Bio 44 Final Studyguide

Disassortative Mating

- Dissimilar phenotypes mate preferentially. - Favors heterozygosity.

Allele Frequency

# of copies of a specific allele in a population/total # of all alleles for that gene in a population (2N)

Genotype Frequency

# of individuals with a particular genotype in a population/total # of individuals in a population (N)

What's happening in the gut?

*** Major barriers for microbes entering the gut: - Low pH - Saliva and bile - Immune system - Finding a place to attach to intestinal wall - Surviving a widely varied diet *** For the microbes that manage to to colonize the gut: - Gut flora perform regular tasks of digestion, vitamin production, many others - Gene transfer between the myriad of species in the gut can generate new combinations of drug resistant "superbugs"

Plant Alternation of Generations

- *** A reproductive cycle called alternation of generations where plants alternate between two multicellular stages. - *** The gametophyte is haploid and produces haploid gametes by mitosis. - *** The gametes fuse and give rise to the diploid sporophyte, which grows through mitosis and then produces haploid spores by meiosis.

Periphyton

- *** Attached by mucilage to underwater surfaces. - Produce multicellular bodies. - Seaweeds or macroalgae.

Extremophiles

- *** Can occupy habitats with extreme conditions -> high salt content - halophiles, acidity, high methane levels, and high temperatures - hyperthermophiles. - i.e. Methanopyrus -> grows in deep-sea thermal vents at 98ºC and cannot grow at temps under 84ºC. - i.e. Sulfolobus grows in acidic hot springs at pH 3.

Amniotes: Tetrapods with a Dessication-Resistant Egg

- *** Critical innovation was the development of a shelled egg that sheltered the embryo from desiccating conditions on land. - *** Amniotic egg broke tie to water. - *** Other key innovations: - Desiccation resistant skin; thoracic breathing - negative pressure sucks air in; water-conserving kidneys - concentrate waste prior to elimination; internal fertilization. - *** Traditional classification has three living amniotes - reptiles, birds, and mammals -> birds are now considered part of reptilian lineage.

Resource Partitioning

- *** Differentiation of niches, both in space and time, that enables similar species to coexist in a community. - *** Robert MacArthur examined coexistence between five species of warblers feeding within spruce trees in New England. - *** Found that the species occupied different heights and regions in the tree -> each probably fed on a different range of insects.

Angiosperms

- *** Distinguished by the presence of flowers. - Flowers are specialized to enhance seed production. - *** Fruits develop from flowers and enclose the seed and foster seed dispersal. - Endosperm is a nutritive seed tissue with increased storage efficiency.

Proterozoic Eon

- *** Eukaryotes arise ~1.8 bya. - *** Multi-cellular eukaryotes arise ~1.5 bya. - Eukaryotic cells have a nuclear envelope, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and a cytoskeleton. - *** Two possible origins: 1. Individuals form a colony 2. Single cell divides and stays stuck together - *** Volvocine green algae display variations in the degree of multicellularity.

Morphological Analysis

- *** First systematic studies focused on morphological features of extinct and modern species. - *** Convergent evolution (traits arising independently due to adaptation to similar environments; analogous) can cause problems.

Transitional Form

- *** Illuminates steps leading to evolution of tetrapods. - Provides link between earlier and later forms.

Subclass Theria

- *** Metatheria - marsupials -> 7 orders; once widespread, not confined mostly to Australia; Opossum found in North America; very undeveloped young must make it to marsupium to finish development. - *** Clade Eutheria -> placental mammals, long-lived complex placenta, prolonged gestation.

Animal Classification

- *** Most biologists agree kingdom is monphyletic. - About 35 recognized animal phyla. - Most likely ancestor was a colonial flagellated protist similar to choanoflagellates -> some are colonial, some cells may have taken on specialized functions.

Gametophytes

- *** Multicellular - produced by mitosis. - *** Gametophytes produce gametes. - Sperm swim to egg and fuse to form diploid zygote. - *** Female gametangia, called archegonia, produce eggs and are the site of fertilization. - *** Male gametangia, called antheridia, produce and release sperm. Sperm have flagella and swim to eggs.

What are some characteristics of animals?

- *** Multicellular heterotrophs. - *** Cells lack cell walls. - *** Most have nerves, muscles, and capacity to move at some point in the life cycle. - *** Able to reproduce sexually.

Sporophytes

- *** Multicellular, produced by mitosis. - The developing embryo is protected within gametophyte -> land plants are called embryophytes because of the dependency of the embryo on the parent. - *** Sporophytes produce spores. - Spores are produced in protective enclosures known as sporangia.

Sympatric Speciation

- *** Occurs when members of a species that are within the same range diverge into two or more different species even though there are no physical barriers to interbreeding. - Mechanisms include: Adaptation to local environments, sexual selection, and polyploidy.

Foraging Behavior

- *** Optimality theory predicts an animal should behave in a way that maximizes benefits of a behavior minus its costs. - *** Optimal foraging proposes that an animal seeks to obtain the most energy possible with the least expenditure of energy -> the more net energy gained, the greater the reproductive success.

Subclass Prototheria

- *** Order Monotremata. - *** Platypus and echidna lay eggs, lack placenta, poorly developed nipples.

Parasitic Protist Life Cycle

- *** Parasitic protists often use more than one host organism, in which different life stages occur. - i.e. Malarial parasite Plasmodium -> alternates between humans and Anopheles mosquitoes. - Different stages in different hosts and host tissues.

Dispersive Mutualism

- *** Plant would like pollinator with fidelity one species that moves quickly among individuals. - *** Animal wants to be a generalist to get the most food in a small area, reducing energy expenditure.

Cyanobacteria

- *** Produce oxygen as a waste product of photosynthesis. - *** Environmental conditions were not favorable for the many prokaryotic groups that were anaerobic. - *** Aerobic species became the dominant form. - *** Photosynthetic bacteria abundant in fresh water, oceans, and wetlands and on surfaces of arid soils. - *** The only prokaryotes that generate oxygen as a product of photosynthesis. - *** Gave rise to plastids of eukaryotic algae and plants. - *** Display the greatest structural diversity found among bacterial phyla -> single cells (unicells) or colonies, filaments, branched and unbranched. - *** Essential ecological roles in producing organic carbon and fixing nitrogen -> several kinds form nuisance growths - blooms.

The Cambrian Explosion

- *** Refers to the sudden appearance of fossils resembling modern animal phyla in the Cambrian period. - Provides the first evidence of predator-prey interactions. - *** Molecular and fossil data suggest that the Cambrian explosion had a long fuse. - DNA analyses suggest that sponges and the common ancestor to several other animal phyla evolved 700 to 670 million years ago. - Fossil evidence of early animals dates back to 710 to 560 million years ago.

