Bio 151 Lab Quiz

Describe (in general) the relationship between urine specific gravity (in mg/mL) and urine osmolarity (concentration in mOsm/L). (See Figure 1, p.7-1)

(See Figure 1, p.7-1)

Describe/identify possible causes of the following abnormal urinalysis results: o higher-than-normal or lower-than-normal specific gravity o consistently acidic urine o presence of leukocytes in urine o presence of nitrites in urine o presence of protein in urine o presence of glucose in urine (glycosuria) o presence of ketones in urine (ketonuria) o presence of blood in the urine Given a set of urinalysis results, describe what is abnormal (as noted above), and then identify the underlying cause of these abnormal results (as you did in Q7, p.7-7, in your lab assignment).

(lots of useful background info in your lab manual - check it out!): o higher-than-normal or lower-than-normal specific gravity--The specific gravity of urine will, therefore, be greater than 1.000; the higher its specific gravity, the higher the concentration of solutes present. Again, the variation in specific gravity is normally the result of variation in fluid intake. o consistently acidic urine-The pH of the urine is usually slightly acidic (pH 5-6). o presence of leukocytes in urine-Infections of the kidneys or urinary tract are accompanied by migration of leukocytes to the area of the infection and their being sloughed into the urinary tract. A leukocyte positive urinalysis test strongly suggests the presence of a bacterial infection of the urinary tract. o presence of nitrites in urine-Nitrite is an indication of a bacterial infection o presence of protein in urine-Strenuous exercise is sometimes accompanied by slightly elevated level of proteins in urine. Substantially elevated levels of proteins in the urine may indicate damage to the glomerulus and increased leakage of plasma proteins into the urine. o presence of glucose in urine (glycosuria)-The presence of glucose in the urine is almost always a consequence of diabetes mellitus. o presence of ketones in urine (ketonuria)-Although ketones can themselves be consumed to release more energy, their levels may rise in the blood, especially when intake of dietary calories is low and stored fat is metabolized. Ketones may be present in urine (ketonuria) during fasting or as a result of diabetes mellitus. Some ketones are also acids. Elevated levels of ketones in the urine also reduce the pH of the urine. o presence of blood in the urine-A positive test for blood in the urine may indicate the presence of injury or infection affecting the kidneys or urinary tract. The appearance of hemoglobin in the urine may indicate lysis of erythrocytes. The presence of myoglobin is indicative of muscle damage, as in a crush injury.

Describe the relationship between volume of water consumed and rate of urine production

(see Q1, 2, and 3, p.7-3). The more water consumed, the higher the rate of urine production.

Describe the relationship between volume of water consumed and concentration of urine produced

(see Q4 and 5, p.7-3 and 7-4). ? As volume of water consumed increases the concentration of urine produced decreases

Given a set of results for the two-point discrimination, describe the relative size of the receptive field and the density of tactile receptors in the different regions tested.

-fingertips have the greatest density of tactile receptors while the back of the neck has the lowest density since the fingertips require the most motor control compared to the back of the neck -The receptors density is greater on the ventricle body surface

Estimate the hemoglobin concentration of a blood sample.

1. Follow the directions in Activity #1a above for obtaining your own blood sample. 2. Place a drop of blood on the Hb test paper provided. Note: The blood must completely and evenly penetrate the paper and the penetrating drop should be at least 8 mm in diameter. 3. Using the scale provided, determine the shade of orange / red that best matches the drop on the paper. 4. Read the hemoglobin concentration (in g/dL) off the Hb test reference scale and record this value in the table below.

- Describe how you tested peripheral vision in the lab.

1. Have your test subject hold the "vision disk" to their forehead, and stare directly at the point in front of them. The "arm" of the vision disk should be all the way to the back (behind the subject's ear). 2. The experimenter should select one of the cards available (coloured letters or shapes) and place it in the arm of the vision disk. *Don't let your test subject see the card! 3. Slowly move the arm containing the card, ensuring that your test subject keeps their eyes point straight ahead. 4. Have your subject report when they first see an object (even if they can't yet tell what the object is), when they can correctly identify what the object is, and when they can determine the colour of the object. Record these values (angle measured in degrees). 5. Repeat for the other side, using a different card.

Identify components of the scientific method and experimental design in various examples. o This includes identification of independent and dependent variables, as well as controlled variables and a control. o You should also know when to use a line graph vs. a bar graph, and which variable goes on which axis (i.e., independent variable on the x-axis, dependent variable on the y-axis).

