BIO 111 Final Study Guide

Yeast cells produce ATP using____.This process occurs in the____. ____is broken down into____to generate____

Yeast cells produce ATP using alcoholic fermentation. This process occurs in the cytoplasm. Acetaldehyde is broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide to generate NAD+ and ATP.

Whats in a flu vaccine

- Aluminum Salts - Antibiotics - Egg Protein - Formaldehyde - Gelatin, sorbitol, or monosodium glutamate (MSG) - Thimersol

What is an Antigen?

- An antigen is any substance that produces a specific immune response by the body. Antigens are usually proteins or large carbohydrates that are specific to pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. - When pathogens are ingested by the macrophages and dendritic cells of the immune system, they are digested, and a small portion of the pathogen is attached to the surface of the macrophage.

Sickle Cell Disease and other Body Systems

- Anemia impacts the ability of the cells and organs of the immune system to preform their function - People with sickle cell disease much more prone to infections, such as those from virus and bacteria

Methane

- Another important greenhouse gas is methane (CH4 ). Methane is a very rare gas in the atmosphere, with concentrations measured as parts per billion (ppb). - Methane is also relatively unstable, and once created, it only remains in the atmosphere for about a decade. - Still, methane is considered a very powerful greenhouse gas, with the ability to retain and release almost 30 times the amount of heat as CO2 .

Genetic Material of viruses

- As far as we know, all living organisms use DNA as their genetic material. Within the DNA of an organism are sets of instructions, called genes. - The sum of all of the genes in an organism (or species) is commonly called its genome.

Climate change and the oceans

- As levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases rise in the atmosphere, global temperatures increase. - Sea levels increase as sea ice levels and glacier coverage decrease. - Carbon dioxide dissolves easily in water, forming carbonic acid - This causes the acidity, or pH of oceans to decrease. - This is called ocean acidification.

The greenhouse effect

- As solar energy strikes the earth, some is reflected back into space by areas of snow or ice. - However, some of this solar energy strikes areas of ocean or land where it is absorbed. - Once absorbed, it is released slowly back into the atmosphere as infrared energy, or heat. - Water, carbon dioxide, and other greenhouse gases trap some of this energy, allowing temperatures on earth to become warmer. - This phenomenon is called the greenhouse effect and is responsible for allowing our planet to be warm enough to sustain life.

Angiogenesis

- As tumor cells grow, they require oxygen and nutrients. - Angiogenesis occurs as growth factors are released and capillaries grow toward the tumor.

Targeting Free Antigens

- At the same time that helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells are working to target infected cells, the B lymphocytes begin the production of antibodies. - This is the second form of adaptive immunity and is often referred to as antibody-mediated immunity.

Transcription

- Begins in the nucleus when RNA polymerase binds to an area on the start of a gene - This area, called the promoter acts as a regulatory region for turning genes on and off - RNA nucleotides align themselves with to complementary base-pairs on the DNA template and form messenger RNA - The messenger RNA is modified before leaving the nucleus, with the addition of a 5' cap and a 3' poly A tail composed of adenines - Additionally, introns are removed and exons are spliced back together to produce a mature messenger RNA strand. - This mature messenger RNA strand can now leave the nucleus for translation, which occurs on ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

Charles Lyell

Geologist who proposed that the Earth's surface is dynamic and constantly undergoing erosion and uplift, which explained how the different fossil layers were formed.

The Photosynthesis reaction is like __________ in reverse, in that it generates glucose.

cellular respiration (via the Calvin cycle)

founder effect

change in allele frequencies as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population

Alkaloids

chemicals naturally produced by some plants; prevent cells from forming spindle fibers, thus preventing cell division

Topoisomerase inhibitors

chemicals that disable topoisomerase enzyme, preventing DNA replication

Hypertonic solutions

higher solute concentration outside than inside, net movement of water out of cell

Proteins

Variety of functions, including acting as channels through the membrane and signaling to the interior of the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

- Transport and processing of nutrients - Synthesis of proteins (rough ER) - Synthesis of lipids and and carbohydrates (smooth ER)

Information Flow

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and each amino acid has slightly different chemical properties which, when combined, give each protein its specific function in the cell or organism. - Normal Flow - DNA, RNA, Protein - Flow of info in retroviruses -

amino acids

Amino acids consist of a central carbon linked to an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable R group. - Amino acids are built through dehydration synthesis reactions.

A random change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's DNA is known as

mutation

Taxanes

naturally produced by yew trees; prevent microtubule breakdown during cell division so cell division doesn't continue

Adenosine triphosphate

(ATP) is a type of nucleic acid used as the energy currency for cells.

James Watson and Francis Crick

- 1950s - Put all of the former findings together to build a model of the double-helix DNA molecule. - DNA is a twisted helix made of repeating nucleotides of sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogen base

Cancer Statistics

- 4th leading cause of death in young people - males have 1/2 chance of developing cancer in their lifetime while females have a 1/3 chance

Proteins

- Amino Acids (monomers) - Polypeptides, Proteins (Polymers) - Beans, Meat, Milk

Carbohydrates

- Are hydrophilic, easily moved within bodies and cells - - Are quickly accessed as an energy source (preferred energy source) - Can form long polymers that are easily broken down by digestive enzymes - Are formed through dehydration synthesis reactions - Bread, Pasta, Cereals

Lipids

- Are used for long-term energy storage - Are hydrophobic - Include triglycerides (fats) and oils - Oils, Butter

Organize these carbohydrates in order from smallest to larges

- Glucose - Disaccharides - Oligosaccharides - Glycogen

The Cell Cycle

- Interphase - The majority of the cells time (normal functions occur) -- Consist of G1 (growth), S (synthesis), and G2 (growth) phases - M Phase - The portion where the cell division occurs, consist of mitosis and cytokinesis.

How are flu viruses named

- by the host - by their type A or B - by their strain - by their year of isolation

T cells

- mature in thymus - involved in cell mediated immunity - activated anywhere in the body where antigen is presented by MHC proteins - bind to antigens processed and presented by MHC. proteins - include helper and cytotoxic cells - once activated, undergo clonal selection - produced in red bone marrow.

Natural killer (NK) cells

- nonspecific - Destroy cells of the body that have been infected by viruses or bacteria

Macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils

- nonspecific - Destroy pathogens by phagocytosis

Viral evolution

1. An influenza virus in birds mutates and is transmitted to humans. 2. Vaccinations are created to provide protection against this initial strain of influenza. 3. Spikes along the viral surface mutate, reducing the efficacy of the vaccination. 4. The newly mutated virus spreads, causing a flu outbreak among the public. 5. A new vaccination is created to provide protection against this new strain of influenza.

Process of Gene Expression

1. DNA in the nucleus serves as a template. 2. mRNA is processed and leaves the nucleus. 3. mRNA becomes associated with a ribosome. 4. tRNAs with anticodons carry amino acids to the mRNA. 5. Anticodon-codon complementary base-pairing occurs. 6. Polypeptide synthesis occurs one amino acid at a time until complete.

Natural selection

1. Organisms within a(n) population have heritable variations that are passed on from generation to generation. 2. The population produces more offspring than the resources of the environment can support; therefore, only certain members survive and reproduce. 3. Individuals with favorable traits survive and reproduce to a greater extent than those without them. 4. Over time, the proportion of the favorable trait increases in the population, and the population becomes adapted to the environment.

From the list below, order the steps of DNA isolation:

1. Place test tube on ice 2. Transfer strawberry filtrate with pipette to test tube 3. In a graduated cylinder, dissolve a spoonful of meat tenderizer into distilled water 4. Add meat tenderizer solution to strawberry filtrate and let it react for 10 minutes 5. Use pipette to add ice cold 95% ethanol along inside of tube to precipitate DNA

In one of your virtual labs the week, you measured the time it takes for the color to change in the pH indicator as photosynthesis occurred. In the test tube with the Elodea plant in it, it took 5 minutes for a color change. Say you doubled the amount of Elodea you put in the test tube, but kept all else constant. Select the amount of time you would estimate for the color change to occur

2.5 minutes

Answer the next two questions using the Punnett square. Allele for long wings (L) is dominant, allele for short wings (l) is recessive.

3 long : 1 short

Protein Structures - Tertiary structure

3D molecules are made, protein is functional

What is the percentage of male offspring having brown eyes? What is the percentage of female offspring having brown eyes?

50%; 50%

bottleneck effect

A change in allele frequency following a dramatic reduction in the size of a population - genetic drift

The Effect of Mutations

A change in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule can change the sequence of amino acids in a protein and thus the properties of that protein.

Hemoglobin

A complex protein that consists of four polypeptide chains, called globins - There are two forms of globins: alpha globin and beta globin.

biome

A large-scale community of organisms, primarily defined on land by the dominant plant types that exist in geographic regions of the planet with similar climatic conditions

virus

A tiny, nonliving particle that invades and then reproduces inside a living cell.

Prokaryotic Cell

A type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in the domains Bacteria and Archaea.

Eukaryotic Cell

A type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Examples of organisms with these cells are protists, plants, fungi, and animals.

The Covid19 virus attaches to the host's ______ receptor by the viral ______.

ACE2 / spikes

Interferon

Acts as a signal to nearby cells that a cell has been infected by a virus.

G1 Checkpoint

Apoptosis can occur if DNA is damaged beyond compare

As climate change continues, the prevalence of vector-borne disease has increased. Why is this?

As climates have warmed and winters have become less severe, the range of mosquitos and ticks has increased, bringing with them the diseases they carry.

What order to the two parts of photosynthesis happen at?

At the same time

Evolution

By studying and classifying the life on this planet, scientists have been able to recognize that the organization of life provides evidence of change over time. The question has not been is evolution actually happening, but rather, what is the mechanism of evolutionary change?

Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle

CO2 + H2O < Reaction in All Living Organisms (Cellular Respiration) = Reaction in Plants (Photosynthesis) > O2 + C6H12O6

Cancers effects on homeostasis

Cancer disrupts homeostasis by interfering with the body's ability to maintain homeostasis. - Tumors take up space in organs and block blood and lymphatic vessels and ducts, so organs cannot function. - Tumors require oxygen and nutrients, depriving nearby tissues.

Stage 4

Cancer has fully metastasized and spread to organs outside the breast, the cancer is incurable

Categorize the following foods based off the major nutrient found in each one: Broccoli, Cinnamon, Pumpkin, Cocoa, Strawberry, Apple

Carbohydrates - Apple, Cinnamon Vitamins - Broccoli, Pumpkin, Strawberry Fats - Cocoa

Identify the reactants of the photosynthesis reaction

Carbon Dioxide light Water

Disruptive selection

Changes in the environment cause the average, or most common, form of variation to be detrimental and favors the variants at the ends of the distribution.

Digestive Enzymes

Digestive enzymes break down carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids into small molecules that can move into the circulatory or lymphatic system.

Directional selection

Changes in the environment direct natural selection to favor the variants at one end of the distribution. This causes a shift in the distribution of the trait over time toward one of the extremes.

Altering Weather Patterns in the US

Climate change is causing some areas of the United States to be drier (west and southeast), while other regions are experiencing increased precipitation (central and northeast).

