BIO 1300 EXAM 3 OU without comm portion
COELCANTH AND LOBE FINNED FISH
-DNA + LIMB DVE IN LAND VERTE, THEY ARE BONY. -CLOSE TO H2O AND LAND W FINS. -THEY THOUGHT DIED W DINOS. -1938 LATAMEUR FOUND FISH .
DINOS
-EXTINCT -LASTED 65 MILL YRS -LARGEST TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS -GOT EXTINCT THINKS BECAUSE OF CLIATE CHANGE AND A METIOR STRIKE.
CALLAWAY AND ERIK
-HAD A HYP THAT ROOTS OF PARTICULAR SPECIES SECRETED POWERFUL TOXINS CALLED : ALLELOCHEMICALS-KILL ROOTS OF OTHER SPECIES, ALLOWING C.DIFFUSA TO PROLIFERATE. LATER FOUND THAT W/ CARBON EURASION GRASSES ARE < SUSEPT. TO CHEMICALS EFFECT BC THEY COEVOLVED W. C.DIFFUSA , THIS MAY DEVELOP A RESOLUTION.
2 SUB DICIPLINES
1ST: PHYSIOLOGICAL - INVESTIGATES HOW ORGS ARE PHYSIOLOG. ADAPTED TO THEIR ENV AND HOW IT IMPACTS THE DISTIRB OF SPEC. 2ND: BEHAVIORAL- FOCUSES ON HOW THE BH OF AN INDIV ORGS CONTRIBUTES TO THEIR SURVIVAL AND REPRODUCTIVE SUCC, WHICH IN TURN EVENTUALLY EFFECS THE POP DENSE OF SP.
LIZARD HIPPED VS BIRD HIPPED
2 MAIN VARIETY -SPLAYED OUT -UNDERNEATH +ANGLE AND HIP OF LEG
ONE OF THE EARLIEST TETRAPODS WERE
ACANTHASTEGA -HAS FISH BODY INCLUDING GILLS + TAILFIN -HAS SMALL LIMBS TO HELP IT NAVIGATE FRESH WATER PONDS IN WHICH IT LIVED.
FOSSIL RECORD SHOWED
ACTINISTIA, OR COELACANTHS WERE SUCCESSFUL GROUP IN DEVONIAN PERIOD, BUT ALL FISH OF CLASS WERE BELIEVED TO HAVE DIED OFF AT END OF MESOZOIC ERA (SOME 65MYA)
BIRDS ARE HIGHLY
ADAPTED FOR FLIGHT
UNLIKE CARTIL FISH
ALL OTHER GNATHOSTOMES HAVE A BONT SKEL, BELONG TO CLADE AKA OSTEICHTHANS (BONY FISH) *JUST THAT GROUP, BUT THEN EXP TO ALL VERT W BONY SKEL INC TETRAPODS.
NONAVIAN REPTILE GROUPS
ALL REPS EXCEPT BIRDS
internal fertilization
ALMOST ALL FISH AND MANY AMPHIBS USE EXTERNAL FERT. THAT IS THEY LAYTHE EGGS FIRST AND THEN SPERM IS APPLIED AFTERWARD. IN ORDER TO PRODUCE AN AMNIOTIC EGG, ESPECIALLY ONE W /A TOUGH OUTER SHELL, THIS DOESNT WORK SO WELL. THEREFORE AMNIOTES FERTILIZE THE EGGS WHILE THEY R STILL IN THE FEMALS BODY.
MULTIPLE STRUCTURES TO THE AMNIOTIC EGG THAN JUST THE...
AMNION, THERE ARE MULTIPLE STRUCTURES THAT ENABLE THE SURVIVAL OF DEVELOPING VERTS.
VERTEBRATE
ANIMAL W A BACKBONE -Range from 0.1 grams to 100,000kg. occupy nearly LL OF EARTHS HABITATS. -HAVE ALL CHORDATE CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDING... -VERTEBRAL COLUMN -CRANIUM -ENDOSKELETON OF CARTILAGE OR BONE. -MULT CLUSTERS OF HOX GENES.
VERTEBRATES
ANIMALS THAT HAVE A VERTEBRAL COLUMN. (KIND OF... THERE ARE A FEW THAT LACK TRUE VERTEBRAE, BUT WE COUNT THEM AS "CLOSE ENOUGH". THEY ALSO POSSESS A CRANIUM, OR BRAIN CASE, MADE OUT OF EITHER BONE OR CART. HAVE ENDOSKELS (SKELS INSIDE THEIR BODIES) , MADE OF CART OR BONE. ALSO AS A GROUP , HAVE A DIVERSITY OF INTERNAL ORGANS SUCH AS KIDNEYS, LIVER, PANCREAS, AMPLEX MULTI-CHAMBERED HEARTS, ETC.
CRANIUM
ANT END OF NERVE CORD, ELABORATES TO FORM A WELL-DEVEL BRAIN THAT S ENCASED IN PROTECTIVE/BONY OR CARTILAGINOUS HOUSING. -CONTINUES TREND OF CEPHALIZTION ( DEV. OF HEAD IN ANIMALS.)
envirnmental science
APPLICATION OF ECOLOGY TO REAL WORLD PROBLEMS. SCIENTISTS: RELY ON PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY TO SOLVE ENV. PROBLEMS.
Enviornmental Effects
Both the distribution in abundance of organisms are limited by various physical features of the environment. -Most important factors are abiotic and there affects. -These focus more on the facts on plant life , photosynthesizers and make up most of bio mass of ecosystems, as well as form base of food chain. temp: Low temps freeze many plans increased temperatures denature proteins. Some plants require fire for germination. wind: Wind amplifiers a fax of cool temperatures and water loss creates pounding waves. water: Insufficient water limits plant growth in animal abundance, access water drowns plants and other organisms. light: Insufficient light limits plant growth in aquatic environments particularly. salinity: Salinity generally reduces plant growth and terest. habitat, affects osmosis and Marine life freshwater environments. PH: ph affects decomp. and nutrient avail. sys: mortality in aq and teret envts. temp most imp: determines where organisms can or can not live. living things cant regulate on own. internal temp is based on env.
Crocodilia
CARE FOR THEIR YOUNG , LAY IN VEGETATION SAND THE GROUND + 24 YRS.
KITRIC FUNGAI
CHEMICALS AND PARASITES THAT AFFECTED AMPHIBIAN HABITAT.
FISH W CARTIL FT ARE IN CLADE
CHONDRICHTHYES . -SHAKRS, SKATES, RAYS... MORE DENSE THAN H20. -NEED TO CONT SWIM TO SAVE SELVES FROM SINKING. -HAVE LARGE OILY LIVER TO HELP MAINTAIN BOYANCY SINCE OIL IS LESS DENSE THAN WATER.
REPTILES AND MAMMALS
COMPRISE & AMNIOTE CLADE.
Endoskeleton of cartilage or bone
CRANIUM+VERT COL =PARTS OF ENDOSKEL.
Superorder Archosauria
CROCS, BIRDS, DINOS
Alfred Wallace
Came up with the idea of natural selection to explain evolution, joint published with Darwin Realized that certain plant and animal taxa were restricted to certain geographic areas of Earth. Wallace divided worlds biota into six major bio Geo graphic regions -Nearctic, patearctic, neotropical, ethiopian, oriental and australian.
other defense mechanisms
Camouflage If an animal is not toxic or dangerous in some way, a good strategy to avoid predation is to not be found at all. Many animals display cryptic coloration, or camouflage, in order to decrease their chances of being seen. You won't regret checking out this link to awesome examples of animal camouflage. Mimicry Mimicry is when one species comes to resemble another. There are two basic forms:Müllerian mimicry involves two or more toxic species using the same collective warning coloration. Then, a predator learns one basic pattern and, ultimately, learns to avoid them all. For example, all of the insects pictured below have stingers (and are thus dangerous to predators), and also all use black and yellow aposematic coloration. Batesian mimicry involves a palatable, non-dangerous species coming to resemble an unpalatable or dangerous one. In the image below, on the left there is a wasp (the model) and on the right is a moth (the mimic). The most exhibits the same aposematic coloration as the dangerous wasp, but does not have a stinger, nor does it produce any type of chemical defense. It gets its protection by simply looking like something that is actually dangerous. Displays of Intimidation Some animals try to make themselves look larger or scarier than they actually are in order to tell their predators that they're just not worth the effort. They try to send the message that it would be too much work, or even risky, to try to eat them. Notice how this cat has its back arched and hair standing up on end. This makes it look larger than it really is. The cat is also showing its teeth, a further display of intimidation. Armor & Weaponry Physical defenses, such as hard outer body parts and spines/quills, make it difficult for a predator to consume the prey item. Additionally, some features that evolved for the purposes of sexual selection (horns, antlers, pincers) may also serve to protect animals from predators too.
VIVIPOUROUS
EGGS DEV WITHIN UTERUS. RECEIVING NUTS FROM MOTHER VIA PLACENTA.
community ecology
Different species and populations interact from functional ecological communities and can be defined at the living things in a given area.
YOLK SAC
ENCLOSES A RESERVE OF NUTRIENTS AND GETS SMALLER W AGE.
AVES
EX: BIRDS (10,425) FEATHERS, HALLOW BONES, AIR SACS, REDUCED INTERNAL ORGANS, ENDOTHERMIC, 4 CH HEART.
CROCODILIA
EX: CROCODILES ALLIGATORS (25) FOUR-CHAMBERED HEART, LARGE AQUATIC PREDATORS; PARENTAL CARE OF YOUNG.
AMPHIBIA
EX: FROS, TOADS, SALAMANDERS. ADUTLS ABLE TO LIVE ON LAND, FESH WATER NEEDED FOR REPRODUCTION. DEVELOPMENT USUALLY INVOLVING METAMORPHOSIS FROM TADPOLES, ADULTS W/ LUNGS AND DOUBLE BLOOD CIRCUL, MOIST SKIN, SHELL-LESS EGGS.
MAIN CLADES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING VERTS CYCLOSTOMATA
EX: LAMPREYS AND HAGFISH JAWLESS FISH W NO APPENDAGES.
SQUAMATA
EX: LIZARDS SHAKES (9,900) LOWER JAW NOT ATTACHED TO SKULL , SKULL COV IN SCLAES.
SARCOPTERYGII
EX: LOBE-FNNED FISHES, OF WHICH COELACANTHS (2) AND LUNGFISH (6) ARE ONLY LIVING MEMBERS. FISH W/ OSSIFIED SKELETON ; BONY EXTENSIONS, TOGETH W MUSCLES. PROJECT INTO PECTORAL AND PELVIS FINS.
Mammalia (mammals)
EX: MAMMALS (5,500) MAMMARY GLANDS, HAIR, SPEC TEETH, ENLARGED SKULL, EXTERNAL EARS, ENDOTHERMIC, 4 CH HEART, HIGHLY DEVEL BRAINS, DIVERSITY OF BODY FORMS.
ACTINOPLERYGII
EX: RAY-FINNED FISHES (MOST BONY FISH) (31,830) FISH WITH OSSIFIED SKELETON; SINGLE GILL OPEING COVERED BY OPERCULUM FINS SUPPORTED BY RAYS, FIN MUSCLES WITHIN A BODY. SWIM BLADDER OFTEN PRESENT MUCOUS GLANDS IN SKIN.
CHONDRICHTHYES
EX: SHARKS, SKATES, RAYS (970) FISH WITH CARTILAGINOUS SKELETON, TEETH NOT FUSED TO JAW, NO SWIM BLADD, WELL-DEV FINS, INTERNAL FERTILIZATION, SINGLE BLOOD CIRCULATION.
TESTUDINES
EX: TUTLES(346) BODY INCASED IN HARD SHELL, NO TEETH, HEAD AND NECK RETRACTABLE INTO SHELL, EGGS LAID ON LAND.
promiscuous
Each male mates with many females and vice versa
green house effect
Earth has warmedIt is the process by which radiation from atmosphere atmosphere warms the surface. We often think of it as bad due to their association with global warming, it's true that humans are responsible for release a very large quantity of greenhouse gasesBut it is critical that there are some greenhouse gas is present in order for earth exist at a temperature that can sustain life without them world would be cold. read about them and how they work.
FLIGHT FEATHERS
MAKE UP THE WING OF THE BIRD: THOUGH TAIL FEATHERS ALSO AID IN FLIGHT FOR MOST SPECIES. THE REPLACEMENT OF LUNG, BONY TAILS W/ TAIL LIKE FEATHERS MAKES BIRDS MORE LIGHTWEIGHT COMPARED TO THEIR TATRAPOD ANCESTORS.
MAMMARY GLANDS
MAMMALS POSSESS BODY HAIR, WHICH ORIGINALLY EVOLVED FOR THE PURPOSES OF INSULATION. AS ENDOTHERMIC ANIMALS, MAMMALS NEED TO RETAIN A CONSTANT, WARM BODY TEMP. HAIR HAS ALSO BEEN USED FOR OTHER PURPOSES SUCH AS CAMOUFLAGE, PROTECTION, AND VIBRISSAE (AKA WHISKERS). *THERE IS A REASON SO MANY ANIMALS HAVE DULL, BROWN FUR. (GREAT CAMO) SOME HAIR HAS EEN MODIFIED TO QUILLS FOR DEFENSE.
ALTHOUGH THE ATTENTION OF POP ECOLOGIST...
MAY BE AIMED AT STUDYING PART. SPIECES, THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF THAT SPECIES IS OFTEN INFLUENCED BY ITS INTERACTIONS, W OTHER SPECIES. THUS POP ECOL INCLUDES STUDY OF SPECIES INTERACTIONS SUCH AS: PREDATION, COMPETITION, PARASITISM.
