bio 2 final review

16.12 describe the basic types of protists. Explain why biologists currently think that they represent many clades.

*Secondary endosymbiosis: is the reason for diversity *autotrophs: algae, produces their food by photosynthesis *heterotrophs: protozoans, eating bacteria and other protists *heterotrophs: parasites, deriving their nutrition from a living host *mixotrophs:uses photosynthesis and heterotrophs

17.17 describe the structure and characteristics of lichens

-A lichen lives in a symbiotic relationship with a algae (they are dependent on one another.) -The alga is photosynthetic and produces food the fungus provides support and protection for the algae EXAMPLES: 1-Cructose: appears as flat smears of dried paint on rocks and trees 2-foliose: lichens look like small crinkled leaves 3-fruticose: lichens usually have small stalks or branches with conspicuous fruiting bodies on their ends.

16.2 compare the different shapes, cell walls, and projections of prokaryotes.

-All are small, simple structures -They do not have membrane bound organelles or nucleus COCCI: -Spherical -Chains or clusters BACILI: -Rod shaped -Occurs singularly, in pairs, or chains SPIROCHETES: -Corkscrew shaped CELL WALLS -Gram stains identified as gram (+) (-) -Gram + (purple),Simple cell wall, Thick peptidoglycan layer -Gram - (pink), More complex cell wall with lipids bonded to carbohydrates, Thin peptidoglycan layer, More dangerous PROJECTIONS -flagella: whip-like projections -Fimbriae:also called pili, shorter, hair-like projections

17.8 describe the angiosperm adaptations that promote seed dispersal

-Animal-usage -Drifting in water -Floating on wind

13.6 explain why individuals are unable to evolve and why evolution does not lead to perfectly adapted organisms

-Because change requires different organisms -Asexual organisms can't evolve for example because they create exact copies -Populations evolve, not an individual. -Individuals don't show how an entire population evolved over time -Their genes don't change when they die but a population's does.

12.1 explain how plasmids are used in gene cloning

-Biotechnology is the manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products -The most commonly used cloning vectors are E. coli plasmids, small circular DNA molecules that include three functional regions: (1) an origin of replication, (2) a drug-resistance gene, and (3) a region where DNA can be inserted -without interfering with plasmid replication or expression of the drug-resistance gene.

15.16 Define and determine the terms clade, monophyletic groups, shared derived characters, shared ancestral characters, ingroup, outgroup, phylogenetic trees, and parsimony

-Clade is a group with common ancestry -Monophyletic groups is when there is one ancestor with many descendants coming from it and it is the adjective that describes a clade -shared derived characters are Characteristics that a certain group has because they have evolved differently than others -Shared within the 'ingroup' differentiating them from the 'outgroup' -Shared ancestral characters are characteristics that an organism/organisms have because they got it from a shared ancestor -Common to the ingroup and the outgroup and don't distinguish the ingroup from the outgroup -Ingroup is the species or group of species that you are studying/the ones that have the characteristic(s) that you are looking for -Outgroup is a species from a lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species we are studying -Phylogenetic trees is the Branching diagrams that show evolutionary relationships between groups of organisms -Parsimony is when you're trying to reduce the number of branches in the tree and the fewer the better

10.7-10.8 explain how the languages of DNA and RNA are used to produce polypeptides

-DNA's language is written as a linear sequence of nucleotide bases on a polynucleotide -specific sequences of bases each with a beginning and an end make up genes on a DNA strand -the "language" changes when DNA is converted to RNA which makes polypeptides

17.1-17.2 describe the key plant adaptations to life on land

-Dependent embryos are present in all plants -Lignified vascular tissues mark a lineage that gave rise to most plants -Seeds are found in all gymnosperms and angiosperms -Flowers mark the angiosperm lineage

11.2 explain how selective gene expression yields a variety of cell types in multicellular eukaryotes

-Genes can be turned on and off in cells. -This makes it so the genes in each differentiated cell are the source of its particular function and structure. -Makes it so cells have same genes but different ones are expressed to do a different function. -Nerve and skin cells can have same genes but each are expressing different ones

14.4 explain how geological processes can fragment populations and lead to speciation.

-Geographic speciation is called allopatric speciation -Allopatric speciation may create a barrier that blocks gene flow within a population -Forces a population to reproduce differently or with new mates.

20.9 explain how organs can be created in a laboratory.

