BIO 182 Final Review
when blood returns to the lungs what happens?
1. H+ leave binding sites on hemoglobin 2. H+ reacts with bicarbonate to form CO2 3. CO2 diffuses into the alveoli and is exhaled from the lungs
How does Allopatric (geographic) speciation occur?
1. a single species is an interbreeding reproductive community 2. a barrier develops, or a dispersal event occurs, dividing the species 3. separated into different habits, the divided populations diverge through the accumulation of gene and trait differences 4.the separate populations become so different that, if and when the barrier disappears and they overlap again, interbreeding does not occur
Hormones coordinate the activities of cells in what three areas?
1. development, growth, reproduction 2. response to environmental challenges 3. maintenance of homeostasis
What are three examples of messages that travel from integrators to effectors?
1. leptin and energy reserves 2. ADH, aldosterone, and electrolyte balance 3. EPO and oxygen availability
For every 3 Na+ that are pumped in how many K+ are pumped out?
2
Oxygen did not become abundant in the ocean until about
2 bya
In the process of bacterial conjugation a. a flagellum is formed b. there is transfer of viral DNA c. there maybe a transfer of an F plasmid or an Hfr chromosome d. external RNA is transferred to the host bacterium
C
When do the sodium channels open
after depolarization
What are some characteristics about reptiles?
all are ectotherms most are oviparous some are ovoviviparous or viviparous they lack larval stages
Eukaryotic evolution
all living eukaryotes have a nucleus and cytoskeleton, mitochondrian or evidence they had one
All eukaryotes and many bacteria and archaea must obtain their nitrogen from_______ or ______
ammonia or nitrate
What does the middle ear do?
amplifies sound waves enough to stimulate the hair cells within the cochlea of the inner ear
What is amplification?
amplify the signal
what is ecosystem ecology?
an ecosystem is all living and nonliving components of the environment in a given area
What is learning?
an enduring change in behavior that results from a specific experience in an individuals life
What are trade-offs?
an inescapable compromise between traits
what are bipolar cells?
an intermediate layer of connecting neurons
indicate the organism or organisms that has a decentralized nervous system and thus, uses a neural network to sense their enivornment a. peacock b. lizard c. anemones and Jellyfish d. foxes and rabbits
anemones and jellyfish
Adaptive radiations a. occur in environments where competition between species is high b. occur in environments where there are many unoccupied niches c. occurs when genetically different lineages appear similar because they evolved in similar environments d. leads to fewer species that have similar morphologies
b
Which domains have Organelles present?
Eukarya
Which domains have a nuclear envelope?
Eukarya
Which domains have sexual reproduction?
Eukarya
How does allopolyploid occur?
When different species mate
Are steroids lipid soluble?
Yes, they bind of receptors on the inside of target cells
The ability of an organism to hold its internal salt concentration constant while it moves from fresh to salt water is and example of a a. osmoregulator b. osmoconformer c. trade-off d. endotherm
a
The earliest fossils during the Cambrian period are called a. doushantuo fossils b. burgess shale fossils c. ediacaran fossils d. pre-cambrian fossils
a
Which of the following support the endosymbiont theory? a. mitochondria and chloroplasts replicate by fission b. protists do not show bacteria like organisms inside their bodies c. mitochondria is not similar to bacteria d. none of the above
a
Which statement is true? a. Archaea are more closely related to eukaryotes than they are to eubacteria b. Endoflagella are found on the external cell surfaces of bacteria c. all prokaryotes lack ribosomes d. an antibiotic resistant bacteria can only become resistant after it has been exposed to the antibiotic a couple times
a
What is the Flagellum made of?
Hook and Filament
What might happen when reproductive isolation is incomplete between two populations?
Hybrid zones form
what are some examples of postzygotic isolation?
Hybrids fail to reach sexual maturity hybrids fail to produce functional gametes offspring of hybrids have reduced fertility or viability
which of the following are advantages of adding a mesoder to triploblastic animals? a. evolution of musculature b. evolution of nervous systems c. a radial body symmetry
a and b
What is Rhizobium?
a bacteria thats associated with roots and fix nitrogen from atmospheric nitrogen, taking residence in nodules
what is a hormone?
a chemical signal that circulates through body fluids and affects distant target cells
What is the endocrine system?
a collection of organs and cells that secrete chemical signals into the bloodstream
Why are bacterial species that can perform various types of photosynthesis or can fix nitrogen, scattered among many bacterial lineages?
Lateral gene transfer
What type of channels are on the postsynaptic potentials?
Ligand gated sodium channels
Where did the first mitochondrian come from?
Lynn margulis and the endosymbiotic theory
Why is gram stain important?
Many antibiotics act by disrupting the cell wall synthesis and tend to have little or no effect on eukaryotic cells
The resting threshold of a neuron is exceeded when _____ ions flow into the neuron causing the voltage within the neuron to become more______.
Na+, positive
What is an integrator?
a component of the nervous system that evaluates the incoming sensory information and decides if a response is necessary to achieve homeostasis
The respiratory gas exchange in birds results in what?
a continuous flow of air with high PO2
Oxygen will diffuse from blood to tissue faster in response to which of the following conditions
a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues
What is adaptation?
a genetic change that occurs over generations in response to natural selection in a population
what is a population?
a group of individuals from the same species that live in the same area at the same time
Mutation
a major source of genetic diversity
RBCs do not have what
a nuclei
What is acclimatization?
a phenotypic change that occurs in an individual in response to a short-term change in environmental conditions
What is Lateral gene transfer?
a physical transfer of genes from species in one lineage to species in another important for generating metabolic diversity in the bacteria and archaea
Are all reproduced colonies genetically identical?
No due to transcription mistakes, mutations- making them able to survive in conditions their parents werent able to
What color do Gram negative bacteria stain?