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Compounds used in refrigerants and to make spray propellants

New Definition of Gene

Containing information that produces a product which may include proteins or RNA - A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for either the production of a protein, or the production of RNA molecules that regulate protein production.

Climate change and biomes

Coral bleaching is leading to the destruction of coral reef ecosystems worldwide

DNA Structure

DNA consists of two long chains of nucleotides twisted into a double helix and joined by hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases adenine and thymine or cytosine and guanine

law of segregation

Each individual has two factors for each trait and these factors separate (segregate) during the formation of the gametes (meiosis). • Each individual has two factors for each trait (meaning it is diploid), but it produces gametes that have only one factor for each trait (haploid). • Fertilization produces a new individual with two factors for each trait (diploid).

Thomas Malthus

Economist who stated that populations (in this case, humans) sometimes increase at rates faster than their food supply can increase, thus creating competition.

Endocrine System

Endocrine glands secrete hormones, which also regulate and coordinate the activities of other systems. Works more slowly than the nervous system

Energy Drinks

Energy drinks claim to: Increase energy levels Increase mental awareness Reduce muscle fatigue Energy drinks do not contain carbohydrates, proteins, or fats and are considered dietary supplements, not food. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not regulate energy drink claims. Energy drinks contain vitamins, minerals, food additives, and stimulants.

Chlorophyll is the only photosynthetic pigment plants use.

False

Evolution is occurring in the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium.

False

Gregor Mendel's paper "Experiments on Plant Hybridization", detailing his pea experiment results, was widely accepted and successful after being published in 1865.

False

Larger fragments of DNA move more rapidly.

False

When analyzing the results of an ELISA, a dark blue color result indicates a weak reaction and a low correlation to the target molecule.

False

What was the benefit of developing genetic linkage maps for the fruit fly studied by Morgan and his students at Columbia's Fly Room?

Finding the locations of genes on chromosomes

The Fossil Record

Fossils are the mineralized remains or traces (trials, burrows, droppings, etc.) of once-living species.

What is the Evidence of Evolution?

From the fossil record to genetic evidence, scientists continue to test, evaluate, and refine their understanding of how evolution impacts life.

What is the Purpose of Gene Expression

Gene expression is the series of events within a cell that takes the information within the DNA and produces the protein (or RNA) molecules. There are two challenges that need to be addressed before a trait may be expressed: - The information in the DNA and proteins are written in different languages. - DNA is written as a series of nucleotide bases (A, C, G, and T), while proteins are constructed of amino acids. - The DNA and protein synthesis machinery are located in different locations within the cell.

Which of these is not like the other?

Glucose - correct Polysaccharide Starch Glycogen

Gluten-Free

Gluten is a natural protein (not carbohydrate) found in cereal grains.

Interleukin

Glycoprotein that is involved in regulating the general immune response.

Lymphatic System

Helps maintain blood volume by collecting excess interstitial fluid and returning it via lymphatic vessels to the cardiovascular veins. Defends against disease

Reproduction and Chromosomes

Humans have two copies of each chromosome (diploid, or 2n). During sexual reproduction, the organs of the reproductive system produce gametes (eggs and sperm) that contain only one copy of each chromosome (haploid or n). The process that does this is called meiosis

Desertification

Is another example of a biome level change that is associated with climate change. As we observed in our discussion of biomes, an increase in temperature and a decrease in precipitation leads to the formation of a desert biome. In addition to climate change, the deforestation of regions and poor agricultural practices (namely cattle farming) can lead to the conversion of grasslands to deserts.

What is the dependent variable in this study? Choose any that apply.

Latency to start eating

Based on the graphs in Question #4, which of the following is a reasonable conclusion for results of this experiment?

Lions significantly prefer whole carcasses over ground/processed meat, regardless of the origin of the meat (e.g., what animal the meat came from).

Which of the following is an appropriately formatted prediction for a study with the experiment design described in Question #4?

Lions will show a shorter latency to start consuming food in whole carcass form than in ground/processed form.

Cholesterol

Lipid that helps regulate the fluid nature of the membrane.

The principles of inheritance that Mendel established can be used to analyze family histories, or pedigrees.

Males are designated by squares and females by circles. • Shaded circles and squares represent individuals expressing the genetic trait of interest. • A line between a square and a circle represents a union (such as a marriage), and vertical lines represent the children of that union. • Specific individuals in a pedigree may be identified by generation (numbered down the left side).

PCR Genetic Testing

Mutations in cancer causing genes can be tested for. After blood is drawn, DNA is isolated from white blood cells and subjected to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in order to make copies of the gene of interest.

Ozone

Natural processes and the interaction of solar energy with pollutants in the lower atmosphere

Forms of Natural Selection

Natural selection acts on the variation within a population by favoring some variants over others.

Erasmus Darwin

Naturalist and philosopher who proposed that evidence from animal development and animal breeding suggested that species may evolve over time.

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Naturalist who believed that complex life forms are descended from simpler forms. Proposed that individuals can acquire characteristics that enable them to evolve over time. This idea is referred to as inheritance of acquired characteristics

Antigenic drift

Occurs when there are small changes in the surface spikes of the influenza virus.

Phenotype - Characteristic of an organism that can be observed and measured Mutant - Phenotype that results from a change in the most common allele Genotype - An organism's genetic makeup Wild Type - Phenotype most commonly found in natural populations

Phenotype - Characteristic of an organism that can be observed and measured Mutant - Phenotype that results from a change in the most common allele Genotype - An organism's genetic makeup Wild Type - Phenotype most commonly found in natural populations

Animals wandered and became trapped in what is now the La Brea Tar Pits during the geological period known as the

Pleistocene

Individuals struggle to exist.

Populations produce more offspring than can survive, which creates competition for available resources.

Muscular System

Produces heat that maintains body temperature. Protects and supports internal organs.

Glycoproteins

Proteins with carbohydrate molecules attached that serve to identify the function of the cell to other cells and the immune system.

Influenza virus

RNA virus with a spherical capsid surrounded by an envelope with spikes

Radiation Therapy

Radiation therapy damages the DNA within a cell, slowing down or stopping cell division. It can target specific areas, but isn't as effective at metastasized cancer cells.

Systemic radiation treatment

Radioactive substances are injected in blood or ingested in body.

Nervous System

Regulates and coordinates the activities of all the other systems. It responds quickly to internal and external stimuli

In the Connect Lab on pill bugs, what was the control chamber set up?

Sand on the left and right side of the chamber.

Developmental evidence of evolution

Similarities in the embryo stage of species

Relationships within biological communities

Species in an area have evolved over long periods of time to interact together, in the process forming complex biological communities. Whereas some of these interactions are predator-prey interactions, others may be more cooperative (mutualistic). These interactions are often dictated by the physical characteristics of the ecosystem in which they live. These characteristics include the climate of the region.

Flu Vaccine - Gelatin, sorbitol, or monosodium glutamate (MSG)

Stabilize the vaccine and protect it from temperature variations during storage.

Scientists just discovered a new cave creature that eats ferns that grow at the cave entrance. They also discover this creature uses a new enzyme similar to amylase in order to break down what it consumes. The carbohydrate found in this fern is most likely

Starch

Homologous structures

Structures that are similar because they have been inherited from a common ancestor. The bone structure of the limbs of a mouse, bat, and whale are all similar because these mammals all descended from a common ancestor.

Analogous structures

Structures that serve the same function, and often may appear the same, but that evolved independently as adaptations to a specific environment. Wings of birds, bats, and insects are examples of analogous structures.

Digestive System

Supplies blood with nutrients and water for tissue cells. Rids the body of non-digestible remains.

Climate

The average weather patterns in a given area over time. Temperature and rainfall are the typical characteristics used to define climate. For example, in the spring, the climate of your area may be cool and rainy, while in the summer it could be hot and humid.

Nonspecific Defense Mechanisms of the Immune System

The defenses that act as general defenses, meaning they are not targeting a specific pathogen, are collectively called the innate defenses.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Immunotherapy

The immune system functions to identify "self" vs. "non-self" and then target any "non-self" cells for destruction.

What Is the Immune System?

The immune system is responsible for protecting our bodies from foreign pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria, and works very closely with the lymphatic system.

How Is Climate Change Altering Weather Patterns?

The impacts of global climate change can be observed right now, even in the United States. The temperature and precipitation data show that: - Average temperatures have increased between 1.2 and 1.8◦F over the past 50 years, with the majority of that change occurring since the start of the 21st century. The rate of regional heat waves is increasing across the country. - Average precipitation has increased by 4% in the past century. This has been very regional, with central and northeast areas experiencing increased precipitation, and areas in the west and southeast seeing reduced precipitation. The rate of extreme precipitation events, and droughts, is also increasing.

Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is involved in returning fluids (called lymph) from the tissues of the body back to the circulatory system.

The photosynthetic pigment most plants use is chlorophyll, Which is located in the thylakoids of the organelle, called the chloroplast

The photosynthetic pigment most plants use is chlorophyll, Which is located in the thylakoids of the organelle, called the chloroplast

Light Reactions

The purpose of the light reactions is to capture the energy from the sun and transfer it to high-energy molecules. These reactions occur in the thylakoid of the chloroplast and use the photosynthetic pigments - The first set of reactions are called the light-dependent reactions because they require an input of solar energy. Here are the major events in this pathway: • The chlorophyll molecules absorbs energy from the sun. This energizes electrons (e- ) forming high-energy particles. • Water is broken down, releasing electrons, hydrogen ions (H+ ), and oxygen. The oxygen is a waste product and is released back into the atmosphere. • Some of the high-energy electrons are used to produce ATP from ADP + P. • NADP+ accepts some high-energy electrons to produce NADPH.

antigenic shift

The second mechanism the influenza virus has of evading the immune system—antigenic shift—has greater consequences for humans. In an antigenic shift, two different forms of the virus infect the same cell.

Biosphere

The sum of the locations where life exists on Earth

How Do Viruses Evolve?

There are two basic methods by which the influenza virus changes its genetic information antigenic shift and antigenic drift

Lymph Nodes

Tissue where interstitial fluid is filtered and cleansed by white blood cells called macrophages.

Red Bone Marrow

Tissue where the lymphocyte cells of the body are produced. Location where B lymphocytes mature.

The 19 of the covid19 refers to

To the year it first appeared

What Are Fossil Fuels?

Today, fossil fuels still account for over 80% of the United States' energy needs. This number is not decreasing. Despite the development of alternative energy sources. - Fossil fuels include oil, coal, and natural gas.

Cardiovascular System

Transports oxygen and nutrients to tissue cells and transports waste away from cells. Also transports hormones secreted by the endocrine glands.

Humans usually have ≥ 2 alleles per gene, one from each parent.

True

In gel electrophoresis, a positive pole is needed at the bottom of the gel to encourage migration of negatively charged DNA fragments.

True

Match the items below that you learned about in your "How Enzymes Function" Connect Lab 2

What we used for a specificity test - Water The reaction required - Enzyme and substrate The substrate we used was - Hydrogen Peroxide The enzyme we used was - Catalase

Match the appropriate method of ATP production with the cell types listed below.

