BIO 2301 - Section 7

Means that two or more hormones work together to produce a particular effect

Syngeristic

The effects may be additive or complementary

Syngeristic

The hormones involved in regulating metabolism, growth and development and nervous system activity

T3 & T4

They function to increase Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR), increase Protein Synthesis and increase use of Glucose and Fatty Acids for ATP

T3 and T4

The sequence for the production of T3 and T4 is as follows:

TRH (hypothalamus) --> TSH (anterior pituitary) --> T3 and T4 (thyroid)

Contains 2 lobes connected by isthmus (mass of tissue) and is well vascularized

The thyroid gland

Involved in the sympathetic nervous system activity by increasing heart rate, brain activity and muscle activity. In addition they are important for brain development and body growth by stimulating the GH hormone

Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)

BMI stands for body mass index or how much weight one has for their height (T/F)

True

Because of the association with obesity (BMI greater than 30), the incidence of type II diabetes has tripled in the last 30 years. (T/F)

True

Blood glucose levels are checked to either determine insulin level requirements for some diabetics or to assess the regulation from oral medications (T/F)

True

Blood glucose levels are controlled by the hormones insulin and glucagon primarily, but it is also worth to note that it can also be influenced by GH and T3/T4 as well (T/F)

True

Cortisol has many effects on the body's metabolism. It promotes lipolysis (breaking down fats for energy), ketogenesis (creation of ketone bodies for the brain to use for energy), and gluconeogenesis (creating glucose from non-carbohydrate sources) to increase available energy as well as promoting the breakdown of proteins in muscles to increase circulating amino acids. Lastly, it helps compensate for prolonged fasting or exercise. (T/F)

True

Epinephrine and norepinephrine both work to increase the heart rate, blood pressure, and cardiac output; increase blood flow to the essential organs such as the heart, liver and muscles, increase alertness, increase respiratory rate and increase overall metabolism. They also work to raise the level of glucose in the blood, so it is readily available for energy use. (T/F)

True

Epinephrine is much more abundant than norepinephrine (about 4:1 ratio) (T/F)

True

Excess calorie intake (regardless of source) means storage of fat. Weight is lost when fewer calories are consumed than needed. (T/F)

True

Hemoglobin A1C levels can also be used to monitor long term (about 3 months) regulation of blood glucose levels (T/F)

True

How a cell responds depends on the amount of hormone and the combination of all hormones (T/F)

True

Hypocalcemia results in increased permeability to Na+ and other ions. This results in increased muscle excitability, muscle spasms, and cardiac abnormalities. Hypocalcemia can result from loss of parathyroid function or from calcium, vitamin D, or magnesium deficiencies. (T/F)

True

Metabolic rate is increased by exercise or eating and BMR is affected by age, sex, weight, and thyroid activity. Of all the factors affecting metabolism, the level of thyroid hormones has the greatest overall influence. (T/F)

True

Most people do not get enough light to produce sufficient levels of vitamin D3 and must get more in the diet (T/F)

True

Some people will become symptomatic of hypoglycemia below 60mg/dl while others not until less than 50mg/dl, so it is not as "cut and dry" as hyperglycemia levels are (T/F)

True

T3 and T4 production in the thyroid gland is stimulated by TSH from the anterior pituitary and TRH from the hypothalamus (T/F)

True

The adrenal glands contain both neural and endocrine tissue (T/F)

True

The larger lobe is the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary is the smaller of the 2 parts of the pituitary (T/F)

True

Type 2 diabetes can be an adult or childhood diagnosis (T/F)

True

When a newborn physically stimulates the nipple, the hypothalamus responds by secreting oxytocin (OT). Thus, the PRL causes milk production and OT causes the let-down or ejection of milk during lactation (T/F)

True

When assessing hyperprolactinemia, always remember to check TRH levels, as TRH stimulates prolactin secretion and by negative feedback PRL can also inhibit TRH. (T/F)

True

Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM)

Type 1 diabetes

It is typically a childhood diagnosis and accounts for roughly 5% of all diabetics

Type 1 diabetes

The onset of symptoms is very rapid and is not associated with obesity

Type 1 diabetes

These individuals require insulin injections as there body is no longer able to produce insulin. (If they were given it orally, it would be broken down during digestion and thus ineffective)

Type 1 diabetics

The onset of symptoms for this type of diabetes is more progressive and it can be controlled with diet, exercise and medications

Type 2

Accounts for the majority of diabetics (about 95%)