1. Identify the dependent variable and the independent variable in each of the following experiments: a) Heart rate of cross-country skiers is recorded at various environmental temperatures dependent variable ____________________________________ independent variable ____________________________________ b) Various cycling teams train at different altitudes to determine the effect on VO2 max. dependent variable ____________________________________ independent variable ____________________________________ c) Height of a child is recorded monthly for a period of one year dependent variable ____________________________________ independent variable ____________________________________ d) The effect of simvastatin dosage (a cholesterol synthesis blocking medication) on serum LDL cholesterol in hyperlipidemic patients dependent variable ____________________________________ independent variable ____________________________________ 2. Suggest an appropriate control for experiment d) above: ________________________ 3. What would you plot on the x and y axes if the results of experiment a) were presented as a line graph? x axis _________________________________ y axis _________________________________ 4. A group of researchers plan to test their hypothesis that the incidence of gum disease is related to frequency of flossing. a) What would be the independent variable in this experiment? b) What would be the dependent variable? c) What would be an appropriate control? _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ d) Describe any 4 controlled variables that would have to be considered in this experiment:

- Describe the process of the scientific method and experimental design.

1. observation an event or phenomenon that rouses our curiosity leads to questions and literature search of related events or phenomena 2. generation of hypothesis a tentative explanation for an observation based in part on some prior knowledge must be testable and falsifiable 3. testing the hypothesis experimental results must be replicable numerous repetitions are necessary for statistical analysis includes various components: independent variable dependent variable controlled variables levels of treatment control what you wish to test the effects of (plotted on the x axis) what you measure (plotted on the y axis) other variables which may affect the dependent variable, and which must be kept constant range of independent variable you wish to test the effect of basis for comparison; group in which the independent variable is not manipulated 4. presentation and analysis of data ensure adequate data is collected statistical evaluation presentation as tables or figures line graph bar graph histogram pie graph table presents continuous data as line or lines (e.g. increase in growth over time) presents categorical data as discreet bars (e.g. number of nests in different study areas) presents continuous data as a series of grouped bars (e.g. frequencies at which different body heights occur among adult females, etc.) presents relative proportions of a whole (e.g. percentage of caloric intake from proteins / carbohydrates / lipids); not commonly used in the natural sciences presents large amounts of data and specific values (e.g. heights of newborns at 1-week intervals over a 6-month period) Figures (e.g. line or bar graphs or frequency histograms) are generally preferable over tables whenever possible..... 'a picture is worth a thousand words' 5. conclusions derived on the basis of data accept or reject hypothesis (note: experimental results are meaningful and publishable, even if the original hypothesis has to be rejected!) subject to scientific peer review peers question interpretation of results peers look for assumptions, biases, experimental design flaws

- Describe how reaction time was tested in the lab.

2. Working in groups of two students, get a ruler marked into cm (e.g., a 30cm ruler). 3. One partner will hold the ruler near the end (highest number) and let it hang down. 4. Have the other student place his or her hand at the bottom of the ruler (over the 0 measurement) and have them ready to grab the ruler (they should place their fingers approximately 5 mm away from the ruler). 5. Tell the other person that you will drop the ruler sometime within the next 5 seconds and that they are supposed to catch the ruler as fast as they can after it is dropped. Record the level (in centimeters) at which they catch the ruler. This represents the distance the ruler fell before it was caught. You can convert this distance into reaction time using a graph of data on the following page. 6. Test the same person 4 times (vary the time of dropping the ruler within the 5 second "drop-zone" so the other person cannot guess when you will drop the ruler). Calculate the average distance. 7. Repeat the test using the test subject's other hand (eg. if they are right handed, now evaluate distance using the left hand) 8. Determine reaction time by looking up the average values on the graph generated from data on the following page.

Describe what you did in lab to measure lung function/ lung volumes (in general terms, but no need to worry about the details of how to navigate the BIOPAC software!).

6) Connect a clean bacteriological filter to the calibration syringe and then connect this entire assembly to the airflow transducer. 7) Perform the Calibration procedure: follow the directions for calibration in the dialogue box at the bottom of the screen. 8) Disconnect the calibration syringe and replace it with a disposable mouthpiece. 9) Carry out the recording (ignore the instructions in the bottom panel of the screen). 10) Carry out the recording: a) Place the mouthpiece of the assembly into the volunteer's mouth and place a nose clip over (or pinch) the volunteer's nose so that all breathing will be by mouth and through the assembly. b) When all is ready, click "Record". Now you have 2 minutes to record the following: i) TV: breathe normally for 15 seconds ii) IRV: inspire all the air you can and relax back to tidal breathing for 10 seconds iii) ERV:exhalealltheairyoupossiblycanandrelaxbacktotidalfor10seconds iv) VC: inspire all the air you possibly can then exhale all of your air completely and relax back to tidal for 10 seconds v) FEV1: repeat (iv) but this time exhale forcibly as fast and as completely as you can (as if you were blowing candles out!)

- Describe why exercise can decrease breath holding time.

? because carbon dioxide was continuously building up due to exercise and we needed oxygen due to the exercise we just did.