-Hearts from animal cadavers can be washed in detergent, dissolving away cells and leaving behind a scaffold of connective tissue matrix. -The scaffold can the be seeded with adult stem cells -Using desktop printers, they drop suspensions of different cell types the way a printer uses different colors. -By printing layers the cellular structures are build in three dimensions to resemble organs. Then they can get the cells to function

20.14 define the concept of homeostasis and illustrate it with examples

-Homeostasis is a characteristic of a system that regulates its internal environment -It tends to maintain a stable, relatively constant condition of properties -For example, if you go outside and it's really hot your body temperature will start to change. -Temperature sensors in our brain monitor body temperature, and if it starts rising (moving away from its supposed set point),this activates an effector tissue or organ that will help bring the temperature back to its set point. For example, if your body temperature rises, then you start sweating. This is a compensatory response by your body to lower your temperature back to normal. example= human body temperature is maintained by a negative feedback loop.

15.14 distinguish between homologous and analogous structures and provide examples of each. Describe the process of convergent evolution.

-Homologies are similarities due to shared ancestry -Homologous structures may look different and function differently in different species, but they exhibit fundamental similarities because they evolved from the same structure in a common ancestor Ex. A whale limb and a bat wing serve 2 completely different purposes, but the bones that support the two structures were present in a common mammalian ancestor and are basically the same -Analogy is similarity due to convergent evolution Ex. 2 moles look alike on the outside but in one, its young complete their embryonic development in a pouch outside the mother's body, and in the other's young complete their development in the mother's uterus -Convergent evolution is when species from different evolutionary branches may come to resemble one another if they live in similar environments and natural selection has favored similar adaptations

11.3 explain how eukaryotic gene expression is controlled. Compare the eukaryotic gene expression mechanisms of to those prokaryotes

-In multicellular eukaryotes, the "default" state for most genes seem to be "off." -Once it is off, it can be turned on and if it is on, it can be turned off -Gene expression is controlled by the frequency of transcription initiation. and also can be controlled by splicing the exons. -As well as controlling access to or the efficiency of transport channels

13.7 escribe two examples of natural selection known to occur in nature. Note two key points about how natural selection works

-Insects building a resistance to pesticides over time -different color of beetles -Any organism that has had a change over time -Natural Selection: 1. More of an editing process than a creative mechanism. 2. You need to consider time and place. Natural selection favors those characteristics in a population that fit the current, local environment.

13.10-13.11 explain the significance of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium to natural populations and to public health science

-It can be used to test whether or not evolution is occurring in a population. -Public health scientist use it to estimates how many people carry alleles for certain inherited diseases

13.13 explain why natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently leads to adaptive evolution

-It is because the others are fairly random and happen rapidly -Natural selection isn't random -Although gene flow and genetic drift can increase frequency of advantageous alleles in a population, they can also decrease the frequency of advantageous alleles.-Only natural selection can consistently increase the frequency of advantageous alleles.

13.12 describe the three main causes of evolutionary change

-Natural selection, -gene flow which is the movement of genes from one population to another -and genetic drift which is when populations are large and big changes happen i.e. catastrophes

12.3 explain how plasmids and phages are used to construct genomic libraries

-Plasmids are often used in gene cloning as vectors to carry genes. -The plasmid is isolated and treated with the same restriction enzyme as the target gene. -The plasmid will mix with the target gene and recombinant DNA molecules are produced. -The recombinant plasmid is taken up by the bacterial cell. -Clones are then produced. -Phage: genomic DNA is incorporated into the bacteriophage DNA

10.9 explain how mRNA is produced using DNA

-RNA polymerase attaches to teh DNA double helix at a promoter site -separating teh strands and moving along teh strand with the promoter site -pairing each DNA nucleotide with its complementary RNA nucleotide -this new messenger mRNA strand conveys teh genetic message from the nucleus to teh cytoplasm

20.13 describe examples of adaptations to increase the surface to volume ratio

-Rely on specialized surfaces for exchange with environment. -Their internal surfaces are often highly folded or have many small projections which increase surface area that increase the amount of exchange that can occur. -The lungs -The intestines

17.19 explain how parasitic fungi harm plants and animals

-Some fungi attack developing seeds and fruits of grains. -Some fungi cause disease in humans. -Fungi harms plants and animals because some act as parasites or pathogen

20.13 describe the systems that help animals exchange materials with their environments.

-The endocrine system: interstitial fluid is a fluid that fills the spaces around the cells and mediates the exchange of materials between the blood and the bodies inner cells. -Every organism is an open system: exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings. -exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes occurs as substances dissolved in an aqueous solution move across the plasma membrane of every cell.