Pink to red, they have cell walls that have a second membrane outside the cell wall, the cell wall has less peptidoglycan
What is peptidoglycan?
Polysaccharide and peptide chain that form a network
the inward flow of this ion can trigger the hyper polarization of a neuron's membrane potential so it is far below threshold
Potassium
What Interests us about speciation?
Speciation is evidence that evolution occurs, provides important insight into the mechanisms of evolution, explains patters
If gene flow between populations stops, then mutation, selection, and drift can act on populations independently.
True
Lymph is formed due to osmotic pressure differences in the capillaries near tissues.
True
Which of the following would describe an ectotherm? a. maintians internal body temp. metabolically b. can sustain high levels of aerobic activities as long as it eats often c. usually has low metabolic rates d. an animal that allows its body temperature to fluctuate during the course of the day
Usually has low metabolic rates
What is the cell wall material in Eukarya?
Usually made of cellulos or chitin when present
What is the cell wall material in Archaea?
Varies among species, no muramic acid and no peptidoglycan
What color do Gram positive bacteria stain?
Violet because they have a thick layer of peptidoglycan
what is an example of a primary decomposer?
bacteria and archaea
Reproductive isolation develops through changes in what?
behavior, microhabitat, seasonality of breeding, or chromosomal mutation or ploidy events
what factors influence population growth?
births, deaths, immigration, emigration
which of the following is a hollow ball structure in the early development of embryos? a. morula b. blastula c. gastrula d. zygote
blastula
What is a closed circulatory system?
blood is confined to vessels which circuit throughout the body, and is under pressure generated by the heart
What are coeloms?
body cavities, and appear in most animals
What are some adaptations that birds have?
bone structure reproductive organs no urinary blader toothless acute vision efficient respiratiory and circulatory systems
The differences between gram positive and gram negative strains of bacteria are: a. gram positive strains have a thinner peptidoglycan layer compared to gram negative strains b. gram positive strains have a thicker peptidoglycan layer compared to gram negative strains c. gram positive strains are purple with gram stain, while gram negative strains are pink
both b and c
phototrophs
can use light energy, ATP is produced by cellular respiration
Where is the blood pressure the lowest?
capillaries
the first species to arise on our planet was a a. brown algae b. animal c. prokaryote d. eukaryote
c
Why do trout remove 50-60% fo the co2 in their blood while humans only remove 9%?
carbon dioxide solubility is very high in water
in the logistic population growth model, k represents
carrying capacity
postzygotic isolating mechanisms
cause hybrids to become sterile or to fail to develop properly
The opening of voltage gated sodium ion channels in the membrane of a neuron will
cause the membrane potential to rise well above threshold
what is cellular respiration?
cells use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide. gas exchange occurs between blood and cells
what is a desert?
centered around 30 deg N and S latitude surprisingly diverse rain sparse, intesnse
What are neurotransmitters?
chemical messengers that transmit information from one neuron to another, or from one neuron to a target cell
In long term stress what hormone is released
cortisol
What are epithelial tissues?
cover the outside of the body and line the surfaces of organs
what is a savanna?
cradle of human evolution grasslands with low density tree stands full of charismatic megafauna
What organisms were using photosynthesis?
cyanobacteria
Which of the following is an incorrect statement about a vertebrate neuron? a. at rest, there is greater concentration of K+ ions outside a neuron than inside b. info moves from the dendrites to the cell body to the axon c. sodium channels are voltage-gated ion channels d. the sodium/potassium pump aids in restoring the concentration gradients of sodium and potassium after an action potential is generated
a) at rest, there is greater concentration of k+ ions outside a neuron than inside
Organisms that have evolved in unstable environments where their populations are frequently impacted by density independent factors tend to have with of the follow life history characteristics? a. early maturity b. short life expectancy c. produce many offspring at once d. all of the above
d
Two different diploid species of salmon living in the same river system have crossed (mated) and produced viable offspring that are tetraploid. These tetraploid fish can only mate with other members of this new tetraploid population. Thus we would say that a. geographic speciation occurred because a genetic barrier has formed b. allopatirc speciation occurred c. sympatric speciation occurred through autopolyploidy d. sympatric speciation has occurred through allopolyploidy
d
Pyrite
easily oxidized and destroyed by oxygen
What are biomes?
ecosystems characteristic of different parts of Earth
What is fever?
elevated body temperature
Frontal lobe plays a role in what?
emotion and temperament
What are the amniotic eggs?
enabled reproduction to be carried out in non aquatic habitats?
An animal that does NOT allow its body temperature to fluctuate during the day is called a
endotherm/mammal/human
what are exogenous?
endotoxins from gram negatives
what are endogenous?
endotoxins produced from own tissue
What are triglycerides?
energy storage molecules abundant in adipocytes
why does the max number of links in any food chain or web range from one to six?
energy transfer may limit food chain length long food chains may be more fragile food chain length may depend on environmental complexity
DNA repair
environmental DNA from closely related bacteria might serve as templates for the repair of DNA damage
In the fight or flight response what hormone is released
epinephrine
What is positive pressure ventilation?
ex: frogs a higher pressure is created in their mouths
What is EPSP?
excitatory postsynaptic potentials bring the membrane potential closer to threshold
What is bacterial transformation?
exogenous genetic material may be introduced into a bacterial cell
How do amphibians reproduce?
external fertilization fertilized eggs easily dessicate free living aquatic larval stages in most groups must have permanent or semi-permanent water to reproduce and complete development
What do chlamydias cause in humans?
eye infections, stds, some forms of pneumonia
What is that jaw?
facilitated capturing and eating prey
what are pyrogens?
fever producing substances
What were the earliest tetrapods?
fish related to coelocanths and lungfish tetrapods
How do prokaryotes move?
flagellum
What are lamellae?
flattened sheet-like structures in gills with high surface area/volume ratio
what limits population growth?