Yeast in a sealed container - alcoholic fermentation Muscle cell of a sprinter at the end of a race - lactic acid fermentation Muscle cell of a sleeping lion - aerobic cellular respiration

Georges Cuvier

Zoologist who studied the fossil record and noticed that it showed a succession of different forms of life over time. However, he believed that all species were created at the same time, and that catastrophic events had caused some to go extinct.

Cancer

a disease that is caused by the inability of the body to control the division of cells. - Cancer can be caused by genetic or environmental factors. - Named based on the type of cells or tissues where they originate.

Protein Structures - Secondary structure

amino acids interact with each other

An antibody is

an immune system protein that binds to single, specific antigen

Enzymes

are metabolic catalysts that speed up chemical reactions or allow them to occur. - lower the activation energy required for chemical reactions to occur, so reactions proceed more quickly. - Enzymes are regulated by conditions that change the shape of their active site and its ability to interact with its substrate. (Temperature and pH can regulate this.)

Energy nutrients

carbohydrates, fats, proteins - all have potential energy stored in their bonds

Unlike SARS of 2003, Cov19 can

be far more contagious possibly due to the affinity of the S-protein to its receptor.

Mouth

breaks up food by mechanical and chemical digestion

Eukaryotic

contain membrane-bound nucleus organelles, include animals, plants, and fungi

Second Law of Thermodynamics

conversion of energy from one form to another results in a loss of energy as heat

Protein Structures - Quaternary structure

different polypeptides interact with each other forming more complex molecules

Caffeine

e is a natural chemical made by some plants, including coffee, tea, and cocoa as a defense mechanism to prevent insects and animals from eating leaves. Caffeine: Is water-soluble, meaning it's rapidly absorbed by the bloodstream Is fat-soluble, meaning it's able to cross the plasma membrane of cells Is psychoactive, meaning it can cross into the brain Blocks adenosine receptors in the brain, reducing drowsiness Increases metabolic rate, causing more energy to be generated by cellular respiration pathways Causes the brain to produce hormones that release fatty acids from adipose tissue, generating energy Blocks metabolic pathways, causing an increase in blood glucose levels

Large intestine

eliminates indigestible materials, reabsorbs water

First Law of Thermodynamics

energy can be converted between forms

Passive transport

energy is not required (diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis), moves with concentration gradient until equilibrium is reached (shown)

Human society in its current form is unsustainable because

important natural resources are being consumed more quickly than they can be replenished.

Energy

is the capability to do work. During work, energy transfers between two things

Entropy

is the loss of organization.

Prokaryotic

lack a nucleus and organelles, include bacteria

Protein Structures - Primary

linear sequence of amino acids

Hypotonic solutions

lower solute concentration outside than inside, net movement of water into cell

Salivary glands

lubricates food and provides enzymes

Small intestine

major organ of digestion and absorption - Small intestines are long and covered with fingerlike projections called villi that increase surface area for increased absorption of nutrients. - Within villi are capillaries that link the small intestine with the circulatory system and lacteals, which transport fat-soluble molecules.

Tonicity

measure the amount of solute in a solution.

Stomach

mechanical mixing of food

Which of the following equations expresses the relationship between alleles?

p + q = 1

What is the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Equation?

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

Chemical digestion

process that breaks down nutrients using enzymes

Mechanical digestion

processes that increase the surface area of foods

Liver

produces bile, processes and stores nutrients

Pancreas

produces digestive enzymes for the small intestine, regulates blood sugar levels

apoptosis

programmed cell death

Fill in the blanks. Gel Electrophoreses _____ DNA fragments by _____.

separates, size

Telomeres

repeating sections of nucleotides found at the end of chromosomes. They shorten with each cell cycle. When they are too short for replication, the cell undergoes apoptosis.

When they decided to perform this experiment on every lion in the pride, the zookeeper followed good principles of the scientific method by ensuring their experiment had sufficient

replication

Isotonic solutions

same solute concentration inside as outside, no net change

Monomers

small unit that can join together with other small units to form polymers - Monomers are joined together into polymers through dehydration synthesis reactions.

Gallbladder

stores bile

Which sugar would be least efficiently fermented by yeast?

sucralose fructose starch - correct answer maltose glucoseF

Osmosis

the diffusion of water towards areas of high solute (sugar, salts, dissolved molecules) concentration.

Esophagus

transports food to stomach

Cellular respiration

uses 4 stages (shown) to break down the chemical bonds of organic nutrients into usable ATP energy. ATP can be produced by 2 methods: - During the breaking of chemical bonds, some of the energy released is harvested directly to add a phosphate to ADP, making ATP. - High energy electrons are harvested by carrier molecules and their energy is recovered during the electron transport chain to create ATP.

Natural Selection

was provided independently by both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Their explanation of evolutionary processes forever changed the science of biology.

Sickle Cell Disease and the Respiratory System

Acute Chest Syndrome Occurs - Capillaries by the alveoli become blocked - pain, shortness of breath, and high fever - Reduces amount of oxygen - Accelerates anemia which results in sickle crisis

In the Connect Lab on pill bugs, what was the correct experimental strategy?

Add 5 pill bugs to each side of the container and count the number on each side at regular intervals of time.

____ is the binding of multiple antigens by a single antibody.

Agglutination

Sickle Cell Mutation

An example of this is sickle-cell disease. In sickle-cell disease, a mutation in the beta-globin gene causes the normal glutamine amino acid (Glu) to be replaced by a valine (Val) amino acid.

invasive species

An invasive species is one that has been introduced into places outside its natural range, usually through human actions—an introduction that often negatively impacts the biodiversity, community structure, and functioning ecosystem of the native area. As humans migrate around the globe, they sometimes unintentionally bring with them plants, animals, and other organisms.

According to the Amoeba Sisters enzyme video, when an enzyme loses its shape and function it is considered...

Denatured

Mechanical energy

Energy of motion (kinetic energy) or position of object before it moves (potential energy)

Flu Vaccine - Aluminum Salts

Enhances the ability of the immune system to detect the virus. Some vaccinations are aluminum-free.

For successful visualization of DNA in gel electrophoresis, why is ethidium bromide added to the agar gel before it is poured?

Ethidium bromide is needed to see DNA bands in the gel under ultra violet illumination by binding with the DNA.

____ is a unifying theory of biology that explains the unity and diversity of life.

Evolution is a unifying theory of biology that explains the unity and diversity of life.

In Lab 15, we use phenol red, a Ph indicator in our experiment. When the solution is yellow, this signifies (Check all that apply):

Higher Levels of CO2 High Acidity

Embryonic Development

Homologous structures are also evident during the embryonic development of animals

Release

Many viruses provide an enzyme that interacts with specific molecules in the host cell's membrane to allow the newly formed viruses to escape the host cell.

Movement of Molecules

Materials move through the plasma membrane in 3 ways: Passive Transport, Active transport, and Bulk Transport

Match the reagent or tool used in DNA isolation with its purpose.

Meat tenderizer - has enzymes that degrade proteins, which then releases the DNA. Detergent - emulsifies membrane lipids and proteins, keeping them from interacting with DNA. Glass rod - physically collect the DNA strands. Cold ethanol - causes DNA to precipitate (solidify and become visible) while preserving fragile hydrogen bonds, thus preventing damage to the strands.

Uncoating

Once inside the cell, some viruses provide an enzyme to remove their genetic material from the capsid.

Antiviral Medications

One way to combat a virus that has the ability to evolve rapidly is to target its life cycle. - Attachment, Uncoating, Release

If scientists combined the new amylase-like enzyme and the carbohydrate from the fern with a buffer pH 7 and Benedict's Reagent, the solution would most likely turn the color

Orange

Thymus

Organ where T lymphocytes mature.

Spleen

Organ where blood is filtered and cleaned by the action of white blood macrophages.

hydrocarbons

Organic molecules contain chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms commonly called hydrocarbons.

Stabilizing selection

Selection favors the most common form of variant for the trait, and selects against the extreme variants. In this case, the average individual is most adapted to the environment.

Internal radiation therapy

Small deposits of radioactive material are placed in the body. - Interstitial brachytherapy - seeds placed in direct contact with tumor - Intra-cavitary brachytherapy - seeds placed in nearby body cavities - Low-dose treatments - Seeds are left inside patient after treatment. - High-dose treatment - Seeds are removed after treatment

Ecological Levels

Smallest to largest - Species, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere

What was the purpose of mixing cells with sodium chloride to form the strawberry filtrate?

Sodium ions neutralize the negative change of DNA to facilitate precipitation, which helps DNA come out of solution.

When preparing an ELISA, the purpose of each wash step is to remove the unbound molecules that were added in the preceding step.

True

Vector

Something that moves an infectious agent (bacteria or virus) from one organism to another.

Circulatory System

The circulatory system is responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to all of the cells of your body, and removing waste materials.

The Earth and Climate

The climate of a region is partially due to the amount of solar radiation striking the surface of the planet. Seasonal changes are due to the tilt of the Earth on its axis.

Corona viruses get their name from

The crown shaped spikes

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. - The dependent variable is found on the Y axis. In this study, there are two. If you don't have a graph, another way to remember is to think that the dependent variable depends on the independent variable. In this case, the duration of feeding time is dependent on the type of food. Also, the latency to start eating depends on the type of food.

The Prep Reactions and the Citric Acid Cycle

The prep reactions and citric acid cycle occur in the mitochondria. Two acetyl CoA molecules enter the prep reactions, producing 2 ATP molecules. All of the C-C bonds in the original glucose molecule have been broken. Carbon dioxide is released. Electrons are released and carried by NAD+ and FAD as NADH and FADH2 .

Types of cells the flu infects

The primary targets of the influenza virus are the epithelial cells lining the respiratory system.

How Are Fossil Fuels Formed?

The term fossil fuels simply refers to a fuel source that has been formed within the Earth from plant and animal remains. There are several different forms of fossil fuels, such as oil, natural gas, coal, and shale, but the process by which each is formed is relatively similar. All involve submerging organic material (plants and animals) over long periods of time and subjecting them to the heat and pressure of the Earth's crust.

Calvin Cycle Reactions

These are the reactions that actually form the carbohydrate molecules from CO2 and the energy captured by the light reactions. Notice that some of the output from these reactions are recycled back to the light reactions. - The second set of reactions is called the Calvin cycle. It is also sometimes referred to as the light-independent reactions because they do not require sunlight. Here are the major events in this pathway: • CO2 is taken up by one of the molecules at the start of the cycle. This is commonly called carbon fixation, and it represents the method by which atmospheric carbon is taken up by plants. • ATP and NADPH from the light reactions is used to form more complex organic structures from the initial CO2 molecule. Once the energy is used, the resulting ADP and NADP+ are returned to the light-dependent reactions. • A molecule, called G3P, is created, which then forms CH2O and carbohydrates. • The pathway recycles its starting materials and prepares for the next input of CO2 .

Attachment

Viruses are specific in the types of cells they infect. Therefore, it is possible to target either the molecules on the surface of the host cell that the virus identifies with, or the proteins that the virus uses to attach to the cell.