20.8 explain how the structure of organs is based on the functional interactions of tissues.

-The heart for example -epithelial tissues that line the heart chambers, connective tissues that make the heart elastic, and neurons that regulate contractions -Each organ is structured to be able to carry out the tasks that they need to perform.

12.12 explain how PCR is used to amplify DNA sequences and how it has been used in science

-The reaction mixture is heated so that the DNA strands can be separated. -The mixture is cooled so primers can form hydrogen bonds with the ends of sequences. -DNA polymerase adds nucleotides. -3-step cycle. -used to make millions of copies of a target piece of DNA. -It is also used in the medical field to test samples and diagnose and treat diseases

20.11 relate the structures of the skin to its functions.

-The skin consists of two layers: the epidermis and the dermis. -Beneath the dermis lies the hypodermis or subcutaneous fatty tissue. -The skin has three main functions: protection, regulation and sensation. Wounding affects all the functions of the skin. -The skin has two layers with two different functions, the functions both rely on one another and the two layers both rely on one another

12.13 explain how gel electrophoresis is used to sort DNA and proteins

-They are sorted by size. -The DNA sample is placed in the gel. -The current will pull the DNA in the direction of the current. -The smaller molecules move more quickly through the gel. -DNA fragments will appear as bands. -They can be seen through staining. -Each band is a collection of DNA molecules of the same length.

17.5 explain and compare seed production in gymnosperms and angiosperms

-They both have pollen grains that carry their sperm-producing cells through the air. ANGIOSPERMS:Flowering plants, such as trees and grasses. Use pollen to attract pollinators. Use other organisms to spread the seeds. Attract pollinators with fruit and colors and smells. Animals eat the seeds or get them stuck in their fur and they disperse them GYMNOSPERMS: The seed plants, no flowers. Naked seeds. Release seeds in cones and can be mass release. Use the elements to spread the seeds

17.10 explain how flowers have adapted to attract pollinators

-They developed large colorful petals -They developed sweet scents -They bloom at certain times of the year -They are each specialized with the coloring and the scents to attract their pollinator -They also have a sweet nectar to make the pollinators want to come back.

16.19 describe the protist ancestors of animals, plants, and fungi. Explain how each ancestral protist group is similar to its most likely descendants.

-Todays protists include groups whose ancestors were among the very last to split from the organisms that gave rise to plants,animals,and fungi -They have similar structures and scientist believe that the genes are similar enough to the protists to be able to be ancestors

20.3-.7 define a tissue.

-any of the distinct types of material of which animals or plants are made, consisting of specialized cells and their products Example: Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that composes muscles in animal bodies, and gives rise to muscles' ability to contract.

15.10 explain how and why adaptive radiations occur

-because of mass extinctions resulting from global climate change. -They are periods of evolutionary change in which many new species evolve from a common ancestor, often following the colonization of new, unexploited areas. -There are many new and different niches that can be filled. -Natural selection will choose among the remaining variation to fill the niches. -Many new species form as the species become adapted to new niches.

14.5 Explain how reproductive barriers might evolve in isolated populations of organisms. Refer to fruit flies.

-because there can be a few organisms that the barrier doesn't affect us eventually killing off all of the ones that it does effect -When separated geographically, reproductive barriers form due to the isolation of a population from another. -Studies of flies from different food sources like starch and maltose, were allowed to mate, and the flies mated more frequently with same food source flies -not necessarily same population, -this is an example of a prezygotic barrier that formed through environmental differentiation.

10.5 describe the process of DNA replication

-begins at specific sites, origins, where 2 parental strands separate to form replication bubbles by helicase -bubbles expand laterally as DNA replication proceeds in both directions -the end of the bubbles are called replication forks -replication bubbles fuse by DNA ligase -synthesis of daughter strands is completed

17.11 describe the human impact on plant diversity. Explain the significance of this loss for humanity.

-habitat destruction, displacement by invasive species, chemical pollutants, and overharvesting -If the humans do this until the species is extinct, there will eventually be no plants left and the humans will have to become carnivores -The animals that eat the vegetation that humans killed will also be wiped out

17.15 describe the positive ecological roles of fungi

-helps plants acquire nutrients from soil -decomposes dead animals, fallen leaves, and other organic material, -which release nutrients that fertilize plant growth.