food becomes scarce as the population increases more predators may focus on large populations nest, roost, burrow sites become scarce as population grows large infectious disease occur more easily in large population this results in: population growth rate declining as population size increases, this is not exponential growth
what are ganglion cells?
form the front or innermost layer of the retina and whose axons project to the brain via the optic nerve
what are age pyramids?
graphs with horizontal bars representing the numbers of males and females of each age group
What hormone does the pituitary gland secrete?
growth hormone
What are examples of prezygotic isolation?
habitat isolation, behavioral isolation (no attraction), temporal isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation
What was an example of the first fish that was jawless?
hagfish
What are triploblasts?
have a third layer mesoderm: gives rise to bone, circulatory system, muscle, CT, gonads, and tissues for movement
What are diploblasts?
have two embryonic tissues ectoderm: forms epidermis endoderm: forms lining of gut and liver
Endospores
heat-resistant resting structures
In an open circulatory systems what two things are in direct contact with each other?
hemolymph and tissues
What is a type 3?
high death rates early in life high survivorship after maturity ex: plants
The narrow part of the basilar membrane vibrates in response to what kind of frequencies?
high frequencies
Closed circulatory systems are what kind of pressure systems?
high pressure
Gas molecules move from?
higher pressure to lower pressure
What are tissues?
highly integrated group of cells with the same structure and function
What are some advantages of endothermy?
improves feeding efficiency improves exploitation of temperate habitats
What is the CNS?
includes large numbers of neurons aggregated into clusters called ganglia
What do T3 and T4 do?
increase metabolic rate and heart rate, promote growth
Which physiological control mechanism is a response to a rise in body temperature over a set point? a. slower heart rate b. increased blood flow to the skin c. constriction of blood vessels in the skin d. retention of water
increased blood flow to the skin
What are the limbs?
increased motility and advantageous for colonizing terrestrial habitats
what is clumped dispersion?
individuals aggregate in patches
what is uniform dispersion?
individuals are evenly distributed, usually influenced by social interactions
What does testosterone do?
induces early development of the male reproductive tract
What does the brain stem do?
information relay; autonmic control of heart, lungs, digestive system
What does the diencephalon do?
information relay; control of homeostasis
What does leptin control?
inhibiting feeding behavior
What is IPSP?
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials make the membrane potential more negative
What is an example of the experimental evidence for reproduction isolation?
initial population of fruit flies was seperated into 2 groups under different environments, after 40 generations they were brought back together again, results in a reproductive barrier that forms
What is bacterial transduction?
injection of foreign DNA by a bacteriophage virus into the host bacterium
Name the three components of a homeostatic regulatory system
integrator sensor effector
Anything besides amphibians produce by what form?
internal fertilization an amniotic egg
What does the ANS control?
internal processes/involuntary movements
What are chlamydias?
intracellular parasites that are among the smallest bacteria
RBCs are
involved in gas transport
polyploidy can lead to______
isolation between populations.
What does rhodopsin do?
it activates the membrane protein transducin and is activated when light causes retina to change its shape
What does the anterior pituitary do?
it controls the release of pituitary hormones secretes regulatory hormones
Why is bilateral symmetry so pervasive in the animal kingdom?
it made directional movement and efficient hunting of prey possible because of a distinctive head with the rest of the body used to power movement
What is the neuroendocrine pathway?
it releases neuroendocrine signals that act directly on effector cells
what is the carrying capacity?
k, the max number of individuals in a population that can be supported or sustained in a particular habitat
Ediacarian Fauna fossils have what type of animal characteristics?
lack limbs lack heads or mouths filter feeders not active predators 565mya - 540
what is a cold desert?
lack of plant diversity, much animal diversity, especially rodents, very dry, undeveloped soils
What is an example of an invertebrate chordate?
lancelets
What is the traditional hypothesis for how the three domains of life are related?
last universal common ancestor
What diseases do proteobacteria cause?
legionnaire's disease, cholera, and gonorrhea
what does the db gene code for?
leptin receptor
What does the ob gene code for?
leptin, a polypeptide hormone
what are the photoreceptors?
light sensitive cells (rods, cones) that form a layer at the back of the retina
heterotrophs
live by consuming carbon containing compounds
What are mutations in gene expression?
location and timing of gene expression may produce differing structures
tropical deciduous forest is what?
lots of rain, but seasonal plants drop their leaves in dry season very high plant and animal diversity
Why its colder at the poles than at the equator?
low angle of incoming sunlight
the wide part of the basilar membrane vibrates in response to what kind of frequencies?
low frequencies
Open circulatory systems are what kind of pressure sysetms?
low pressure which favors sedentary organisms that dont have high oxygen demands
What is depolarization?
membrane potential becomes less polarized as it moves from highly negative towards zero, then is briefly positive
What is repolarization?
membrane potential rapidly goes back to negative
What are some observations that support the endosymbiotic theory?
mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar in size to bacteria both organelles replicate by fission independently of the rest of the cell ribosomes of mitochondria and chloroplasts are bacterial in size and structure the protist cyanophora has a photosynthetic organelle containing peptidoglycan mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own genomes and produce the enzymes for replication
what is a temperate deciduous forest?
moist, well-developed soils broad leaf, deciduous trees intermediate diversity
What is the most ancient group of mammals?
monotremata (platypuses and echidnas)
what is a chaparral
mosaic of shrubs, small trees, open range lots of seed producing plants supports large, diverse bird, mammal, insect populations vegetation adapted to withstand fire
What type of cell wall do prokaryotes have?
most have a thick and stiff cell wall containing peptidoglycan which is unique to bacteria
In pigeons, respiration happens due to
negative pressure ventilation
What is nervous tissue?
nerve cells or neurons make up nervous tissue
Neurons are organized into what two basic types of nervous systems?
nerve nets CNS
The neuron has a
net negative resting membrane potential
What is the CNS to endocrine pathway?