Describe what you did in lab to measure ECG before and after exercise (in general terms, but no need to worry about the details of how to navigate the BIOPAC software!).

?? 1) Select a volunteer and several technicians from your group. The volunteer should have no history of cardiovascular problems and be able and willing to tolerate approximately 5 minutes of cardiovascular exercise. Technicians will prepare the volunteer as described below and control the recording process using the computer. 2) Gently cleanse the skin from a small area on the inside of both ankles just above the medial malleolus and from the anterior surface of the right forearm just above the wrist using an alcohol swab. 3) Apply disposable electrodes to each region (see Figure 2). 4) Connect the cables to the electrodes by colour 5)With the volunteer in a state of relaxation, click "Record" then after 30 seconds, click "suspend" to stop the recording. 6) Remove the clips from the electrodes (leave the electrodes attached) and allow the volunteer to proceed to the cardiovascular activity. Five minutes of stair climbing/descending in the stairwell adjacent to the lab, or jumping jacks in a corner of the lab/hall are good options for the cardiovascular activity. The volunteer should be "out of breath" as a result of their activity. 7) Upon the volunteer's return, reattach the electrodes and repeat the recording process by clicking "Resume" and waiting for another 30 seconds. 8)Start with one of the cardiac cycles and compare it to that of Figure 1. Identify all of the six regions. 9) Repeat step 8 for another cardiac cycle 10) Shift the recording to the region of ECGs that were recorded after exercise and repeat the data analysis (steps 4, 5 and 6 above) and record the time intervals

Explain what a MUAP is, and how it can be measured in the lab (in general terms, but no need to worry about the details of how to navigate the BIOPAC software!).

A muscle is composed of many motor units, each consisting of a single motor neuron and all the fibers that it innervates. A motor unit action potential (MUAP) is the sum of the action potentials for all the fibers of a single motor unit that are within the pick-up area of the electrodes. It will appear as a narrow peak - more like a "spike" - in an EMG recording. The height (amplitude) of the peak represents the voltage associated with the MUAP which depends on the number of muscle fibers present in the motor unit as well as the diameter of the muscle fibers.

Describe and explain the changes that occur when erythrocytes are placed in NaCl solutions of different concentrations. o Explain why the erythrocyte suspension changed from opaque to transparent (under what conditions, and why this change occurred). o Predict whether erythrocytes will appear normal, crenated, or undergo lysis when mixed with hypertonic, isotonic, or hypotonic saline solutions.

Activity #2 Q.1

For a given data set, give the range and calculate the following measures of central tendency: mean, median, and mode.

Activity #3 -mean (sum of all values / sample size) -median (value above and below which half the values lie; if there are an even number of values take the mean of the 2 median values) -mode (most frequently occurring value)

Calculate heart rate when given the length of one cardiac cycle (or when given a graph from which you could measure the length of one cardiac cycle).

Activity #3 beats per minute PRACTICE THIS!!!

Describe why T-P time would generally decrease during exercise (it's the component of the ECG that is expected to change the most from rest to exercise - the other components of the ECG should not change much, if at all).

As you exercise the rate obviously increases. As you can imagine in order for this to happen the muscles have to beat faster. In order to beat faster the signal to tell them to beat also has to be faster. Therefore the rhythm (p wave -> T wave) must occur faster.The waves themselves are usually very similar (as in they don't get shorter), the intervals/segments do.

Describe how predicted vital capacity varies with age, height, and gender.

As you get older, the elastic fibbers of the lung decrease therefore vital capacity decreases. (ex.streched rubber band) A taller person would have more chest capacity and more lung volume compared to a shorter person Typicall, males have larger lungs and therefore have a greater vital capacity, While females have smaller lungs and therefore less vital capacity.

- Describe what is meant by Brownian Motion, and what this looked like in the lab.

Brownian Motion is the random motion of particles suspended in a fluid (a liquid or a gas) resulting from their collision with the quick atoms or molecules in the gas or liquid. ??

Given the values (or a graph from which to read the values) calculate the FEV1%, and describe factors (characteristics of the respiratory system) that could cause FEV1% to be lower than average. o This primarily indicates some sort of obstruction to airflow (because the lungs could still hold a large volume (normal VC), but there would be a decreased ability to get that air out in a hurry).

Calculate the percentage of FEV1 (FEV1%) by dividing the volume of air expelled in 1 second by the total (measured) vital capacity and converting to per cent. The normal FEV1% of a young subject is 80%. List two physical characteristics of your subject's respiratory system that could explain their FEV1 being less than average. - smoking could cause inflammation

- Define "protanopia" and "deutranopia".

Colour blindness results from the lack of one or more types of cones. It is a hereditary, sex- linked trait that affects approximately 8% of males and 0.5% of females. A lack of red-sensitive cones is called protanopia, while a lack of green-sensitive cones is called deuteranopia. Protanopia and deuteranopia can be tested for with specialized colour test charts, such as Ishihara's book of plates.