15.15 describe the goal of systematics. List the progressively broader categories of classification used in systematics, in order from most specific to most general

-is a discipline of biology that focuses on classifying organisms determining their evolutionary relationships -Carolus Linnaeus introduced taxonomy, a system of naming and classifying species. -Biologists assign each species a two-part scientific name, or binomial, consisting of a genus and a unique part for each species within the genus -Genera are grouped into progressively larger categories. -Each taxonomic unit is a taxon -Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain

14.6 explain how sympatric speciation can occur, noting examples in plants and animals

-it is when a new species arises within the same geographical area as its parent species. -this can occur due to polyploidy, habitat differentiation and sexual selection

11.9 explain how DNA microarrays can be used to study gene activity and treat disease

-mRNA from a specific cell type is isolated, -fluorescent cDNA is produced from the mRNA, -cDNA is applied to the microarray, -unbound cDNA is washed off, and -complementary cDNA is detected by fluorescence

14.1 distinguish between microevolution and speciation

-microevolution which involves evolutionary change within a population -Speciation which occurs when a population changes enough that is diverges from its parent species and becomes a new species.

16.3 explain how bacteria can evolve quixkly an dhow bacteria can survive stressfull environments

-occurs by binary fission which can rapidly produce a new generation within hours -can generate a great deal of genetic variation by spontaneous mutations increasing the likelihood that some members of the population will survive changes in the environment. -Endospores and how they survive the environments and in further stressful environments, some prokaryotes form cells called endospores that remain dormant through harsh conditions

17.18 describe the evidence that suggests that mycorrhizae have helped plants colonize land

-scientist think that when plants invaded the land the soil of that time lacked organic matter. -The mycorrhizae are under the plant, or the roots, and they spread out to allow the plant to take in as many nutrients and as much water as possible.

10.11 relate the structure of tRNA to its function in the process of translation

-teh anticodon attaches to the complementary codon, along with teh amino acid -tRNA is complementary to mRNA and has an attachment site for a single amino acid

20.2 describe the levels of organization in an animal's body

1. Cellular 2. Tissue 3. Organ 4. Organ system 5. Organism

20.3-.7 Describe the four main types of animal tissue and note their structures and functions

1. Epithelial tissue Structure:closely packed cells. Function: cover body surfaces and lines internal organs 2. Connective tissue Form: cells suspended in a nonliving matrix i.e. liquid, gel, or solid. Function: Blood provides a transport system within our body for oxygen and other important substances. Cartilage: provides strong support and connection for our skeletal framework 3. Muscle tissue Form: bundles of long cells. Function: movement 4. Nervous tissue Form: neurons and support cells. Function: communication between body and brain

17.7 describe the stages of the angiosperm life cycle

1. haploid spores in anthers develop into pollen grains: main gametophyte 2. haploid spores in each ovule develops into female gametophyte, and produces and egg 3. pollination and growth of pollen tube 4. diploid zygote 5. seed (embryo) 6. fruit (mature ovary) 7. seed germinates and embryo grows into plant

17.5 describe the stages of the gymnosperm life cycle

1. male cone gives rise to pollen. female cone scale contains 2 ovules 2. pollen leaves through wind 3. pollen lands on female cone and pollen tube begins to grow 4. pollen tube grows and meiotic cell division in the ovule creates a gametophyte 5. when the pollen tube reaches an egg within the female gametophyte the sperm nucleus moves and fertilization occurs 6. fertilized egg develops into an embryo, and is encased in a seed 7. seed germinates and embryo develops into a sporophyte tree

13.18 explain why natural selection cannot produce perfection

1. selection can only happen on existing variations 2. evolutions is limited by historical constraints 3. adaptations are often compromises 4. Chance

13.10 describe the five conditions required for hardy-weinberg equilibrium

1. very large population 2. no gene flow between populations 3. no mutations 4. random mating 5. no natural selection

20.2 define and distinguish between anatomy and physiology

ANATOMY: Definition: the branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals, and other living organisms, especially as revealed by dissection and the separation of parts. pretty much is the study of the structure of body parts, -Anatomists figure out what went where PHYSIOLOGY: Definition: the branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts. pretty much is the study of the functions and relationships of body parts -Physiologists figure out why it went there and what it did while it was there

14.2 compare the definitions, advantages, and disadvantages of the different species concepts

BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT: Definition-species is a population that have potential to reproduce; Advantage-two very different people can still reproduce; Disadvantage-Reproductive isolation prevents genetic flow between species MORPHOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT: Definition- Def of species in terms of measurable anatomical criteria; Advantage- can be applied to asexual organisms and fossils and does not require information on possible interbreeding, Disadvantage-Relies on subjective criteria and researches may disagree on which features distinguish a species ECOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT: definition-Identifies species in terms of ecological niche; advantage-can distinguish between identical looking organisms based on what they eat or where they live; disadvantage-must be observable PHYLOGENETIC SPECIES CONCEPT: Definition-species is the smallest group of individuals that share a common ancestor and thus form one branch of the tree of life; Advantage-history can be traced by comparing characteristics; Disadvantage-difficult to agree on the amount of difference required to establish separate species

17.2 compare the bryophytes, seedless vascular plants, gymnosperms, and angiosperms

BRYOPHYTES:moss, hornwort, liverwort, no vascular tissue, do not have true roots, leaves, or lignified cell walls, water is required for reproduction SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS:ferns and fern allies such as horsetails, whisk ferns, club mosses, vascular tissue, rhizomes as roots, water is required for reproduction GYMNOSPERMS:cone bearing plants such as firs, spruces, pine trees, vascular tissue, have roots, stems (trunks), and needles, water not required for reproduction ANGIOSPERMS:flowering plants such as roses, maple trees, magnolias, vascular tissue, have roots, stems, and leaves, water not required for reproduction

17.16 describe the practical uses of fungi

Culinary, Medical, biotech, bio industries, future production of biofuels from plants

10.2-10.3 Compare the structures of DNA and RNA

DNA -long polymer with deoxyribose and phosphate backbone -adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine RNA -polymer with a ribose and phosphate backbone -adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil

16.10 describe some of the diseases associated with bacteria. Distinguish between endotoxins and exotoxins, noting examples of each

EXOTOXINS: proteins that bacterial cells secrete into their environment Example: Staph infections ENDOTOXINS:Lipid components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria secreted directly into the environment Example: Salmonella

20.10 describe the general structures and functions of the major vertebrate organ systems.

Endocrine: produces hormones that regulate growth, reproduction and metabolism. Skeletal:supports and protects organs Circulatory: pumps and transports blood throughout body Respiratory: gas exchange with environment Muscular:movement Integumentary: protects internal body Lymphatic: returns extra body fluids to blood and fights infections Immune: fights infections Urinary: regulates nitrogen, salt and water concentration in blood and excretes wastes Digestive: ingests and breaks down food and excretes wastes. Reproductive: produce gametes and offspring Nervous: communication between body and brain.

17.3 compare alternations of generations if the life cycles of moss and fern, noting similarities and differences

MOSSES: -there are two alternating "generations" (the Gametophytes and the Sporophytes.) -It begins with the haploid generation, where meiosis / sexual reproduction happens with two mature GAMETOPHYTES: -the female archegonia and the male antheridia collectively called the gametangia. -the antheridia makes the sperm which goes into the female archegonia and with an egg, makes a diploid zygote. -This marks the beginning of the sporophytic generation. -The zygote divides multiple times mitotically and makes a multicellular sporophyte, which then goes on to meiotically make haploid spores. -The spores disperse and grow into gametophytes to start the cycle again. -Gametophyte is the dominant generation -the sporophyte is dependent on the gametophyte for nutrition. FERN: -mitotic cell division produces sperm in the antheridium and egg in the archegonia -sperm swims through water to reach the egg -a sporophyte develops from the gametophyte -the sporophyte produces haploid spores within the sporangia -haploid spores leave the sporangia -the spores germinate and develop into gametophytes

20.15 explain how negative feedback is used to regulate internal body temperature.

Negative feedback is a change in a variable triggers mechanisms that reverse that change. It keeps internal variables steady and permits only small fluctuations around set points.

16.13 explain how primary and secondary endosymbiosis led to further cellular diversity

PRIMARY: -prokaryotes engulfed by eukaryotes -Eukaryotic cells evolved when prokaryotes established residence within other larger prokaryotes. 1. Mitochondria and chloroplasts 1a. Structural and molecular similarities to prokaryotic cells. 1b. Use their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of the cell. SECONDARY -eukaryotes engulf eukaryotes -Mitochondria formed and other organelles -An autotrophic eukaryotic protists became endosymbiotic in a heterotrophic eukaryotic protist. -A key to protist diversity

16.7 compare the three domains of life based on differences in cellular and biochemical traits.