THEY WILL SPEND THE NEXT
MILL YRS SPLITTING INTO TWO DISTINCT GROUPS 1) SYNAPSIDS (A)-CONTAN MAMMALS 2)SAUROPSIDS(A)-CONTAIN REPTILES, BIRDS AND DINOS. *THESE AMNIOTIC GROUPS COLLECTIVELY CONTAIN THE WALRUSES, RATTLESNAKES, PARAKEETS, WE KNOW TODAY.
BIRD RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
MORE EFFICIENT THE ANY OTHER TETRAPOD. -NOT ONLY DOES THIS SUPPORT THEIR HIGH METABOLISMS, BUT IT ALSO ALLOWS THEM TO LIVE AND FLY AT HIGH ALTITUDES WHERE OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS ARE LOWER
Bony fish fertilization
MOST VARY, BUT MOST REP VIA EXTERNAL FERT W/ FEMALE SHEDDING EGGS + AMEL DEP SPERM ON TOP OF THEM. ALTHOUGH ADULT BONY FISH CAN MAINTAIN THEIR BUOYANCY, THEIR EGGS TEND TO SINK. MAIN REASON WHY SPECIES SPAWN IN SHALLOW, MORE OXYGEN-FOOD RICH WATERS AN WHY COASTAL AREAS ARE IMP FISH NURSERIES.
WATER ENTERS ...
MOUTH THEN PUSHED OUTBY GILLS ANOTHER REASON WE NEED TO SWIM SO WE CAN GET OXYGEN. -SHARKS HAVE IMPRESSIVE WAYS TO SENSE WHATS GOING ON AROUND THEM. H20 SENSE OF SMELL= 1 DROP OF BLOOD PER MILLION DROPS H20.
In nature
Males produce millions of sperm the females produced far fewer eggs. Chimpanzees are somewhat promiscuous
Mate gaurding hypothesis
Males stay with females to protect her from being fertilized by other males this maybe advantages one receptive females are widely scattered and difficult to find.
monogamy
Marriage to only one person at a time over single breeding cycle.
maximum density
Maximum density at which a population can sustain itself is called carrying capacity
ENVIORNMENTAL FACTORS AFFECT...
NATURAL POPULATIONS TEMP: LOW TEMPS FREEZE MANY PLANTS, HIGH TEMPS DENATURE PROTISTS AND SOME PLANTS REQUIRE FIRE FOR GERMINATION. WIND: WIND AMPLIFIES EFFECTS OF COOL TEMP (WIND CHILL) AND H20 LOSS, CREATES POUNDING WAVES. WATER: INSUFFICIENT H2O LIMITS PLANT GROWTH AND ANIMAL ABUNDANCE, EXCESS H2O DROWNS PLANTS AND OTHER ORGANISMS. LLIGHT: INSUFFICIANT LIGHT LIMITS PLANT GROWTH, PARTICULARLY IN AQ ENV. SALINITY: HIGH SALINITY GENERALLY REDUCES PLANT GROWTH IN TERRESTRIAL HABITATS, AFFECTS OSMOSIS IN FRESHWATER ENV. PH: VARIATION IN PH AFFECT DECOMP AND NUTRIENT AVAIL IN TERRESTRIAL SYSTEMS, DIRECTLY INF. MORTALITY IN BOTH AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL HABITATS. TEMP: PERHAPS THE MOST ORGS TO REGULATE THEIR BODY TEMP.
nitrogen denitrification
NH4+ + 2O2 -->NO3- + H2O + 2H Nitrification: Ammonia turned to nitrate Denitrification: nitrate turned to N2 NO3- + organic matter -->N2 + CO2 +H2O
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language Refers to ability ability to solve problems with conscious: includes activities such as perception, analysis, judgment, recollection and imaging. For some types of behavior learning can be Coupled with innate behavior only during a limited period of time development which is called a critical period.
phosphorous cycle
the cyclic movement of phosphorus in different chemical forms from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment, Unlike the other nutrient cycles coming up, phosphorus does not have a gaseous/atmospheric component. The crust of the Earth is the main store of inorganic phosphorus. As rocks weather and erode, phosphorus is released into the soil or water, and plants or other photosynthesizers can absorb it as phosphate. It can then move up the various trophic levels from there.
allantois
the extraembyonic membrane of birds, reptiles and mammals that serves as an area of gaseous exchange and as a site for the storage of noxious excretion products CONTAINS WASTES FROM EMBRYO AND GETS BIGGER W AGE.
kin selection
the idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection
biological control
the intentional release of a natural enemy to attack a pest population ONE WAY OF CONTROLLING SPECIES , HAS BEEN TO IMPORT THE PLANTS NATURAL ENEMIES. HOWEVER A STUDY OF CENTAURE DIFFUSA (EROSIAN ) PLANT THAT HAS ESTABLISHED ITSELF IN MANY AREAS OF NORTH AMERICA SUGGESTS A DIFF REASON FOR SUCC OF INV SPECIES.
birth rate
the number of births in a population in a certain amount of time
Phenology
the study of cyclic and seasonal natural phenomena, especially in relation to climate and plant and animal life.
water cycle
the water cycle focuses on physical transformations only (not chemical). H20 stays H20, it just changes state - solid, liquid, gas. The cycle is fueled by solar energy and consists mainly of evaporation and precipitation. On land, evapotranspiration returns water to the atmosphere as vapor. Transpiration is the movement of water through the body of a plant and, eventually, into the atmosphere, usually through the leaves. Considering the importance, then, of plants to the water cycle, think about how deforestation may impact this. Fewer trees → Reduced transpiration → Less water vapor in the atmosphere → Less precipitation So, though it may not seem intuitive at first, one consequence of widespread deforestation is drought.
Condylura cristata
Star nosed Mole (Talpidae). -MOLE IS BLIND. -LIVES IN DARK WET TUNNELS IN CANADA. -HAS 22 FLESHY APPENDAGES O ITS NOSE, WHICH CONTAIN 25,000 MINUTE AND HIGHLY SENSITIVE SENSORY RECEPTORS CALLED ELMERS ORGANS.
Pavlov's experiment
Step 1: US (food) -> UR (salivation) Step 2: NS (bell) -> US (food) -> UR (salivation) Later... CS (bell) -> CR (salivation)
Biogeography
Study of past and present distribution of organisms. Study of Geographic Distribution of extinction and living species.
MORE RECENTLY EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES SHOWED THAT...
TERRESTRIAL VERTS (TETRAPODS) EVOVLVED FROM SUCH FISH. BC OF THIS SARCOPTERGYII HAS BEEN EXPANDED TO INCLUDE BOTH LOBE-FINNED FISH AND TETRAPODS.
1ST GROUP
TETRAPODS
BY 300 MYA
TETRAPODS HAD BECOMES RELATIVELY COMMON ON LAND. -NXT 100 YRS, GOOD TIME TO B AMPH, OFTEN REFF TO AS "AGE OF AMPH" -MANY WERE MUCH LARGER THAN TODAYS (LIKE DINOS) -VAST MAJ OF THESE WENT EXTINCT, ESPECIALLY THE LARGE ONES. JUST A SINGLE GROUP PERSISTED. -IT WAS APPARENTLY NOT VERY CLOSELY RELATED TO THE DOM AMPHIBIANS OF THE TIME, BUT IT DID GIVE RISE TO MOD AMPHBS. (THE FROGS, TOADS, SALAMANDERS, AND CAECILIANS THAT ARE STILL AROUND TODAY.)
TRADITIONALLY
THE AMNIOTES WERE DIVIDED INTO 3 SEP GROUPS. REPS, BIRDS, AND MAMMALS. NOW HOWEVER, BIRDS ARE CONSIDERED PART OF THE REPTILIAN LINEAGE. WE NOW HAVE ENOUGH EVIDENCE TO KNOW THAT THEY EVOLVED FROM DINOS.
LIGHTWEIGHT BONES
THE BONES OF BIRDS ARE VERY LIGHTWEIGHT. -SOME BONES HAVE AIRSPACES, GIVING THEM A SORT OF HONEYCOMBED LOOK. THIS ENABLES THEM TO BE VERY LIGHT YET STRONG.
intertropical convergence zone
THE EQUATORIAL FLOW FROM BOTH HEMISPHERES MEET NEAR THE EQUATOR IN A REGION CALLED THE EQUATOR IN A REGION CALLED THE (ITCZ).
4. AMNION
THE MEMBRANE FOR WHICH THE EGG IS HARMED. -CONTAINED WITHIN THE CHORION AND HOLDS THE FLUID IN WHICH THE EMBRYO FLOATS. -BC IT HAS LEFT THE WATERY WORLD OF THE AMPHIBIANS. -THE AMNION IS NECESSARY FOR PREVENTING THE EMBRYO FROM DRYNG OUT. T IS THE TRANSPORTABLE POND THAT ALLOWS THE AMNIOTE TO LAY THE EGG ON DRY LAND. -ITS FLUID ALSO PROTECTS THE EMBRYO FROM ANY COLLISIONS OR ROUGH LANDINGS, TOGETHER THE SHELL AND THESE 4 MEMBRANES CREATE A SAFE, WATERY ENV FOR THE EMBRYO TO GROW AND EV.
IN ACTIOPTERTGII FINS
THEY ARE SUPPORTED BY THIN MUSCLES ON INT OF BODY. CLADE HAS DIVERSITY OF FORMS, LION FISH, LARGE PRED MORAY EELS TO DELICATE SEA DRAONS.
THE MAMMALS
THEY EVOLVED FROM REPTILIAN ANCESTORS AT LEAST 225 MILL YRS AGO AND LIVED AMONG DINOS. IT WASN'T TILL DINOS WENT EXTINCT THAT MAMMALIAN DIVERSIFICATION REALLY TOOK OFF AS THEY FILLED HABITATS AND UTILIZED RESOURCES PREV. TAKEN BY DINOS. TODAY MAMMS ARE UNMATCHED IN THEIR MORPHOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AMONG THE VERTEBRATES. THEY ARE FOUND IN A WIDE RANGE OF SIZES + BODY FORMS AS WELL AS IN , WATER LAND AND AIR.
INITIALLY NATUrALISTS
THOUGHT THAT FISH HAD COME UP ONTO LAND, AND LIMBS DEV AFTER THAT. -THIS IS THEY DO HAVE SOME FISH THAT ABLE TO TEMP SURVIVE AND EVEN MORE SHORT DISTANCE WHILE ON LAND. FOR EX: WALKING CATFISH. THESE FISH WILL LEAVE THEIR FRESHWATER PONDS IN SEARCH OF BETTER HABITAT OR FOOD RES. THEY ARE ABLE TO BREATHE AIR AS WELL.
ONE EFFECT OF CLI MATE CHANGE DUE TO GLOBAL WARMING
TO INC THE CLOUD COVER, WHICH DEC DAYTIME TEMPS AND INC NIGHT TEMPS. THEY BELIEVE IT IS THE AUSE FOR THE SPREAD OF B DENDROBATIDIS AND OTHER PATHOGENS, WHICH THRIVE IN DAYTIME TEMPS
ACUTE COLOR VISION
TO SEE WHERE THEY ARE GOING.
chorion
TOGETHER W ALLANTOIS, ALLOWS GAS EXCHANGE.
1. EGGS PROTECTIVE SHELL
TOUGH, BUT FLEXIBLE HAS LEATHERY SURFACE. STILL SEEN IN SOME REPS TODAY.
TETRAPODS
TRANSITION FROM AQUATIC TO TERRESTRIAL LIFESTYLE REQUIRES A # OF PHYS CHANGES. ON DRY LAND ORGANISMS HAVE TO: -KEEP THEMSELVES FROM DRYING OUT. -FND NEW WAYS TO HOLF THEMSELVES UPRIGHT AND MOVE AROUND. -FIGURE OUT A WAY TO REPRODUCE W OUT THEIR GAMETES (OR DEV) OFFSPRING) DRYING OUT. -EXRACT OXYGEN FROM THE AIR GILLS WONT WORK HERE. -CHANGES TO SKELETAL AND MUSC SYSTS ALLOWED ANIMALS TO BE ABLE TO HOLD THEMSELVES UP ON LAND. NOT SURPRISINGLY THESE CHANGES TO VERTEBRATE BODIES ARE CORRELATED W/SIMPLE CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION-PARTICULARLY IN THE HOX GENE FAMILY .
Temperature Sex Determination (TSD)
TURTLES USE TEMPS -SEX OF OFFSPRING IS DETERMINED BY TEMPS AT WHCH THEY DEV WITHIN THEIR EGG. -LOW TEMPS MALES -HIGH TEMPS FEMALES 'HOT CHICKS COOL DUDES"
diversity-stability hypothesis
claims that species-rich communities are more stable than those with few species.