Describe the glucose tolerance test, and how it can be used to test for diabetes mellitus.

Decreased blood glucose (hypoglycemia) results from inadequate food intake or too much insulin. When elevated blood glucose (hyperglycemia) occurs, there is not enough insulin or cells do not respond normally to insulin; this condition is known as diabetes mellitus. A fasting blood glucose of greater than 125 mg/dl or 7 mmol/L usually indicates diabetes. To confirm this when the blood glucose level is borderline or slightly elevated, a fasting (preprandial) blood glucose test and /or a glucose tolerance test is performed. The glucose tolerance test (GTT) is a standard test for diabetes mellitus. Both type 1 and type 2 diabetes can be detected using the GTT. Table 4. RESULTS OF GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST

Describe/define terms related to the movement of molecules, including: diffusion,

Diffusion: Diffusion is the net passive movement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) from a region in which they are in higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. It continues until the concentration of substances is uniform throughout.

State lab safety rules and policies for the physiology lab.

Do NOT eat or drink in the laboratory. Leave all food and drink (INCLUDING WATER BOTTLES) outside the laboratory room if possible or in a designated area. Wear shoes and clothing which protect against broken glass or spillage. Pin or tie long hair back away from face and eyes. Cover any cuts or abrasions before coming to the laboratory and wear gloves when instructed. Wear safety glasses or goggles during activities involving the use of caustic or corrosive chemicals and at any other times as directed by your instructor. Do NOT pipette anything by mouth; use pipetting devices. Assume that all reagents are hazardous. Read labels carefully and label all containers. If chemicals come into contact with skin, wash immediately with water. Do not carry reagent bottles to your station. Take your transfer container to the reagent bench. Stopper all reagent bottles when not in use taking care that the correct stopper is used. Take only the amount of reagent required for the laboratory to avoid waste. Stopper all reagent bottles when not in use. Do NOT put chemicals back into containers unless instructed to do so. Dispose of reagents and other materials used in the laboratory in containers or down the sink as instructed. Keep work area neat, clean and organized. Any bags or books not required for the laboratory should be placed out of the way. Handle hot glassware with tongs or protective materials. Learn the correct operation of any equipment before use. Take care in lighting bunsen burners and turn the gas off when not in use. Before coming to the lab, familiarize yourself with the experiments which will be done and carefully follow written or verbal procedures. Report all accidents and spills to the instructor immediately. Report any condition that appears unsafe or hazardous. Remove labels, clean and return equipment as instructed. Students who are pregnant, taking immunosuppressant drugs or who have a medical condition (e.g. diabetes or epilepsy) that might necessitate special precautions and treatment must inform the instructor. Clean benches and always wash hands before leaving the laboratory.

- Describe what is meant by dominance with respect to normal binocular vision.

Dominance 1) Insert a pencil through a piece of scrap paper to make a perforation, or use one of the holes on a sheet of paper that has been hole punched. 2) Hold the paper at arm's length. 3) With both eyes open, focus on a small discrete object that just fills the hole. 4) Without moving the paper, close the left eye and note whether the object is still there; repeat with the right eye closed. The eye that visualizes the object when the other eye is closed is called the dominant eye.

Identify and measure the components of a typical ECG (see Fig. 1 on p.5-2, plus your labelled ECG as labelled for your assignment). o Describe the events that occur in the heart during the labelled components on the ECG (hint: see p.5-2). No need to memorize the average time for each, though!

Fig.1 on pg.5-2 -The P wave corresponds to the electrical activity that accompanies depolarization of the atria. The P wave immediately precedes contraction of the atria (atrial systole) -P-R segment during which the impulse spreads through the AV node and the AV bundle into the left and right bundle branches. No muscles are depolarizing at this moment so no electrical activity is generated -The QRS complex is the largest of the patterns. The Q portion represents the time when interventricular septum begins to undergo depolarization. R and S represent apical and late ventricular depolarization, respectively. -The S-T segment, when the ventricles contract most without generating electrical activity occurs next. -Finally, the T wave appears as a low amplitude deflection: usually upwards but sometimes downwards. It represents the electrical activity associated with ventricular repolarization.

Calculate the hematocrit of a blood sample (when given either the measurements, or an image of test results to measure yourself).

HCT= height of RBC coumn/ total height of blood column x100

Distinguish between conduction deafness and nerve deafness, and describe how to test for conduction deafness.