How does energy flow through an ecosystem?

- *** Regardless of an ecosystem's size, its dynamics involve two main processes: energy flow and chemical cycling. - Energy flows through ecosystems, while matter cycles within ecosystems. - Autotrophs build molecules themselves using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis as an energy source. - Heterotrophs depend on the biosynthetic output of other organisms. - *** Energy and nutrients pass from primary producers (autotrophs) to primary consumers (herbivores) to secondary consumers (carnivores) to tertiary consumers (carnivores that feed on other carnivores). - *** Detrivores, or decomposers, are consumers that derive their energy from detritus, nonliving organic matter; Prokaryotes and fungi are important detrivores. Decomposition connects all trophic levels.

Traits That Explain Arthropoda Success

- *** Segmentation -> body, jointed appendages. - *** Complete/Incomplete Metapmorphosis - *** Wings crucial to success - outgrowths of body wall. - *** Internal fertilization. - *** Exoskeleton made of chitin and protein -> can be extremely tough or soft and flexible.

Homology

- *** Similarities among various species that occur because they are derived from a common ancestor. - *** Genes can also be homologous if they are derived from the same ancestral gene. - If analogous traits are used, you would reconstruct an inaccurate phylogeny.

Pollination Syndrome

- *** Some flowers specialized for particular pollinators. - *** Birds - odorless red flowers. - *** Bees - blue, purple, yellow, or white flowers with a sweet odor. - If pollinator becomes extinct, plant may also face extinction.

How does Earth's climate vary by latitude and season and how is it changing rapidly?

- *** The long-term prevailing weather conditions in an area constitute its climate. - *** Four major abiotic components of climate are temperature, precipitation, sunlight, and wind.

Ecology

- *** The scientific study of the interactions between organisms (humans) and the environment. - *** These interactions determine the distribution of organisms and their abundance.

Subphylum Urochordata

- *** Tunicates - 3,000 marine species. - Adult is sessile with only pharyngeal slits. - Larvae tadpole-like exhibiting all 4 chordate hallmarks. - Closest living relatives of vertebrates.

Ciliate Sexual Reproduction

- *** Two cells pair and fuse - conjugation. - *** Have two types of nuclei (single macronucleus and one or more micronuclei). - Macronuclei are the source of the information for cell function. - Micronuclei undergo meiosis, exchange, fusion, and mitosis.

Endangered Species Act

- *** When Congress passed the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in 1973, it recognized that our rich natural heritage is of "esthetic, ecological, educational, recreational, and scientific value to our Nation and its people." It further expressed concern that many of our nation's native plants and animals were in danger of becoming extinct. - *** The purpose of the ESA is to protect and recover imperiled species and the ecosystems upon which they depend. - It is administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Commerce Department's Na0onal Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). - Under the ESA, species may be listed as either endangered or threatened. - "Endangered" means a species is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range. - "Threatened" means a species is likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future. - All species of plants and animals, except pest insects, are eligible for listing as endangered or threatened. For the purposes of the ESA, Congress defined species to include subspecies, varieties, and, for vertebrates, distinct population segments.

Quaternary Period

- 1.8 mya to present - Periodic ice ages cover much of Europe and North America. - Widespread extinction of many species. - Certain hominids become more human-like. - *** Homo sapiens appear 130,000 years ago.

Cretaceous Period

- 144-65 mya - Dinosaurs still dominant on land. - *** Earliest flowering plants, angiosperms. - *** Mass extinction at the end of the period. - Dinosaurs and many other species died out. - Large meteorite/asteroid or volcanic eruptions blamed.

Voyage of the Beagle

- 1831-1386 - Darwin's ideas were most influenced by his own observations. - He noticed distinctive traits of island species that allowed them to better exploit their environment. - i.e. Galapagos Island finches -> Saw similarities in species yet noted differences that provided them with specialized feeding strategies.

Jurassic Period

- 206-144 mya - Gymnosperms continued to be dominant. - *** Dinosaurs dominant land animal -> some attainted enormous size. - *** First known bird. - *** Mammals present but not prevalent.

Triassic Period

- 248-206 mya - Reptiles plentiful. - *** First dinosaurs. - *** First true mammals. - Gymnosperms dominant land plant. - *** Volcanic eruptions led to global warming and mass extinctions near the end.

Permian Period

- 290-248 mya - Continental drift formed supercontinent Pangaea. - Interior regions dry with seasonal fluctuations. - *** Forest shift to gymnosperms. - *** Amphibians prevalent but reptiles became dominant. - *** First mammal-like reptiles appeared. - *** At the end, largest known mass extinction event -> *** 90-95% of all marine species and large proportion of terrestrial species eliminated, glaciations or volcanic eruptions blamed.

Tagmata

- 3 fused body segments. - Segmented appendages for locomotion, food handling, or reproduction.

Incomplete Metamorphosis

- 3 stages. - Young, resemble miniature adults.

Carboniferous Period

- 354-290 mya - Rich coal deposits formed. - Cooler, land covered by forested swamps. - Plants and animals further diversified -> very large plants and trees prevalent, first flying insects, amphibians prevalent, amniotic egg emerges -> reptiles.

Mesoderm

- 3rd layer in bilateral animals. - Forms muscles, most organs.

Complete Metamorphosis

- 4 stages. - Adult and larval stages very different.

Devonian Period

- 417-354 mya - Generally dry across north but Southern hemisphere mostly covered by cool, temperate oceans. - Major increase in number of terrestrial species. - Ferns, horsetails and seed plants (gymnosperms) emerge. - Insects emerge. - Tetrapods - amphibians emerge. - Invertebrates flourish in the oceans. - *** The age of fishes. - *** Near end, prolonged series of extinctions eliminate many marine species.

Silurian Period

- 443-417 mya - Relatively stable climate. - Glaciers largely melted. - No new major invertebrates. - Significant new vertebrates and plants. - Many new fish. - Coral reefs appeared. - Large colonization by terrestrial plants and animals -> evolved adaptations to prevent drying out. - Spiders and centipedes. - Earliest vascular plants.

Ordovician Period

- 490-443 mya - Warm temperatures and atmosphere very moist. - Diverse group of marine invertebrates including trilobites and brachiopods. - *** Primitive land plants and arthropods first invade land. - *** Toward end, abrupt climate change (large glaciers) resulting in mass extinction. - *** Over 60% of marine invertebrates became extinct.

Cambrian Period

- 542-490 mya - Warm and wet with no ice at poles. - *** Although new species have arisen since, no major reorganizations of body plans. - *** First vertebrates at 520 mya.