Two main types of associative learning
classical conditioning and operant conditioning -In classical on involuntary response comes to be associated with a positive or negative And without stimulus that did not originally elicit the response. -Operant conditioning: Animal behavior is reinforced by a consequence, either reward or punishment. B.f Skinner (rats)
intraspecific competition
competition between members of the same species
Water-conserving kidneys
concentrate waste prior to elimination THEY CONCENTRATE WASTE-LESS H2O IS LOST THROUGH EXCRETION. IN SOME DESERT SPECIES, THEY EXCRETE WASTE AS A SEMI-SOLID OR CRYSTAL FORM, EVEN FURTHER REDUCING H20 LOSS.
interference competition
individuals interact directly with one another by physical force or intimidation
density dependent factors
limiting factor that depends on population size
Phoresy
one organism uses another for transportation
early loss curve type 3
one type of generalized types of survivorship curves characterized by many but short lives (slow rate of mortal)
seasonal iteroparity
organisms reproduce repeatedly, but only during distinct breeding seasons
MULY CLUSTERS OF HOX GENES
(TUNICATES + LANCELETS)
2. 2 SEPARATE MEMBRANES CHORION AND ALLANTOIS
*THEY WORK TOGETHER LIKE A PAIR OF LUNGS. *BRING OXYGEN INTO THE EMBRYO, WHILE REMOVING CO2. (C) : PROTECTIVE LAYER THAT OXYGEN PASSES THROUGH AFTER ENTERING THE SHELLS TINY PORES -MAY RECOGNIZE THE CHORION BY THIN SKIN YOU PEEL OF ON HARD-BOILED EGG. -THINK OF THIS AS WATERPROOF MEMBRANE AS THE IN AND OUTDOORS OF THE EGG. IS THE ENTRANCE FR OXYGEN , EXIT FOR CO2. MEMBRANE WORKING W C IS ALLANTOIS -IF THE C IS THE DOORS THEN THE A IS ESSENTIALLY THE LOBBY OF THE BUILDING. -IT DIRECTS THE OXY AND CO2 WHILE AT THE SAME TIME STORING UN-NEEDED WASTE FROM EMBRYO. -MAKES SURE THE EMBRYO HAS EVERYTHING IT NEEDS AND GETS RID OF WHAT DOESNT.
Eutherians (placental mammals)
- Have a longer period of pregnancy -complete embryonic development within a uterus, joined to the mother by a placenta. VAST MAJ OF MAM ARE PLACENTAL -OFFSPRING ARE GESTATED FOR MUCH LONGER PERIODS NOURISHED INSIDE OF THEIR MOTHERS WOMB W/A COMPLEX, LONG LIVED PLACENTA. EUTHERIAN BABIES ARE MUCH DEVELOPED AT BIRTH COMPARED TO THOSE OF MARSUPIALS.
REDUCED ORGANS
- IN ORDER TO STAY LIGHTWEIGHT AS POSSIBLE, MOST BIRDS REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS STAY SHRIVLED AND UNDEVELOPED UNTIL THE BREEDING SEASON. -FEMALES GENERALLY ONLY USE ONE OF THEIR TWO OVARIES AND OVIDUCTS, THE OTHER REMAINS SHRIVLED AND NONFUNC.
TURTLE AND TOURTISE
->LIVE ON LAND AND MOST TURTLES ARE PARTIALLY AQUATIC. -SEA-TURTLES AKA: TERRAPINS ARE MOST AQ. -TURTLES ARE DEFINED BY THEIR PROTECTIVE SHELLS. -220 MILL YRS SHAPE HAS BEEN UNCHANGED. -ALL TURTLES LAY THEIR EGGS ON LAND GEN, BURIED IN GROUND.
BONY FISH
-ABLE TO MOVE H2O ON TOP OF GILLS W/OUT MOVING, SO DONT HAVE OT KEEP SWIMMING (OPERCULUM) -HAVE PROTECTIVE FLAP ON TOP OF GILLS. -IGGEST FISH GROUP OF ALL VERTS. -HAVE ENDO SKEL OF BONE , SCALES ON OUTSIDE OF BODIES. 2 MAIN TYPES 1. RAY FINNED FISH 2. LOBE FINNED -SOME EARLY FISH ADAPTED LUNGS. -GULP AIR USING LUNGS. -IN MOST FISH THIS EVOLVED IN SWIM BLADDER. -AIR FILLED POUCHES HELP THEM STAY A FLOAT. -EVEN IF ARENT SWIMMING CAN ADJ POUCH AND THIS WILL ALLOW THEM TO STAY STATIONARY TO MOVE UP AND DOWN IN H2O COLUMN.
Gnathostomes (jawed vertebrates)
-ALL VERTEBRATE SPECIES THAT POSSESS JAWS ARE CALLED GNATHOSTOMES. Hinged jaws developed from the pharyngeal arches Evolution modified an existing feature to form the jaw -Some gill arches were lost, some modified. -DIVERSE CLADE OF VERTS THAT INCLUDE FISHES, AMPHIBIANS(EARLIEST DIVERGING =JAWED FISH. FRESH +SALT H2O.) , REPTILES AND MAMMALS. -BIOLOGISTS HAVE IDENTIFIED ABOUT 32,800 SPECIES OF LIVING FISHES W JAWS, MORE THAN ANY OTHER CLADE OF VERTEBRATES. -MOST JAWED FISH= AQUATIC, GILL BREATHING THAT POSSESS FINS AND SCALEY SKIN.
HAGFISH
-CYCLOSTOMES , LACK EYES, JAW FINS, EVEN VERTE. -HAVE NOTOCHARD + CARTILAGINOUS SKULL THAT ENCLOSES BRAIN. -IVE IN COLD MUDDY WATERS AT BOTTOM. -ESSENTIALLY BLIND, BUT SMELL GREAT, ATTRACTED TO DEAD FISH. -SECRETE SLIME FOR PROT.
4 BROAD AREAS OF ECOLOGY
1.ORGANISMAL 2.POPULATION 3.COMMUNITY 4.ECOSYSTEMS
SKELETAL SYSTEM OF A BIRD
-HAS VERY LONG NECK. THIS HELPS W BALANCE DURING FLIGHT AS WELL AS FEEDING. THE LARGE BONE IN THE FRONT "CHEST" REGION IS THE BIRDS KEELED STERNUM. THIS PROVIDES A LARGE SURFACE FOR ATTACHMENT OF LARGE MUSCLES THAT ARE USED FOR FLIGHT. IN ADD, BIRDS HAVE REDUCED # OF BONES OMP TO OTHER REPS WITH SEV BONES FUSED TOGETHER.
BONY FISH CLADES
-HAVE MOST SPECIES THAN ANY OTHER GROUP. 2 LIVING 1. ACTINOPTERYGII (RAY FINNED FISH) 2.SARCOPTERYGII (LOBE-FINNED FISH) ALL ARE BONY FISH BESIDES COELACANTHS AND LUNGFISH. IN BOTH CLADES: POSSESS BONY SKELETON AND SCALE COV SKIN, SKIN OF BONY FISH UNLIKE SHARKS ARE COV BY A THIN EPIDERMAL LAYER CONTAIN GLANDS THAT RPOD MUCUS... AN ADAPTATION REDUCES DRAG DURING SWIMMING. JUST LIKE CART-> H20 IS DRAWN OVER GILLS FOR BREATHING, BUT IN BONY FISH A PROTECTIVE FLAP CALLED OPERCULUM COVERS THE GILLS.
THESE FISH
-HAVE SENSE ORGANS KNOWN AS LATERAL LINE: SENSES PRESSURE WAVES AND SENDS NERVOUS SIGNALS TO INNER EAR AND ON BRAIN.
LAMPREYS
-LACK JAW AND APPENDAGES LIKE HAGFISH. -POSSESS A NOTOCHARD SURROUNDED BY A CARTILAGINOUS ROD. REPRESENTS A RUDIMENTARY VERTEBRAL COULUM. -MARINE +FRESH WATERS. -MARINE LAMPREYS ARE PARASITIC AS ADULTS. -M + FM SPAWN IN STREAMS AND LARVAL BURY INTO GROUND AND GO AGAIN. *STAGE LASTS 3-7 YRS. IN FW ADULTS DO NOT FEED, BUT QUICLY MATE AND DIE. -YOUNG MARINE LAMPREYS MIGRATE FROM FW TO OCEAN & LATER RETURN TO FRESH H2O TO SPAWN & DIE.
LIZARDS AND SNAKES
-LARGEST GROUPS -DEFINING FT IS KINETIC, MOVABLE SKULL, BONES OF OUR SKULL ARE FUSED TOGETHER. -RENDERNG THEM E-MOBILE, BUT MOVABLE JOINTS IN SKULL OF LIZARDS AND SNAKES ALLOWS THEM TO CONSUME LARGER PREY AND HANDLE IT EFFICIENTLY .
DIPNOI/OR LUNGFISH: 3 GENRA 6 SPEC
-LIVE IN OXY POOR FRESHWATER SWAMPS AND PONDS. -HAVE GILLS AND LUNGS, THE LATTER OF WHICH ENABLE THEM TO COME TO THE SURFACE AND GULP AIR. -SURPRISINGLY LUNG FISH WILL DROWND IF THEY ARE UNABLE TO BREATHE AIR. -WHEN PONDS DRY OUT, SOME SPEC OF LUNGFISH CAN DIG A BURROW AND SURVIVE IT UNTILL THE NEXT RAIN. -BC THEY ALSO HAVE MUSCULAR LOBE FINS, LUNGFISH ARE OFTEN ABLE TO SUCCESSFULLY TRAVERSE QUITE LONG DISTANCES OER SHALLOW-BOTTOM LAKES THAT MAY BE DRYING OUT.
LUNG FISH
-LUNGS + GILLS FOR RESP. GENERALLY IN OXY POOR WATER, SUPP OXYGEN FROM H20 W/ OX FROM AIR. -H20 ISNT ENOUGH FOR THEM IN OX. -CAN DROWN A LUNGFISH. -SOME LIVE IN SHALLOW PONDS THAT DRY UP IN DRY SEASON. SO BURROW IN BOTTOM, MUCOUS CACOON UNTILL RAIN RETURNS AND FILLS UP AGAIN. -SOME PEOPLE TAKE MUD AND BUILD MUDBRICKS AND IF THESE MELT THE FISH CNA SLIP OUT.
DISTINGUISHING MAMMALIAN CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDE...
-MAMMARY GLANDS -HAIR -SPECIALIZED TEETH -ENLARGED SKULL
EVOLUTION OF FEATHERS AND FLIGHT
-MOST DISTANT STRAIGHT FEATURES, BRANCHED APART, EVLVED TO MORE INTRCAT SAME IN TODAYS BIRDS. -SPARSE PATCHES OF FUZZ-INTO DENSE PLUMAGE TO LEGS. -SOME MOL. THAT PRODUCED COLOR -B+W+R WERE THE COLORS THAT WERE MORE FREQUENT
EVOLUTION FOR AMNIOTIC EGG
-SHELLED -H2O PROOF -CAN BE LAID ON DRY LAND -PROD Y AMNIOTES-NEW GROUP -NAMED BY EGG
amnitoes
-THE EVOLUTION OF THE AMNIOTIC EGG IS ULTIMATELY WHAT ALLOWED VERTS TO BREAK THEIR TIE TO WATER.
SPECIALIZED TEETH
-THE FIRST TEETH EVOLVED AMONG FISH. HOWEVER, UP TO THIS POINT TEETH WERE MORPHOLOGICALLY PRETTY MUCH THE SAME, NO MATTER THE SPECIES DIET. --MAMMALS HAVE HIGHLY SPECIALIZED TEETH DEPENDING ON WHETHER THEY ARE HERBIVORES, INSECTIVORES, CARNI OR OMNIVORES. -MAMMALS ALSO ARE UNIQUE IN THAT THEY HAVE A SET OF BABY "DECIDUOUS" TEETH THAT ARE LATER REPLACED BY AN ADULT SET.
MAMMA GROUPS
-THERE ARE 3 MAJ MAMM CLASSIFICATIONS MONOTREMES MARSUPIALS AND EUTHHERIANS
human impact on phosphorus cycle
-We remove large amounts of phosphate from the earth to make fertilizer. -We reduce phosphorus in tropical solids by clearing forests. -We add excess phosphates to aquatic systems from runoff of animal wastes and fertilizers.
annual cycle of temperate lake
-cross section of temperate lake to temperate lake with temps profiles according to depth for each szn. -the lake surfaces freezes in h20. -when ice melts in spring, cold h2o sinks and mixes w lake. -in summer the warmest h20 occurs at surface And water temperature decreases with depth. Cold air temps in the fall cool the upper layers and this dense cold water sinks mixing the waters.
LOBEFINNED FISH
-fleshy fins with jointed boned inside -MUCH SMALLER GROUP TODAY. -THEY HAVE STUBBY LITTLE LIMBS AND SUPPORTED BY THE BONS OF SKEL. 1ST GROUP OF LFF INCLUDES COELACANTHS THIER RELATIVES. -COELACANTH ONLY LIVING MEMBER OF GROUP TODAY. -AN EXTINCT RELATIVE IS THE ANCESTOR OF TETRAPODS (LIMBS.)
HOW MANY CLADES OF FISH?
3 CLADES OF JAWED FISH -CHONDRICHTHYES (CARTILAGINOUS FISHES RATHER THAN BONE) SHARKS , SKATES AND RAYS. -ACTINOPTERGII (RAY-FINNED FISHES). -SARCOPTERYGII (COELACANTHS AND LUNGFISHES.
birth and death rates
> birth rate-(Sociology) the ratio of live births in a specified area, group, etc., to the population of that area, etc., usually expressed per 1000 population per year ---------------------------- > death rate-(Mathematics & Measurements / Statistics) the ratio of deaths in a specified area, group, etc., to the population of that area, group, etc. Also called (esp US) mortality rate
DEFINING FT OF AMNION
A FLUID-FILLED MEMBRANE THAT HOUSES THE DEV EMBRYO. INSTEAD OF LAYING THIER EGGS IN A POND, AMNIOTES PROVIDE THEIR DEVELOPING OFFSPRING W THEIR DEVELOPING OFFSPRING W THEIR OWN PERSONAL POND WITHIN AN EGG.