Type 2 diabetes

Non-insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM)

Type 2 diabetes

The insulin is secreted but is insufficiently stimulating the uptake of glucose into the cells or preventing the liver from producing more glucose

Type 2 diabetes

Some target cells respond to a particular hormone by increasing the number of receptors it has for that hormone through what is called

Upregulation

Must be activated by an enzyme produced in the kidneys after PTH stimulation

Vitamin D3

Production of this vitamin begins in the skin in response to sunlight

Vitamin D3

Carried free in the plasma or they are unbound and cannot diffuse through membrane

Water soluble hormones

Not able to enter the plasma membrane

Water soluble hormones

If a person develops an increased level of GH production in adulthood (or after full growth has occurred) this leads to a condition called

acromegaly

Epinephrine and norepinephrine hormones produced from the adrenal medulla are stimulated to be release by the sympathetic nervous system during

acute stress

Insulin and glucagon hormones work _____________________ to regulate blood glucose levels in the body. They both work by negative feedback.

antagonistically

The ____________ pituitary gland contains endocrine tissue, produces 6 hormones of its own and is stimulated by hypothalamus by releasing and inhibiting factors (tropic hormones)

anterior

The most common method for estimating an individual's metabolic rate involves what is known as calculating their

basal metabolic rate (BMR)

Vitamin D has an important role in ____________ and _________________ absorption in intestines. Without this absorption, there will not be enough calcium for proper bone formation.

calcium; phosphorus

The interior of the follicles is filled with a fluid called ________ which is involved in the production of the thyroid hormones, T3/T4 whereby the outside is involved in production of _______________

colloid; calcitonin

The outer portion, or the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland, is the endocrine tissue and produces the _________________ hormones. These include: (3)

corticosteroid 1. glucocorticoid cortisol 2. Mineralcorticoid aldosterone 3. Androgens or sex steroids

Chronic stress leads to an increased risk of illness. Cortisol may act on higher brain regions, contributing to _________________ and ___________. In addition, by stimulating the liver to release glucose, insulin receptors may become resistant, making it harder to treat people with diabetes

depression; anxiety

Hyperglycemia is what occurs when someone develops

diabetes mellitus

High levels of prolactin can be treated with a

dopamine agonists

There are no _______ involved in endocrine secretions

ducts

If the GH levels are too low, it leads to _____________ or a proportionally small body size

dwarfism

The pancreas is involved in both ______________ and ______________ functions

endocrine; exocrine

IGF-1 stimulates bone growth at _______________ ________. Once the cartilage is converted to bone in the epiphyseal plates, no more height can be achieved.

epiphyseal plates

In men, testosterone is converted to _____________ for use in bone formation

estrogen

Often a person with hyperthyroidism/graves disease will exhibit swelling around the orbits called

exophthalmos

Endocrine is the signaling that occurs when cells or organs secrete hormones or chemical regulators that enter the __________________ _______, enter the blood and are carried to cells throughout the body

extracellular fluid

A person with a BMI > 30 is ______ times as likely to develop diabetes as someone with a BMI < 25.

five

If GH levels are too high during childhood, this leads to ____________ or an increased body size proportionally

giantism

Low glucose = high _____________ = high blood glucose

glucagon

Glucagon also stimulates _______________________, the conversion of non-carbohydrates into glucose as well as lipolysis in adipose tissue so fat is released and used as a fuel source instead of glucose

gluconeogenesis

In some cases the TSH levels will increase during hypothyroidism because the T3 / T4 levels are too low and therefore they don't shut off TSH production by negative feedback like they should. This can produce a _________ or abnormal growth of the thyroid gland

goiter

Metabolism is measured by amount of _______ generated or amount of _____ consumed per minute

heat; O2

Long range blood glucose levels are also assessed by a test called

hemoglobin A1C

For type 1 diabetes, the inability to produce insulin leads to __________________ and the exogenous insulin will help to keep the blood glucose levels in the appropriate range

hyperglycemia

The pituitary gland is located in the ________________ _______ of the ____________ bone

hypophyseal fossa; sphenoid

The hypothalamus connects to the anterior pituitary gland through what is called the

hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system

The hypothalamus communicates with the posterior pituitary gland through the

hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract or the neural lobe of the pituitary gland

High glucose = high ________ = low blood glucose

insulin

Some more severe type II diabetics may need to take _________ if their blood sugar is poorly controlled with medications

insulin

Endocrine secretions occur when the secretion, or specifically hormones, are directly released into ______________ _______ and then to the blood.