Paleozoic Era

- 543-248 mya - Cambrian period - Ordovician period - Silurian period - Devonian period - Carboniferous period - Permian period

KT Extinction Event

- 5th and most recent mass extinction. - Cretaceous mass extinction occurred ~65.5 mya. - ~50% marine spp, many terrestrial plants and animals, most dinosaurs extinct. - Many ecological niches opened up.

Lungfish

- 6 species. - Live in oxygen-poor freshwater. - Both gills and lungs - can drown if unable to breathe air. - Muscular lobe fins allow them to traverse land when lake dries out.

Tertiary Period

- 65-1.8 mya - Mammals that survived expanded rapidly. - Birds and terrestrial insects diversified. - Angiosperms become the dominant land plant. - Fish diversified, sharks become abundant. - Whales appeared. - *** Hominids appeared about 7 mya.

Habitat Loss: Mangroves

- > 35% destroyed worldwide. - Degraded through overharvest of wood. - Group of woody plants tolerate saltwater, seeds disperse in salt water. - Breeding grounds for fish, stabilize the coastline, reduce erosion from storm surges, etc.

Habitat Loss: Wetlands

- >50% US wetlands lost since 1780 (excl. AK). - CA: >90% of all wetlands. - >700 acres (300 ha) of wetland are destroyed daily.

What is the evolutionary history of land plants?

- A billion years ago, the land surface of the earth was bare except for some cyanobacteria crusts. - Origin of land plants essential for development of substantial soils, evolution of modern plants, and animals colonizing land. - Molecular and fossil data reveal plant evolutionary history.

Monophyletic Group

- A clade that consists of the common ancestor species and all its descendants. - Biologists seek to reconstruct monophyletic trees. They avoid defining paraphyletic and polyphyletic groups and instead reclassify organisms if evidence suggest they are either. - Over time with new data collected, taxonomic groups will be reorganized so only monophyletic groups are recognized.

Wetlands

- A wetland is a habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil. - Wetlands have high organic production and decomposition and have low dissolved oxygen. - *** Wetlands can develop in shallow basins, along flooded river banks, or on the coasts of large lakes and seas. - *** Wetlands are among the most productive biomes on Earth. - *** Humans have destroyed up to 90% of wetlands; wetlands purify water and reduce flooding. - *** Provides ecosystem service: coastal protection (regulates erosion, flooding).

What's happening in the oral cavity?

- A wide variety of microbes regularly enter the oral cavity. - Saliva, pH, temperature, immune system prevent many species from surviving. - Brushing and flossing teeth clears some built up biofilm. - Oral antibiotics inhibit growth. - Symbiosis of the oral microbes that are able to survive these conditions form an elaborate scaffold that lives on the tooth enamel and at the interface with the gums. It forms a barrier for incoming bacteria.

Why should we care?

- Aesthetics -> people like nature. - Morality, ethics -> intrinsic value, intergenerational debt. - Economics -> resources, recreation, and medicine. - Ecological services -> cleaning water, air, flood and erosion prevention, and agriculture. - Ecological integrity -> "rivet-popping."

Transition Fish - Tetrapod

- Ahlberg & Clack (2006) tell why discovery of Tiktaalik is important. - First, it demonstrates the predictive capacity of paleontology. - Second, Tiktaalik adds enormously to our understanding of the fish - tetrapod transition because of the combination of characters it displays.

Gene Pool

- All of the alleles for every gene in a given population. - Study genetic variation within the gene pool and how variation changes from one generation to the next. - Emphasis is often on variation in alleles between members of a population.

Protist Asexual Reproduction

- All protists can reproduce asexually. - Many produce cysts with thick, protective walls that remain dormant in bad conditions. - Many protozoan pathogens spread from one host to another via cysts (often water-borne).

Proteobacteria

- Amazing diversity of form and metabolism. - Five major subgroups - called α, β, γ, δ, ε.

Genetic Diversity

- Amount of genetic variation that occurs within and between populations. - Variation in coloration; possibly pollinator, flowering time. - Possible variation in coloration, calls, mating season. - Integrity of distributions and connections among sub-populations -> genetics, morphology, behavior, interactions with other species, and protection throughout range. - Within species, allows species to evolve, and can influence species persistence. - Raw materials used by humans: new domestic crops, improving old crops, and material for transgenic crops.

Thomas Malthus

- An economist, says that only a fraction of any population will survive and reproduce. - Warned his fellow Englishmen that most policies designed to help the poor were doomed because of the relentless pressure of population growth. - A nation could easily double its population in a few decades leading to famine and misery for all.

Clade

- An organism (common ancestor) an all of its descendants. - A valid clade is monophyletic, signifying that it consists of the ancestor species and all its descendants. This is an accurate hypothesis.

Molecular Systematics

- Analysis of genetic data, such as DNA and amino acid sequences, to identify and study genetic homologies and propose phylogenetic trees. - DNA and amino acid sequences from closely related species are more similar to each other than to sequences from more distantly related species.

Defensive Mutualism

- Animal defends a plant or herbivore. - i.e. Ants protect aphid, aphid secretes honeydew -> facilitative mutualism since they can live apart. - i.e. Ant nesting in acacia trees defend the tree and trim away competing plants -> obligatory mutualism since neither can live alone.

Interplay Between Medicine and Microbes

- Antibiotics -> Kills infectious bacteria but also disrupts natural flora. Can result in yeast infections, digestive problems, etc. - Chemotherapy drugs -> Gut flora has been shown to modify some drugs during metabolism. This causes many side effects, including upset stomach.

Aquatic Biomes

- Are diverse and dynamic systems that cover most of Earth. - Characterized by their physical environment. - Distinguished by differences in salinity, oxygen content, depth, current strength, and availability of light. - They show less latitudinal variations than terrestrial biomes. - The largest marine biome is made up of oceans, which over about 75% of Earth's surface and have an enormous impact on the biosphere. - Marine biomes have salt concentrations of about 3%. - Freshwater biomes have salt concentrations of less than 0.1%. - *** Freshwater biomes are closely linked to soils and the biotic components of the surrounding terrestrial biome. - *** Stratified into zones defined by light penetration, temperature, and depth. - *** The upper photic zone has sufficient light for photosynthesis, while the lower aphotic zone receives little light. - *** The photic and aphotic zones make up the pelagic zone. - *** Deep in the aphotic zone lies the abyssal zone with a depth of 2,000 to 6,000 m. - *** The organic and inorganic sediment at the bottom of all aquatic zones is called the benthic zone. - *** Pelgaic zone is neither close to the bottom nor near the shore; open sea.

Mutualism

- Association is beneficial to both partners. - Close associations between species in which both species benefit.

PreB 3. Behavioral Isolation

- Behaviors important in mate choice. - i.e. Changes in song.

Coelacanths

- Believed extinct until 1938. - Swim bladder filled with oil rather than gas - still used for buoyancy.