neuroendocrine signals stimulate cells in the endocrine system, which respond by producing an endocrine signal that acts on effector cells
What is the PNS composed of?
neurons outside the CNS
What are neural signals?
neurotransmitters diffuse a short distance from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic cell bind to membrane receptors and result in a change in membrane potential
Was the Explosion an explosion?
no
Are polypeptides and peptides lipid soluble?
no, they bind to receptors on the surface of target cells
What are the changes in animal bodies during the cambrian explosion?
number of embryonic tissues type of symmetry internal body construction developmental pathways
The yolk sac contains
nutrients
what limits the productivity of marine ecosystems?
nutrients, specifically iron
What do Burgess Fossils tell us?
organisms have eyes, jawed mouths, limbs, shells increase in size and complexity diversity of forms, predators, prey scavengers every major animal phyla seen today appears 525-515 mya
What is the trophic structure?
organisms that obtain their energy from teh same type of source occupy the same trophic level, each feeding level within an ecosystem represents a trophic level
What is a tundra
permafrost, high winds, no trees
Where was the molecular oxygen coming from?
photosynthesis
Cyanobactria
photosynthesize using the same pathways plants use, they use chlorophyll and release oxygen photoautotrophs
Prokaryotes produce ATP in three different ways
phototrophs organotrophs lithotrophs
What is the iris?
pigmented round muscle that contracts or expands to control the amount of light entering the eye
What are the major human endocrine glands?
pituitary gland thyroid/parathyroid gland kidneys adrenal glands
What are eutherians?
placental mammals
Sympatric speciation is common in
plants, less common in animals
What are the only mammals that lay eggs?
platypuses and they have low metabolic rates compared to other mammals
Ecosystems provide services such as
pollination, seed dispersal, climate regulation, water purification, nutrient cycling, control of agricultural pests
Sponges have what type of body plan?
poriferan general body plan asymmetrical bodies
what is random dispersion?
position of each individual is independent of other individuals, uncommon pattern
What are nematocysts?
potent weapons for defense and prey capture
What do chemoreceptors detect?
presence of specific molecules
What do mechanoreceptors detect?
pressure
How does reproductive isolation occur in nature?
prezygotic and poszygotic isolating mechanisms
What are the four components that are linked by the flow of energy?
primary producers consumers decomposers abiotic environment
Levels of the trophic pyramid are what?
primary producers primary consumers secondary consumers tertiary consumers
What does an endotherm do?
produces heat in its own tissue
Why have prokaryotes been evolutionarily successful?
prokaryotes can genetically recombine (mixing of genes that already exist)
What is the endosymbiotic theory?
proposes that mitochondria originated when a bacterial cell took up residence inside a eukaryote 2 bya a bacterial cell was engulfed as food it survived by metabolizing carbon compounds from host and using oxygen host used anaerobic fermentation both benefited
What is an endoskeleton?
protects organs and serves as an attachment site for muscles
What is a notochord?
provided support and became the forerunner of the spinal column
What is endothermy?
provided the ability to power sustained and rapid movements
What are the benefits of the coelom?
provides space in which organs can develop and can be used as a hydrostatic skeleton in soft bodied animals in embryonic animals it is the space around the heart, the lungs, and the abdominal cavity provides space for the circulation of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes
Phylogenetic Relationships are based on
rRNA analysis
What does EPO stimulate?
red blood cell production
What is the purpose of the homeostatic system?
regulation of triglyceride stores
what is a temperate grassland?
relatively dry well developed soils worlds breadbasket often maintained by fire
What happens during diastole?
relaxation of atria and ventricles
What does an ectotherm do?
relies on heat gained from the environment
what is iteroparous?
repeated reproduction and produce multiple offspring
what is semelparity?
reproduce once and then die
What does estradiol do?
required for development of the female reproductive tract
What is memory?
retention of learned information
species that reproduce once in their lifetime and then die like salmon exhibit
semelparous reproduction
What is the endocrine pathway?
sends hormones directly from endocrine cells to effector cells
What do nociceptors detect?
sense harmful stimuli
What are three components of the regulatory system?
sensor effector integrator
What is the transcription and translation machinery in archaea?
several relatively complex RNA polymerases; translation begins with methionine
What evidence of the endoysmbiotic theory exists?
several species of bacteria are found inside eukaryotic cells, cyanobacteria are found living inside protist hosts
What animals use electroreception?
sharks
what animals use magnetoreception?
sharks, migrating birds
The temporal lobe and hippocampus play a role in what?
short term memory
What are examples of reptiles?
snakes and lizards tortoises crocodilians tuatara
What are the two divisions of the PNS?
somatic nerovous system autonomic nervous system
What are heterocysts?
specialized for nitrogen fixation
Sympatric speciation
speciation without any geographical isolation within the continuous ancestral population
What is the Mayr's Biological Species Concept?
species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups
which statement describes a k selected species?
species that often exhibit prolonged parental care for their young
what is an example of predators of decomposers?
spider, centipede
What are the earliest animals?
sponges
what are k traits?
stable environment, density dependent interactions large organism few offspring produced late maturity long life expectancy type 1 or type 2 curve
What do prolactin do?
stimulates mammary gland growth and milk production in females
What is organismal ecology?
study of interaction of an organism with living and non living elements of tis environment
what is an intertidal?
submerged and exposed twice a day organisms well adapted to wave action
What is a type 1 curve?
survivorship is high most reach max life span ex: humans
What are some characteristics of mammals?
sweat glands mammary glands hair middle ear with 3 bones four chambered heart adaptive radiation
What are axons and dendrites separated by?
synaptic cleft
What do the ends of axons contain?
synaptic vesicles
an increase in the physiologial attachment of marine mussels in the presence of crabs is an example of an inducible defense mechanism
t
t/f: most populations undergo a density dependent growth where survival declines at high densities.