Virus Reproduction

Viruses, such as the influenza viruses, are amazingly efficient in using the cells of our bodies as biological factories to produce millions of new viruses at an amazing rate

Vitamins

Vitamins are organic molecules. They act as: • Coenzymes that assist in chemical reactions (niacin) • Hormones (vitamin D) • Directing the organs to perform specific functions • Antioxidants (vitamin C) Vitamins can be: • Water-soluble - not stored for long periods and need to be replaced often, examples include B vitamins and vitamin C • Fat -soluble - stored in adipose tissue, examples include vitamins A, D, E, and K

When mating is ____ in a ____ population with ____ circumstances, the law predicts that both ____ and allele frequencies will remain ____ because they are in ____.

When mating is random in a large population with no disruptive circumstances, the law predicts that both genotype and allele frequencies will remain constant because they are in equilibrium.

Targeting Infected Cells

When the influenza virus enters into an epithelial cell on the surface of our respiratory tract, the infected cell responds by posting an antigen on its surface, attached to a MHC-I marker. This acts as a flag for the cytotoxic T cells, which were just activated by the helper T cells.

Red Blood Cells and Breathing

When you breathe, air enters the bronchioles of the lungs. These tubes divide into smaller and smaller passageways until they end in a collection of thin-walled sacs called alveoli. It is at the alveoli that the respiratory system exchanges gases with the circulatory system. Blood returning from the tissues of the body is delivered to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries and arterioles. This blood has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide and a lower concentration of oxygen than the air within the alveoli. Due to these concentration differences, the oxygen within the alveoli can diffuse into the red blood cells, and the carbon dioxide within the RBCs can diffuse into the alveoli to be exhaled.

cytoplasm and mitochondria

Where the conversion of energy from bonds of nutrients to useable chemical energy (ATP)

Screening mammogram

X-ray of breast and surrounding tissues that looks for abnormalities associated with cancer

Diagnostic mammogram

X-ray of breast and surrounding tissues, used after finding a lump or suspicious blood work

Computerized tomography (CT) scans

X-ray of organs with pictures from multiple angles that are used to generate a 3D image, can involve dye for contrast

Epithelial cells

form the boundary between the tissues of our bodies and internal environments, such as the respiratory tract and digestive tract.

Which of the following groups is suspected of causing climate change?

fossil fuel usage, deforestation, and agriculture

G2 checkpoint

Mitosis will not occur until DNA has replicated

Solar Energy

Energy from the sun; source of energy for all life

Chromosomes

DNA is compacted and organized into chromosomes that are found in the nucleus of cells. - 23 sets of chromosomes (of each set one comes from mother and one from father) - Sets of chromosomes are homologous, meaning they code for similar traits, even though they may have different alleles. - Each homologous chromosome is copied, forming a sister chromatid. - Sister chromatids are held in place by a centromere until the M phase.

Integumentary System

Helps maintain body temperature and protects internal organs.

Match the heterozygous and homozygous alleles Category

Homozygous - LL, ll Heterozygous - Ll

Use of Immunotherapy to Fight Cancer

Immunotherapy involves convincing the body's immune system to identify and eliminate cancer cells as "non-self" instead of "self." - Involves identifying antigen differences between "self" and cancer cells. - Cancer vaccines use modified viruses to initiate an immune response against cancer cells. - Monoclonal antibodies can be created to target specific cancer antigens.

Flu Vaccine - Formaldehyde

Inactivates any toxins from the viruses or bacteria that may have been present during production.

Polymers

large compound formed from combinations of many monomers - Polymers are broken down into monomers through hydrolysis reactions.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

uses radio waves and magnets to generate detailed images of the body

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan

uses radioactive tracers to measure the metabolism of cells, cancer cells are more active and stand out.

Bulk transport

uses special vesicles to move large quantities at the same time (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis)

Linking Carbon Dioxide and Global Temperatures

- A combined graph of global temperatures (colored bars) and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations indicates a direct relationship between the two observations. There is a direct relationship between atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and global temperatures. - Because human activity is the major contributing cause of elevated CO2 concentrations, climate scientists often use the term anthropogenic climate change to describe the human-climate relationship.

Meiosis

- A form of cell division that reduces the chromosome number of the daughter cells from haploid to diploid, and introduces variation into the daughter cells. - Meiosis consists of two rounds of cell division, and results in the formation of four haploid cells. - In humans and other animals, these haploid cells will become the egg and sperm cells

The Alternate Fate of Food

- A single glucose molecule generates 36-38 ATP molecules. - A single fat molecule can generate up to 108 ATP molecules, however, they take longer to process. - Protein can be used as an energy source with amino acids entering the respiration pathway. • Amino acids must be deaminated by the liver before being used to generate energy, so are used after glucose and fats.

The Molecules Involved in Photosynthesis

- ATP - Energy carrier of the cell. Conversion of ADP to ATP requires an input of energy. - NADPH - Carrier of high-energy electrons. Similar to the NADH used in cellular respiration. - CO2 - Source of carbon for the formation of carbohydrates. - H2O - Source of electrons for the light-dependent reactions. - O2 - Waste product of photosynthesis, released into the atmosphere. - CH2O - Output of photosynthesis, used to build carbohydrates (C6H12O6 ).

Cells have the ability to...

- Aquire materials and energy - Respond to their environment - Reproduce - Maintain an internal environment - Adapt to their environment

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase

- Conducted an experiment with a virus called a bacteriophage. The viruses used had either radioactively labeled DNA or protein. - By tracking where the radioactive isotopes ended up after the viruses infected the cells, they identified that DNA, not protein, is the genetic material in cells. - Used radioactive DNA and proteins to establish DNA as the genetic material

Mitochondria

- Energy - Converts the energy found in nutrients to a form usable by the cell

DNA Sequencing Genetic Testing

- Once copies of a gene have been made, the exact sequence of nucleotides is determined through DNA sequencing. - Fluorescent tags are added to nucleotides in a DNA molecule and chemical reactions remove one nucleotide at a time. A laser identifies the nucleotide based on its fluorescent tag and a computerized output is created. - Once sequenced, the nucleotide order can be compared with known sequences to determine if mutations are present.

Translation

- The first phase of translation brings together the two ribosomal subunits, the mRNA and the tRNA-amino acid complex. - The next phase is when the growing polypeptide chain increases in length one amino acid at a time. - During this step, the tRNA-peptide moves to the P site, the empty tRNA in the E site exits the ribosome, and the codon at the A site is ready for the next tRNA-amino acid. - The outgoing tRNA is recycled and can pick up another amino acid in the cytoplasm to take to the ribosome. - The final phase occurs when a(n) stop codon appears in the A site and a protein called release factor binds to it and cleaves the polypeptide from the last tRNA.

Gas Exchange and Hemoglobin

- When hemoglobin picks up oxygen, it forms oxyhemoglobin - Carbon dioxide is transported within the interior of the red blood cell as carbonic acid

The role of translation

- While there are only four different bases in the mRNA (A, C, G, U), 20 different amino acids can be used in the building of a protein. - The information in the mRNA molecule is read as a series of triplets, which are also referred to as a codon. - These codons are collectively called the genetic code. - AUG is the start codon, and there are several different stop codons. - There is a lot of redundancy in the genetic code, some amino acids can have four different codons, while others have only one.

Peptide bonds

- link amino acids together to form polypeptides. - Peptide bonds are strong, so take more time to digest and are slower to release energy.

Characteristics of Cancer Cells

- look different (irregular shape, larger nuclei with more genetic material). - are immortal (because of telomerase enzyme that repairs telomeres). - lose the ability to specialize. Masses of unspecialized cells are called tumors. They can be benign or malignant.

Effect of cytokines on digestive system

- loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting - reduces centers of appetite centers in the brain

Stomach

- nonspecific - Hydrochloric acid (low pH) destroys bacteria and other pathogens.

Respiratory tract

- nonspecific - Mucous membranes trap microbes; they contain chemicals that protect against pathogens; cilia

Skin

- nonspecific - Normal bacteria (flora) on the surface, along with chemicals released by oil and sweat glands, inhibit bacterial growth.

Disruptive selection examples

- one population of finches occupy different niches and eventually evolve to have different beak sizes - British land snails comprise two very different phenotypes as they are both adapted to different environments

Nonspecific responses to pathogens

- protective or complement proteins - the inflammatory response - low stomach pH - phagocytes and natural killer cells - skin and mucous membranes

In a flower population, 25% of the population is homozygous recessive for the purple petal trait (pp). What is the genotype frequency of the recessive trait?

0.25

In a flower population, 25% of the population is homozygous recessive for the purple petal trait (pp). What is the allele frequency of the recessive trait?

0.5

The Punnett square below looks at humans with the allele for brown eyes (B) is dominant and the allele for blue eyes (b) is recessive.

1 brown : 1 blue

stages of inflammatory response

1. injured tissue cells release histamine, causing dilation of capillaries and increased blood flow 2. macrophages and dendritic cells phagocytize pathogens and release cytokines, which stimulate the inflammatory response 3. neutrophils and monocytes squeeze through the capillary wall and phagocytize pathogens 4. blood clotting walls off capillary and prevents blood loss

organic nutrient

A molecule containing both carbon and hydrogen atoms.

All are extinct species whose remains have been found in the La Brea Tar Pits EXCEPT

Canis lupis familiaris

DNA exists in all cells but is housed inside the ____ of eukaryotic cells. In order to extract it, associated ____ must be removed.

DNA exists in all cells but is housed inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. In order to extract it, associated proteins and membranes must be removed.

Darwins Proposed Natural. Selection

Darwin proposed that natural selection allows populations to adapt to a new environment, and is the basis of the process of evolution.

Energy Drinks

Energy drinks do not contain nutrients in the form of carbohydrates, lipids, or proteins.

Chemical energy

Energy found in bonds of chemical compounds

Urinary System

Excretes nitrogenous and other wastes. Regulates water-salt balance of the blood. Helps regulate the acid-base balance of the blood

Over a 15 minute period, which of the following organisms would likely consume the most oxygen to produce ATP?

Germinating soybeans

Which of the following laws are NOT a part of "Laws of Mendelian Inheritance "?

Hybridization: interbreeding of two individuals form genetically distinct populations

accessory organs of the digestive system

Include the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

Meiosis 2

Meiosis I is followed immediately by a second round of cell division: meiosis II. Meiosis II (Figure 3.9) is very similar to mitosis, except that the cells starting the process are haploid

Meiosis 1

Meiosis follows the same series of steps as mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. However, in the first round of meiosis, called meiosis I, the homologous chromosomes have paired with one another

Cytokines

The chemical signals of the immune response are collectively called cytokines. A cytokine is a small protein that is usually involved in a local response to a pathogen.

Shortness of breath is a symptom of Cov19. What causes this?

Thickening of the alveolar walls and a buildup of mucus.

At the end of running gel electrophoresis, the multiple DNA samples you ran for the same gene have bands in different positions. What does this result tell you?

This indicates different DNA fragment sizes between the samples. This indicates different genotypes.

Species with few amino acid differences likely share a recent common ancestor.

True

Stages 0-1 cancer

Tumor is limited to a very small area and only nearby lymph nodes, if any, are involved.