IN 2006
A STUDY FROM J. POUNDS FROM PRESERVE IN COSTA RICA REPORTED 2/3 OF 110 SPCIES OF HARLEQUIN FROGS HAD BC EXTINCT OVER PREV 20 YRS. ADDITIONALLY THE PANAMANIAN GOLDEN FROG (ATELOPUS ZETEK) HAD BEEN FOUND AND SCIENTIST OUT IT WAS WAS FROMA DIS CAUSING FUNGUS
Population
A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area, Hey girls 2% per year overallSmall changes can really add up overtime spans. R value is critical because When R= less than zero population is decreasing. DR are higher than BR. R=0 pop is equal no death or birth R>0 more growth and BR
coral bleaching
A phenomenon in which algae inside corals die, causing the corals to turn white. as temps inc. healthy: contains symbiotic algae vs bleached has expelled its algae.
Commensalism
A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected. Commensalism is considered the rarest of the four types of interactions because it is unlikely that, in any given encounter, a species is left unaffected. However, there are few instances of this in nature. The classic example of commensalism is that of cattle and cattle egrets (a type of bird). As the cattle graze, they stir up invertebrates in the soil. So, the egrets follow the cattle around, eating up the insects.
Earliest tetrapods were
AQUATIC AND THEIR LIMBS WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN STRONG ENOUGH TO HOLD THEMSELVES UP ON LAND. -THESE EARLY TETRAPODS LIVED IN WEEDY SHALLOW LAKES AND PONDS, WHERE WALKING WOULD HAVE BEEN MORE EFFICIENT THAN SWIMMING. -THEY ALSO HAD GILLS, A TESTAMENT TO THEIR AQUATIC LIFESTYLE.
LAMPREY
ARE ALSO W OUT JAWS, BUT THEY DO POSSESS SIMPLE VERTEBRAE. WITH THEIR RASPING MOUTH PARTS THEY AREN'T EXACTLY THE CUTEST THINGS. RAZORY MOUTHS TO AT AS BLOOD SUCKING PARASITES ON OTHER LARGER FISH. -AFFECTS GREAT LAKES +INCOME FOR REGION.
SNAKE SKULLS
ARE MORE FLEXIBLE THAN LIZARDS, THEY REGULARLY SWALLOW THINGS WHOLE THAT ARE LARGER THAN THEIR MOUTHS. -SNAKES ARE LIMBLESS WHILE LIZARDS HAVE LIMBS -LIZ HAVE MOVEABLE EYELIDS SNAKES EYES ARE PERM COVERED W A TRANSPARENT CAP. -SNAKES ARE TETRAPODS DESPITE THE LACK OF LIMBS.
All mammals
ARE VERTEBRATES (HAVE BACKBONE)
RAIN SHADOW
AREA WHERE PRECIPITATION IS NOTICEABLY LESS.
blastima
ARM CUT OFF AND TURNS INTO BLASTIMA AND SLOWLY REGROWS.
MUSCLE CONTACTS
AROUND GILLS AND OPERCULUM DRAW H20 ACROSS GILLS AND BONY FISH DO NOT NEED TO CONSTANTLY SWIM TO BREATHE. B4- FISH HAD TO SWIM TO WATER TO GULP AIR-> DVELOPED LUNGS. -MODERN FISH LATER COULD BREATHE THIS WAY. HOWEVER MOST BONY FISH LUNGS DEV TO SWIM BLADDER: GAS FILLED BALLOON LIKE STRUCTURE THAT HELPS FISH REMAIN UOYANT IN H20 EVEN WHEN STATIONARY.
FEATHERS
AS NOTED ABOVE , FEATURES ARE DISTINGUISHING FTS OF MODERN BIRDS THAT EVOLVED BEFORE FLIGHT. -THEY EVOLVED FROM SCALES OF THEIR REPTILIAN ANCESTORS. - A BIRDS COVERING OF FEATHERS IS REFERRED TO AS ITS PLUMAGE.
BIRDS
AS PREV MENTIONED, EVOLVED FROM DINOS. THEIR DISTINGUISHING FT IS FEATHERS, A FT OF INHERITED FROM THOSE DINO ANCESTORS.
Population and r, k
Are is per capita growth rate and Kay is carrying capacity. The carrying capacityIs the maximum density at which population can be Sustain
subsidence zones
Areas of high pressure that are the sites of the world's tropical deserts because the subsiding air is relatively dry, having released all of its moisture over the equator.
Yellow water river
All margins of lentic and lotic may dev. Marches to swamps, and bogs. oxy is low and temps vary w location. Location: All but Antarctica. Plant Life: Wet Lands are amongst reproductive species rich areas in world. Lilies, rooted species sedges, cattails and cypress and gum trees. Animal life:most wetlands are rich in animal species. Birds and insects. Effects of humans: regarded as wast lands for humans, humans drain them.
Eusociality
Altruism in social groups that have sterile individuals
Predation
An interaction in which one organism kills another for food. Classic predators, like the lion shown here, kill their prey. But, they have a fairly short duration of interaction with that prey item - just as long as it takes to catch, kill, and eat it. Herbivores consume plant material, but they are different from true predators in that they generally do not kill the plants they are eating. The grazing antelope, shown above, will only eat part of the grass, and then it can grow back. Parasites have a long duration of interaction with their hosts, generally living either on the inside or outside of a host's body. However, they tend to not kill their host. A parasitoid is a parasite that will eventually kill its host. In the example above, a female wasp has laid her eggs within the caterpillar. After the larvae hatch, they consume the caterpillar tissue and will eventually spin cocoons right on the caterpillar itself. There are many different species of parasitoid wasp, most of which focus on some type of caterpillar host. A number of animals produce chemicals that make them dangerous or toxic in some way in order to avoid being eaten. Many of them also exhibit aposematic (or "warning") coloration as a way to advertise this. For instance, the "blue-jean frog", shown below, is advertising its toxicity with its bright colors.
Archaeopteryx
An intermediate fossil that shows both reptile and bird characteristics. HAD DINO-LIKE TEETH SET IN SOCKETS, A VERY REPTILIAN SKELETON, A LONG TAIL MADE OF BONE, + EVEN CLAWS ATTACHED TO ITS WING. BUT IT ALSO HAD FEATHERS. THIS DISCOVERY IN 1861, WAS THE FIRST REAL EVIDENCE OF THE TIE BETWEEN BIRDS AND DINOS.
Trophic levels
Autotrophs - harvest inorganic energy sources (light or chemical) and store that energy in organic carbon compounds. They are called producers because they are taking these energy sources and incorporating into biomass; they form the base of the food chain. Heterotrophs - everyone else; they must consume organic molecules from their surroundings. Primary consumers - consume primary producers (autotrophs), also referred to as herbivores (plant eaters) Secondary consumers - consume primary consumers Tertiary consumers - consume secondary consumers
DISEASE CALLED
BATRACHOCHYTRIUM DENDROBATIDIS
actinistia (coelacanths) and Dipnoi (lungfish)
BOTH CONSIDERED SARCOPTERYGII OR LOBE-FINNED FISH.
Fixed Pattern Action
Behavior that a stereotyped and performed the same way every time
pollution and biogeochemical cycles
Biogeochemical cycling is a term used to describe the movement of materials into and out of the the living and non-living world. CO2 Carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere in three ways: 1.) Respiration - carbon dioxide is a by-product of cellular respiration (breakdown of glucose) for the majority of organisms on the planet. 2.) Decomposition - as dead material is broken down by decomposers, carbon dioxide is released as a by-product. This route #2 is really not different from #1 (respiration) above because it is simply bacterial respiration as they break down the dead material. 3.) Burning of fossil fuels - fossil fuels are made of organisms that were buried underground (or in ocean sediment) before they could fully decompose. Over millions of years, they have been converted into coal, oil, and gas. As we combust fossil fuels for energy, this is essentially completing the decomposition process, returning that carbon back into the atmosphere.
species richness
Communities differ in how varied they are. One measure of variation is species richness, or, the number of species in the community. Globally, we tend to see some natural variation in richness with more species at or near the equator and fewer as we move toward the poles. There are a number hypotheses that have been put forth to explain why species richness varies. We will take a look at four of them: The Time Hypothesis suggests that communities tend to diversify with age. They gain species over time. The Area Hypothesis proposes that larger continous areas support more species than smaller areas. The Productivity Hypothesis suggests that more available (solar) energy corresponds to more species.
exploitation competition
Competing species have roughly equal access to a specific resource but differ in how fast or efficiently they exploit it. The species that can use the resource more quickly gets more of the resource and hampers the growth, reproduction, or survival of the other species
aquatic biomes
Consist of marine and freshwater regions.
MODERN AMPHIBIANS
DIVIDED BY 3 GROUPS SALAMANDERS->TAILED FROG AND TOADS -> MAJ OR AMPH IN WORLD -> JUMP -> MANY HABS CECELIANS-> BURROW LIMBLESS SUBJECTED TO CERTIAN AREAS (TROP) NEARLY BLIND EARTH WORM TETRA (LIMBS) -TERRESTRIAL:BUT RELY ON A LOT OF MOISTURE. -EGGS GELATONOUS +RISK DRYING OUT. MOST AMPH: LAY EGGS IN H20 OR CLOSE FROM MOISTURE WHILE DEV. -AQ W TADPOLES W GILLS. -THIN SKIN TO STAY MOIST -RELY PART IN SKIN. THERE WAS A DECLINE BC AQ AND TEREST.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
DURING DEV IN VERTS, NOTOCHARD IS REPLACED BY BONY OR CARTILAGINOUS COULUMN OF INTERLOCKING VERTEBRAE THAT PROVIDES SUPPORT AND PROTECTS NERVE CORD.
Type 2 curve
Describe the populations in which the members have more or less the same chance of dying regardless of age
Detrivors
Detritivores are organisms that consume dead or decaying organic matter (leaf litter, dead plants, animal carcasses, animal waste, etc). They are crucial to ecosystems because most biomass in an ecosystem is not eaten as live tissue, but dies before it is eaten. Detritivores are able to harness that energy and are a form of "recyclers" in the ecosystem.
Monotremes
Egg laying mammals A VERY OLD GROUP OF EGG-LAYING MAMMALS THIS INCLUDES THE DUCK -BILLED PLATYPUS A HANDFULL ECHNIDA SPECIES THERE ARE 5 LEFT AND 4 ARE AKIDNA AND THE 5TH IS THE DUK BILLED PLATYPUS. MEANS SINGLE WHOLE. SINGLE ORIFICE , EGG-LAYING FOR REPRODUCTION. LIKE BIRDS, REPS, FISH AND DINOS, ETC THEY LAY EGGS INSTEAD OF GIVING BIRTH TO LIVE YOUNG. EGGS ARE SOFT-SHLLED, HATCHED SUCKLE MILK FROM PORES MOTHERS BODY.
2nd law of thermodynamics
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe. ECOSYSTEM NEEDS RE-OCCURING INPUT OF ENERGY FROM EXTERNAL SOURCE.
extreme form of altruism
Evolution of science casts in social animals in which vast majority of females known as workers do not reproduce but instead help only one reproduce Raise off spring.
Competition can be intraspecific or interspecific.
Exploitation competition is indirect. Species compete for a limited resource, but aren't physically interacting with one another. Interference competition is direct. Individuals are physically confronting one another - either through physical force (e.g. fighting) or intimidation.
BIRDS HAVE ADDITIONAL
FEATURES... THESE HAVE EVOLVED EITHER DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY RELATED TO FLIGHT SUCH AS: ENDOTHERMY EFFICIENT 4 CH HEART ACUTE COLOR VISION PARENTAL CARE.
REPRODUCTIONS IN JAWED FISH
FERTILIZATION IN CHONDRICHTNYANS, W MALE TRANSFERRING SPERM TO FM VIA PAIR OF CLASPERS: WHICH ARE EXTENSIONS OF PELVIS FINS.
IN LOBE FINNED FISH
FINS ARE SUPP BY SKEL EXTENSIONS OF PECTORAL AND PELVIC AREAS THAT ARE MOVED BY MUS WITHIN THE FINS.
population ecology
FOCUSES O GROUPS OF INTERBREEDING INDIVIDUALS CALLED POPS. THE PRIMARY GOAL OF THIS IS TO UNDERSTAND FACTORS THAT AFFECT A POPULATIONS GROWTH AND DETERMINES ITS SIZE AND DENSE.
EFFICIENT 4 -CH HEART
FOR EFFICIENT DELIVERY OF OXY AND NUTRIENTS.
enlarged skull
FOR THEIR BODY SIZES MAMMALS HAVE RELITIVELY LARGE CRANIUMS COMPARED TO TOHER ANIMALS. THIS HOUSES THEIR PROPORTIONALLY LARGER BRAINS. THEY ALSO HAVE SOME NOTABLE CHANGES TO SKELETAL STRUCTURE OF JAW AND EAR.
THINKING ABOUT HUMAN MAMMALIAN BREATHING.
FOR US OXYGENATED AIR ENTERS WHEN WE INHALE, BUT THRE IS A BREAK IN OXGEN DELIVERY DURING THE EXHALE- WE HAVE BI DIRECTIONAL (TWO-WAY) BREATHING.
FROST IS PROBABLY...