PROTEOBACTERIA: all gram negative, share a particular rRNA sequence, and represent all four modes of nutrition. GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIA: rival proteobacteria in diversity. include the actinomycetes common in soil. includes streptomyces, and often cultured by pharmaceutical companies as a source of many antibiotics CYANOBACTERIA:the only group of prokaryotes with plantlike, oxygen-generating photosynthesis and some species, such as Anabaena, have specialized cells that fix nitrogen. CHLAMYDIAS:live inside eukaryotic host cells. are common cause of blindness in developing countries and the most common STD in the U.S. SPIROCHETES: are helical bacteria, notorious pathogens, causing syphilis & Lyme disease

16.9 distinguish between the five subgroups of the domain bacteria, noting the particular structure, special features, and habitats of each group.

PROTEOBACTERIA:are all gram-negative, share a particular rRNA sequence, and represent all four modes of nutrition. GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIA:actinomycetes common in soil, Streptomyces are often cultured by pharmaceutical companies as a source of many antibiotics, including streptomycin. CYANOBACTERIA: are the only group of prokaryotes with plant like, oxygen-generating photosynthesis. CHLAMYDIAS: live inside eukaryotic host cells. SPIROCHETES: are helical bacteria and notorious pathogens causing syphilis and Lyme disease

14.11 compare the gradual model and punctuated equilibrium model of evolution. Explain how each model applies to the fossil record

PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRUIM -is when the species change rapidly with great change. -Punctuated equilibrium is more typical once a niche is filled, there may be very little morphological change. -The niche will remain stable in the environment as long as the environment is stable. -When change occurs in the environment resulting in new or different niches, there will be selection from available variation, which will over a few generations increase and decrease traits based on fitness. -If no variation exists to adapt to new niches, extinction occurs. GRADUAL EQUILIBRIUM -is the the organisms change slowly, but are significantly changing Gradualism less common typically occurs when there is direct competition between two species such as a predator and their prey. -Because traits must only be good enough, natural selection will not select beyond what is good enough, however an "arms race" can occur where better camouflage of prey leads to better eyesight in the predator and vice versa.

17.6 describe the parts of a flower and explain their functions

SEPALS-leaf like parts that cover and protect the flower bud PETALS-modified leaves which are usually bright in color to attract pollinators. STAMENS-The pollen-producing male reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of an anther and filament. PISTILS- female reproductive parts; found in center; made up of stigma, style, and ovary; stigma is sticky to catch pollen; style moves pollen to ovary OVARY-The bottom of the pistil ANTHER-Part of the male reproductive structure. A saclike structure that produces pollen. Located on top of the filament

10.6 describe locatiosn, reactants, and producst of transcription and translation

TRANSCRIPTION -location:nucleus -reactants: DNA -products: RNA TRANSLATION -location: cytoplasm -reactants: RNA -products: protein

13.4 explain how homologies provide strong evidence of evolution

-Homology is similarity resulting from common ancestry. -Homology is a branch of evolution because evolution is the belief that we came from a common ancestor

17.12 describe the main traits of fungi

-They are absorptive heterotrophic eukaryotes -secrete powerful enzymes to digest food externally acquire nutrients by absorption -Most consist of a mass of threadlike hyphae making up a mycelium.

20.12 describe the characteristics of a meaningful scientific study.

-Unbiased people -Control -Variable

17.9 describe the significance of angiosperms to the human diet

-most human food is provided by the fruits and seeds of angiosperms -Rice, wheat, and other grains are dry fruits -Apples, cherries, cucumbers, tomatoes, and squash are fleshy fruits -Majority of the food we consume is from angiosperms

10.12 describe teh structure and function of ribosomes

-ribosomes are a cell structure that makes protein ribosomes can be found floating within teh cytoplasm or attached to teh endoplasmic reticulum

11.1 describe and compare the regulatory mechanisms of the lac operon, trp operon, and operons using activators

LAC OPERON -Turned off unless there is a presence of lactose (lac). -A repressor protein binds to the operator site on the protein which makes it so the RNA polymerase cannot attach to the promoter. -Once lac is present it binds to the repressor changing its shape making it so it can't attach to the operator site so RNA polymerase can bind to protein and produce enzymes for lactose utilization. TRP OPERON -Turned on unless Tryptophan (trp) is present. -If trp is not present the RNA polymerase can bind to promoter and produce trp. -Once trp is present it binds to the repressor, changing its shape so it can bind to the operator site so it stops producing trp