Alkylating agents

chemicals that integrate into the DNA, causing it to break at specific points; general and so can cause long-term side effects including other cancers

Antimetabolites

chemicals that mimic nucleotides and are integrated into DNA, but interfere with DNA replication, preventing cell division

T lymphocytes

- specific - Target cells that have been infected by a specific pathogen

Universal flu vaccines

- A universal flu vaccine would prevent against all forms of the virus instead of those strains that are currently circulating. - Recall that current flu vaccinations use H and N spikes to generate flu vaccines. - The universal flu vaccine is targeting core proteins within the viral capsid. - These core proteins mutate at a slower rate compared to H and N spikes. - This means that one universal flu vaccine could provide long-term protection against multiple forms of influenza.

Oswald Avery

- Added enzyme DNase to Griffiths experiment - DNase breaks down DNA molecules, and when DNase was present, the transformation of the R strain did not occur—the mice lived. - These results suggested DNA was the genetic material. - DNA is likely the genetic material, not protein

Carbon Dioxide

- Although (CO2 ) is found in very small concentrations in the atmosphere (parts per million), it is one of the most important of the greenhouse gases due to its ability to absorb infrared energy. - Carbon dioxide is produced through natural events, such as fires and volcanic activity. Our bodies produce carbon dioxide as a result of the breakdown of our food. Plants use carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates, the basis of the majority of the food chains on the planet. - Increase of CO2 in the atmosphere is largely contributed by human activity

Expected Changes in Biological Communities

- Biological communities represent complex interactions between species, and the changing climate across the globe, coupled with the threats of invasive species, is causing changes in the community structure of regions. - A terrestrial example are the woolly adelgids (Adelges tsugae), a small sap-sucking insect that is native to East Asia. In the United States, the woolly adelgid infects hemlock trees, causing the death of the tree in just a few years (Figure 3.7). Hemlocks grow in dense stands, which tend to keep the area under the trees cool and moist. Hemlock forests are home to a tremendous diversity of animals, including amphibians, newts, a variety of birds, and larger animals such as deer. - The increase in ocean temperatures worldwide is affecting a number of global ecosystems, also known as biomes. We can also see these changes in the structure of the communities that inhabit these biomes. For example, ocean acidification prevents shellfish from being able to calcify their shells. Because shellfish form an important part of the aquatic food web, their loss is reflected in a reduction in the overall community structure. - This acidification also reduces the amount of microscopic animals (zooplankton), which are an important part of the aquatic food chain, and thus can impact the health of fish populations, making them more susceptible to disease or reducing their ability to reproduce.

Testing the Blood for Cancer

- Blood tests called complete blood counts (CBCs) look at the presence of normal blood cells and basic blood chemistry. - Cancers may elevate the number of white blood cells and tumor cells may even be present in the blood. - Changes in blood calcium, enzymes, or ion concentrations may also indicate that cancer is interrupting the function of an organ. - Specific proteins associated with cancer can be tested for in blood, including CA 15-3 and CA 125.

cancer's spread through body

- Capillaries and lymphatic vessels may carry tumor cells to other parts of the body where angiogenesis may occur. - This spread of cancer to other parts of the body is called metastasis.

Centrioles

- Cell Division - Assist in dividing the genetic material and contents of the cell during cellular reproduction.

How Do Heat Waves and Droughts Impact Humans?

- Changes in precipitation patterns in the western United States have amplified the instances and severity of droughts, such as those currently being experienced in California. - In addition to the fact that these events disrupt agriculture production is the fact that more people die each year in the United States from heat waves (and related illnesses) than any other climate-associated factor. These events have a particular impact on the poor, elderly, and those with medical conditions. - One example is the California drought. The drought that spanned 2012 to 2016 contained the driest 4-year period in the state's history. Three years of this time span, 2014, 2015, and 2016, set records for the three warmest years in terms of statewide average temperatures. - Computer models suggest that the worst is yet to come. When predictions of the current levels of climate change are factored into the models, the data suggest there is an 80% chance that California, and the remainder of the southwest United States, may experience a "megadrought," which is an event lasting more than 35 years, before 2080.

Chemotherapy

- Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to treat disease. In the case of cancer, chemotherapy works by targeting the cell cycle to prevent cell division in rapidly dividing cells. - Chemotherapy affects all cells of the body, so it can be effective in treating and preventing metastasis, but also has many negative side effects.

Climate change and aquatic ecosystems

- Coral reefs are composed of coral and algae that interact in a symbiotic relationship. - The algae are photosynthetic and provide coral with food in exchange for a habitat. - As higher water temperatures stress the coral, they expel their symbiotic hosts and die over time. - This is called coral bleaching and in addition to human activities, is leading to the loss of coral reef habitats. - It is expected that up to 90% of these reefs will be lost by the year 2050.

Chromosomes

- DNA is first wrapped around proteins called histones, forming nucleosomes. - These nucleosomes are then compressed together to form a chromosome. - Although compact, the chromosome can be easily unwound to provide access to the individual genes

3 steps of PCR

- Denaturation (95°C) - where DNA is heated so it becomes single-stranded. This replaces the helicase enzyme in DNA replication. - Annealing (between 50°C and 60°C) - where a primer binds to each of the single DNA strands. - Extension (72°C) - where a DNA polymerase adds complementary bases to each of the single DNA strands, creating double-stranded DNA.

Impacts of climate change

- Diseases that were historically tropical are beginning to spread - Severity of drought and heat waves has increased - Habitat loss has increased - Frequency of drought and heat waves has increased - Reptiles, amphibians, and plants are going extinct at increased rates

Process of DNA Replication

- During DNA replication, each of the original template strands act as a template for the resulting daughter strands - Because each newly replicated DNA strand consist of a newly synthesized strand and one original strand, it is semi-conservative - To begin replication, the enzyme helicase unwraps the double helix, exposing the nitrogenous bases - The enzyme DNA polymerase synthesizes a new strand of DNA by pairing nucleotides that are complementary to the original strand. - The enzyme DNA ligase links together the fragments from the lagging strand, completing replication.

Cells are specialized

- During development, cells receive genetic information that allows them to become specialized, meaning they have a specific purpose in the body. - Cancerous cells ignore the genetic programming that makes them specialized; they lose their function.

Sickle Cell Disease and the Circulatory System

- Hemoglobin clumps together to form sickle shape - Sickle shaped RBC block capillaries which reduces blood flow - Oxygen concentration drops and anemia occurs

Diploid Chromosomes

- Humans, and many other organisms, are diploid organisms, which means we have two copies of each chromosome: one we inherited from our mother, and one from our father - abbreviated as 2n - we have 23 pairs of chromosomes - 2 copies of each 23 chromosome which means we have 46 - These various pairs of similar chromosomes are called homologous chromosomes.

Photosynthesis and the Carbon Cycle

- Each leaf of a plant is a photosynthetic factory. Within the leaf are specialized cells, called mesophyll cells, that conduct the majority of photosynthesis. - The mesophyll cells contain structures called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are a form of organelle (internal compartments) that are specialized for a specific type of chemical reaction—in this case, photosynthesis. - If you take a look at the chloroplast, you will notice some platelike structures called thylakoids. - Thylakoids are stacked into structures called grana, and the spaces between the grana is called the stroma. Each has a role to play in photosynthesis. - The thylakoids, and the surrounding area of stroma, is effectively a self-contained photosynthetic factory. There may be hundreds of thylakoids in a chloroplast, dozens of chloroplasts in a mesophyll cell, thousands of mesophyll cells in a leaf, and millions of leaves on a tree. Thus, a tree is actually a type of huge photosynthetic machine. - The inputs and outputs of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are connected by the carbon cycle. - The biosphere on our planet is dependent on this relationship. - The photosynthetic organisms (autotrophs such as plants) convert CO2 into carbohydrates, and then this food is used by both heterotrophs (those that eat others) and autotrophs to power cellular activities. - The CO2 is then cycled for reuse.

Endosymbiosis

- Early conditions on Earth lacked oxygen and anaerobic bacteria flourished. - Aerobic bacteria evolved and were able to tolerate oxygen. - Aerobic bacteria were likely engulfed by anaerobic bacteria and rather than be consumed, formed a symbiotic relationship.

Mitochondria

- Energy - Convert the energy found in nutrients to a form usable by the cell - use oxygen from the air and glucose from food to produce ATP energy, releasing CO 2 as a byproduct. - Mitochondria have a series of membranes (cristae) that surround open spaces (matrix).

Enzyme Function

- Enzymes have a pocket called the active site where the substrate binds. - Enzymes are not altered in enzymatic reactions, so they can be used again and again.

Habitat Loss and Extinction

- Evolution is a powerful force in the biological world. In studying your local environment, you are witnessing the long-term adaptation of these species to the climate conditions of that region. - As conditions change over time, usually gradually, some species naturally go extinct, and others adapt to the changing environment. - These changes usually take place over relatively long periods of time, usually measured as thousands or millions of years. Climate change is occurring at such a rapid pace that species are not able to adapt to the changes fast enough.

Biological evolution

- Evolution is considered to be a(n) unifying theory of biology, meaning that nearly all aspects of biology can be explained by evolutionary processes. - The first living organisms were likely prokaryotes that evolved over 3.5 billion years ago. - Approximately 2.1 billion years ago the first eukaryotes were thought to have evolved. - However, it was less than 1 billion years ago that the first multicellular organisms evolved, meaning that they have existed for less than 20% of Earth's life history. - Because all living organisms evolved from a single common ancestor, they are fundamentally similar in their characteristics.

Selecting strains for vaccines

- Flu vaccines are created based on the previous year's strains. - A global network of more than 100 influenza monitoring stations sends clinical samples to influenza centers for further research. - The data gathered is used to determine the potential for each virus to cause a(n) pandemic. - The data also includes what is known about the strain of virus, including the probability to produce a(n) vaccine for that strain of virus.

Fossil fuels and climate change

- Fossil fuels are reservoirs of carbon, storing them deep in the ground. - When they are burned, this carbon is released back into the atmosphere, where it acts as a(n) greenhouse gas. - The emissions from fossil fuels have increased since 1995. - As a result, carbon dioxide levels have increased in concentration. - This is directly associated with increased global temperatures.

Genes vs alleles

- Genes are the basic unit of inheritance. -- Humans have about 19,000 different genes in their genome, which is a term used to describe the entire collection of genetic information in a cell or individual. - An allele is a variation of a gene, usually due to small changes in the nucleotide sequence within the gene. -- Some examples of alleles are those for eye color, blood type, height, various cellular functions, and the beta-hemoglobin chain associated with sickle-cell disease.

Evidence from Glaciers and Snow Covers of Climate Change

- Glaciers are dynamic and have natural cycles in which they expand and contract, depending on fluctuations in the local climate. However, since the 1970s, scientists have noticed that there has been a global loss of ice mass in glaciers. - Observations of glaciers around the world indicate that, with just a few exceptions, the extent of glacier coverage is decreasing. Some of the first evidence of global warming and global climate change was obtained from observations of glaciers. - Similar patterns are also being observed in the ice sheets covering both Antarctica and Greenland. Since 2002, ice sheets in both of these locations have lost ice coverage annually, and since 2009 that loss has accelerated rapidly. - Antarctica is estimated to be losing over 127 gigatonnes of ice per year, while Greenland is losing over 286 gigatonnes per year. A gigatonne is the equivalent of a billion metric tons, and in the case of water, a single gigatonne could fill over 400,000 Olympic-size swimming pools.