FROST INJURY IS LETHA; TO THESE PLANTS BC WHEN CELL MEMBRANES ARE DISRUPTED, THE TOXIN IS RELEASED INTO OTHER TISSUES. - GEOGRAPHIC RANGE OF ENDOTHERMIC ANIMALS ARE ALSO AFFECTED BY TEMP. THE SINGLE MOST IMP FACTOR LIMITING GEOGRAPHIC DIST OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROP PLANTS. -COLD TEMPS CAN BE LETHAL BC CELLS MAY RUPTURE IF THE H2O THEY CONTAIN FREEZES. CAN BE ESPECIALLY LETHAL TO TO PLANTS PRODUCING CHEM DEFENSE AGAINST HERBS. ONE FORM IS THE WHITE CLOVER: TRIFOLIUM REPENS, PRODUCES CYANIDE AS A DEFENSE AGAIST HERB
Female-enforced monogamy hypothesis
Female stop their male partners from being poly gynous.
population ecology
Focuses groups of organisms that are the same species ecology at this level is generally concerned with population growth patterns overtime.
organismal ecology
Focuses on the individual level in ways which organisms are affected or adapted to their surroundings. Within the scale ecologist study the behavioral and physiological adjustments organisms make an order to survive and reproduce successfully in their ever-changing environment..
coral reefs:
Found in tropical areas and hotspots for biodiversity. Abundant and warm waters and are distributed around the creator. -Cooler water temperature suppress the form of calcium carbonate shell that makes up the main scaffolding of the reef. However if they get too warm the algae that live on the calcium carbonate shall die off resulting in coral bleaching
climate change
Global warming = increase in Earth's average surface temperature. Climate change = a long-term change in climate (can be used to describe either on a global or local scale). Recall that there is more to climate than temperature alone.
hinged jaws developed from
GILL ARCHES. STRUCTURES THAT HELP TO SUPPORT THE GILLS. -PRIMITIVE FISH W NO JAWS, MORE GILL ARCHES THAN LATER EVOLVING GNATHOSTOMES. -EARLY GNATHS, IN MIDDLE HAD SOME ARCHES MOD TO SIMP HINGED JAW. -MOD SHARK HAVE FEWER GILLS AS 4TH ARCH RECREATED TO JAW STRUCTURE.
THESE INTERACTIONS IN TURN
GOVERN THE #'S OF SPECIES IN AN AREA AND THEIR POP DENSITIES.
THERE ARE SOME
GREAT TRANSITIONAL DORMS IN FOSSIL RECORD THAT PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT THE TRANSITION FROM DINOSAUR TO BIRD. MOST FAMOUS: IS PROBABLY ARCHAEOPRERY AVIAN FT: FEATHERED WING + TAIL. REPTILIAN: LONG BONY TAIL. CLAWS ON WING TOOTHED BEAK
The ecology of water is...
Governed largely by the unusual properties of water, it is most dense @ 4 deg c, becomes less dense as it warms or cools. at 0 deg c h2o freezes and is in least dense state, so ice floats on unfrozen h2o. -this exps why lakes and rivs, freeze bottom up and why free-flowing h2o is at bottom of lake or riv. -From a fish POV this is advantages bc of ice sank, all temperate lakes would freeze solid in winter and no fish would exist in lakes outside the tropics. oxygen content is depleted toward bottoms of lakes by the respiration of bottom-dwelling organisms.
JAWLESS FISHES
HAGFISH AND LAMPREY -OLDEST LIVING VERTS ARE JAWLESS FISH W/ CARTIL ENDOSKELETONS.
JAWLESS VERTS
HAGFISH AND LAMPREYS =CYCLOSTOMATA. "CIRCLE MOUTHS". -CELL LIKE ANIMALS THAT DO NOT POSSESS JAWS.
NOTHING BEFORE AMNIOTES
HAS ABILITY TO LAY THEIR EGGS ON COMP DRY LAND. BC OF THIS EVOLVED EGG: AMNIOTES ARE THE FIRST ANIMALS W RHE ABILITY TO LIVE A FULLY TERRESTRIAL LIFE. -DESPITE THEIR MOVE IN LAND THE AMNIOTES HAVE NOT ABANDONED THEIR POND DWELLING UPBRINGING. -IN FACT THE AMNIOTIC EGG BRINGS THE POND W THEM. BY ENCLOSING THE AQUATIC ENV WITHIN ITS SHELL. THIS IS ACHIEVED BY FOUR MAIN UPGRADES THAT ARE UNIQUE TO AMNIOTIC EGGS.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND TUTLES
HAS BEGAN TO SKEW TUTRLE POP TOWARDS 7% OF FEMALES.
DIFFERENCES IN CLIMATE ON EARTH...
HELP TO DEFINE ITS DIFFERENT BIOMES: WHICH ARE MAJIOR TYPES OF HABITAT CHARACTERIZED BY DISTINCTIVE PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE. TER OR AQ.
KNOWING WHAT FACTORS AFFECT POPS CAN...
HELP US LESSEN SPECIES ENDANGERMENT, STOP EXTINCTIONS, AND CONTROL INVASIVE SPECIES.
PLACENTA MAMMS
HUMAN, CATS, DOGS, GIR, BLUE WHALE -DISK OF BLOOD RICH TISS ATTACH TO WALL OF UTERUS TO SUPPLY DEV EMBRYO. -KEEPS ALIVE DURING PREGNANCY AND CONTRIBUTES TO BLOOD SUP. -PM : STAY THE LONGEST IN PLACENTA THAN ANY OTHER MAMMALS. ONCE UMBILICAL CORD BREAKS THE RESPIRATORY AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM START WORKING TO TAKE OVER AND ELIMINATE WASTES.
POUNDS STUDY
IMPACTED GLOBAL WARMING, A GRAUAL INCREASE OF AVG TEMPS OF EARHTS ATOMOSPHERE. AS AGENT CAUSING OUTBREAKS OF FUNGUS.
Subphylum Vertebrata
INCLUDED WITHIN THE PHYLUM CHORDATA.
BIOTIC
INTERACTIONS AMONG ORGANISMS
ABIOTIC
INTERACTIONS AND THOSE BETWEEN ORGANISMS AND THEIR NON-LIVING ENV.
mixing term: spring overturn
In Spring ice melts, water warms and spring storms mix water layers, creating uniformed conditions of temperature and oxygen
4 stages
In Stage 1, like we saw globally before 1750, birth rates and death rates are both high. They largely cancel each other out, so there is little to know overall population growth. In Stage 2, death rates have dropped significantly. This is likely due to access to better medicine, clean water, food, etc. However, the birth rates still remain high. Notice that the population really starts to grow here as births far outnumber deaths. In Stage 3, the birth rate starts to head downward as well. As society changes and parents are more confident that their children will survive to adulthood, they tend to have fewer children. Notice, however, that birth rate is still higher than death rate, so the population is still growing. It is just growing at a slower rate than it was in Stage 2. Finally, in Stage 4, birth rates have dropped enough such that they are caught up with death rates. Both are relatively low, and the population stabilizes.
In deeper temperate lakes...
In the summer three layers are present. On upper layer, called epilimnion : Is warmed by the sun and mixed well by the wind. below this lies a trans zone called the Thermodine: Where the temperature declines rapidly. lower still is the hypolimnion: A cool layer too far below the surface to be much warned and with Lowlight levels where photosynthesis is absent and oxygen supply is low.
ecosystem ecology
Includes not only the ecological community but also Nonliving and living factors as well
AMNION
Innermost membranous sac surrounding the developing fetus. -PROTECTS EMBRYO IN THE AMNIOTIC CAVITY
Mutualism
It is a situation in which both parties benefit from the interaction. There are a few different forms of mutualism: Resource-based mutualism - species receive some resource (usually food) Defensive mutualism - one species protects the other in exchange for food or shelter Dispersive mutualism - one species receives food in return for transporting pollen or seeds of a plant Additionally, mutualistic relationships can be either obligatory or facultative
DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS OF MANY PLANTS ARE...
LIMITED BY AVAIL. H2O FOR EX: THE DENSITY OF CREOSOLE BUSHES IN MOJAVE DESERT IN WETTER AREAS. -IN COLD CLIMATES H2O CAN BE PRESENT BUT LOCKED UP AS PERMAFROST THEREFORE WATER IS UNAVAIL. ALPINE TREES STOP GROWING AT A POINT ON MOUNTIANSIDE WHERE CANNOT TAKE UP ENOUGH MOISTURE TO OFFSET TRANSPIRTATION LOSSES. "TIMBERLINE"...APPARENT ON MANY MOUNTIANSIDES. IN AQ ENVMENTS LIGHT MAY BE AN EVEN MORE LIMITING FACTOR BC H2O IS ABS LIGHT PREVENTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS AT DEPTHS> THAN 100M. -MOST AQUATIC PLANTS + ALGAE ARE THEREFORE LIMITED TO A FAIRLY NARROW ZONE CLOSE TO THE SURFACE, WHERE LIGHT IS SUFFICIENT TO ALLOW PHOTOSYN TO OCCUR, "PHOTIC ZONE" A FEW TERRESTRIAL PLANTS ARE ADAPTED TO LIVE IN SALINE SOIL ALONG SEACOASTS, HERE VEGETARIAN CONSISTS LARGELY OF HALOPHYTES, SPECIES THAT CAN TOLERATE > SALT CONCENTRATIONS IN THEIR CELL RATHER THAN REG PLANTS.
PARENTAL CARE
LOTS OF THIS. BC BABIES ARE DEVELOPING INSIDE OF BIRD EGGS ARE ENDOTHERMIC THEY NEED TO BE INCUBATED THROUGHOUT THE PROCESS. EITHER ONE OR BORTH PARENTS (BROOD) -SIT ON, THE EGGS TO KEEP THEM WARM. IN THIS THERE ARE A VARIETY OF COURTSHIP ROUTINES. SINCE OFFSPRING REQUIRE SO MUCH CARE AND ENERGETIC EXPENDITURE ON THE PART OF THE PARENT/S. PICKING A GOOD MATE IS ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT FOR REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS. THEREFORE, MANY BIRDS HAVE EVOLVED COMPLEX COURTSHIP ROUTINES IN ORDER TO GAUGE THE QUALITY OF A POTENTIAL MATE.
HAGFISH
NOT ONLY JAWLESS, BUT ALSO HAVE NO IMBS, FINS OR EVEN TRUE VERTEBRAE. -LIVE IN MUDDY OCEAN BOTTOMS AND ARE VIRT BLIND. -THEY RELY ON SENSE OF SMELL AND TENTACLES AROUND THEIR MOUTHS TO FIND PREY. -HAGFISH ARE EASILY BEST KNOWN FOR THEIR ABILITY TO PRODUCE AN INCREDIBLE AMOUNT OF SLIME, PARTICULARLY WHEN THEY EEL THREATENED.
THE MORPHOLOGICAL FTS OF COEL, LUNG AND PRIMITIVE TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES, TOGETHER WITH THE SIMILARLY OF THEIR...
NUCLEAR GENES, SUGGEST TO MANY SCIENTISTS THAT LOBE-FINNED ANCESTORS GAVE RISE TO 3 LINEAGES. 1. COELACANTHS. 2. LUNGFISH. 3.TETRAPODS.
predation, herbivory, parasitism
Negative for one species, positive for the other
Lentic Habitats
No water flow (lakes, ponds, impounded water behind dams) Physical env: young lakes, usually clear and older get more dirty. have more diss nuts and cyanobacteria and algae spread. Eutrophic. Plant Life: phytoplankton, plants and algae, do to high vegetation. Animal life: fish, turts, crayfish, insect larvae. in trop or subtrop crocs and gators. Effects of humans: Fertilizers, sewage.
THE ROUNDED SHAPE
OF FLY CATCHER IS FORMED BY A LAYER OF CONTOUR FEATHERS.
BOTH
OVI AND VIVI GIVE BIRTH TO LIVE YOUNG. -THEY NEVER STOP GROWING.
SOME SHARK SPECIES ARE?
OVIPAROUS -LAY EGGS IN PROTECTIVE POUCH CALLED MERMAIDS PURSE. -EGGS ARE RETAINED WITHIN FM BODY, BUT NO PLACENTA TO NOURISH THE YOUNG.
Behavior
Observable response of organisms to an external or internal stimulus. Behavioral ecology:Study of how behavior contributes to differential survival reproductions of organisms.In the 20th century scientific studies of animal behavior Turned ethology the focus on specific genetic and physiological mechanisms of behavior these factors are called proximate causes. -Behavior comes from genetics and environment. -In vertebrateComes from the development of nervous system and muscular system. -Behaviors that seem to be genetically programmed are referred to as innate or instinctual. egg tolling is a : fixed action pattern a behavior that when initiated continues until completed. For example if I just removed a wild goose is in process of rolling impact toward the nest the goose still completes the FAP: As though she were rolling back then now absent egg to nest. -The stimulus to initiate this behavior as a strong one which ethologists term assigned stimulus.
Polyandry
One female, several males.
ENDOTHERMY
Organisms with bodies that are warmed by heat generated by metabolism. This heat is usually used to maintain a relatively stable body temperature higher than that of the external environment (WARM-BLOODEDNESS)- BIRDS MAINTAIN A RELATIVELY CONSTANT, HIGH BODY TEMP AS A WAY TO MAINTAIN THE HIGH METABOLIC RATES NECESSARY TO POWER-FLIGHT.
Overexploitation
Overexploitation is the harvesting of a species at an unsustainable rate. It has driven a number of species to extinction, and threatens several others.
Dessertification
Overstocking of the land for pasturage Of domestic animals can greatly reduce grass coverage through overgrazing turning the area desert like.