interstitial fluid

The adrenal glands are located on the superior portion of each

kidney

The thyroid gland is located inferior to the __________ (voice box) and anterior to ___________ (windpipe)

larynx; trachea

Steroid hormones are classified as _______ soluble

lipid

Typical cells have a few ___________ receptor proteins for many different hormones

million

When adequate levels of thyroid hormones are achieved they work by _____________ feedback and inhibit the TRH and TSH production

negative

Oxytocin is produced in hypothalamus and secreted from posterior pituitary through the

neurohypophysis

Estrogen stimulates ______________ activity in bone deposition and in producing the chemicals that inhibit the formation of new osteoclasts

osteoblast

Calcitonin works to bring the levels down by inhibiting the _______________, cells that break down bone, and thereby decrease the level of calcium being released into the blood.

osteoclasts

Men are less prone to _________________ because they make testosterone their whole lives, while women stop making estrogen at menopause

osteoporosis

A BMI above 25 indicates ______________ and above 30 BMI indicates ___________

overweight; obesity

If PRL levels are too high a female may not

ovulate

After delivery ____________ stimulates milk ejection from mammary glands

oxytocin

Calcium maintains membrane

permeability

To avoid desensitization, many hormones are released in spurts, called

pulsatile secretion

Even though a direct action of vitamin D3 is bone resorption, vitamin D deficiency leads to decreased bone mineralization and is the leading cause of _________

rickets

Cells have cell surface receptors for water soluble hormones and then require a _______________ _______________ to enter the cell

secondary messenger

The pituitary gland sits in the ________ __________, a very protected location in the skull.

sella tursica

GH is mostly released during ________ and decreased when awake

sleep

The Growth Hormone (GH) is sometimes referred to as __________________

somatotropin

ADH and oxytocin are produced by the _______________ and ____________________ _________ of the hypothalamus and then they are transported along axons of the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract to the posterior pituitary to be secreted/released

supraoptic; paraventricular nuclei

The thyroid gland consists of hollow spaces called __________ ___________ which are lined with simple cuboidal epithelium composed of follicular cells

thyroid follicles

The parathyroid glands are attached to the posterior side of the

thyroid gland

When ___________ ____ is in its active form, it stimulates the absorption of calcium and phosphorus across the intestinal epithelium or in other words, causes the body to reabsorb more calcium.

vitamin D3

Amine and protein hormones are _______ soluble

water

Energy requirements depend on physical activity and can range from _______ to _______ kcal/day

1,300; 5,000

Calcium levels are regulated by: 5

1. Calcitonin from the thyroid gland 2. Parathyroid hormone from the parathyroid gland 3. Estrogen 4. Vitamin D3 5. Calcitriol from the kidneys

The anterior pituitary is controlled via releasing and inhibiting hormones transported through the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system. These releasing hormones will travel in the blood through this portal system and then tells the anterior pituitary to either release or prevent the release of its hormone. They include:

1. Corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) 2. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GRH) 3. Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)/Somatostatin 4. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) 5. Growth hormone−releasing hormone (GHRH)

3 types of signaling:

1. Endocrine 2. Autocrine 3. Paracrine

The inner portion, or adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland is the neural tissue and produces the hormones: (2)

1. Epinephrine 2. Norepinephrine

They are mostly the amines, polypeptides and glycoproteins including: 8

1. Epinephrine 2. Norepinephrine 3. ADH 4. Oxytocin 5. Insulin 6. Growth hormone 7. Prolactin 8. All the hypothalamic releasing factor hormones

Lipid soluble hormones include the steroids hormones such as: 7

1. Estrogen 2. Progesterone 3. Testosterone 4. Aldosterone 5. Cortisol 6. Thyroid hormones (T3 & T4) 7. Prostaglandins

The 2 gonadotropins and are both produced in the anterior pituitary gland

1. FSH 2. LH

GH production is stimulated by: 2

1. GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone) 2. GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone at the onset of puberty)

The anterior pituitary produces the following hormones: 6

1. Growth Hormone (GH) 2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) 3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) 4. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) 5. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) 6. Prolactin (PRL)

Endocrine organs include:

1. Hypothalamus 2. Thymus 3. Pancreas 4. Testes 5. Ovaries 6. Placenta 7. Adipose tissue 8. Heart 9. Skin 10. Stomach 11. Liver 12. Kidneys 13. Small intestine