Intersexual Selection

- Between members of the opposite sex. - Female choice. - Often results in showy characteristics for males. - Cryptic female choice.

Intrasexual Selection

- Between members of the same sex. - Males directly compete for mating opportunities or territories. - i.e. Horns in male sheep, antlers in male moose, male fiddler crab enlarged claws.

Groups

- Bilateria - Radiata - Protostoma - Deuterostomia - Kingdom Animalia - Metazoa - Eumetazoa - Parazoa - Ecdysozoa

Biodiversity

- Biodiversity can be examined at three levels: 1. Genetic Diversity 2. Species Diversity 3. Ecosystem Diversity - Conservation biology protects biological diversity at all levels.

What are the distinctive features of land plants?

- Bodies composed of three-dimensional tissues -> increased ability to avoid water loss. - Tissues arise from apical meristems at growing tips. - Able to produce thick, robust bodies. - Withstand mechanical stress, drought. - Tissues and organs with specialized functions. - Distinctive reproductive features: alternation of generations; dry air resistant reproductive cell, and specialized structures to generate, protect, and disperse reproductive cells.

Coelom

- Body cavity lined by mesoderm. - The presence or absence of a coelom was used to construct animal phylogeny. - *** This feature is now thought to be unreliable because coeloms may have been lost over evolutionary time and the coelom may have arisen more than once.

Behavior = Both Innate and Learned

- Both genetics and learning influence most behaviors - behavior is often a mix of innate and learned components. - i.e. Birds are genetically programmed to learn songs, but they will sing the correct song only if the correct songs are heard.

Trophic Mutualism

- Both utilize a common resource. - i.e. Leaf-cutting ants and fungus -> ants chew up leaves to feed to fungus they care for, fungus produces gongylidia as an ant food, ants circumvent chemical defenses of leaves.

Charles Darwin

- British naturalist born in 1809. - Theory shaped by several different fields of study -> Geology, Economics, Voyage of the Beagle. - Occurred to him (and Wallace) that animals and plants should also be experiencing the same population pressure. - But the world is not overrun with organisms, because they cannot reproduce to their full potential. many die before they become adults. They are vulnerable to environment conditions. Their food supply is not infinite. - Individuals compete for food, shelter, environmental conditions, and mates. - Formulated theory of evolution mid-1840s. - Spent several additional years studying barnacles. - In 1856, began writing his book. - In 1859, Darwin's On the Origin of Species is published detailing his ideas with observational support. - Rejected the Scala Naturae. He proposed after much observation that the tree of life had a branching pattern. - *** Darwin's sketch illustrated how different lineages evolved from a common ancestor. - Showed the world that all species on Earth are related. - *** Groups based on shared traits.

Phanerozoic Eon

- Cambrian -> present - Paleozoic Era - Mesozoic Era - Cenozoic Era

Cryptic Coloration

- Camouflage. - i.e. Stick insects, sea horses.

Consequences of Mass Extinctions

- Can alter geological communities and the niches available to organisms. - It can take from 5 to 100 million years for diversity to recover following a mass extinction. - Mass extinctions can change the types of organisms found in ecological communities (i.e. The percentage of marine organisms that were predators increased after the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions.)

Terrestrial Biomes

- Can be characterized by distribution, precipitation, temperature, plants, and animals. - Terrestrial biomes are often named for major physical or climatic factors and for vegetation. - Terrestrial biomes usually grade into each other, without sharp boundaries. - *** The area of intergradation, called an ecotone, may be wide or narrow.

Founder Effect

- Cases where incidence of genetic conditions higher than expected (i.e. retinitis pigmentosa) - Small group of individuals separates from a larger population and establishes a new colony. - Allele frequencies in founding population may differ markedly from original population. - Relatively small founding population expected to have less genetic variation than original population.

Genetic Drift

- Changes allelic frequency due to random chance (allele frequency 'drift' generation to generation by chance). - Random events unrelated to fitness (not adaptive). - Favors either loss or fixation of an allele (frequency reaches 0% or 100%). - Faster in smaller populations.

Global Climate Change

- Changes in Earth's climate can profoundly affect the biosphere. - *** One way to predict the effects of future global climate change is to study previous changes. - As glaciers retreated 16,000 years ago, tree distribution patterns changed. - As climate changes, species that have difficulty dispersing may have smaller ranges or could become extinct.

Microevolution

- Changes in a single gene in a population over time. - Changes in a population's gene pool from generation to generation. - Change because: 1. *** Introduce new genetic variation (mutations, gene duplication, exon shuffling). 2. *** Evolutionary mechanisms that alter the prevalence of an allele or genotype (natural selection, random genetic drift, migration, non-random mating).

Antipredator Strategies

- Chemical defense. - i.e. bombardier beetle ejects hot spray. - Aposematic coloration. - i.e. Warning coloration which advertises and organism's unpalatable taste. - i.e. Many lethal tropical frogs have bright coloration. - *** Fighting -> horns and antlers can be used in defense. - *** Agility -> grasshoppers' powerful jumping ability. - *** Armor -> turtle shells provide strong defense, beetle exoskeleton. - *** Masting -> synchronous production of progeny satiate predators and allow some young to survive, high seed production in trees, periodical cicadas.

Effects of Predators and Plant Defenses

- Chemicals. - *** Secondary Metabolites. - Over 25,000 compounds. - Herbivores can overcome plant defenses. - *** Detoxify using two pathways. - *** Certain chemicals that are toxic to generalist herbivores actually increase the growth rates of adapted specialist species. - In addition to chemical defenses, plants use mechanical defenses like thorns and spines.

Dinosuars

- Class Ornithischia - bird-hipped dinosaurs. - Class Saurischia - lizard-hipped dinosaurs. - Legs of dinosaurs were positioned directly under the body.

Mass extinction is the result of disruptive global environmental changes such as:

- Climate/temperature - Atmosphere - Land masses - Flood - Glaciation - Volcanic eruptions - Meteoric impacts

Co-evolution

- Co-evolution, 2 or more species of organisms influence each other's evolutionary pathway. - Co-evolution is one explanation for the immense plant diversity. - Pollination, seed dispersal.

Chemical Communication

- Common in canines and felines. - Scent trails laid by social insects. - i.e. Female moths produce pheromones to attract males. - i.e. Queen bee releases pheromones to suppress reproductive system of workers.

Molecular Features

- Compare features to identify similarities and differences among different populations -> DNA sequences within genes, gene order along chromosomes, chromosome structure, chromosome number. - May be difficult to draw the line when separating groups.

What are key concepts for species interactions?

- Competition. - Predation, Herbivory, and Parasitism - Mutualism and Commensalism - Bottom-Up and Top-Down Control

Paraphyletic Group

- Consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of the descendants. This is not a valid hypothesis. - Reptiles were a paraphyletic group because birds were excluded.