If the cochlea or cochlear nerve is damaged, the condition is referred to as nerve deafness Damage to the tympanic membrane or ossicles, on the other hand, will result in conduction deafness. Strike the tuning fork. Hold it near the ear for a moment, then place the handle against the mastoid process (bony bump behind ear). Determine which is loudest. Individuals with normal hearing will report the sound is louder in air (air conduction is greater than bone conduction). If conduction hearing loss is present, the sound will be louder when transmitted through the mastoid (bone conduction is greater than air conduction). If nerve deafness is present, the sound will not be heard or will be equally loud when it is transmitted through air and bone

- Describe how the maximum amount of force that can be generated by a muscle can be affected by resting length of the muscle (see Activity #1a for historical data on this... even though we didn't get to do Activity #1b yet)

In 1966, Gordon, Huxley and Julian carried out experiments on the properties of frog skeletal muscles that had been isolated from the living animal and from their normal location in a joint. Their results showed how the maximum tension developed by an isolated frog skeletal muscle contracting isometrically varied with its length. Their data is summarized in Table 3. Since then, the properties of isolated muscle that they observed have been validated in many experiments on different organisms.

Analyze a given data set (table or graph) of an experiment on MUAP, similar to what was done in lab.

In lab

Describe a clinical test for the function of each of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves, as described in your lab manual (yes, this means that you also need to know the names, numbers, and functions of each of those 12 pairs of cranial nerves!).

In lab book

Interpret a given data set from an experiment similar to the ones we did in lab (molecular weight and rate of diffusion, osmosis & erythrocytes, and effect of particle size on diffusion across a membrane).

In lab book

- Describe the effect of molecule size on diffusion through a semi-permeable barrier.

In the case of a difference in molecular size having an effect on osmosis, the larger molecules (e.g., glucose) would not be able to move through the mesh of the membrane, while the smaller molecules (e.g., water) would.

Describe the effects of adding acid to buffered and unbuffered solutions.

In theory, you would expect a buffered solution (such as the NaHCO3) to change pH very gradually, despite the addition of acid; an unbuffered solution (such as the H2O) would change pH more rapidly. For example, the pH of the buffered solution might be fairly constant even if 15 drops of acid had been added, but the pH of the H2O would have decreased much more after 15 drops of acid were added.

- Describe how balance changes with age.

It is suggested that poor age-related performance on this test may be an early predictor of future neurodegenerative conditions. As you get older, balance gets worse (table 5)

Describe tests for the presence of simple carbohydrates, proteins and peptides, and fatty acids, as used in Lab 8. o Yes, you should know the names of the reagents used, the colours they turn, and what those colours indicate!

LOOK AT TABLE 2!! blue no proteins or peptides purple proteins present pink peptides present 1. Prepare 5 test tubes as follows. Mix the contents well. 2. Using pH test strips, record the initial pH of each solution in Table 2, then incubate each tube at 37oC for 45 min. 3. At the end of the incubation period, test each tube for the presence of proteins / peptides by the addition of 20 drops Biuret reagent. Record results in Table 2. Table 2. Effect of pH on hydrolysis of proteins by pepsin

Calculate the clinical parameters of mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH). o You should know the formula for each calculation (MCV and MCH). No need to memorize the actual values for the RBC counts, though - those numbers would be provided.

MCV = HCT/RBC Count x10 MCH = Hb/ RBC Count x10

Describe what is meant by the term "neuroplasticity" (from the video that we watched/ discussed).

Neuroplasticity: The ability of nerve cells to make new connections

Describe the procedure for measuring blood pressure using the sphygmomanometer.

Procedure for measuring blood pressure Obtain a stethoscope and clean the earpieces with alcohol swabs. Have the subject sit in a comfortable position with one arm resting on a table which is approximately at heart level. Examine the standard sphygmomanometer cuff to determine the area to be placed against the brachial artery and wrap the cuff around the subject's arm just above the elbow. The cuff should fit snugly but should not be tight. Palpate the brachial artery to ensure correct placement. Place the earpieces of the stethoscope in your ears and place the diaphragm over the brachial artery pulse point in the antecubital fossa. (See picture displayed in lab) Close the valve on the side of the rubber bulb and inflate the cuff to approximately 150mmHg or until no pulse is detected in the brachial artery. You must palpate the brachial pulse; you cannot hear it with the stethoscope. (NOTE: cuff sizes vary; use one appropriate for your subject!) Open the valve slightly to allow gradual deflation of the cuff and listen for pressure sounds. These sounds are caused by the spurting of blood through the narrowed artery under the cuff into the fully open artery below the cuff. The vibrations are called Korotkoff's sounds. These vibrations may cause slight deflections in the needle on the pressure gauge. The pressure at which these sounds are first detected is recorded as the systolic pressure. As the cuff continues to deflate, listen for the total disappearance of Korotkoff's sounds (the needle on the gauge will stop deflecting if it was moving during systole). The point at which no sound can be detected is recorded as the diastolic pressure.

Calculate percent change (in the lab, you calculated percent change in systolic BP and diastolic BP).