Glycolysis

- Glycolysis is the first step in cellular respiration and occurs in the cytoplasm. - It has 2 phases: the energy investment phase and the energy releasing phase. - Glycolysis breaks a 6 -carbon glucose molecule in half, making 2 pyruvate molecules. - Glycolysis uses 2 ATP and produces 4 ATP, creating a net 2 ATP molecules. - High energy electrons are released and stored in NAD+ as NADH .

Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere

- Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane, retain heat near the surface of the planet. - Although many factors may contribute to climate change, perhaps the most significant influence comes from several gases in our atmosphere. Collectively called the greenhouse gases, these compounds trap heat near the Earth's surface. Several greenhouse gases, such as water vapor, are normally present in the atmosphere, and play an important role in maintaining the climate of the planet within a range that supports life.

Select all of the following that lower an individual's carbon footprint

- Heating through passive solar and geothermal energy - Carpooling or taking public transportation

What is the Polymerase Chain Reaction?

- In 1985, scientist, Kary Banks Mullis, determined a process to copy specific segments of DNA, such as the hemoglobin gene, in large quantities. - the purpose is to create many copies of a segment of targeted DNA sequence in a test tube in a matter of hours. - There are three steps to PCR

Antibody-mediated immunity

- In antibody-mediated immunity, antigens select and then bind a specific B or T cell at their receptors. - After binding, many identical copies of the cell are produced; these are called clones. - Most cloned B cells become plasma cells, which mass produce and secrete antibodies to a specific antigen. - Those that do not become plasma cells become memory cells, the means by which long-term immunity is possible.

Facilitated Diffusion

- In facilitated diffusion, proteins act as carriers to move materials across the plasma membrane. - Materials still move down their concentration gradient, so no energy is required. - Glucose and other molecules that are slightly too large to pass through on their own are transported this way.

Erwin Chargaff

- In the 1940s Erwin identified the pattern of nucleotide base-pairing. - Identified that the percent of adenine in a DNA molecule equaled that of thymine, and the percent of guanine always equaled cytosine. - The % of adenine is equal to the % of thymine. The % of cytosine is equal to the % of Guanine.

Natural Selection

- Individuals vary in their traits - Individuals struggle to exist. - Individuals differ in their fitness - Populations become adapted to the environment

Nucleus

- Information Processing - Contains the genetic information of the cell.

Ribosomes

- Information Processing - Location where the genetic information is used to manufacture proteins.

Nucleus

- Information Processing - Contains the genetic information of the cell

Ribosomes

- Information Processing - Location where the genetic information is used to manufacture proteins

Plasma membrane

- Isolation - Isolates the cell from its external environment and selectively allows for the passage of materials. - contains two layers of phospholipids, called a phospholipid bilayer. - Phospholipids have a hydrophilic polar head and hydrophobic nonpolar tails. - This allows them to align so the tails point in toward each other and the heads point away toward the inside of the cell or its outside environment. - The plasma membrane is considered a "fluid-mosaic model" as the phospholipids have the ability to move around and form a mosaic pattern with other components.

Plasma Membrane

- Isolation - Isolates the cell from its external environment and selectively allows for the passage of materials

Climate change and extinction

- It is common for organisms to go extinct gradually as environments change - extinction is occurring at unprecedented rates, thought to be the result of human activities - As forest are bulldozed for livestock, the risk of extinction of the forest communities members increases - Amphibians and reptiles are at an increased risk of extinction because of their susceptibility to pollution in their ecosystems - As ocean acidification occurs, members of coral reef communities are at risk for extinction

Light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions

- Light-Dependent Reactions - Inputs include NADP+ and ADP, Requires solar energy, Must occur in the daytime - The Calvin Cycle - Requires high-energy carriers, requires chemical energy, can occur in daytime and nighttime, reduces carbon dioxide gas, produces carbohydrates

Triglycerides

- Lipid - composed of a glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acids. - Saturated - carbons are bound to two carbons and two hydrogens, are hydrophobic, form long straight chains - Unsaturated - carbons are bound only to hydrogens, are less hydrophobic, form bent chains

Savanna Biome

- Location: Africa, South America, and Northern Australia - Rainfall: 51-127cm - Temp: 24°C-29°C - Soil: Porous, clay - Plants: Grasses, Forbs, Scattered trees - Related Information: Extensive dry season and consequent fires. Well-developed root systems allow plants to quickly re-sprout after a fire

Arctic Tundra Biome

- Location: Arctic regions in the Northern Hemisphere - Rainfall: 15-25 cm - Temp: -34°C to 37°C-52°C - Soil: Permafrost - Plants: Shrubs Grass Lichens - Related Information: 24 hours of daylight during growing season Bursts of productivity over summer

Desert Biome

- Location: Between 15° and 30° north and south latitude - Rainfall: 2-30 cm - Temp: 0°C-60°C - Soil: Dry - Plants: Cacti Plants with deep roots and reduced foliage - Related Information: Frequently located on lee side of mountain ranges, Little water vapor to prevent radiative cooling

Boreal Forests Biome

- Location: Between 50° and 60° north latitude - Rainfall: 40-100cm - Temp: Cold dry winters, short, cool, wet summers - Soil: Acidic, Nitrogen poor - Plants: Pine Spruce Fir - Related Information: Tree Layer, Ground Layer Needles decompose slowly returning fewer nutrients to the soil

Chaparral Biome

- Location: California, Mediterranean Sea, southern coast of Australia - Rainfall: 65-75 cm - Temp: 10°C-40°C - Soil: Ashes left after fire provide nitrogen - Plants: Shrubs - Related Information: Wet winters & dry summers Many plants produce seed that germinate only after a hot fire

Tropical Forest Biome

- Location: Equatorial Regions - Rainfall: 250-450cm - Temp: 20°C-34°C - Soil: Rainfall leaches nutrients from soil - Plants: Spreading roots and broad leaves - Related Information: Primary threat is logging Huge biodiversity Vertical layering: floor, understory, canopy,

Temperate Forests Biome

- Location: Mid-latitude regions - Rainfall: 75-150cm - Temp: -30°C to 30°C - Soil: Rich in organic and inorganic nutrients - Plants: Deciduous Trees - Related Information: Leaf litter protects soil from erosion and provides habitats for invertebrates and predators

Temperate Grassland Biome

- Location: Throughout central North America and Eurasia - Rainfall: 25.4- 88.9cm - Temp: Hot summers, cold winters, warm Spring/Fall - Soil: Fertile because of humus - Plants: Grasses - Related Information: Very few trees Maintained by fire and grazing

Carbon footprints

- Mode of transportation (car vs bus or bike), The source of energy used in ones home (coal vs solar), The amount of energy used in one's home, Diet, especially the amount of beef and dairy consumed

Types of Carbohydrates

- Monosaccharides - Single carbohydrate units, sometimes called simple sugars (ex - Glucose, galactose, fructose) - Disaccharides - Combinations of two monosaccharides, one of which is usually glucose (ex - Maltose, lactose, sucrose) - Polysaccharides - Long chains of glucose molecules, may be either branched or unbranched (ex - Starch, glycogen, fiber)

The Electron Transport Chain

- Most ATP generated during cellular respiration is created through the electron transport chain. - Proteins on the inner membrane of the mitochondria take high energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 and use that energy to move proton ions across a membrane. - This creates an electrical gradient that is used to create ATP. - Oxygen is used to accept the electrons, generating water.

Mutations

- Mutations are any changes to the nucleotide sequence of DNA. - Mutations can be caused by chemicals (called carcinogens), radiation exposure, or viruses. - Mutations may or may not impact protein structure.

Mutations and evolution

- Mutations are changes in the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of an organism. - These mutations can be caused by exposure to radiation, chemicals, mistakes in replication, or even infection from viruses. - Mutations can cause no impact if the resulting amino acid is not changed. - They can also cause impact if the amino acid is changed, as it can result in the protein becoming nonfunctional. - Mutations result in variation and can drive natural selection

Research

- Newer vaccines are being designed to use other proteins within the capsid of the virus as the basis for programming the adaptive responses. These proteins, sometimes called core proteins, do not change at the same rate as the H and N spikes on the virus, and are more similar between influenza viruses. - This would allow a single vaccine to target multiple viruses, and also provide long-term effects.

Protein Structures

- Primary structure - the linear sequence of amino acids - Secondary structure - Amino acids interact based on weak chemical interactions. - Tertiary structure - 3-D molecule, functional - Quaternary structure - Multiple protein chains interact to form larger molecules with more complex functions.

When working with DNA why is it important to keep reagents cold?

- Protects fragile hydrogen bonds - Protects DNA molecule from breakage/stabilizes it

Proto-Oncogenes

- Proto-oncogenes speed up the cell cycle. - Associated with signaling pathways: growth hormones interact with target cell receptors, proto-oncogenes are activated, cell division is promoted. - Proto-oncogenes become oncogenes when mutations cause them to be "stuck" on. - Only a single mutation is required for this. - Examples associated with breast cancer include ERBB2.

Radiation

- Radiation is the movement of energy in waves or particles. - The shorter the wavelength, the more energy present. Radiation therapy uses high-energy gamma rays and X-rays or particles, including alpha and beta particles.

Cell Division Checkpoints

- Regulate the speed at which the cell moves through the cell cycle. - Ensure the cell is ready for cell division. - If a cell is not ready for cell division, it will be put into G0 phase to attempt to repair its DNA. If that is not possible, the cell may undergo apoptosis.

Red Blood Cell Function

- Responsible for the exchange of gases in our bodies. - The lack of a nucleus, and the presence of so many hemoglobin molecules, give the RBC its characteristic donut shape - 250 million hemoglobin molecules in blood cell - Also called erythrocytes

When setting up your soybean germination experiment, you forget to add the polyester fluff underneath the KOH cotton ball in each tube. After 20 minutes, what effect(s) would you expect? Select any/all that apply.

- Seeds would likely die - Differences in final respirometer volume among the 3 treatments would be small to non-existent

sex chromosomes

- Set 23 are called the sex chromosomes because there is a difference in the types of these chromosomes between the sexes. - The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes, and there are no differences between them in males and females.

Role of antigens in the immune response

- Substances that are specific to pathogens and that produce specific immune responses in the body are called antigens. - These substances are usually proteins or large carbohydrates. - When pathogens are ingested by macrophages of the immune system, they are digested and small portions of the pathogen become attached to the surface of the cell. - The cell is now called a(n) antigen-presenting cell (APC). - Specific immune responses will now target anything in the body that matches that antigens and mount an immune response against it.

The role of transcription

- The RNA polymerase binds to an area at the start of a gene called a promoter (not shown in Figure 2.14). - The RNA polymerase unwraps a small section of the DNA, exposing the template strand of the DNA. - The RNA polymerase uses the template strand to make a complementary RNA copy, called messenger RNA (mRNA).