Microclimate

- Consists of very fine patterns, such as those encountered by the community of organisms under a fallen log. - *** Determined by fine-scale differences in the environment that affect light and wind patterns. - Every environment is characterized by differences in abiotic and biotic factors.

Class Crocodilia

- Crocodiles and alligators. - Teeth in sockets. - Care for young. - Build nests.

Gymnosperms

- Cycad, ginkgos, and conifers. - Gymnosperms are seed plants. - Greatest diversity of gymnosperm, Mesozoic.

Displays of Intimidation

- Deceive predator about ease of eating prey. - i.e. Porcupine fish inflates itself.

Habitat Destruction

- Deforestation is a prime cause of extinction. - Ivory-billed woodpecker assumed extinct due to logging (unconfirmed sighting in 2004). - Planting agricultural crops and urbanization also destroy habitat.

Evolution

- Descent with modification. More specifically, evolution is change in the genetic composition (allele frequency) of a population across generations. - Occurs as the unequal reproductive success of individuals.

Structure & Function: Fruits

- Develop from ovary walls. - Aid the dispersal of enclosed seeds. - Dispersal prevents competition and aids in colonization. - Fruits may be adapted: to attract animals to eat them, for wind dispersal, to attach to animal fur, and to float in water.

Protected Embryo

- Diploid, multicellular. - Fertilized within maternal tissue/structure -> provides energy source, protected from drought, heat, UV light, and microbes.

Sexual Selection

- Directed at certain traits of sexually reproducing species that make it more likely for individuals to find or choose a mate. - In many species, affects male characteristics more intensely than it does female (as a result -> sexual dimorphism). - Explains traits that decrease survival but increase reproductive success. - i.e. Guppy, Poecilia reticulata -> Male is brightly colored compared to the female, females prefer brightly colored males, in places with few predators, the males tend to be brightly colored, in places where predators are abundant, brightly colored males are less plentiful because they are subject to predation. - Relative abundance of brightly and dully colored males depends on the balance between sexual selection, which favors bright coloring, and natural selection, the ability to escape from predation, which favors dull coloring. - Certain females prefer males with one color patter, while other females prefer males with a different color pattern. - Promotes traits that increase an organisms's mating success. - Two forms: 1. Intersexual 2. Intrasexual

Natural Selection Patterns

- Directional selection - Stabilizing selection - Disruptive/Diversifying selection - Balancing selection

Barcoding: A New Tool for Classification

- Distinguishing more than 3500 species of mosquitoes in the field is not easy. - Mosquito barcoding initiative aims to catalog each species by using DNA and building up a mosquito DNA catalog. - Field researcher able to quickly ID mosquito and initiate appropriate controls. - *** Use first 684 units of CO1 (cytochrome oxidase) - all animals have this gene.

Cladogenesis

- Division of a species into two or more species. - Requires gene flow between populations to be interrupted.

Trophic Cascade

- Ecosystem collapse caused by the removal of a species.

Germ Layers

- Embryonic cell layers. - Cell layers develop during gastrulation.

Ecosystem Ecology

- Emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling among the various biotic and abiotic components. - Ecologists work at levels ranging from individual organisms to the planet.

K/T Event

- End of Cretaceous and beginning of Tertiary. - Huge amounts of ash, smoke, and haze dimmed sunlight long enough to kill many of the world's plants -> dinosaurs were doomed (with the exception of their descendants - birds). - Shift in dominant plant groups. - Surviving flowering plants diversified. - Fossil record reveals changes/shifts in the dominant land plants, fossilized pollen (gymnosperms & angiosperms), fossilized spores (ferns), and leaf fossils.

Conservation Strategies

- Establish Protected Areas -> areas rich in endemic species and representative habitats. - Reserve design. - Single-species conservation efforts.

Protists

- Eukaryotes that are not classified in the plant, animal, or fungal kingdoms, though some protists are closely related to plants or animals or fungi. - Two common characteristics: 1. Most abundant in moist habitats. 2. Most of them are microscopic in size. - Classified by ecological role. - Classified by habitat. - Classified by motility. - Particularly common and diverse in oceans, lakes, wetlands, and rivers. - *** At one time, protists were in a single kingdom -> however, "protists" is not a monophyletic group. - *** Evolutionary understanding is in flux -> some relationships are uncertain or disputed, new protists still being discovered. - *** Classified into supergroups.

Protist Sexual Reproduction

- Eukaryotic sexual reproduction with gametes and zygotes arose among the protists. - Generally adaptive because it produces diverse genotypes. - Zygotic life cycles -> haploid cells develop into gametes, gametes fuse to produce dipoid zygote. - Sporic life cycles (alternation of generations) -> multi-cellular haploid gametophyte generation, produce gametes; multi-cellular diploid sporophyte generation, produce spores.

TC 2. Symmetry

- Eumetazoa are radially symmetrical or bilaterally symmetrical - Bilateria (bilaterial animals) -> *** have cephalization and dorsal and ventral sides, 3 germ layers. - Radiata (radial animals) -> *** have oral and aboral sides, 2 germ layers.

Descent with Modification

- Evolution based on -> Variation within a given species and Natural selection - In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a tree with branches representing life's diversity.

Phylogeny

- Evolutionary history of a species or group of species. - To propose a phylogeny, biologists use the tools of systematics. - Similar to a family tree. - A tree represents a hypothesis about relationships among groups.

Mammals: Milk-Producing Amniotes

- Evolved from amniote ancestors earlier than birds. - Appeared about 225 mya. - After dinosaur extinction mammals flourished. - Range of sizes and body forms. - *** Distinguishing characteristics: Mammary glands secrete milk, all mammals have hair (more or less), only vertebrates with specialized teeth, and enlarged skull -> brain enlarged in large skull, single lower jaw bone, 3 inner ear bones, and external ears.

What are the causes of extinction and loss of biodiversity?

- Extinction is a natural process. - Background extinction is 1 species every 1000 years. - *** Biodiversity crisis - in the past 100 years 20 species of mammals and over 40 species of birds have gone extinct. - *** Growth of human population is linked to number of extinctions.

Stabilizing Selection

- Favors the survival of individuals with intermediate phenotypes. - Extreme values of a trait are selected against.

Flowers

- First appeared 140 mya. - Flowers were a critical innovation that led to extensive angiosperm diversification. - Complex reproductive structures. - Specialized for efficient production of pollen and to attract pollinators. - Four types of organs: 1. Sepals - green outer layer of flower. 2. Petals - often colorful. 3. Stamens - produce pollen. 4. Carpels - produce ovules.

