is still in Galilee - Luke 11:37-12:1 - If Luke knew Matthew why not put it in the same place § If Matthew and Luke did not know one other how do we explain the material they have in common. They must have derived it from another source now called Q. • This material in Matthew and Luke demonstrates strong verbal agreements and in many cases contains word for word correspondence. • It shares other linguistic connections and has a theological consistency • Often presented in the same general sequence • The Farrer theory - Sees no need to create a hypothetical source o It is not mentioned anywhere in church tradition o Matthew and Luke at times agree with each other against Mark in passages common to all three Gospels

The Structure of Mark

• There is a clear shift in this Gospel around Chapter 8. The first half of the Gospel centers on Jesus' miracles and healing ministry and the second half of the Gospel centers on Jesus' teaching ministry, including predictions regarding his death. • The shift centers on Peter's confession in 8:27-30, which is the highlight and center of the Gospel, "You are the Messiah." Based on the types of things he has done up to this point in the Gospel, it starts to become clear that he is the Messiah. Now, his ministry shifts towards teaching and explaining exactly what that looks like. He must explain what this means because those around Jesus don't understand it. (See below for the theme of misunderstanding). • By looking at the actions of Jesus we can start to see the literary structure of the Gospel and the rhetorical features the author uses to create his argument and show people who Jesus is.