Why Is Carbon Important to Life?

- The ability of carbon to form bonds with four other elements means it can form long chains. - These carbon chains are often referred to as hydrocarbons, and the study of hydrocarbon chains in living organisms is called organic chemistry. - An organic molecule is one that contains both carbon and hydrogen.

How Does the Immune System Remember Past Pathogens?

- The adaptive immune response also has the ability to remember past exposures to pathogens. This characteristic is called memory. - Some of the activated B cells are held in reserve and not used in the first response to the antigen. Instead, they wait for a future exposure. - This is useful because if you are exposed to the same pathogen again—for example, the same influenza virus—the adaptive response can be much faster and more efficient. - Memory T cells are also produced by the cell-mediated immunity pathway

What does cancer do to the body?

- The body's organ systems have specific physiological roles that maintain homeostasis. - As the number of cancer cells grow, physiological changes occur in tissues or organs, impacting their role in homeostasis.

The earth's climate and atmosphere

- The climate of a given area refers to its patterns of temperature and rainfall. - Other factors that impact climate include the amount of the sun's energy that strikes that area and its topography, or physical features. - The sum of all locations on earth where life exists is called its biosphere. - This area ranges from the depths of the oceans to the upper limits of the atmosphere, or the layers of gases that surround and protect the earth. - It is important to note that because the biosphere is dependent on climate, changes in the climate of one region may have great impacts on the climates of other regions.

inflammatory response

- The damaged tissue and nearby immune cells release histamine, which not only causes fluid to leak from nearby capillaries, thus slowing the movement of pathogens, but also increases blood flow to the area to deliver additional white blood cells (such as macrophages) and clotting factors to repair the wound. - The macrophages identify and destroy any bacteria or viruses in the wound area. - Neutrophils remove dead cells, wound debris, and any pathogens in the area by phagocytosis. If additional assistance is needed, neutrophils may release cytokines to recruit more immune cells to the area. - Clotting factors close off the wound. This causes pressure to build and accounts for the red, tender appearance of inflammation.

How Does Climate Change Impact Disease?

- The distribution of species of Aedes mosquitoes, a vector for disease, has expanded in the United States due to milder winters and increased average annual temperatures. - Insects are one example of disease vectors, and the two most important forms of insect vectors are mosquitoes and ticks. Why these two? The life cycle of mosquitoes and ticks involves reproduction in warm areas, and access to the warm blood of their hosts. As they move between hosts, they have the ability to spread disease between individuals and species. - Aedes mosquitos are a vector for a number of human diseases, including Dengue fever, West Nile, Chikungunya, and Zika. As Aedes has increased its range in the United States, there has been a corresponding increase in the incidences of these diseases in these areas. Similar patterns are being seen in other insect species, such as Anopheles mosquitoes, which carry the parasite associated with malaria, and in tick-borne diseases, such as Lyme's disease.

Global warming

- The graph shows the land and ocean temperature anomalies for the Earth for the past several decades. - This means how far temperatures are from normal averages for given areas. - Notice that over time, there is a collective increase in the number of red bars, indicating that temperatures are warmer than normal. - In addition, these warmer than normal temperatures are increasing in their variation from the expected average temperature. - This phenomenon is known as global warming, or the increase in surface temperature of Earth.

How Does the Immune System Recognize Self from Non-self

- The immune system distinguishes "self" from "non-self" by a series of markers present on the plasma membrane of each cell. - The glycoproteins involved in identifying self are collectively called major-histocompatibility complexes, or MHCs. There are two different forms of MHC markers in the body

Influenza and the respiratory system

- The influenza virus targets epithelial cells within the respiratory system. - Once the virus enters through the mouth or nose, it travels to the lungs. - There, the H spikes on the virus surface identify and bind to glycoproteins on the surface of target cells. - The virus begins the replication cycle immediately and hijacks the cellular machinery to make new viruses.

Key players in Translation

- The mRNA molecule that was generated by transcription. - The ribosomes. Ribosomes act as a platform for protein synthesis by providing a location where the information contained within the RNA molecule can be read codon by codon, as well as providing a location for where the resulting protein molecule can be built. - Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules. These RNA molecules contain an anticodon that binds to a specific codon on the mRNA molecule. At the opposite end of the tRNA molecule is an amino acid that corresponds to the mRNA codon.

What Is the Carbon Cycle?

- The major reservoirs for carbon are the oceans, underground in fossil fuels, and in the atmosphere. These reservoirs are also referred to as carbon sinks. - Within the biosphere, living organisms release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere through the process of cellular respiration during their breakdown of organic materials for energy known as a carbon source.

Evidence of climate change

- The map shown plots land and ocean temperature percentiles for March of 2018. - Areas plotted in red are warmer and normal and areas plotted in blue are cooler than normal. - Notice that overall, there are more red spots, indicating that most areas are warmer than normal. - This is especially true over oceans, as bodies of water have the ability to absorb heat, therefore acting like a heat sink. - Over long periods of time, these heat sinks have the ability to increase temperatures of nearby land masses, changing their climate.

Evidence from Extreme Weather Events of Climate Change

- The severity of droughts, heat waves, and extreme precipitation events are all recognized to be influenced by an increase in global temperatures. For example, the average temperature in the United States has already increased by 1.2 °F (0.7 °C), with a projected increase of almost by 2.5 °F (1.4 °C) the year 2050. - Not all extreme weather events are the result of climate change. For example, while both hurricanes and tornadoes are known to be associated with local climate conditions, the scientific community is still assessing whether the observed patterns in the rates of these events can be contributed to global warming and climate change. - However, it is widely agreed among scientists that increases in land and ocean temperatures are contributing to the severity of hurricanes, with more category 4 and 5 storms occurring than normal patterns would suggest. Computer models indicate that, as the oceans warm in the next few decades, hurricanes will continue to increase in severity

Nitrous Oxides

- released from agricultural practices like fertilizers and the burning of fossil fuels - considered a greenhouse gas - trap infrared heat and release it slowly back into the earth - considered a major contributing gas to the greenhouse effect

Water Vapor

- released from natural geological processes within the water cycle - trap infrared heat and release it slowly back into the earth - considered a greenhouse gas

Molecular comparison evidence of evolution

- similarities in DNA sequences - amino acid sequence differences between two species

B lymphocytes

- specific - Produce antibodies to target specific antigens in the fluids of the body

What Is Carbon?

- The structure of a carbon atom is shown in the figure. Within the center of the element is the nucleus, which contains both protons and neutrons. - Protons are positively-charged, subatomic particles, and neutrons have a neutral charge. - In the periodic table the number above carbon is the atomic number, which represents the number of protons in an atom of carbon. - The number below the C is the atomic mass, which is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom of the element. - Carbon is an element, which means it cannot be broken down into smaller units by normal chemical processes. - An atom of carbon consists of 6 electrons in orbit around a nucleus containing 6 protons and 6 neutrons. - The number of protons is indicated above the elements symbol, and the weight of the atom (neutrons and protons) is indicated below the symbol. - The green circles are electrons: negatively-charged particles that have almost no mass. The number of electrons in an atom of an element is equal to the number of protons. In the case of carbon, there are six electrons. Notice that these electrons are located in circles, called electron shells. In reality, they are moving rapidly around the outside of the atom at different energy levels. - The electrons determine the chemical reactivity of an element. Generally speaking, the number of electrons in the outermost electron shell interact with atoms and other elements to form chemical bonds. The structure of carbon means that it prefers to form four chemical bonds at a time.

What Is a Biome?

- The term ecosystem refers to a level of biological organization that represents the interaction of biological communities (the biotic factors) and abiotic factors, such as climate (temperature and precipitation). - Scientists often use the word biome to indicate the general characteristics of similar ecosystems across the globe. This includes the climate and the types of organisms living in that area.

Difference between Climate Change and Global Warming

- The term global warming was one of the first used by the scientists who discovered the upward trend in temperatures in the 1980s. - The term is often still used interchangeably with climate change. However, they are not exactly the same thing. Global warming is primarily associated with increases in the surface temperature. - We have defined climate as being the average weather patterns in an area over time, and that climate is often recorded as temperature and precipitation.

Question: What is the independent variable in this study?

- Time of food consumption - Duration of feeding time

In the soybean respiration experiment, what was the purpose of the tube containing glass beads without seeds? Select any/all that apply

- To determine the effect of glass beads on final respirometer volume. - Control for volume

Transcription vs Translation

- Transcription converts the genetic information into an intermediary RNA molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA). - Translation interprets the genetic information, from the mRNA, into the structure of a protein.

Lysosome

- Transport and Processing of Nutrients - Digestion of incoming nutrients.

Golgi apparatus

- Transport and Processing of Nutrients - Processing center of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

- Transport and Processing of Nutrients - Synthesis of proteins (rough ER), lipids (smooth ER), and carbohydrates (smooth ER).

Lysosome

- Transport and processing of nutrients - Digestion of incoming nutrients

Golgi Appartautus

- Transport and processing of nutrients - Processing center of the cell

Types of Lipids

- Triglycerides - A single glycerol unit attached to three fatty acid chains of varying length (energy storage) - Cholesterol - Carbons arranged in a ringlike structure (Cell membrane function and hormone production) - Phospholipids. - Triglyceride modified to contain a phosphate group in place of one of the fatty acid chains (Structure of the cell membrane)

Tumor-Suppressor Genes

- Tumor-suppressor genes prevent unregulated cell growth by slowing down the progression of the cell through the cell cycle. - Most code for proteins that survey DNA for damage during the G1 checkpoint. - Examples associated with breast cancer include p53 and BRCA1.

Rosalind Franklin

- Used X-ray crystallography to examine the structure of DNA molecules. - Her experiments led to the realization that DNA is a repeating double helix.

Frederick Griffith

- Used pneumonia causing bacteria with dead mice - There is a transforming factor that can move information between bacteria - 1920's

Vaccinations

- Vaccinations generate active immunity by exposing individuals to antigens specific to pathogens. - Vaccinations against the flu use viral spikes as the antigen. - A primary response is mounted and memory B and T cells are produced by the immune system. - Often, a second vaccination is required and the body mounts a secondary response that increases the production of memory B and T cells.

Stabilizing selection examples

- Very large and very small newborns are more likely to suffer serious health problems - Bird clutch sizes consisting of 4-5 eggs are more likely to hatch that larger or smaller clutch sizes.

According to the Crash Course video, how can humans (or other organisms) maximize surface area to aid in digestion?

- Villi and microvilli in the small and large intestine to increase absorption of water and nutrients - Rugae within the stomach for acid production and mechanical stretch - Mechanically chewing, which breaks down food and allows more interactions between the food and saliva - All of the above - Correct

Identifying host cells

- Viruses are specific in the cell types that they infect. - It is the proteins that are located on the surface of the virus capsid that determine which cells the virus infects. - These proteins, also called spikes, recognize glycoproteins on the surface of host cells. - At this point, the virus is able to integrate with the host cell.

How does evolution relate to viruses

- Viruses, specifically the influenza virus, are an excellent example of how evolution occurs over time. - Human influenza viruses originate in animal hosts, such as the pig and bird. - As the viruses exchange genetic material, they evolve into new forms that can then be transmitted to humans, causing flu outbreaks.