Questions - Activity #2: 1. Calculate % change in the systolic and diastolic values. (BP after exercise - BP before exercise) % change = _______________________________________ X 100 BP before exercise pg.5-6

- Describe the location of the "blind spot", how you tested this in the lab, and why this area is "blind".

Recall the structure of the retina and, in particular, the position of the macula lutea relative to the optic disc. In this test, you will observe what happens when you try to "look at" an object that is in your blind spot. 1) Hold the card with a "+" and an "O" at arm's length so that the "+" is directly in front of your right eye and the "O" is to the right. 2) Cover the left eye and move the card slowly towards your eye. 3) Concentrate on the "+" with the right eye only; stop when the "O" disappears. why? Most primates have binocular vision. Each eye sees a slightly different view. ??

Identify and describe the basic elements of the reflex arc

Receptor: an organ or cell able to respond to light, heat, or other external stimulus and transmit a signal to a sensory nerve. sensory (afferent) neuron: In the peripheral nervous system, an afferent nerve fiber is the nerve fiber (axon) of an afferent neuron (sensory neuron). It is a long process (projection) extending far from the nerve cell body that carries nerve impulses from sensory receptors or sense organs toward the central nervous system. Interneuron:a neuron that transmits impulses between other neurons, especially as part of a reflex arc. Motor(efferent)neuron:a nerve cell forming part of a pathway along which impulses pass from the brain or spinal cord to a muscle or gland. In the peripheral nervous system, an efferent nerve fiber is the nerve fiber (axon) of an efferent neuron (motor neuron). Effector: an organ or cell that acts in response to a stimulus.

- Describe the general function of reflexes.

Reflexes are rapid, automatic responses to specific stiuli. They preserve homeostasis by making rapid adjustments in the function of organs or organ systems.

- Describe the distribution of rods vs. cones in the retina, and how this was observed/ tested in the lab.

Rods and cones differ in terms of the location on the retina, their morphology, and their overall function. Cones provide good visual acuity and colour vision in bright light, while rods are sensitive in low-light conditions. Greatest concentration of cones=central-colour Why are objects in peripheral vision visible but unclear?- photoreceptors are more focused towards central objects but peripheral vision is mostly rods-so you can see the shape

- Define and describe terminology of basic chemical concepts, as included on Lab Assignment #1. o This includes: writing chemical and structural formulae (based on a model and/or diagram), describing what a covalent bond is, identifying a hydroxyl group, describing what is meant be dehydration synthesis.

See Chemistry review handout

Describe the 4 reflex tests performed in the lab in terms of their structure and function: o 3 somatic reflexes (patellar reflex, Achilles reflex, and plantar reflex) plus 1 autonomic reflex (pupillary reflex) o For each reflex, I expect you to be able to: describe what you did to test it, and what the "normal" response is; identify the effector that brings about that response; identify the site of integration (spinal or cranial?); and the afferent and efferent nerves for the pupillary reflex. Pg.450

Somatic - Patellar Reflex:Have the subject seated on the laboratory bench with legs hanging free or with knees crossed. Locate the patellar ligament by palpation of the patella. The patellar ligament is located just below the kneecap. Tap the patellar ligament sharply with the reflex hammer to elicit the reflexive response. Test both knees and observe the responses. Response:Knee jerks upwards(kick) Effector:Quadriceps muscles Site of integration: Spinal cord - Achilles Reflex:Have the subject remove shoes. Ask the subject to dorsiflex the foot slightly to increase the tension of the gastrocnemius muscle. Sharply tap the calcaneal tendon and note the results. Response:Jerking of foot towards plantar surface Effector:gastrocnemius and soleous muscle Site of Integration:Spinal -Plantar Reflex(babinski):Have the subject remove a shoe and lie on the laboratory bench with knees slightly bent. The lateral side of the foot should rest on the bench. Draw the handle of the reflex hammer firmly down the lateral side of the exposed sole from the heel to the base of the great toe. Note the response. Response: curling of toes in adults, absence of descending inhibition (fanning of toes) Effector:?? Site of integration: Spinal -Pupillary Reflex:Test A-L in lab(memorize all?) Response:? Effectors: the nerves? Site of integration:cranial

Define: systolic pressure, diastolic pressure, Korotkoff's sounds.

Systolic Pressure:The peak arterial pressure measured during ventricular systole Diastolic Pressure: Pressure measured in the walls of a muscular artery when the left ventricle is in diastole(relaxation) Korotkoff's Sounds: Open the valve slightly to allow gradual deflation of the cuff and listen for pressure sounds. These sounds are caused by the spurting of blood through the narrowed artery under the cuff into the fully open artery below the cuff. The vibrations are called Korotkoff's sounds.

Determine if two blood types are compatible donors/recipients.

The "Blood Typing Game" online might be a fun way to review this! o http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/bloodtypinggame/

Describe how the Snellen Chart is used to test visual acuity, and explain what a Snellen reading of __/__ means (e.g., 20/20, or 20/100 etc).