WATER
PERFORMS MANY VITAL FUNCTIONS IN ALL LIVING ORGANISMS. -ACTS AS A SOLVENT FOR CHEMICAL REACTIONS, TAKES PART IN HYDROLYSIS AND DEHYDRATION REACTIONS, ALSO ELIMINATES WASTES, AND USED FOR SUPPORT IN PLANTS AND IN SOME VERTEBRATES AS PART OF HYDROSTATIC SKELETON.
trop rain forest
PHYS ENV: RAINFALL EXCEEDS 230 CM PER YR AND TEMP IS NOT YEAR ROUND, AVG 25-29 DEG CEL. SOILS ARE OFTEN SHALLOW AND NUT POOR. LOC: FOUND IN equationAL all regions.Tropical forests cover much of northern South America, Central America, Western and central Africa, South East ASIA and various islands in Indian and Pacific oceans. PLANT LIFE: Numbers of plant species found in tropical forests can be staggering often reaching as many as hundred tree species per square kilometer. Leaves often Narrow to drift to tips AT APEX So that rain water drains quickly. Many trees have a large buttresses That help support their shell over systems. Little light penetrates the canopy, Uppermost layer of tree foliageAnd ground cover often is sparse. vines and epiphytes , plants that lived perched on trees and are not rooted in the ground are common. Animal life in trop rainforest: It's diverse. Insects, reptiles, amphibians and mammals are well represented. Large mammals, however, are not common. Because many of the plant species are widely scattered In tropical forests, plans do not typically rely on wind for Pollination or to disperse their seeds. Mimicry and bright protective coloration, Warning of bad taste or the existence And of toxins are common. Effects on humans: Humans are affecting tropical forests greatly by logging and clearing the land for agriculture Many South American tropical forests are clear to create grasslands for cattle.
EARLY DIVERGING LOBE-FINNED FISH
PROBABLY EVOLVED IN FRESH H20 AND HAD LUNGS, BUT COELACANTH LOST LUNGS AND RETURNED TO THE SEA. SPECIAL FEATURE: SPECIAL JOINT IN SKULL THAT ALLOWS THE JAWS TO OPEN EXTREMELY WIDE+GIVES THE COELACANTH A POWERFUL BITE. THEIR SWIM BLADDER IS FILLED W/ OIL THAN GAS, ALTHOUGH IT SERVES SOME PURP-TO INC BUOYANCY.
SHELL
PROTECTS THE EGGS FROM PREADS, BAC, DAMAGE AND DRYING OUT, BUT UNLIKE WALLS OF FISHTANK. THE SHELL OF AMNIOTIC EGG IS PORUS, ALLOWING OXYGEN TO PASS, SO THAT GROWING AMNIOTE DOESNT SUFFOCATE ON THE INSIDE.
Plants and parasitism
Parasitism is likely the most common lifestyle on the planet. There is a lot of variation in terms of types of parasites and their lifestyles, but they all form physically close associations with their hosts and are not lethal (at least not right away). Parasites can be any form of life: prokaryotic, protist, plant, animal, or fungus. We have seen many examples throughout the diversity of life section. Since there are so many parasites out there, we have a number of ways in which to classify them. Monophagous - feed on a single type of host Polyphagous - can feed on many different types of hosts Microparasite - multiply and stay within host, small size (like pathogenic bacteria) Macroparasite - larger, may release juveniles outside of host body (like tapeworms) Ectoparasite - live on the outside of a host's body (like a flea) Endoparasite - live inside the host's body (like a heartworm) Parasitic plants, which parasitize other plants, can be classified as either Holoparasites - derive ALL nutrients from the host, do not photosynthesize Hemiparasites - photosynthetic, so they produce their own organic sugars, but derive all other nutrients from the host
B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning
Personality development is based on behaviors that are either rewarded or punished in the environment. "personality" may just be sustained behavioral patterns.
Tropical deciduous forest in Bandhavgarh national park, India
Physical Environment: Rainfall Substantial, around 130 between 280 cm a yearAnd temperatures are hot year-round 25-39 deg cel. Biome experiences a distinct dry season that often lasts threeMonths or longer. Shortages of water in the soil can occur in the dry season. Location:This biome exist in equatorial regions where rainfall is more seasonal than it is in tropical rain forests. Much of India consists of tropical deciduous Forest, containing teak trees. Brazil Thailand and Mexico also contain tropical deciduous Forest. At wet edges this biome may grade into tropical rain forests, at the dry edges, it may grade into tropical grasslands or savannas. Plant life: Because of distinct dry season, many of the trees in tropical Deciduous forests shed their leaves, Just as they do in temperate forest And an understory for herbs and grasses may grow during this time. Where the dry season is 6 to 7 months long, tropical deci forests may contain shorter thorny plants such as acacia trees, whos thorns deteriorate moisture-seeking animals and the forest is then referred to as a trop thorn forest. Animal Life: The diversity of animal life is high and species such as monkeys, antelopes, wild pigs, and tigers are present. However, as with plant diversity, animal diversity is less than that of tropical rain forests. Tropical thorn forests may contain more browsing mammals, hence, the evolution of plant thorns as a defense. Effects of humans: Soil tropical deci forest is more fertile than that of tropical rain forests. The Land is increasingly being lodged and cleared for agriculture and growing human population.
Temperate RF HOH rain forest in olympic national park, Washington
Physical Environment: Rainfall is abundant usually acceding 200 cm a year. The condensation of water from dense coastal fog and humans augments the normal rainfall. Temperatures seldom drop below freezing in the winter, and summer temperatures rarely exceed 27°C. Location: Area biome type is small, consisting of thin strips along the north west coast of North America from nothern cali, through washigton state, brit col, and into southeastern alaska (tongass). It also exists in southwestern south America along the Chilean coast. It is found only in coastal locals because of Motivating influence of ocean on air temperature. Plant life: Dominant vegetation Especially America consists of large evergreen trees Such as westernHemlock, Douglas fir + sitka spruce. The high moisture content allows epiphytes to thrive Cool temperatures slow the activity of decomposers, so that the litter layer is thick and spongy. Animal life: In North America, the temperate rainforest is rich In species Such as: mule deer, elk, and squirrels, And numerous birds Such as Jays and nuthatches. Because of the abundant moisture and moderate temperatures reptiles and amphibians are also common. Effects of humans: This biome is a pro-life producer Of the wood and supplies much timber, logging threatens the survival of the Forest in some areas.
Temperate grassland prarie, Wyoming
Physical env: Annual rainfall is generally between 25 and hundred centimeters, Too low to support a forest but higher than in deserts. Temperatures in winter sometimes fall below -10°C whereas Summers are Very hot can get to 30°c. Location: Temperate grasslands include the prairiesOf North America, the steepes of Russia, the pampas of argentine, the veldt of south africa. In addition to the limiting amounts of rain, fire and Grazing animals may also prevent the Establishment of temperate grasslands. Where temps rarely fall below freezing and most of rain falls in winter, chaparral , a fire- adapted community ft shrubs and small trees, occurs. chapparral is seen at around 30 deg latitude where Cool ocean waters moderate the climate, as long As the coasts of California, south Africa, Chile and South West Australia and in countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Some ecologists recognize chaparral As a distinct biome type. Plant Life: From east to west in north America and north south Asia grasslands show differentiation along the moisture gradients. In Illinois with annual rain fall of 80 cm, tall prairie grasses such as the bigBlue stem plus switchgrass grow about 2 m high. Along the eastern base of Rockies, 1,300 km to the west, Where rainfall is only 40 cm, prairie grasses such as the Buffalo grass and blue Grama rarely exceed 0.5m in height. Similar gradients occur in south Africa in Argentina. Animal life:Where grasslands remain large mammals are most prominent members of faura, bison and pronghorn in North America, Wild horses in Europe and Asia and large kangaroos in Australia. Burrowing animals such as north American and African mole rats are also common. Effects of humans: Prairie soil is among the richest in the world, having 12 times the humus Layer of a typical Forest soil. Worldwide most prairies have been converted to agriculture, and original temperate grassland habitats are among the rarest biomes in the world.
Temperate deciduous forest in Maryland
Physical env: Annual rainfall is generally between 75 and 200cm. Temps fall below freezing each winter but not usually below -12°C Location: Large tracks of temperate deci Forest are evident in the Eastern US , western Europe, And eastern asia. In southern hemisphere, eucalyptus Forest occur in Australia and streams of Southern Beech are found in Southern South America, New Zealand and Australia. Plant Life: Species diversity is much lower in temperate deci forest than in tropical forest, w/ only About 3 to 4 trees species per square kilometer several tree genera may be dominant in the eastern U.s. given Locality- for Ex: oaks, hickories and Maples are usually dominant in the Eastern US commonly leaves are shed in the fall and reappear in the spring. Many herbaceous Plants flower in spring before the trees leaf out And lock the light. Even in the summer, the Forest is not as dense as in tropical forests, so ground cover is abundant. Animal life:Animals are adapted to the vegaries Of the climate, many mammals hibernate during the cold months.Birds migrate and insects enter diapause, On condition of dormancy passed usually as a pupa, and reptiles which depend on solar radiation For heat, are relatively uncommon. Mammals include squirrels, wolves, bobcats, foxes, bears and mountain lions. Effects of humans: logging Has eliminated much of temperate deciduous forest From populated portions of Europe and North America. Because the animal leave drop promotes increased soil nutrient levels, soils are rich and easily converted to agriculture. Much of the human population lives in the regions where temperate deci forest is found in both agriculture and development are threats to the biome.
intertidal zone
Physical env: Area where land and meets the sea is alternately submerged and exposed by daily cycle of tides. The resident organisms Are subject to huge daily variations in temperatures, light, intensity and availability of sea waters. Location: Throughout the world, the area where land meets the sea consist of Sandy shore, mud flats for rocky shore. Plant Life: Plant life may be quite limited because of the sand or mud is constantly shifted by the tide. Mangrooves may colonize mud flats and tropical areas, and salt marsh grasses may colonize mud flats in temperate locations. On the rocky shore, green algae in seaweeds predominate. Animal life:Diverse on rocky shore, sea anemonies, snails, Hermits And small fish live in tidepools. on rock there may be limpets mussels, sea stars, urchins, snails, sponges, tube worms, whelks, isopods, chitons. At low tides, organisms maybe dry and vulnerable to predation by variety of animals. Including birds and mammals. High tides and bring predatory fish. Sandy or muddy shores may contain Burrowing marine worms, crabs, small isopods. Effects of humans: human dev been reduces, beech avail to animals, but oils spills have affected intertidal areas.
TUNDRA: DENALI NATIONAL PARK IN ALASKA
Physical env: PRECIPITATION IS GENERALLY <25CM PER YEAR AND IS OFTEN LOCKED UP AS SNOW AND UNAVAILABLE FOR PLANTS. DEEPER WATER CAN BE LOCKED AWAY FOR A LARGE PART OF THE YEAR IN PERMAFROST... A LAYER OF PERMANENTLY FROZEN SOIL. THE GROWING SZN IS SHORT, ONLY 50-60 DAYS SUMMER TEMPS ARE ONLY 3-12 DEG CEL AND EVEN DURING THE LONG SUMMER DAYS, THE GROUND THAWS TO < 1M IN DEPTH. MIDWINTER TEMPS AVG -32 DEG. Location: TUNDRA (FROM THE FINNISH TUNTURIA, MEANING TREELESS PLAIN) EXISTS MAINLY IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE, NORTH OF TEMPERATE CONIFEROUS FOREST, BC VERY LITTLE LAND AREA OCCURS IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE AT THE LATITUDE WHERE TUNDRA WOULD AGREE. Plant Life: W/ SO LITTLE AVAILABLE WATER, TREES CANNOT GROW. VEGETATION OCCURS IN THE FORM OF FRAGILE, SLOW GROWING LICHENS, MOSSES, GRASSES, SEDGES AND OCCASIONAL SHRUBS, WHICH GROW CLOSE TO THE GROUND, PLANT DIVERSITY IS VERY LOW IN SOME PLACES, DESSERT CONDITIONS PREVAIL BC SO LITTLE MOISTURE FALLS. Animal life: ANIMALS OF ARTIC TAUNDRA HAVE ADAPTED TO THE COLD BY HAVING GOOD INSULATION. Many birds, especially shorebirds and WATER FLOW MIGRATE. THE FAUNA IS MUCH RICHER IN SUMMER THAN IN WINTER. MANY INSECTS SPEND THE WINTER AT IMMATURE STAGES OF GROWTH. WHICH ARE MORE RESISTANT TO COLD THAN THE ADULT FORMS. LARGER ANIMALS INCLUDE SUCH HERBIVORES AS MUSK OXYGENATE AND CARIBU IN NORTH AMERICA (THE LATTER ARE CALLED REINDEER IN EUROPE AND ASIA). SMALLER ANIMALS INCLUDE HAVES AND LEMMINGS. COMMON PREDATORS INCLUDE ARCTIC FOXES, WOLVES, SNOWY OWLS AND POLAR BEARS NEAR THE COAST. Effects of humans: THOUGH THIS AREA IS SPARSELY POPULATED, MINERAL EXTRACTION, ESPECIALLY OF OIL, HAS THE POTENTIAL TO SIG, AFFECT THIS BIOME. ECOSYSTEM RECOVERY FROM SUCH DAMAGE WOULD BE VERY SLOW.
carrib coral reef
Physical env:Coral need warm waters at least 20° C but less 30°C to survive. -limited to photic zone where light Penetrates and allows photosynthesis to occur. Sunlight is important because many corals harbor symbiotic algae or dinoflagellates, that contribute nuts to animals that req light to live. Location: Coral reefs are in warm tropical water where have solid substrates for attachment water clarity is good. Largest reef in world is a great barrier reef Australian coastline. but others are found in AO, red sea, pac and indian oceans. Plant Life: Immense variety, rich biome on earth. 30-40 percent of all fish species on earth are found on coral reefs. many r brightly colored to warn preds about toxins. Effects of humans: many have removed coral for aquariums, pollution affecting h2o's, also global warming. Water temperatures, that are too high over 30°C and high pH caused by elevated carbon dioxide levels both contribute to a coral bleaching.