Bacteria & Archaea: Cell Shape & Arrangement

- Five major shapes. - Spheres - cocci. - Elongate rods - bacilli. - Comma-shaped - vibrios. - Spiral-shaped - flexible spirochaetes, rigid spirilli.

Territory

- Fixed area in which individual or group excludes others. - *** Defending a territory has costs and benefits -> Optimize territory size based on costs and benefits; Costly to defend; Benefit is exclusive access to resources - food, mates, and nesting sites. - i.e. Golden-winged sunbird-> Defends the nectar in his territory from other birds, saved 780 calories a day in extra nectar, spent 728 calories to defend the territory, net gain of 52 calories/day. - i.e. Cheetahs -> need large territories relative to body size to hunt successfully. - i.e. Gannets -> territory size is determined by how far a bird can reach to peck its neighbor without leaving nest.

Macroevolution

- Formation of a new species or groups of species. - Evolutionary changes that create new species and groups of species. - Concerns the diversity of organisms established over long periods of time through the evolution and extinction of many species.

Speciation

- Formation of a new species. - *** Underlying cause of speciation is the accumulation of genetic changes that ultimately promote enough differences so that we judge a population to constitute a unique species.

Alfred Wallace

- In 1858, sent Darwin an unpublished manuscript proposing many of the same ideas. - His and Darwin's papers were published together.

Variation Within A Given Species

- Traits heritable - passed from parent to offspring. - Genetic basis was not yet known.

Class Aves

- Four unique features unique to birds (for flight): 1. Feathers - modified scales keep birds warm and enable flight. 2. Air sacs - very efficient breathing. 3. Reduction of organs - single ovary, no urinary bladder. 4. Lightweight skeleton - thin, hollow, honeycombed -> sternum to anchor flight muscles, no teeth. - Birds also have: warm body temperature, double circulation with 4 chambered heart, acute vision, most carnivores, eggs brooded, and complex courtship. - 9600 species.

EEC 5. Homology

- Fundamental similarity due to descent from a common ancestor. - May be anatomical, developmental, and/or molecular. - Same set of bones in the limbs of modern vertebrates has undergone evolutionary change for many different purposes. - Homologous structures are derived from a common ancestor. - Adapted for different functions but constructed from the same basic skeletal elements. - Anatomical resemblances that represent variations on a structural theme present in a common ancestor. - i.e. Ear wiggling muscles.

Migration

- Gene flow occurs when individuals migrate between populations having different allele frequencies. - Migration tends to reduce differences in allele frequencies between the two populations. - Tends to enhance genetic diversity within a population. - *** Long-range seasonal movement, generally linked to seasonal availability of food. - Birds -> Nearly half the birds of N. America migrate to S. America; Arctic terns - migrate from the Arctic to the Antarctic, a journey of up to 25,000-miles round-trip over open ocean. - Mammals -> Wildebeest and caribou. - Insects -> Monarch butterflies.

Global Climate Patterns

- Global climate patterns are determined largely by solar energy and Earth's movement in space. - The warming effect of the sun causes temperature variations, which drive evaporation and the circulation of air and water. - *** This causes latitudinal variations in climate. - *** The angle at which sunlight hits Earth affects its intensity, the amount of heat and light per unit of surface area. - *** The intensity of sunlight is strongest in the tropics where sunlight strikes Earth most directly. - Air flowing close to Earth's surface creates predictable global wind patterns. - Cooling trade winds blow from east to west in the tropics; prevailing westerlies blow from west to east in the temperate zones.

Population

- Group of individuals of the same species that occupy the same environment and can interbreed with one another. - Some species occupy a wide geographic range and are divided into discrete populations.

Species

- Group of related organisms that share a distinctive form. - Among species that reproduce sexually, members of the same species are capable of interbreeding to produce viable and fertile offspring (biological species concept). - Species concepts used for different taxa vary. - A group of organisms that maintains a distinctive set of attributes in nature. - Characteristics that biologist uses to identify a species will depend, in large part, on the species in question. - Most commonly used characteristics are morphological traits, ability to interbreed, molecular features, ecological factors, and evolutionary relationships. - A group of organisms that maintains a distinctive set of attributes in nature.

Hardy-Weinberg

- HW equation describes the relationship between allele and genotype frequencies when a population is not evolving. - Is useful because the HWE is a null hypothesis which suggests that evolutionary change is not occurring. - If frequencies are not in equilibrium, an evolutionary mechanism is at work.

Umbrella Species

- Habitat requirements are so large that protecting them also protects many other species in the same habitats -> a Northern spotted owl pair needs 800 hectares of old-growth forest for survival and reproduction; to protect Zea diploperennis, the land where it grows was bought and a nature reserve established.

Keystone Species

- Has an influence on ecological system far greater than expected based on numbers or biomass. - Species within a community that have a role out of proportion with their abundance. - Not a dominant species- one that has a large effect in a community because of its abundance or high biomass. - Beaver can completely alter a community by building a dam and flooding an entire river valley. - Palm nuts and figs produce fruit during otherwise fruitless times and are critical resources. - Gopher tortoises and beavers are also ecosystem engineers - create, modify and maintain habitats.

Plants vs. Herbivores Arms Race

- Herbivory can be lethal to small species. - Usually not lethal to larger species. - *** Generalist herbivores can feed on many plant species. - *** Specialist herbivores restricted to one or two host plants. - *** Two proposals explain why every plant is not consumed -> predators and parasites keep herbivore numbers low, plant defenses make a difference.

Protozoan Plankton

- Heterotrophic. - Zooplankton are small heterotrophic animals (i.e. copepod, rotifer). - Occur primarily as single cells, colonies, or short filaments.

Gnathosomes: Jawed Vertebrates

- Hinged jaws developed from the pharyngeal arches. - evolution modified an existing feature to form the jaw -> some gill arches were lost, some modified.

Parasitic Flowering Plants

- Holoparasites lack chlorophyll and are totally dependent on the host plant for their water nutrients. - i.e. Raffesia arnoldii, (corpse flower) which lives most of its life within the the body of its host with only the flower developing externally (largest known flower in the world). - Hemiparasites generally do photosynthesize, but they lack a root system to draw water and thus depend on their hosts for that function. - i.e. Mistletoe (Viscum album). - Parasites may outnumber free-living species by four to one. - Most plant and animal species harbor many parasites. - *** Few cases of experimental removal of parasites confirm that parasites can reduce host population densities. - i.e. Blue tits and parasitic blowfly larvae.

Davis and Colleagues Provide a Genetic-Developmental Explanation for Limb Length in Tetrapods

- Hox genes, are genes that specify segment identity-whether a segment of the embryo ill form part of the head, thorax, or abdomen, for instance-and they are all clustered together. - Specific Hox genes are responsible for determining limb formation in mice. - Mutations in the genes HoxA-11 and HoxD-11 resulted in the loss of the raidus, ulna, and some of the carpals. - Relatively simple mutations can control relatively large changes in limb development.