The Snellen eye chart has been developed as a simple way to assess visual acuity. Letters of different size are arranged on a chart with which most people are familiar. The type of the letters varies in thickness. Identifying the letter requires that the eye resolve the thickness of the type. A Snellen reading compares an individual's vision to normal vision. 20/20 is normal vision 20/100- an individual must be 20 feet away from an object to see what a person with normal vision sees at 100 feet 20/10- An individual who can see at 200 feet what a normal person sees at 10 feet

- Describe the activity of digestive enzymes. (see introduction, p.8-1 and 8-2)

The action of digestive enzymes is to bring about hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is a chemical process whereby water is added across a covalent bond resulting in splitting or lysis of the molecule. Enzymatic digestion involves the hydrolysis of organic macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.

Describe the relationship between molecular weight and rate of diffusion. o Describe how this relationship was tested/observed in the lab. o Plus, describe the change in rate of diffusion over time.

The higher the molecular weight, the slower it initially moves (slower rate of diffusion). However, it remains fairly steady. The lower the molecular weight, the faster it initially moves(faster rate of diffusion). However, it begins to slow down as time goes on.

- Describe the connection between the respiratory system and blood pH.

This is related to pCO2, and how CO2 can for carbonic acid... therefore, altering your respiratory rate can alter the pCO2 of the blood which can alter the blood pH... ...More detail

- Describe how balance was tested in the lab.

To test balance, measure the time a subject is able to stand on one leg: 1) Have the subject stand, without shoes, on an 18 by 20inch piece of cardboard 2) The subject's goal is to balance for 30 seconds and they are allowed 5 tries; each try is measured using a stopwatch and the longest try is recorded. 3) The first trial is to have the subject balance on one leg. Either leg is allowed and it is necessary to measure balancing on only one leg. 4) Use of the arms or the contralateral (opposite) leg for support such as bracing the non weight-bearing lower extremity against the weight-bearing lower extremity, hopping on the weight-bearing lower extremity, or moving the weight-bearing lower extremity off the cardboard is not permitted and, if attempted, ends the try. 5) Record the results in Table 4 below. 6) The second trial is the same as the first, except that the subject's eyes are closed. Opening of the eyes invalidates the try.

Describe how to auscultate heart sounds using a stethoscope, and relate these sounds to the events of the cardiac cycle.

Two distinct sounds can be heard during each cardiac cycle. These sounds are commonly described as "lub" and "dup" after which there is a pause. The first sound is associated with closure of the atrioventricular valves and signifies the onset of systole as the ventricular pressure rises above the atrial pressure. The second sound is associated with the closure of the semilunar valves at the end of systole. The sounds are not actually the sounds of the valves closing but rather the sound of the turbulence of blood caused by the closure of the valves In this exercise you will auscultate heart sounds with an ordinary stethoscope.

- Use a standard curve (of known values) to determine unknown values.

Use the values in Table 5 below to plot a graph of the "standard curve" that shows the relationship between the distance a falling object travels and falling time. This is a reference curve generated using known values. An accurate standard curve can be used to extrapolate unknown values. Graph the known relationship between time and the distance a falling object travels using the following data set. You will then use this curve to determine the reaction time of your test subjects. PRACTICE THIS PLOT BOTH CURVES

- Explain what causes an increase in the amplitude of the MUAP (hint: see p.3-4)

Voltage association

- Define concentric contraction

When muscle shortens

lysis

When the cells are in a hypotonic environment, the water tends to move into the cell. When the cell membrane cannot hold the excessive influx of water, the cell membrane ruptures.

Describe the effect of exercise on blood pressure.

Your heart rate and blood pressure both rise when you exercise. Over time, however, regular exercise can help lower your resting blood pressure and heart rate. This is because exercise training improves the health of your heart and blood vessels, allowing your cardiovascular system to function more efficiently. the force of your heart's contractions also increases while exercising, so more blood is pumped with each beat. This effect increases blood pressure. However, the blood vessels that supply your muscles dilate, or get larger, during exercise. This enables increased blood flow to your muscles without putting excess pressure on your blood vessel walls

Define the following terms that are used to describe properties of red blood cells: microcyte, macrocyte, hyperchromic, and hypochromic.

a) microcyte-unusually small red blood cells b) macrocyte-unusually large cells c) hyperchromic- an anemia with increase of hemoglobin in individual red blood cells and reduction in the number of red blood cells d) hypochromic-an anemia where red blood cells are paler than normal

Hypotonic

any solution that has a lower osmotic pressure than another solution. In the biological fields, this generally refers to a solution that has less solute and more water than another solution.(gains water)

crenation

crenation is the contraction of a cell after exposure to a hypertonic solution, due to the loss of water through osmosis.