Health consequences of either form of diabetes mellitus includes: 5

1. Increased risk for heart disease 2. Blindness 3. Kidney failure 4. Circulatory problems 5. Micro vascular tissue damage

Exercise is beneficial in mitigating the effects of diabetes in two ways:

1. Increasing caloric expenditure, it helps the person lose fat cells, which contributes to insulin resistance 2. Stimulating the production of GLUT4 channels in skeletal muscle cells independent of insulin and makes skeletal muscle more sensitive to insulin. This helps remove glucose from the blood

3 categories of corticosteroids:

1. Mineralocorticoids regulate Na+ and K+ balance. An example is aldosterone. 2. Glucocorticoids regulate glucose metabolism. An example is cortisol. 3. Sex steroids are weak androgens that supplement those made in the gonads

Symptoms of hypoglycemia can include:

1. Nervousness 2. Sweating 3. Intense hunger 4. Trembling 5. Weakness 6. Palpitations 7. Trouble speaking

Hormones produced by the hypothalamus and released to the posterior pituitary include: 2

1. Oxytocin (OT) 2. Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

Endocrine glands include:

1. Pituitary 2. Thyroid 3. Parathyroid 4. Adrenal 5. Pineal

Hormone receptors can be found on: (2)

1. Plasma membrane 2. Nucleus of the cell

Symptoms of hyperglycemia include:

1. Polyuria (excessive urine production) 2. Polydipsia (increased thirst) 3. Polyphagia (increased hunger) 4. Blurred vision 5. Fatigue 6. Weight loss 7. Poor wound healing

6 homeostatic processes regulated by the endocrine system:

1. Puberty 2. Metabolism 3. Growth and development 4. Reproductive processes 5. Sleep/wake cycles 6. Regulation of smooth and cardiac muscle contraction

Examples of exocrine secretions include: (3)

1. Sebaceous glands (oil) 2. Sudoriferous glands (sweat) 3. Digestive enzymes

3 types of hormone interactions:

1. Syngeristic 2. Permissive 3. Antagonistic

The thyroid produces 3 hormones:

1. T3 2. T4 3. Calcitonin

Prolactin production is stimulated by:

1. TRH 2. OT 3. Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) 4. Serotonin

Examples of the releasing or inhibiting hormones that are produced in the hypothalamus and go to the anterior pituitary include: 5

1. Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH) 2. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) 3. Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) 4. Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) 5. Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)

Diagnostic levels of hyperglycemia are typically a fasting blood glucose level greater to or equal to _____ mg/dl on at least two occasions

126

The CDC upholds that optimum BMI is between ____ and _____

19; 24.9.

Some cells can have _______ to ________ receptors for a specific hormone

2,000; 10,000

Energy requirements for an average female is recommended to consume _______ kcal/day

2,100

Energy requirement for an average male it is about _______ kcal/day

2,900

Hemoglobin A1C levels of < ___ (some say 6.5) are considered to indicate a well regulated level of blood glucose

7

__________ inhibits ADH secretion, thereby increasing urine output. This leads to dehydration and headache (which explains the "hangover" symptoms)

Alcohol

A mineralcorticoid produced in the adrenal cortex

Aldosterone

It is important for adjusting blood volume and blood pressure (and pH). It is also stimulated to be produced when the osmolarity of the blood (remember concentration of solutes) is high or if the blood volume is too low.

Aldosterone

These adrenal cortex hormones accounts for 95% of activity of adrenal cortex and works to reabsorb Na from urine and excrete K out

Aldosterone

_______ cells secrete the hormone glucagon

Alpha

Occurs when hormones work in opposite directions

Antagonistic

Commonly referred to as vasopressin

Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

Decreases urine output by stimulating kidneys to remove water during filtration and keep it in the body

Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

Decreases water lost through sweating and constricts arterioles (where it gets name vasopressin)

Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

When a cell can secrete a substance that further affects its own function

Autocrine signaling

_______ is considered the "metabolic cost of living" or what the body needs from an energy perspective to just meet the most basic physical needs

BMR

________ condition means they are mentally and physically resting, in a room at a comfortable temperature and fasting, or have not eaten for at least 12 hrs

Basal

_______ cells secrete the hormone insulin

Beta

Helps to bring calcium levels down and is therefore stimulated to be produced when levels of plasma calcium is elevated

Calcitonin

Involved in calcium regulation or secreted when blood calcium levels are too high in order to help bring them down to set point levels