Temperate coniferous forest in Canada
Physical env: Precipitation is generally between 30 and I hundred centimeters and often occurs in the form of snow. Temperatures are very cold, often below freezingFor long periods of time. Location: The biome temperate coniferus forest known commonly by its Russian name taiga, Lies north of the temperate zone of forests and grasslands. Vast tracks of Taiga exist in north America and Russia. In the southern hemisphere, little land Occurs at latitudes at which extensive taiga could exist Plant Life: Most of the trees are evergreens or conifers with tough needles, hence the similarities of Taiga to temperate rainforest. In this biome, spruces, firns And Pines generally dominate the number of tree species is relatively low. Many of the conifers have conical Shapes to reduce bough Breakage from heavy loads of snow. As in tropical forests the understory is sparse because the Dense year-round canopies prevent sunlight from penetrating. Soils are poor because the fallen needles decay, so slowly in the cold temperatures that a layer of needles builds up and acidifies The soil, reducing the numbers of understory species. Animal life: Reptiles and amphibians are rare because of low temperature. Insects are strongly periodic but may often reach out brake proportions in times of warm temperatures. Mammals that inhibit this biome such as bears, lynxes, moose, beavers, and squirrels, are heavily furred. Effects of humans: Humans have not extensively settled in this biome, but it has been quite heavily logged. Exploration and development of oil and natural gas reserves are also a threat.
The Nambia, Hot Dessert
Physical env: Rainfall is generally less than 30 cm per year. Temperatures are variable, from below freezing at night to as high as 50° C in the day. Location: Hot deserts are found around latitudes of 20 to 30° North and South. Prominent deserts include the Sahara of North Africa, the Kalahari and Namib of the southern Africa. the atacama of chile, the sonoran of Northern Mexico In the south west us and the Simpson of Australia. Plant Life: Three forms of plant life are adapted to deserts: Annuals, succulents, and desert shrubs. Annuals circumvent drought by growing only when there is rain. Succulents, such as the saguaro cactus and other barried cacti Of the south west desert store water. Dessert shrubs, such as the spray like ocotillo, Have shortTrunks, humorous branches, and small thick leaves that can be shed in pro longed dry Periods. In many plants, spine or volatile Chemical compounds serve as a defense against water seeking herbivores. Animal life: To conserve water desert plants produce many small seeds, and animals that eat those seeds, such as ants, birds, rodents are common. Reptiles are numerous because high temperatures permit these eco-thermic animals to maintain a warm body temperature. Lizards and snakes are important predators of seed eating mammals. Effects of humans: Ambitious irrigation schemes And the pro-life use of underground water have allowed humans to develop Desert Sand and grow crops there. salinization a buildup in the salt content of the soil that results from irrigation in areas of low rainfall, is prevalent. off-road vehicles can disturb the fragile desert communities.
MOUNTIAN RANGES: ROCKY MOUNTIAN OF COLORADO.
Physical env: mntn ranges must be views differently from other biomes. on mountins temp dec, w/ inc ele. though adiabetic cooling, as discussed earlier in this section. percip and temp may change dramatically depending on ele and wheter mntn is windward or leeward. Location: Mountain ranges exist in many areas of the world but among the largest are the Himalayas in Asia, the Rockies in North America and andes in SA. Plant Life: A variety of biomes can be found on a single mountain range. Biome type may change from temperate forest through taiga And into tundra on an elevation gradient in the Rocky Mountains, and even from tropical forest to tundra on the highest peaks of Andes In tropical south America.In tropical regions, the daily averages 12 hours per day throughout the year.Instead of a period of intense productivity seen in Arctic tundra, vegetation in the tropical Alpine tundra exhibits slow but steady rate of photosynthesis and growth all year. Animal life:Animals on this biome married and the number of habitats it contains. Generally more species of plants and animals are found at lower elevations then higher ones. Out higher animals such as bighorn sheep and mountain goats climb the craggy slopes and have skid proof pads on their hooves. Birds of prey, such as eagles, are frequent preds of the furry rodents found at higher ele, incl. guinea pigs and marmots. Effects of humans: Lodging and agriculture at lower elevations can cause habitat Degradation. Because of steep slopes mntn soils are often well-drained, thin, and especially susceptible to erosion following clearing for agriculture.
Cold -Dessert of Mongolia
Physical env: precipitation is < 25 cm a yr and is often in the form of snow. rainfall usually comes in the spring. in the daytime, temps can be high in the summer, 21-26 deg c, but avg around freezing, -2 to 4 deg , in the winter. Location: cold deserts are found in dry regions at middle to inc latitudes, especially in the interiors, of continents and in the rain shadows of mnts. cold deserts are found in North America (great basin desert) in Eastern Argentina (Patagonian desert), + Central Asia (The Gobi Desert). Plant Life: Cold deserts are relatively poor in terms of #'s of plant species. Most plans are small in stature. being only between 15 and 120 cm tall. many species are deciduous and spiny. the great basin desert in nevada, utah and bordering states is a cold desert dominated by stage brush states is a cold desert dominated. Animal life: As in hot deserts, large #'s of plants produce small seeds in which Numerous ants, birds, and rodents feed. Many species live in Burrows to escape the cold. In the great basin desert, pocket mice, jackrabbits, kit foxes, and coyotes are common. Effects of humans:Agriculture is hampered because of the low temps And a low rainfall and human populations are not extensive. If top layer of soil is disturbed by human intrusions, such as by off-road vehicles, erosion occurs rapidly and even low vegetation can exist.
Tropical grassland (savanna) Tropical grassland of the masai mara game reserve in kenya.
Physical env:Biome includes hot, tropical areas, with a low or seasonal rainfall Between 50 and 30 cm per year. Often an extensive dry season. Temps averaging 24 to 29°C. Location: Extensive savannas occur in Africa, south Asia, Northern Australia. Plant Life: Wide expanses of grasses dominate Savannas , but occasional thorny trees, such as Acacias may occur. Fire is prevalent in this biome, so most plants Have well developed systems that enable them to re-sprout quickly after a fire. Animal life: The world's greatest assemblages of large mammals occur in Savannah biome. Herds of antelope, zebra, wild beast are found together with their associated predators cheetah, lion, leopard, hyena. Termite mounds dot The landscape in some areas. The extensive herbivory of large grazers, together with Frequent Fires. May help maintain Savannah in preventing their development into Forests. Effects of humans: Savannah soils are often poor because of the occasional rain leaches nutrients. Nevertheless, conversion of this biome to agricultural land is rampant, especially in Africa.
Plants and Self defense
Plants can not move or run away from herbivores, so they tend to rely heavily on mechanical and chemical defenses. Mechanical defenses are structures that make them physically difficult to eat, such as thorns, spines, and bark. Grasses are high in silica, a main component of glass, which means grazers must spend a LOT of time chewing in order to process this tough material. Chemical defenses are secondary metabolites that make them less desireable to herbivores for one reason or another. They can make them unpalatable or even produce psychoactive effects (such as cocaine, for example).
coefficient of relatedness
Probability that if two individuals share common parent or ancestor, a particular gene present in one will be present in other.
Convergent evolution
Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments Lead to emergence of similar species that have evolved from different ancestors.
nitrogen fixation
Process of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia
sexual dysmorphism
Pronounced differentiation and morphology when two sexes within a species.
RADIOCARBON DATING OF EYE LENSES DID WHAT?
RCD OF LARGEGRENLAND SHARKS EYELENSES, SOMNIOSUS MICROCEPHALUS. REVEALED THE AGE AT SEXUAL MATURITY TO BE AT LEAST 156 YRS + AVG LIFE 272 YRS.
amphibian
RELY HEAVILY ON VISION TO CAPTURE PREY. AS AN ADAPTATION TO LIFE ON LAND, THEY HAVE EVOLVED EYELIDS, GLANDS THAT KEEP EYE MOIST AND HAVE A NICTITATING MEMBRANE THIS MEMBRANE OF A FROG QIPES THE EYE CLEAN W/OUT COMPROMISING VISON -THE FROG EAR HAS DEF ADAPTED TO HEARING SOUND WAVES THT TRAVEL THROUGH AIR. -FROGS HAVE A TYMPANIC MEMBRANE WHICH FUNCTIONS LIKE OUR EARDRUMS.
AIR SACS
RESP SYSTEM OF A BIRD IS VERY EFFICIENT . THEY HAVE A PAIR OF LUNGS LIKE OTHER REPTILES , BUT IN ADDITION THEY ALSO HAVE A COMPLEX SYSTEM OF INTERCONNECTED AIR SACS. -NOT ONLY DOES IT MAKE THEM MORE LIGHTWEIGHT, BUT AS AIR CIRCULATES THROUGH AIR SACS, IT CREATES A UNDIRECTIONAL (ONE-WAY) FLOW OF FRESH AIR OF GAS EXCH. SURFACES IN THE LUNGS. FRESH AIR PASSES OVER THE LUNGS DURING BOTH INHALATION AND EXHAL, RESULTING IN A CONSTANT SUPPLY OF FRESH AIR AND ALLOWING THE BIRD TO EXP A NEAR-CONT STATE OF GAS EXCHANGE.
THERE WERE ALSO A # OF NOTABLE CHANGES TO...
RESPIRATORY, CV AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS.
Iteroparous
Repeated reproduction throughout lifetime
although competition is common...
Researchers have proposed several mechanisms by which to species can coexist -can coexist if occupy diff niches. -Niche: Unique set of habitat resources of species requires as well as it's a fact on an ecological system.
dry, scaly skin
SKIN THAT IS RESISTANT TO DESICCATION-A SHIFT AWAY FROM SKIN SERVING A RESPIRATORY FUNCTION MEANT THAT AMNIOTES COULD DEV A TOUGHER , THICKER LAYER . IT ADDS EXTRA PROTECTION AND PREVENTS H20 LOSS.
DOWN FEATHERS ARE...
SOFT W SEVERAL TUFTS AND ARE USED FOR INSULATION. OFTEN MORE APPARENT ON JUVENILES, LIKE THE BABY DUCK SHOWN HERE. CONTOUR FEATHERS ARE LAYERED ON TOP, FORMING THE SURFACE OF THE BIRD. THEY STREAMLINE THE BIRD FOR FLIGHT AND OFTEN PROVIDE A DEG OF WATERPROOFING AS WELL.
SUCH SPECIES ...
SOMETIMES SPREAD SO AGGRESSIVELY THAT THEY CROWD OUT NATIVE ORGANISMS, IN WHICH CASE THEY ARE CONSIDERED INVASIVE SPECIES. PLANT HAVE OFTEN BECOME INVASIVE BC THEY HAVE ESCAPED THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES, PRIMARY INSECTS THAT OCCUR IN COUNTRY OF ORIGIN BUT NOT IN NEW LOCATION.
AMPULE OF LORENZINI
STRUCTURES AROUND HEAD REGION, STUBBY LOOK, GELLY FILLED PORES ACT AS ELECTRO RECEPTORS. ASSOCIATED W NERVE BUNDLES + USEFUL TO DETECT ELECTRO MAG IMPULSES PROD BY OTHER ORGS. LIKE OTER FISH THEY R LOOKING TO EAT FOR EXAMPLE.
ECOLOGY
STUDY OF INTERACTIONS AMONG ORGS AND BET ORGS AND THEIR ENV, THESE INTERACTIONS GOVERN THE # OF SPECIES IN AN AREA AND THEIR POP DENSITIES.
ECOSYSTEM
SYSTEM FORMED BY THE INTERACTION BETWEEN A COMMUNITY ORGANISMS AND PHYSICAL ENVIORNMENT.
many eyes hypothesis
Safety in numbers that comes from an increased probability of detecting a predator's approach by a group of vigilant prey. more people that look out for eachother get more food .One of the first to explain this was group selection which is the premise that natural selection produces outcomes beneficial for the whole group or species.
Ecology
Scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment, RANGES IN SCALE FOM STUDY OF INDIV ORGANISM , TO STUDYING POPS, COMS, + ECOSYSTEMS.
Ecology
Scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environments. -Discusses the effects of physical variables, such as temperature and precipitation and the distribution and abundance of organisms globally. -Objective and scientificTerm is to describe an understand and explain the interactions that take please in nature and use this information to make informed decisions. -Environmentalism is more subjective, lobbying on behalf of the environment or working on behalf of environmental causes. While it is true that most ecologists are also environmentalists.
ECOLOGISTS
Scientists who study relationships between organisms and environments. WORK AT THE LARGEST SCALES OF ANY BIOLOGIST.
Habituation
Simplest form of learning in which an organism learns to ignore a repeated stimulus without a association with a positive or negative reinforcement. -Alternatively an associative learning, a behavior is changed or condition through the association.