t
Red beds form in what kind of environments?
terrestrial, about 1.8 bya
Single neuron recording reveals what?
that some neurons in the brain recognize specific concepts
Plasma
the ECM composed of water, proteins, and other elements
DNA for genetic diversity
the acquisition of potential useful genetic information, such as novel metabolic functions
what is age specific fecundity?
the average number of female offspring produced by a female in a given age class
what are examples of majore global biogeochemical cycles?
the carbon and nitrogen cycle
Carbonic anhydrase is key to what?
the carbon dioxide transport in blood
What is the physical link between the hypothalamus and pituitary?
the connection between the CNS and endocrine system
What is transduction?
the conversion of an external stimulus to an internal signal in teh form of an action potential
a squirrel chewing the insulation off an electrical wire is analogous to:
the degenerative disease of the myelin sheaths as seen in the disease multiple sclerosis
What is conduction?
the direct transfer of heat
Ecosystem Diversity
the diversity of biological communities or groups of species and the complex interdependencies that occur among them
Species Diversity
the diversity that exists among and between the many different kinds of living organisms
the amnion contains
the embryo
what is fecundity?
the number of female offspring produced by each female in the populations
Doushantuo fossils
the oldest fossils 580 mya cyanobacteria multicellular algae (seaweed) sponge spicules
The Precambrian period included
the origin of life, photosynthesis, and the oxygen atmosphere
what is the sclera?
the outermost layer of tough white tissue
what is the biogeochemical cylce?
the path an element takes as it moves from abiotic systems through living organisms and back again
what is evaporation?
the phase change that occurs when liquid water becomes a gas
what is a populations age structure?
the proportion of individuals that are at each possible age
what is survivorship?
the proportion of offspring produced that survive on average to a particular age
What is nitrogen fixation?
the redox reactions for production of ammonia from molecular nitrogen
what is demography?
the study of factors that determine the size and structure of populations through time
what is community ecology?
the study of how and why community structure changes over time
what is population ecology?
the study of how and why populations change in size and demography
what is population ecology?
the study of how and why the number of individuals in a population changes over time
what is radiation?
the transfer of heat between two bodies that re not in direct physical contact
How do animals regulate body temperature?
thermoregulation
What are deep sea benthos?
deep sea community, mostly in aphotic zone
What is the flow of information in a neuron?
dendrites cell body axon
when the population density is high and the populations birth rate decreases and death rate increases causing growth rate to decline this growth is called
density depenendent
What are the three phases of the action potential?
depolarization repolarization hyperpolarization
What does the cochlea do?
detects sound frequencies
what does the inner ear do?
detects sound frequencies, the fluid inside the cochlea vibrates stimulating certain hair cells
What are the four distinct structures of the human brain?
diencephalon brain stem cerebrum cerebellum
What are nerve nets?
diffuse arrangement of cells (found in cnidarians, ctenophores)
what are paracrine signals?
diffuse locally and act on neighboring target cells ex: insulin, glucagon
What is gas exchange?
diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air or water and the blood at the respiratory surface
what is circulation?
dissolved gases are transported throughout the body
What triggers the diversification of species within a taxonomic group?
diversification in habitat use as a result of changes in locomotion and feeding
What are cyanobacteria?
dominate many marine and freshwater environments, produce much of the oxygen and nitrogen, and organic compounds that feed other organisms in freshwater and marine environments
Which of the following statements is true about side-blotched lizard reproduction? a. when they have large clutch sizes, the eggs tend to be small in size b. smaller eggs have a lower chance of surviving c. when they produce smaller clutch sizes, the eggs tend to be larger d. egg laying in this species demonstrates the concept of evolutionary trade-offs e. all of the above
e.
What are bilaterally symmetrical animals?
they are adapted for forward motion, sense organs concentrated in a head, limbs for locomotion at the rear
what are endocrine signals?
they are carried between distant cells by blood or other body fluids hormones are produced and secreted by specialized cells or glands
what do cones do?
they are less sensitive to fain light but are stimulated by different wavelengths (colors)
What do rods do?
they are sensitive to dim light but not color
What are smooth muscle cells?
they are tapered at each end and form a tissue that lines the walls of the digestive tract and the walls of arteries
What are hox genes?
they function in patterning the body axis, providing the identity of particular body regions, determine where limbs and other body segments will grow in a developing fetus or larva
What are pacemaker cells?
they initiate contraction in the vertebrate heart which are located in the SA node
What are Halophiles?
they live in high-salt, high pH or low pH environments
How do proteobacteria cause disease?
they produce endotoxins that are released when bacteria lyse
What are some predictions of Hox loci?
they should vary among animals early branching animals should have simpler bodies and fewer Hox genes Hox clusters should show expansion over evolutionary time
what are veins?
thin walled vessels that return blood to the heart
What is a triploid zygote?
three copies of each chromosome when these gametes combine most offspring have incorrect number of chromosomes
What are arteries?
tough, thick walled vessels that take blood away from the heart
What is bacterial conjugation?
transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells in direct contact
What is transmission?
transmission of the signal to the CNS
A single breath remains in the birds gas exchange for how many cycles?
two cycles of inhalation and exhalation
What does the SNS control?
voluntary movements
Cardiac muscle makes up the
walls of the heart
the allantois contains
waste
what is a boreal forest?
wet (acid bogs) coniferous forests not diverse (plants or animals)
What is convection?
when air or water moves over the body surface
What is ventilation?
when air or water moves through a specialized gas exchange organ such as the lungs
why does population growth occur?
when birth rate exceeds death rate organisms have enormous potential to increase their populations if not constrained by mortality
what is the intrinisic rate of increase?
when r reaches the max value when birth rates are as high as possible and death rates are as low as possible
What is torpor?