Loss of Genetic Diversity

- Inbreeding - mating among relatives -> more likely when population small, survivorship of offspring can decline, greater prairie chicken - reduced to population with 5 or 6 males (resulted in steady reduction of hatching success, until Kansas birds were brought in to increase diversity).

Ray-finned Fish

- Includes all bony fish except coelocanths and lungfish. - Fins supported by thin, bony, flexible rays.

Supergroup Opisthokonta

- Includes animal and fungal kingdoms and related protists. - Named for single posterior flagellum on swimming cells.

Polyphyletic Group

- Includes distantly related species but does not include their most recent common ancestor. - Are distinguished from paraphyletic groups by the fact that they do not include the most recent common ancestor.

Nonrandom Mating

- Individuals choose their mates irrespective of their genotypes and phenotypes. - Forms of nonrandom mating: assortative, disassortative, inbreeding.

What did Darwin observe?

- Individuals in a population vary in their traits, many of which are heritable. - More offspring are produced than survive, and competition is inevitable. - Species generally suit their environment.

What did Darwin infer?

- Individuals that are best suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. - Over time, more individuals in a population will have the advantageous traits.

Assortative Mating

- Individuals with similar phenotypes are more likely to mate. - Increases the proportion of homozygotes.

Seed-dispersal Co-evolution

- Influenced both plant fruit characteristics and animal seed-dispersal agent. - Plant may have juicy sweet fruit with small seed to readily pass through gut. - Plants may signal fruit ripeness with color change.

Sign Stimulus

- Initiates behavior. - i.e. For geese, sign stimulus is an egg out of the nest. - i.e. For stickleback fish, sign stimulus is a red ventral surface Male sticklebacks attack red ventral surface while ignoring realistic fish model that lacks red.

Fixed Action Patterns

- Innate or genetically programmed behavior. - Once initiated, will continue until completed. - i.e. Egg-rolling response in geese -> improves fitness because it increases survival of young. - Sign stimulus.

Endoderm

- Inner layer. - Lines the archenteron.

Key evidence supporting an endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria and plastids:

- Inner membranes are similar to plasma membranes of prokaryotes. - Division and DNA structure is similar in these organelles and some prokaryotes. - These organelles transcribe and translate their own DNA. - Their ribosomes are more similar to prokaryotic than eukaryotic ribosomes.

What factors are thought to have contributed to these extinctions:

- Intense volcanism. - *** Global warming and ocean acidification (these are issues today) resulting from the emission of large amounts of CO2 from the volcanoes. - Anoxic conditions resulting from nutrient enrichment of ecosystems. - Meteor impacts.

What are the main causes of extinction?

- Introduced species. - Direct exploitation. - Habitat destruction. - Climate change. - Loss of genetic diversity.

Evidence for KT Extinction Event

- Iridium in sedimentary rocks suggest a meteorite impact ~65 mya. - Dust clouds caused by the impact would have blocked sunlight and disturbed global climate. - Chicxulub crater off the coast of Mexico is evidence of a meteorite that dates to the same time.

Anthropocene

- Is distinguished as a new period either after or within the Holocene, the current epoch, which began approximately 10,000 years ago (about 8000 BC) with the end of the last glacial period. - *** The Anthropocene defines Earth's most recent geologic time period as being human-influenced, or anthropogenic, based on overwhelming global evidence that atmospheric, geologic, hydrologic, biosphere, and other earth system processes are not altered by humans. - The word combines the root "anthropo," meaning "human" with the root "-cene," the standard suffix for "epoch" in geologic time.

Ecosystem

- Is the community of organisms in an area and the physical factors with which they interact. - Is the interaction of living and nonliving things in an environment.

Hagfish

- Jawless, finless, marine fish that lack vertebrae. - Cartilaginous skull. - Essentially blind with a keen sense of smell. - Copious amounts of slime.

Phylum Chordata

- Key distinguishing innovations: 1. Notochord 2. Dorsal hollow nerve cord 3. Pharyngeal slits 4. Postanal tail - *** All chordates exhibit all four characteristics at some time during development.

Ancestry and Diversity of Modern Plants

- Kingdom Plantae. - Multicellular eukaryotic organisms composed of cells having plastids. - Primarily live on land. - Evolved from green algal ancestors that lived in aquatic habitats. - Distinguished from modern algal relatives by adaptations to terrestrial life.

Lampreys

- Lack hinged jaw and true appendages -> Agnathan = jawless. - Have a notochord and rudimentary vertebral column.

Subphylum Cephalachordata

- Lancelets. - 26 species. - All marine filter feeders. - Have 4 hallmarks.

Structure & Function: Leaves

- Leaf shape and structure resist drought -> reduce leaf area; thick, waxy cuticle. - Most retain leaves, evergreens -> able to start photosynthesis early, important because of short growing season. - Cold climate adaptations: conical shape and flexible branches; scale-like or needle-shaped leaves; thick, waxy cuticle. - Most conifers are evergreens.

Ectoderm

- Outer layer. - Forms epidermis, nervous system.

Postzygotic Barriers

- Less common in nature because they are more costly in terms of energy and resources used. - Block development of viable, fertile individuals. 1. Hybrid Inviability 2. Hybrid Sterility 3. Hybrid Breakdown

Gram Negative

- Less peptidoglycan and a thin outer envelope of lipopolysaccharides. - Lose purple stain but retain final pink stain. - Cells are stained pink. - Resists penicillin and requires other antibiotics.

Class Lepidosauria

- Lizards and snakes. - Kinetic skull with extremely mobile joints. - Lizards and moveable eyelids and external ears while snakes do not.

Lophotrochozoans

- Lophophore - an unusual feeding appendage or organ bearing hollow tentacles. - Trochophore (larval stage) - the larva has two bands of cilia around the middle that are used for swimming and for gathering food, and at the "top" is a cluster of longer flagellae.

Uniformitarianism Hypothesis from Geology

- Lyell -> Slow geological processes lead to substantial change; process see today are uniform with those acting in the past; no direction, Earth was much older than 6,000 years.

Uniformitarianism

- Lyell's version of geology came to be known as uniformitarianism, because of his fierce insistence that the processes that alter the Earth are uniform through time. - *** Lyell viewed the history of Earth as being vast and directionless.

Magnetosomes

- Magnetite crystals. - Like a compass. - Helps to locate low-oxygen habitats.

Balancing Selection

- Maintains genetic diversity. - Balanced polymorphism -> two or more alleles are kept in balance, and therefore are maintained in a population over the course of many generations. - One common way -> heterozygote favored/heterozygote advantage.