Calcitonin

These adrenal cortex hormones are all produced from cholesterol and are therefore lipid soluble hormones

Corticosteroids

It is a glucocorticoid that is stimulated by the anterior pituitary hormone ACTH

Cortisol

The hormone that helps to regulate long term or chronic stress in the body

Cortisol

___________ helps inhibit the immune system so it does not over respond

Cortisol

________ cells produce somatostatin, which is involved in digestive physiology, as well as involved in inhibiting growth hormone

Delta

Prolonged exposure to high concentrations of hormones may result in a decreased number of receptors for that hormone or

Downregulation

Whereby hormones travel distances to illicit effects on "far away" cells

Endocrine signaling

These adrenal medulla hormones are activated with a sympathetic response. They have effects similar to sympathetic innervation but lasting 10 times longer. They work to increase cardiac output, respiratory rate, and mental alertness; dilate coronary blood vessels; and elevate metabolic rates

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

______________ is used to seal the epiphyseal plates in adults and for proper bone mineralization.

Estrogen

_____________ secretions travel by way of ducts before reaching their target organs, body cavities or body surfaces

Exocrine

_______________ ____________________ (such as cortisone cream or injections) will suppress the body's immune system and inhibit inflammation. However, they still initiate the glucose changes so there is a risk for hyperglycemia or reduced glucose tolerance as well as risk for decreased collagen production and increased risk for osteoporosis

Exogenous glucocorticoids

Stimulates the growth of follicles in the female ovary and production of sperm in the male

FSH

They are stimulated by GnRH (Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone) which is produced in the hypothalamus

FSH & LH

_____ promotes protein synthesis and growth as well as increased blood glucose levels through lipolysis (breaking down of fats/lipids) and glycogenolysis (using glycogen to increase blood glucose). GH also promotes healing of injuries and tissue repair.

GH

Insulin acts to remove excess glucose from the blood after a carbohydrate-rich meal. It inserts _________ ___________ ___________ in plasma membrane of target cells: skeletal and cardiac muscle, liver, and adipose cells.

GLUT4 carrier proteins

Good for proper recovery after stress, such as an illness or trauma

General adaptation syndrome

When stress increases ACTH and glucocorticoid release, this is called the

General adaptation syndrome

Stimulates liver to hydrolyze glucagon into glucose and release it into the blood

Glucagon

___________ is the preferred source of fuel for the brain and cells through the body

Glucose

_________ disease is when antibodies attack the thyroid and cause the increase of TSH (hyperthyroidism). Since the increased levels of TSH is not due to negative feedback initiation, the levels just keep increasing and often a ________ will result in this case as well

Graves; goiter

It is the hormone that is produced in the greatest amount in the body's endocrine system. Although it is high in production during childhood and adolescence, it is also produced by adults, particularly when they are fasting or under stress. This indicates that it can be helpful when the metabolism needs to be increased even after our "growth period or puberty" has occurred.

Growth Hormone (GH)

The anterior pituitary hormone responsible for general body growth and maintenance/repair

Growth hormone (GH)

When amino acids are high in the body or glucose is low, the body will produce more ________ _____________. This can occur if we've eaten a high protein meal or have been fasting (and now there are more amino acids in the blood from the breakdown of proteins for energy).

Growth hormone (GH)

Indicates how frequent or uncontrolled blood glucose levels are over about a month's time, so therefore can give even more information on how well regulated glucose levels are (and not becoming hyperglycemic too often)

Hemoglobin A1C

Can be classified as water or lipid soluble

Hormones

Work by chemically binding to specific receptors on these target cells

Hormones

High blood glucose levels

Hyperglycemia

Occurs due to a prolactin secreting tumor or when the dopamine inhibition is lost (or in some cases when the thyroid is not functioning)

Hyperprolactinemia

The over production of thyroid hormones (T3/T4) causes increased BMR, increased appetite, loss of body weight, intolerance to heat, anxiety, insomnia and increased HR, cardiac output and BP

Hyperthyroidism

Low blood glucose levels

Hypoglycemia

This can occur after a diabetic takes insulin or oral medications that bring the blood glucose levels down too much

Hypoglycemia

Links the nervous and endocrine systems

Hypothalamus

Located superior to pituitary gland

Hypothalamus

Regulates both the anterior and posterior pituitary glands

Hypothalamus

Can be caused by a problem with the thyroid gland itself, too little TRH, too little TSH or insufficient iodine in the diet. (Remember that T3 and T4 are made from iodine, so a lack of iodine in the diet can cause a deficit in thyroid hormones.