when the body temperature and metabolic rate drop low for a short period of time longer times its called hibernation
When does adaptive evolution occur?
when the frequency of alleles subject to natural selection increases from one generation to the next and lead to higher average fitness in a particular environment
when does exponential population growht occur?
when the growth rate doesnt change over time and does not depend on the number of individuals in the population density indepedent
What is negative feedback?
when the regulatory system makes a change in the opposite direction to a change in internal conditions
How does sympatric speciation occur?
when the same species mate
what is an estuary?
where freshwater streams and ocean meet extrememly productive biome rapidly disappearing
When do the potassium channels open?
with a delay after depolarization
Tetraploids can only produce offspring________
with other tetraploids
What are the stages of embryonic development?
zygote cleavage blastula gastrula
What does the Bohr shift show regarding hemoglobin?
cooperative binding
What type of binding makes hemoglobin sensitive to changes in PO2?
cooperative binding
What does the cerebellum do?
coordination of complex motor patterns
Which of the following statements about the three different types of hormones is TRUE? 1. polypeptide hormones are not lipid soluble and bind to receptors on the surface of target cells 2. steroids are lipid soluble, but do not cross cell membranes readily 3. amino acid derivatives are structurally complex and thus will only bind to receptors inside target cells 4. only steroids bond to receptors on the surface of target cells
1. polypeptide hormones are not lipid soluble and bind to receptors on the surface of target cells
What is the process of species formation?
1. single population with a common shared gene pool 2. discontinuity develops among some subpopulations 3. changes in allele frequencies develop at various loci in the gene pools of the subpopulations 4. separate evolution of subpopulations continues until one or both has diverged to the point that each subpopulation now meets one of the definitions of a species concept
Oxygen did not become common in the atmosphere until
1.8 bya
Beetles represent what percent of all known species
25%
Iron sulfide (pyrite) is common in rock deposits older than
2bya
Molecular oxygen started to form in the ocean as far back as
3.75 bya
What does anterior pituitary produce?
ACTH FSH LH GH PRL TSH
What does the posterior pituitary produce?
ADH oxytocin
What are advantages/disadvantages of the phylogenetic species concept?
Advantages: Widely applicable based on testable criteria Disadvantages: few well estimated phylogenies are currently available
What are advantages/disadvantages of the biological species concept?
Advantages: reproductive isolation=evolutionary independence Disadvantages: not applicable to asexual or fossil species, difficult to assess if populations don't overlap geographically
What are advantages/disadvantages of the Morphological species concept?
Advantages: widely applicable Disadvantages: subjective (easy to disagree)
When life went cellular we can conclude that
All life forms use DNA and proteins (except viruses) All life forms use the same 20 amino acids and the same basic structure of the genetic code
What is the cell wall material in Bacteria?
Almost all include peptidoglycan, containing muramic acid
Which domains are most closely related to one another?
Archaea and Eukarya
Which domains have DNA associated with histone proteins?
Archaea and Eukarya
What is an important mechanism for generating metabolic biodiversity among Archea and bacteria? a. living in an extreme environment b. lateral gene transfer c. movement by flagella and pili d. living under anaerobic conditions
B
Which domains are unicellular?
Bacteria and Archaea
Which domains have circular chromosomes?
Bacteria and Archaea
Three domains of life
Bacteria, Eukaryota, Archaea
In the bacterial lineage, an example of a nitrogen-fixing bacterium is a. cyanobacteria b. salmonella c. rhizobium d. e. coli
C
Given the steps shown below, which of the following is the correct sequence for the transmission at a chemical synapse? 1. neurotransmitter binds with receptor on the postsynaptic membrane 2. sodium channels are opened, causing an influx of sodium that depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane 3. action potential depolarizes the presynaptic membrane of the axon terminal 4. ion channel opens to allow Ca2+ to enter the presynaptic cell. 5. synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
C. 3,4,5,1,2
Prokarytoic additional structures are
Capsule: sticky coating pili: are surface appendages
What are the examples of gram-negative bacteria?
Chlamydias Cyanobacteria Proteobacteria Rhizobium
This homrone triggers constriction of arterioles and the reabsorption of water in the nephrons of mammalian kidneys a. epinephrine b. angiotensin II c. ACE d. ADH
D
The major innovations in animal body form during Cambrian, occurred due to a. gene duplication b. gene mutations c. homeotic gene mutations d. all of the above
D.
DNA as food
DNA can be used as a source of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus
Why do bacteria take up DNA?
DNA for genetic diversity virulence traits DNA repair DNA as food
The Cambrian explosion can be broken up into what 3 time periods?
Doushantuo fossils ediacaran fossils burgess shale fossils
Who was the gram stain developed by?
Hans Christian Gram in 1884
What are additional triggers of rapid diversification at other time periods (adaptive radiation)?
Exploitation of empty environments resulting from extinction, colonization events dramatic changes in the environment
What are archaea?
Extremophiles, they lack peptidoglycan in their cell walls and have distinctive lipids in their cell membranes
Hemoglobin transports oxygen to the tissues by non-cooperative binding.
False
If two species are separated geographically, they will almost always end up becoming two distinct species.
False
Organotrophs can use light energy. ATP is produced by cellular respiration.
False
Levels of Biodiversity
Genetic Diversity Species Diversity Community and Ecosystem Diversity
What is an example of a protist that lost their mitochondria?
Giardia lamblia
What is the structure of lipids in plasma membrane in archaea?
Glycerol bonded to branched faty acids via ether linkage
What is the structure of lipids in plasma membrane in Eukarya?
Glycerol bonded to straight chain fatty acids via ester linkage
What is the structure of lipids in plasma membrane in bacteria?
Glycerol bonded to straight-chain fatty acids via ester linkage?
Speciation is often a _______ process.
Gradual
How does speciation occur?
Its often a splitting event that creates two or more distinct species from a single ancestral group
How does iron oxide form?