Bottoms up and down and the food chain
Some communities are heavily influenced by bottom-up control. That is, the lower levels of the food chain (plants) determine the structure of that community. This makes sense because the abundance and quality of plants determines how many herbivores you can have, which, in turn, determines how many predators your community can sustain. We also see many instances of top-down control. This is when a top predator controls the structure or dynamics of a community.
organismal ecology
The branch of ecology concerned with the morphological, physiological, and behavioral ways in which individual organisms meet the challenges posed by their biotic and abiotic environments. STUDY OF WAYS IN WHICH INDIVIDUAL ORGS MEET CHALLENGED OF A +BIOTIC INTERACTIONS WITIN THEIR ENVIORNMENTS. CAN BE DIVIDED INTO RWO SUBDICIPLINES.
Sarcopterygii
The class of lobe-finned fishes.
Adiabetic cooling
The cooling of a gas that happens when the gas expands with no way of getting more energy. INCREASED ELEVATION LEADS TO DECREASE IN AIR PRESSURE.
resource partitioning
The division of environmental resources by coexisting species such that the niche of each species differs by one or more significant factors from the niches of all coexisting species
Coriolis effect
The effect of Earth's rotation on the direction of winds and currents. ADDITIONALY TO SEASONAL CHANGES IN TEMPS, WIND DEFLECTED BY ROTATION OF THE EARTH.
Continental drift
The hypothesis that states that the continents once formed a single landmass, broke up, and drifted to their present locations Major changes in relative location of contents due to slow movement from Earth surface plates.
Allelopathy
The production of chemicals by plants that inhibit the growth of neighbouring plants.
Demography
The scientific study of population characteristics.
community ecology
The study of how interactions between species affect community structure and organization. SUDIES POPS OF SPECIES INTERACT + FORM FUNCTIONAL COMMUNITIES, AND FOCUS ON WHY CERTIAN AREAS HAVE INC #'S OF SPECIES AND WHY OTHERS HAVE DEC. FOR EX: A FORREST IS A COMMUNITY OF TREES, HERBS, SHRUBS, GRASSES THE HERBIVORES THAT EAT THEM AND THE CARNIVORES THAT PREY ON HERBIVORES.
habitat destruction
There are a number of human activities that have the effect of habitat destruction including deforestation, urbanization, conversion of habitat to farmland, strip mining, and quarrying. Habitat destruction is defined in your textbook as a human-driven process in which natural habitat is altered in a way that prevents it from supporting the species that were originally present. It is the most important factor leading to threatened plant and animal species in the United States
MOST BIRDS ALSO LACK A...
URINARY BLADDER , WHICH IS A STAGE TANK FOR METABOLIC WASTE. THEY JUST EXCRETE IT AS ITS PRODUCED SO THEY ARENT BEING WEIGHED DOWN. -ALL MODERN BIRDS ARE ALSO TOOTHLESS. THIS REDUCES THE WEIGHT OF THEIR HEADS. THERE ARE ALSO NO TEETH TO BE FOUND IN THE LARGE SCOOPING BILL OF A PELICAN.
Communication
Use all the specially designed visible chemical auditory or tactile signals to modify the behavior of others. -Animals use each one depending on env. -They frequently use chemicals to attract mates. -Female moths attractive males by powerful chemical attractants called pheromones. -Male Moths Have receptors that can detect as little as a single molecule.
Gnathostomes
VERTS THAT POSSESS JAWS EX: FISH, AMPH, REP, MAMM OLDEST LIVING ARE FISH ALONG W JAWS VERT EVOLVED THE ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM. FIGHT PATHOGENS VERTS ARE JAWED AND ONLY OES THAT HAVE ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM. -JAWS OCCURED W NAT SELECTION-> WHAT ALREADY EXISTS.
Tetrapods
Vertebrate animals having four feet, legs or leg like appendages. LIKE SMALL LIZARD. -SOME AMPHBS CAN WALK ON LAND AND BURRY LEGS IN WET SOIL OR HIGHLY HUMID AREAD.
WHO LIVED IN THE SAME HOUSE ONCE?
WALRUSES, RATTLESNAKES, PARAQUITES.... -STEAMY SWAMPS + RAIN FORESTS OF HORSETAILS + FERNS COVER THE REGIONS. -AMPHIBIANS ARE THE DOMINANT LAND VERTS ...RANGE IN SIZE FROM NEWTS TO-CROC. -REQ H2O FOR EGG-LAYING -IF NOT H2O SHELL-LESS, JELLY LIKE EGGS WILL DRY OUT. BC OF THIS THEY SPEND MOST OF THEIR TIME IN OR NEAR FRESH H20.
MAMMS ARE DISTINGUISHED BY
WARM BLOOD, HAIR , LUNGS, NOURISH YOUNG W MILK.
THE NEW AMNIOTE OFFSPRING...
WILL CONTINUE THE PROCESS OF VERTEBRATE EVOLUTION. AS IT EXPLORES NEW LAND AWAY FROM THE H2O.
Production efficiency and levels
We can first look at this energy efficiency at the level of an individual organism. This is called production efficiency, or how much of the energy assimilated by an organism actually becomes incorporated into biomass (new body tissue). NEXT LEVEL:trophic-level transfer efficiency, or, the amount of energy available at one trophic level that actually becomes incorporated into biomass by the next trophic level up. There is a lot of variation in efficiency depending on the ecosystem, but the average is around 10%. That is, only about 10% of the available energy stored in one tropic level is actually passed to the next trophic level.
demographics
When populations are heading toward this from the first to the second form of equilibrium (from high births & deaths toward low births and deaths), we call this a demographic transition and the 4 stages.
haplodiploid system
a genetic system in which females develop from fertilized eggs and are diploid but males develop from unfertilized eggs and are haploid determines sex determination.
uniform dispersion pattern
a pattern in which the individuals of a population are evenly distributed over an area
Amensalism
a relationship in which one organism is harmed and the other is unaffected
r-selected species
a species that has a high intrinsic growth rate, which often leads to population overshoots and die-offs, no parental care, small mature rapidly, fewer larger seeds, difficult to disperse. Small rapid development high reproduction output Type III or early lost survivorship curvatures as New offspring don't survive due to low parental care
K-selected species
a species with a low intrinsic growth rate that causes the population to increase slowly until it reaches carrying capacity, HUMANS , more stable , longer lived , few offspring throughout lives. Common among larger and longer live species living in stable environment, exhibit type one or late lost survivorship as long lived parents investAll of their time and taking care of very young
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events responding to stimulus with existing stimulus
Biomagnification
accumulation of pollutants at successive levels of the food chain... Monomethylmercury - form of fat-soluble mercury, this is why people are encouraged to limit their consumption of certain fish species PCB's - a chemical found in various coolants
If 2 species...
both require the same vital resources, that is, if they both absolutely NEED those exact resources, then it is thought that they won't coexist. We call this the competitive exclusion principle. In contrast, resource partitioning allows species to coexist.
Crocodilia
crocodiles and alligators AND GARIAL -MASSIVE MUSC JAW. -HAVE 4 CH HEART SIM TO BIRDS AND MAMMALS OTHER REP HAVE 3 CH HEART W 2 ATRIA AND SING VENTRICLE. HAVING VENTRICLES SEPERATE INTO 2 SEP CH MAKES THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM MORE EFFICIENT W LITTLE TO NO MIXING OF OXYGENATED AND DEOXYGENATED BLOOD. -CROCS USE TEMP SEX DETERMINATION HIGHER-MALES LOWER -FM CROC- 200 MILL YRS BIRDS AND DINOS.
open ocean
deep ocean water, located away from the shoreline where sunlight can no longer reach the ocean bottom pelagic zone Physical env:periodically enriched by ocean upwelling : circ of cold, mineral rich nuts from deeper h20 to surface. Location: across globe, 70 percent of earths surface. Plant Life: photic zone, photosynthetic orgs, phytoplankton Account for nearly half the photosynthetic activity on earth and produce much of worlds oxygen. Animal life: zooplankton, small worms, shrimps jellyfish, inverts fish! Nexton. Effects of humans: oil and garbage and overfishing and hurting whales.
Food and energy Flow
ecosystem includes the ecological community as well as the abiotic factors with which the organisms interact. So, ecosystem-level ecology is generally mostly concerned with the movement of energy and materials through the ecosystem. The ultimate source of energy for most ecosystems on the planet is the sun. Solar energy is harnessed by photosynthesizers
ecosystem ecology
emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling among the various biotic and abiotic components DEALS W FLOW OF ENERGY AND MATERIALS WITHIN AN ECOSYSTEM , WHCH IN TURN, AFFECTS THE PRODUCTION OF BIOMASS. UNDERSTANDING OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN AN A-BIOTIC INVOLVES STUDY OF FEEDING IN FOOD CHAINS AND TROPHIC LEVEL.
age structure
first to the second form of equilibrium (from high births & deaths toward low births and deaths), we call this a demographic transition. We represent the age structure of various populations using population pyramids. ecological footprint is how much total productive land is needed to provide all of the resources a person uses in his or her lifetime.
Lotic
flowing water Physical env: wetlands may develop. treeless to swamps and bogs, some lakes and rivers have high-tides flood land. Location: bc of generally high nut levels oxygen is low. Plant Life: In slow moving streams and rivers, algae and rooted plants may be present. in fast rivers leaves from forest are primary food source. Animal life: Despite current animals stay. Many attach to rocks. fish ad catfish! Effects of humans: Sewage, dams.
per capita growth rate
for some interval, the added number of individuals divided by the initial population size
GHA
greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from the atmosphere warms the Earth's surface. As solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, it heats the surface of the Earth. Energy is radiated back into the atmosphere where atmospheric gases absorb much of it, further increasing the temperature of the Earth. The concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere dictates how much of this heat energy is absorbed and how much escapes back into space. There are a number of different atmospheric gases with heat-trapping capabilities, but the major ones are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons. Even water vapor is a greenhouse gas (think about how much hotter it feels when it's humid outside).
marsipual
grow to maturity inside of a pouch GIVE BIRTH TO RELATIVELY UNDERDEVELOPED YOUNG ONLY A FEW CM AT BIRTH), THE OFFSPRING ARE THEN KEPT IN A POUCH CALLED MARSUPIUM. ONCE THE DOMINANT MAMMAL GROUP, THEY ARE NOW MOSTLY CONFINED TO AUSTRALIA. -SO TINY AND DELICATE WHEN BORN, MUST CON TO DEVELOPMENT IN MOTHER POUCH. QUALA: 18 MG @BIRTH KANG: SINGLE JELLY BEAN SIZE AT A TIME.
ray-finned fish
have fins supported by bony elements called rays; ex. perch, bass, eels, trout, guppies -THIN , FLEX, RAYS/SPINES, SUPPORTING THIER FIN. -ANY TYPICAL FISH WE WOULD THINK OF -MOST FISH IN WORLD FALL IN THIS CATEG. INCLUDING VARIOUS SPORT FISH IN MI INCLUDING PURCHPIKE, BASS, SEA-HORSES, ETC.
Type 1 curve
higher mortality at older ages (humans) individuals survive at young age and likelihood of death increases overtime
polygny
husband has 2 or more wives (more common)
succession
is described as the change in community composition over time, generally following some type of major disturbance. We classify succession as either Primary - a community being built from scratch, starting with no life. Secondary - area had previously supported life, but some disturbance removed a lot of it (but not all) Succession generally follows a fairly predictable pattern in which small, low-growing, fast-reproducing species act as the pioneer species, then are slowly replaced by larger, longer-lived species over time. The final, stable community is referred to as the climax community. Also pests are hard to deal with. read about Climax community
Coelacanth
lobe-finned fish thought to be extinct, but then found in deep water off Madagascar in 1938 LIVING IN DEEP H20'S OFF SOUTHERN AFRICAN COAST AND ESPECIALLY OFF A GROUP OF ISLANDS NEAT COAST OF MADAGASCAR= COMOROS ISLANDS, ANOTHER SPECIES WAS FOUND MORE RECENTLY IN INDONESIAN WATERS.
male-assistance hypothesis
males remain with females to help them rear offspring.
Terrestrial ecosystems and production
most heavily influenced by water availability, temperature, and nutrient availability (with water probably being the most important of the three). The nutrients we tend to be most concerned with are nitrogen and phosphorus because they are needed in fairly high quantities compared to other nutrients. This is why fertilizers, which contain mostly nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, are so useful in boosting the productivity of farm fields. light and nutrient availability largely dictate how much primary production occurs. Production is low below the photic zone (the depth to which light can penetrate), because no photosynthesizers are present there (see graph below).
invasive species
plants and animals that have migrated to places where they are not native
Biomass Production and Ecosystems
primary production, which is how much carbon dioxide is actually assimilated by photosynthesizers and converted into biomass. Gross primary production (GPP) = how much carbon is taken in during photosynthesis Net primary production (NPP) = how much of that carbon is actually incorporated into biomass (as opposed to used for cellular respiration). NPP can be calculated by: GPP-R (where R= respiration). Usually, when we use the term primary production, we are referring to NPP.
inclusive fitness/kin selection
refers to the idea that natural selection applies to behaviors that help others with whom we share genetic material
continuous iteroparity
reproduce repeatedly at any time of the year
LATERAL LINE
sensitive receptor system that enables fish to detect gentle currents and vibrations in the water ALL FISH HAVE, SENSORY ORGAN RUNNING DOWN THE LENGTH OF THE BODY. USE THIS TO DETECT H20 PRESSURE CHANGES. EVEN IF CANT BE SEEN.
Semelparous
single reproductive episode before death
introduced species
species moved by humans to new geographic areas, either intentionally or accidentally SPECIES THAT ARE MOVED FROM A NATIVE LOCATION TO ANOTHER LOCATION USUALLY BY HUMANS.