Hypothyroidism

Leads to increased body weight despite appetite staying the same or even decreasing, an intolerance to cold temperatures, fatigue/lethargy, dry skin and hair

Hypothyroidism

Stimulates mitosis in cartilage tissue and mediates bone growth.

IGF-1

These act as hormones by traveling to target tissues

IGF-1 & IGF-2

The liver releases insulin-like growth factors, _______ and _______, in response to growth hormone

IGF-1; IGF-2

Important in maintaining enough glucose for the brain while keeping levels below that which would damage tissues

Insulin

Promotes production and storage of glycogen and fat, inhibits breakdown of fat and muscle proteins, and stimulates use of glucose for energy

Insulin

The main hormone regulating blood glucose levels, with glucagon playing a supportive role

Insulin

Caused by an autoimmune disease that leads to a decline in or destruction of beta cells in the pancreas

Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM) - Type 1

For type 1 diabetes, there are antibodies that attack the ________ ____ _______________ that lead to the malfunction of insulin production

Islets of Langerhans

____________ can be used if glucose not available to fuel the brain and cells. This ketosis or use of ketones will produce energy but result in a more acidic environment when used in replacement of glucose

Ketones

Stimulates ovulation in the female and testosterone release in the testes of the male

LH

Can diffuse directly through plasma membrane

Lipid soluble hormones

Carried through plasma by a protein or in other words are bound during transport through the blood

Lipid soluble hormones

_____________ _____________ is associated with individuals with a low HDL cholesterol level, high plasma triglyceride level and type II diabetes. This condition further increases the risk for atherosclerosis, hypertension, stroke and other health consequences.

Metabolic syndrome

The accumulation of fluids in subcutaneous connective tissues of the hands, face, feet and around the eyes during hypothyroidism

Myxedema

If the level of blood glucose increases the body will stimulate the release of insulin and the insulin will activate the uptake of glucose into the cells and thereby decrease the level of glucose in the blood. When glucose levels are low in the blood, then the body releases glucagon and this causes glucose to be released into the blood. This is referred to as

Negative feedback

This type of diabetes occurs when an individual develops insulin resistance due to an overabundance of glucose

Non-insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM) - Type 2

Secreted during parturition, or labor, and enhances contraction of smooth muscle in the uterus

Oxytocin

____________ also stimulates Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH) which stimulates TSH from the thyroid gland and then the production of the thyroid hormones

Oxytocin

______ is released to stimulate milk production in a breastfeeding woman and also plays a role in ovulation and menstruation

PRL

Helps to raise calcium levels up and is therefore stimulated when plasma calcium levels are too LOW

PTH

It also slows the rate of calcium and magnesium that are absorbed into the urine and the kidneys (with the help of the hormone calcitriol from the kidney).

PTH

It raises the calcium levels by increasing the number and activity of osteoclasts, which break down the bone matrix and release calcium and phosphates into blood

PTH

Contains the Islets of Langerhans which is where the alpha, beta and delta cells are found

Pancreas

It is located behind and below the stomach, in the curve of the small intestine

Pancreas

Used to describe when cells secretes substances that target nearby cells

Paracrine signaling

Contains 4 masses of tissues: 2 superior and 2 inferior

Parathyroid gland

It produces the parathyroid hormone (PTH) whose main function is helping regulate the level of calcium, magnesium and phosphate ions in blood

Parathyroid gland

Means one hormone makes the target cell more responsive to a second hormone

Permissive

When Oxytocin (OT) is released it causes and increase in uterine contractions, this increased level of contraction releases more OT and then more intensification of contractions. This is referred to as

Positive feedback

It does not produce hormones, it simply stores and releases the hormones Oxytocin (OT) and Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH) that are produced in the hypothalamus

Posterior pituitary

Together with Oxytocin, _____________ helps to regulate the process of lactation in females and helps with the regulation of FSH and LH in the male reproductive system

Prolactin

____________ inhibits FSH and GnRH levels from the anterior pituitary gland

Prolactin

Prolactin is inhibited by

Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH) (also called dopamine)

GH production is inhibited by

Somatostatin

Stress increases secretion of ________, which results in increased __________________ release

ACTH; glucocorticoid

The abnormal growth of certain anatomical structures. For example, someone may develop an enlarged, squared off jaw and increased growth of the hands, feet, and bones of the face such as the noses.

Acromegaly