Iron reacts with oxygen to form Fe2o3, this is insoluble in water, abundance peaked about 2.5 bya
Are amino acid derivatives lipid soluble?
Most are not, they bind to receptors on surface of target cells
What is gene duplication?
Mutation in homeotic genes which regulate development (hox genes)
What are methanogens?
Produce methane from CO2 they are all obligate anaerobes
The Earliest Fossilized Evidence of Life is
Prokaryotic
How do the protostomes and deuterostomes developmental pathways differ?
Protostomes have spiral cleaveage, the pore becomes the mouth, block of solid mesoderm splits to form coelom Deuterostomes: have radial cleavage, pore becomes the anus, the mesoderm pockets pinch off of gut to form coelom
What are major blood components?
RBCs WBCs platlets Plasma
What is the transcription and translation machinery in bacteria?
RNA polymerase, translation begins with formylmethionine, translation poisoned by several antibiotics that do not affect archaea or eukaryotes
Generation Times
Rates of cell division vary with species, the shortest known is 10 minutes, the longest is about 100 years
Is sodium intracellular or extracellular?
Sodium is extracellular Potassium is intracellular
Gases diffuse in the largest amounts when what three conditions are met?
SA for gas exchange is large respiratory surface is thin pp gradient of the gas across the surface is large
In a neuron___ cells have ___ which are required for the wave of action potential to be transmitted.
Schwann; Nodes of Ranvier
What is the transcription and translation machinery in Eukarya?
Several relatively complex RNA polymerases; translation begins with methionine
T/F: Animals with radially symmetrical bodies tend to react to predators or food from any direction.
T
T/F: Sympatric Speciation occurs in populations that occupy the same geographic area
T
T/F: Volume increases more rapidly than does surface area.
T
T/F: all amphibians are classified as ectothermic terrestrial tetrapod.
T
T/F: cinadrians are carnivorous diploblasts with blind guts.
T
T/F: compared to endotherms, ectotherms have low metabolic rates and lower mitochondrial enzyme activity
T
T/F: organisms with high fecundity tend to grow quickly reach sexual maturity at a young age and produce many small eggs or seeds
T
T/F: Polyploidy, a type of mutation, can also cause sympatric speciation
T.
What limits the productivity of terestrial ecosystems?
Terrestrial NPP is the lowest in deserts and arctic regions meaning that their overall productivity is limited by a combo of temperature and the availability of water and sun
What is the Miller Urey experiment?
The Miller Urey Experiment. In the 1950's, biochemists Stanley Miller and Harold Urey, conducted an experiment which demonstrated that several organic compounds could be formed spontaneously by simulating the conditions of Earth's early atmosphere.
How is an endospore made?
The bacteria replicates its DNA and encapsulates one copy in a tough cell wall, thickened with peptidoglycan and covered with a spore coat the parent cell then breaks down, releasing the endospore some endospores can be reactivated after years of dormancy
How does genetic recombination occur in prokaryotes?
Transformation- indirectily Conjugation- directly Transduction- viral
Genetic Diversity
The diversity that exists within a particular kind of plant, animal, or other organism
What would the hypothesis predict about the similarity of sequences if you compared eukaryotic nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA and bacterial DNA with each other?
The mitochondrial DNA was more similar to bacterial DNA Chloroplast DNA is more closely related to cyanobacterial DNA than to plant DNA
Why have prokaryotes been evolutionarily successful?
The rate of cell division is exponential
What is biodiversity?
The variations and differences of the multiple forms of life which exist upon the planet Earth
What are some characteristics of prokaryotes?
They can live at extremely hot temperatures Cold temps between -17 and -85 They can survive extreme alkalinity or acidity or saltiness Can survive with or without the presence of oxygen Some live at the bottom of the sea Some live in rocks more than 2km into Earth's solid crust
How did the major innovations in animal body form occur during the cambrian explosion?
Through gene duplication, mutation in gene expression
Morphological/Typological species
a set of organisms sharing structural similarities between members and discontinuities in structure between different species
Phylogenetic/Evolutionary species
a set of organisms that shares a common ancestor and maintains its integrity with respect to other lineages through both time and space
What is a simple eye?
a structure that has a lens that focuses incoming light onto a layer of receptor cells
What is a sensor?
a structure that sense some aspect of the external or internal environment
what is net primary productivity?
a tiny fraction of fixed energy actually becomes available to consumers
Bilateral animals body plans illustrate what?
a tube within a tube construction that contains a space between the tubes
what is a vent community?
a type of benthic community that requires no sunlight, food ultimately made by chemoautotrophic prokaryotes
What is an amoeba proteus and example of?
a unicellular protozoan
An increase in which of the following parameters would be most favored by natural selection in the evolution of specialized exchange surfaces such as the linings of the lungs or intestines? a. surface area b. thickness c. volume of its component cells d. metabolic rate of its component cells
a. surface area
Write briefly about the main difference between adaptation and acclimatization?
adaptation is a genetic change that takes longer than one lifetime to occur and acclimatization is a phenotypic change that happens within a lifetime
What is the possible link to a vertebrate ancestor?
acorn worms
What are autocrine signals?
act on the same cell that secretes them
What are some diseases caused by Gram positive bacteria?
anthrax, botulism, tetanus, gangrene, lactobacillus: used to make yogurt
Virulence traits
antibiotic resistance
What is an effector?
any structure that helps to restore the desired internal condition
What is an example of eukaryota fossils?
arcritarchs, about 1.8 bya
Platlets
are cell fragments that participate in clotting, along with coagulation factors
what are neuroendocrine signals?
are considered hormones because they are carried by blood or other body fluids and act on distant cells, they do not act on or at the synapse ex: ADH
WBCs
are part in the immune system
What are hybrid zones?
areas where interbreeding occurs and hybrid offspring are common
What are countercurrent heat exchangers?
arteries and veins that lie beside each other and freely exchange heat
How do prokaryotes reproduce?
asexually by fission
What are the levels leading up to the organism level?
atom cellular tissue organ system organism
Which substance was not likely in the Earths atmosphere around 4 billion years ago? a. nitrogen gas b. oxygen gas c. sulfur compounds d. methane
b.