Evidence from the oceans of climate change

- When carbon dioxide enters the oceans, it produces carbonic acid, which leads to ocean acidification and negative impacts on shellfish. - Our planet is 71% water, and for that reason, we will first explore the evidence of climate change based on ocean observations. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) dissolves very easily in water. As it does, it interacts with water (H2O) to form carbonic acid (H2CO3 ). The presence of carbonic acid in water increases the hydrogen ion (H+ ) concentration, which as a result increases the acidity of the aquatic environment. - The increase in acidity decreases the amount of carbonate (CO3 2- ) in the oceans. Carbonate plays an important role in the formation of shells of organisms such as crabs, lobsters, and clams. As the ocean acidifies, these organisms have a harder time forming shells and other hard structures. - The world's oceans act as a heat sink, or a temporary storage location for heat energy. Heat sinks are not unnatural. For example, they account for the moderate temperatures of Florida in the winter, but over longer time periods, they can influence the climate of surrounding land masses.

What Is Photosynthesis?

- With just a few exceptions, the energy that life on this planet uses, whether in the form of food, wood, or fossil fuels, has its origins with photosynthetic organisms, such as the tree. - These organisms are autotrophs, meaning they are organisms that make their own food. - By using the energy from sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, a plant is able to make carbohydrates through photosynthesis.

DNA

- a nucleic acid that stores genetic information. - DNA consists of units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains: -- a 5-carbon deoxyribose sugar (green pentagon 'S') -- a phosphate group (yellow circle 'P') -- a nitrogen-containing base (blue 'C')

The Digestive System

- breaks down incoming nutrients to be transported to body cells - supplies water to cells - allows for the removal of undigested waste material

Starch

- carbohydrate - a polysaccharide used for long-term energy-storage in plants

Glycogen

- carbohydrate - is a polysaccharide used for short-term energy-storage in animals.

Fiber

- carbohydrate - a polysaccharide used for the structural components of leaves, stems, and roots within plants.

Centrioles

- cell division - assist in dividing the genetic material and contents of the cell during cellular reproduction

Effects of cytokines on Integumentary system

- chills - Restriction of blood vessels in the skin to conserve heat.

Directional selection examples

- chloroquine is no longer effective against malaria because it has evolved resistance against it - a new flu vaccine is needed every year

Carbon Dioxide

- considered a major contributing gas to the greenhouse effect - Produced through natural events like fires and volcanoes, but also through the burning of fossil fuels - released from the decomposition of organic matter and from livestock and landfills - trap infrared heat and release it slowly back into the earth - considered a major contributing gas to the greenhouse effect

Methane

- considered a major contributing gas to the greenhouse effect - released from the decomposition of organic matter and from livestock and landfills - trap infrared heat and release it slowly back into the earth - considered a greenhouse gas

DNA Viruses

- contains deoxyribonucleic acid as genetic material - incorporates its genetic material into the host cell - includes smallpox, chickenpox, and herpes - surrounded by a proteinaceous capsid

RNA Viruses

- contains ribonucleic acid as genetic material - surrounded by a proteinaceous capsid - requires reverse transcriptase to synthesize proteins - incorporates its genetic material into the host cell - includes HIV and Influenza - more prone to mutations

Biogeography evidence of evolution

- distribution of fossils on all five continents - distinct species on both sides of Wallace's line

metaphase

- each of the homologous chromosomes aligns along a central line in the cell. - This will allow one of the sister chromatids to move toward each of the new cells, ensuring that the new cells have the same genetic information.

Active transport

- energy is required, impermeable molecules or movement against concentration gradient - requires an energy source (usually ATP) to move molecules. Molecules are moved against their concentration gradient (from low concentration to high concentration). The sodium potassium pump is an example of active transport.

Effects of cytokines on nervous system

- headache, fever - Presence of cytokines tells the hypothalamus in the brain to increase the body temperature.

Anatomical evidence of evolution

- homogenous structure of vertebrae forelimbs - vestigal structures

B Cells

- involved in antibody mediated immunity - differentiate into antibody secreting plasma cells - bind to whole intact antigens - mature in red bone marrow. - once activated they undergo clonal selection - produced in red bone marrow. - contain antigen receptors

glycoproteins

- involved in identifying self are collectively called major-histocompatibility complexes, or MHCs. There are two different forms of MHC markers in the body: • MHC class I markers (MHC-I) are present on every nucleated cell of the body. This is the general "self" identification tag. • MHC class II markers (MHC-II) are only present on the immune system cells that provide the link between the nonspecific and specific immune responses - Glycoproteins located along the plasma membrane of the cell act as identification tags.

Effects of cytokines on muscular system

- joint and muscle aches - Breakdown of muscle fibers and accumulation of fluid.

Enzymes

- protein catalysts for chemical reactions (usually). - The shape of the enzyme determines how it will interact with molecules. - Enzymes have an active site where the substrate binds; products are released after the reaction has occurred. - Some cancer drugs work by binding to the active site, preventing the substrate from reacting with the enzyme.

Cell-mediated immunity

- targets cells of our bodies that have become infected with pathogens and are presenting the antigen. - Cell-mediated immunity makes use of T lymphocytes, which are white blood cells produced in the bone marrow. - After being formed, T lymphocytes travel to the thymus where they mature. As they mature, each T lymphocyte develops receptors that will allow it to recognize a single form of antigen.

Adaptive immunity

- targets specific antigens associated with a pathogen, and also has the ability to remember past responses. - Adaptive immunity has the ability to target cells of the body that are infected with the pathogen, while also responding to any pathogens that are free in the blood or interstitial fluid of the body.

Homeostasis

- the body's ability to maintain a constant internal environment, including pH, temperature, and blood chemistry. - Homeostasis is often regulated by negative feedback loops.

interphase

- the cell performs all of its normal functions, but is also preparing for the next round of cell division - The two growth phases (G1 and G2 ) are separated by S phase, a period during which the DNA in the nucleus is replicated to prepare for division into two new cells. - Some cells enter into a resting phase (G0 ), during which they are no longer participating in the cell cycle.

prophase

- the genetic material condenses into compact chromosomes, and spindle fibers (which are part of the internal framework of the cell) form from the centrioles to help align the chromosomes.

anaphase

- the sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite sides of the cell. - Each new nucleus at the end of telophase has the same number and types of chromosomes. - In other words, they are genetically identical to each other

Enzyme feedback inhibition

- where the end product can turn off the enzyme. - This approach ensures only the correct amount of product are produced.

Relationship between Climate Change and Global Warming

A number of weather events, such as extreme precipitation and heat waves, are correlated with climate change, while for others (such as tornadoes), the connections are still being investigated.

Old Definition of Gene

A segment of DNA that contains instructions for the production of a protein

As discussed in the TED ed video, what is the difference between a scientific theory and a law?

A theory is our best explanation for how and why something happens, and a law is a tool than can predict outcomes accurately but does not describe how or why it does so.

What Science Tells Us

B vitamins (except folic acid) in energy drinks interact with energy pathways and energy drinks could supplement deficiencies, however, B vitamins are water soluble and likely excreted with urine. • Folic acid builds new cells but is not known to increase alertness, metabolic efficiency, or physical performance. • Caffeine likely accounts for most of the physiological effects of energy drinks as it has a strong influence on the central nervous system. • Taurine is an amino acid and has some benefits as an antioxidant and disease preventative. Additionally, studies show it may increase athletic performance. • Glucuronic acid may help reduce fatigue. • Malic acid is an intermediate of the citric acid cycle and studies show supplementation may help treat chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. • Tyrosine is an amino acid involved in transmitting nerve impulses to the brain. Supplementation can treat chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. • Phenylalanine is an amino acid found in meat and milk products. It's used to manufacture proteins but has no direct interaction with metabolic pathways. • Citicoline is a chemical naturally produced by the body and used to form brain tissue. It can act as a stimulant.

In aerobic cellular respiration, the greatest amount of ATP is generated by____. This process occurs in the____. In this step,____is the final electron acceptor, and oxidizes____to regenerate____.

In aerobic cellular respiration, the greatest amount of ATP is generated by the electron transport chain. This process occurs in the mitochondrial membrane. In this step, oxygen is the final electron acceptor, and oxidizes NADH to regenerate NAD+.

How are the egg and sperm produced?

In humans, meiosis only occurs in specialized cells of the reproductive system. In males, the process of spermatogenesis occurs in the testes (Figure 3.10). Oogenesis is the term used to describe meiosis in females. The process is slightly different than spermatogenesis in that the output of oogenesis will be a single haploid egg cell

Histamine

Increases the permeability of the capillaries and causes fluid to be released into the area of a wound.

Individuals differ in their fitness.

Individuals who have favorable traits will survive at a greater rate than those without them. When these individuals reproduce, they pass these traits on to the next generation. The term fitness is often used to describe this reproductive success.

Cytoskeleton proteins

Interior network of proteins that support the plasma membrane and provide shape to the cell.

M Checkpoint

Mitosis stops until chromosomes are properly aligned

Stages of Cancer

Most doctors use a number system to grade cancers based on: • Size of tumor • Has tumor spread to nearby tissues • Has cancer spread to nearby lymph nodes • Has cancer moved to other organs

How Does the Immune System Work?

Our immune system has several levels of defenses, from nonspecific physical barriers to cellular mechanisms of protecting us from specific pathogens, such as the influenza virus.

Populations become adapted to the environment.

Over time, natural selection increases the frequency of the advantageous trait in the population and decreases the frequency of detrimental traits. Over multiple generations, the population becomes adapted to the new environment.

Flu Vaccine - Thimersol

Preservative that may be present in some multi-dose vials of the vaccine.

Flu Vaccine - Antibiotics

Prevents bacterial growth during preparation and storage of the vaccine.

Flu Vaccine - Egg Protein

Remnants from the production of the vaccine. Newer vaccines that do not use eggs during production will not have these proteins present.

What Is the Future of the Flu Vaccinations?

Scientists are researching ways of getting around the ability of the virus to evolve, including the use of antiviral agents and the development of a universal flu vaccine.

Properties of Light

Solar energy strikes the planet as particles (photons) traveling at different wavelengths. There are a wide range of wavelengths, including infrared (heat) and X-rays, but the wavelengths that are most important to photosynthesis coincide with the visible spectrum of light.

Respiratory System

Supplies blood with . oxygen for tissue cells and rids blood of carbon dioxide. Helps regulate the acid-base balance of the blood

Flu Vaccinations

Vaccinations expose the immune system to an antigen specific to a pathogen, without causing the associated disease. Later exposure (the secondary response) is more rapid and effective due to the initial exposure.

Stage 2

Tumor has become invasive and has grown, but is still located entirely within the breast, lymph nodes may be involved.

Stage 3

Tumor has moved out of the breast tissue, but has not spread to distant organs, lymph nodes are involved.

External radiation therapy

Uses X-rays or gamma rays to target a specific area of the body.

Individuals vary in their traits

Variation exists in a population for heritable traits. This does not just include physical characteristics, such as beak shape, but also physiology and behavior.