Osmosis

diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane.

Identify the substrates and products of the reactions catalyzed by digestive enzymes. o The table on p.8-1 is a summary of this. You could be tested on any of these on your lab exam, with a focus on the enzymes that we worked with in the lab - salivary amylase, pepsin, and lipase. (Note that there was a typo in this table: the disaccharidases should be maltase, sucrase, and lactase.)

do table!!!

Describe the factors that affect the activity of various digestive enzymes,

enzyme specificity, pH, and presence of bile. (...these were the three factors that were studied in that lab, activities 1-3...) Enzymatic digestion begins in the mouth. Enzymes tend to be very substrate specific in the reactions they catalyze. An enzyme can distinguish its substrate from even closely related compounds. This specificity is based on the shape of the active site, and ensures that each enzyme catalyzes only one type of chemical reaction. Each enzyme has a pH optimum at which it is most able to bind substrate. The pH optimum for most enzymes is between pH 6 and pH 8, but there are many exceptions. During the digestion of lipids, lipase and bile salts are released into the upper part of the small intestine (the duodenum). Bile is an emulsifier produced in the liver from cholesterol, and stored in the gallbladder. Emulsifiers (like detergents and soaps) help to disperse water insoluble lipids in aqueous solutions. This emulsification in turn, facilitates hydrolysis of the ester bonds in triglycerides by pancreatic lipase.

Hypertonic

hypertonic solution is one with a higher concentration of solutes outside the cell than inside the cell. When a cell is immersed into a hypertonic solution, the tendency is for water to flow out of the cell in order to balance the concentration of the solutes.

State the chemical that is the main cause of your need to breathe (CO2), and how hyperventilation and exercise affected breath holding time by affecting pCO2.

last 2 slides?

Describe ABO and Rh blood groups in terms of blood type, antigens present on surface of RBCs (agglutinogens), antibodies present in blood plasma (agglutinins), and whether or not anti-Rh antibodies would be made if exposed to Rh antigen.

look at table 3

isometric contraction

muscle length does not change

eccentric contraction

muscle lengthens

Describe how blood glucose levels are normally maintained by hormones.

o i.e., how do insulin and glucagon affect blood glucose levels? Insulin and glucagon, two hormones from the pancreas, help control the blood glucose level. Insulin is released when blood glucose levels rise following a meal. Insulin is needed for cellular membrane permeability to glucose and for transportation of glucose into the cells. Without insulin, glucose cannot enter most cells. Insulin also stimulates enzymatic processes that break down glucose for energy or store glucose as glycogen and fat. Glucagon is released in the fasted state as blood glucose levels fall. Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis (conversion of stored glycogen to glucose) in the liver as well as gluconeogenesis (the production of glucose from amino acids and fat).

On a spirometry graph, identify/label/measure any of the lung volumes identified in the lab (TV, IRV, ERV, VC, FEV1).

on graph 2) In the region of the recording in which normal breathing was recorded, draw one straight line along the tops of the peaks and another straight line along the bottom of the troughs. Determine the tidal volume (TV) by measuring the average distance between the two lines drawn during normal breathing and converting it to liters (mark this on your graph and record it in Table 1 below). 3) Label the peaks that correspond to "maximum inspiration." Calculate the inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) as the volume between the first of these peaks and the preceding peak of TV (mark the IRV and its volume, in liters, on your graph and record in Table 1 below). 4) Label the troughs that correspond to "maximum expiration". Calculate the expiratory reserve volume (ERV) as the volume between the first of these troughs and the preceding trough of TV (mark the ERV and its volume, in liters, on your graph and record in Table 1 below). 5) Label the vital capacity (VC) and its volume, in liters (the difference between the maximum inspiratory peak and the subsequent expiratory trough) - label on your graph and record in Table 1 below. 6) Calculate the vital capacity (VC = TV + IRV + ERV, using the measured values for TV, IRV and ERV) and compare it to the measured vital capacity. Record in the table below. 7) Based on data from large numbers of individuals, formulae have been developed that can be used to calculate the average "predicted" vital capacity, based on the person's gender, height (H) in centimeters (cm), and age (A) in years.

- Differentiate between pain threshold and pain tolerance, and describe the function of pain in general.

pain indicates potential or actual damage to bodes tissue(trigger-avoid) Pain tolerance is the maximum level of pain that a person is able to tolerate pain threshold (the point at which pain begins to be felt).

Isotonic

refers to two solutions having the same osmotic pressure across a semipermeable membrane. This state allows for the free movement of water across the membrane without changing the concentration of solutes on either side

- Describe how MUAPs changed with increased weight lifted.

the height of the amplitude increases depending on the number of muscle fibbers present

- Describe why hyperventilation can increase breath holding time.

you are continuously getting rid of carbon dioxide and inhaling oxygen