What is the CNS composed of?
brain and spinal chord
The biological species concept is inadequate for identifiying and classifying species of a. flowering plants b. sexually reproducing parasites c. asexually reproducing organisms d. fish that have external fertilization
c
The results of the Miller-Urey experiment a. demonstrated spontaneous generation of simple life b. demonstrated the abiotic synthesis of proteins c. demonstrated the abiotic synthesis of organic compounds that included amino acids d. confirmed that the early Earth's atmosphere contained oxygen gas
c
You discover an organism that has a circular chromosome, no membrane-bound organelles and which lacks peptidoglycan. Into which group of organisms would you classify this specimen? a. insects b. bacteria c. archaea d. eukarya
c
Counter current exchange systems a. are used in the gills of fish to maximize oxygen diffusion b. are used by many arctic animals to minimize heat loss c. involve the circulatory system and anatomical positioning of arteries and veins d. all of the above
c.
What channels open at the release of neurotransmitters?
calcium
What does the outer ear do?
collect pressure waves and funnels them into the ear canal where they strike the tympanic membrane
Insects have what kind of eye
compound
what is the retina?
comprised of 3 distinct cell layers
The direct transfer of heat between two physical bodies that are in contact with each other is called. a. radiation b. conduction c. convection d. evaporation
conduction
The fovea has only
cones
What are the four different kinds of tissue?
connective tissue nervous tissue muscle tissue epithelial tissue
What does the cerebrum do?
conscious thought; memory
what is a type 2?
consistent survivorship ex: songbirds
What happens during systole?
contraction of the atria and ventricles
What would likely happen if two genetically differentiated and once geographically isolated populations reestablish contact with each other and commonly produce offspring that are equally successful in reproducing (identical fitness) with members of both parental populations? a. speciation will occur and w will have three new species b. genetic differences will continue to increase between the two parental populations c. reproductive isolation will increase among all populations d. the two re-established populations will continue to genetically homogenize (become similar) only one species will likely exist in the future
d
which of the following is true about human populations? a. the age structure of human populations in different countries can be
d. all of the above
what is the overall rate of nutrient movemement limited by?
decomposition of detritus
what is a tropical evergreen forest?
found along the equator very wet, continuous rainfall, extremely diverse
What are tetrapods?
four limbed animals
What is muscle tissue?
function in movement consist of striated muscle which consists of muscle fibers
Allopatric Speciation: Dispersal provides complete___________ isolation.
geographic
What is the advantage of adding a mesoderm to a body?
made the evolution of extensive musculature and nervous systems possible led to the bilateral symmetry
What is connective tissue?
made up of cells that are loosely arranged in a liquid, jellylike, or solid extracellular matrix
what is a coral reef?
maintained by cnidarians coral feed on abundant nutrients brought by ocean currents and photosynthetic plankton very sensitive to pollution
What is the primary role of cortisol?
maintaining glucose production so the brain can use it
Prezygotic Isolating mechanisms
make it very unlikely that interbreeding will even take place
Autotrophs
make their own carbon containing compounds
what is negative pressure ventilation?
mammals use the diaphragm to create a low pressure within their lungs
Banded iron formations form in what kind of environment?
marine, about 2-3.75 bya
What are metatherians?
marsupials puched mammals, short developmental times, yolk-like placenta
What is responsible for absorbing different wavelengths of light?
opsins
What is a tetraploid parent?
one that has four copies of each chromosome
What is a diploid parent?
one that has two copies of each chromosome
What are the three parts of the ear?
outer middle inner
Lithotrophs
oxidize inorganic molecules, ATP is produced by cellular respiration with the inorganic compound serving as the electron donor
organotrophs
oxidize reduced organic molecules, ATP is prodcued by cellular respiration or fermentation
Active muscle tissue takes up more______ from the blood.
oxygen
What are the four lobes of the brain?
parietal temporal frontal occipital
What are adaptive radiations?
the evolutionary diversification of a species or single ancestor into various forms that are each adaptively specialized to a specific environmental niche proceeds rapidly in environments where there are numerous unoccupied niches or with minimal competition increase the variety of available niches over time
What is the cornea?
the front of the sclera forms this transparent sheet of CT which helps focus light on the retina
Where did the jaws coming from?
the gill support hypothesis: mutation and natural selection increased the size of the first arch and modified its orientation resulting in a working jaw gill arches
what is the pupil?
the hole in the center of the eye
What is homeostasis?
the maintenance of relatively constant chemical and physical conditions in an animals cells, tissues, and organs
What is mammalian breathing rate controlled by?
the medullary respiratory center
what is hyperpolarization?
the membrane is slightly more negative than the resting potential
What layer does the coelom develop from?
the mesoderm in triploblastic animals
What were the consequences of this metabolic pathway?
unleased the poison that radically altered the path of all life: molecular oxygen oceans and atmosphere changed more ATP could be made Organisms could gain more energy multicellularity and larger cell sizes was now possible life above water was more possible
what are some r- selection traits?
unstable environment, density independent small organism many offspring produced early maturity short life expectancy Type 3 curve
______ amounts of DNA are exchanged in these processes
variable
What are the three different cell types of cyanobacteria?
vegatative cells spores heterocysts
What are the four steps of gas exchange?
ventilation gas exchange circulation cellular respiration
small veins are called what?
venules
What is an example of a vertebrate chordate?
vertebrates
What are capillaries?
vessels whose walls are one cell thick, allowing for exchange of molecules between blood and their tissues