Biome

- Major life zones characterized by vegetation type (terrestrial biomes) or physical environment (aquatic biomes). - The structure and distribution of terrestrial biomes are controlled by climate. - *** Affected not just by average temperature and precipitation, but also by the pattern of temperature and precipitation through the year. - **** Is a specific geographic area notable for the species living there -> terrestrial biomes, aquatic biomes. - Can be made up of many ecosystems.

Visual Communication

- Male competition for impressive displays leads to elaborate coloration and ornamentation (ex. peacocks). - i.e. Male fireflies flash species-specific number and duration of flashes -> predator fireflies flash to lure males in to eat them. - i.e. Rhinoceros beetle horns send a visual signal about the strength of their owners.

Fitness

- Measure of reproductive success. - Fitness is the relative likelihood that one genotype will contribute to the gene pool of the next generation compared with other genotypes.

Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

- Mechanisms that prevent interbreeding between different species. - Consequence, or by-product, of genetic changes as species adapts to its environment.

Intrasexual Sexual Selection

- Member of one sex chooses mate based on certain characteristics -> female mate choice, often based on plumage color or courtship displays. - i.e. Male widowbirds with experimentally lengthened tails attracted more females and fathered more clutches; Female sticklebacks prefer males that shake more during courtship as evidence that he will be a better parent; Female hangingflies demand a nuptial gift - allows female to produce more eggs and allows male to copulate longer.

Population

- Members of the same species that are likely to encounter each other and thus have the opportunity to interbreed. - A group of individuals of the same species living in an area.

TC 1. Tissues

- Metazoa - all animals, divided based on whether there are specialized tissues. - Parazoa (without specialized tissues or organs) (i.e. Porifera - sponges). - Eumetazoa (more than one type of tissue and organ)

John Ray

- Mid-to late-1600s, carried out a thorough study of the natural world -> developed an early classification system, modern species concept. - Neither proposed that evolutionary change promotes the formation of new species (believed species are immutable). - Believed that species record reflects direction, from single cell to humans. - Neither proposed that evolutionary change promotes the formation of new species (believed species are immutable). - Believed that the species record reflected direction, from single cell to humans.

Phylum Echinodermata

- Modified radial symmetry - 5 parts -> secondary - larvae are bilateral. - Cephalization absent.

Mating Systems

- Monogamy. - Polygyny. - Polyandry.

Taxis

- More directed movement. - Positive phototaxis - toward light. - Negative photoaxis - away from light.

Natural Selection

- More offspring produced than can survive. - Competition for limited resources. - Individual with better traits flourish and reproduce (differential survival). - Allows for adaptation of organisms to the environment. - Does not create new traits. - *** The environment "selects" for the propagation of beneficial traits already present in the population. - The local environment determines which traits ill be selected for or selected against in any specific population. - Process in which beneficial traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations. - *** Over time, natural selection results in adaptations -> changes in populations of living organisms that promote their survival and reproduction in a particular environment. - May rapidly alter the genetic composition of the population, leading to adaptation to the new environment.

Traditional Classification Based On Body Plans

- Morphological and developmental features traditionally used to classify animals: 1. *** Presence or absence of different tissue types. 2. *** Type of body symmetry. 3. *** Specific features of embryonic development.

Bacteria & Archaea: Cell-wall Structure

- Most have rigid cell wall outside the plasma membrane. - Maintain cell shape and help protect against attack. - Also help avoid lysis in hypotonic solutions. - Archaea and some bacteria use protein. - ***Most bacteria use peptidoglycan.

Batesian Mimicry

- Palatable mimic resembles unpalatable model. - i.e. Scarlet king snake and coral snake.

Allopatric Speciation

- Most prevalent method for cladogenesis. - Occurs when some members of a species become geographically separated. - Can also occur when a small population moves to a new location that is geographically separated.

Phylum Arthropoda

- Most successful phylum based on described species. - *** 2/3 of all described living species. - *** Success related to body plan that permits them to live in all major biomes. - *** Subphylum Hexapoda = Insects -> more species of insects than all other animal species combined. - Extensive cephalization -> well developed sensory organs for sight, touch, smell, hearing, and balance; compound eyes; brain consists of cerebral ganglia connected to several ventral ganglia.

Horizontal Gene Transfer (Lateral Gene Transfer)

- Movement of one or more genes from one species to another -> contrasts with vertical gene transfer from parent to progeny. - Increases genetic diversity. - Common among archaea and bacteria. - Can result in large genetic changes. - At least 17& of the genes present in the common human gut inhabitant E. coli came from other bacteria. - About 80% of prokaryotic genes have been involved in horizontal transfer at some point in their history.

Local Movements

- Movements to find food, water, nesting site. - Involve kinesis, taxis, and memory.

Biofilms

- Mucilage, composed of polysaccharides, protein, or both. - Secreted from cells, chemical signaling affects collective behavior. - Functions -> evade host defenses, hold colony together (i.e. dental plaque).

Key Innovations

- Multicellularity - Tissues - Bilateral symmetry - Endoskeleton - Ecdysis (molting) - Protostome development - Deuterostome development

Endemic

- Naturally found only in a particular location. - Species that are not found anywhere else in the world. - Islands have many endemic species that are often closely related to species on the nearest mainland or island. - Darwin explained that species on islands gave rise to new species as they adapted to new environments.

Hardy-Weinberg Conditions

- No new mutations occur. - No natural selection occurs. - The population is so large that allele frequencies do not change due to random sampling error. - No migration occurs between different populations. - Random mating.

Secondary Metabolites

- Not part of primary energy-generating metabolic pathway. - Alkaloids (nicotine in tobacco, morphine in poppies, cocaine in coca, and caffeine in coffee). - Phenolics (lignin in wood and tannin in leaves). - Terpenoids (in peppermint).

Müllerian Mimicry

- Noxious species converge to reinforce warning. - i.e. Black and yellow stripes of bees and wasps.

TC 3. Embryonic Development

- Number of cell layers. - Bilateria are triploblastic - 3 germ layers. - Radiata are diploblastic - 2 germ layers.

Polyandry

- One female mates with several males. - Rare. - Female is usually bigger. - i.e. Female spotted sandpiper reproductive success limited only by the number of males she can find to incubate her eggs. - i.e. Male pipefish have brood pouches and female produces enough eggs for two male brood pouches if she can find another male.

Polygyny

- One male commands a harem of many females. - Females mate with only one male. - *** Associated with uniparental care of young. - Males contribute little to raising young. - *** Sexual dimorphism typical. - Types: resource based polygyny - patchy distribution of resource and female visits for resource; harem mating structure - females naturally congregate and male controls area; communal courting - males display in lek, females mate after males display.

Commensalism

- One member derives a benefit while the other is not benefited or harmed. - *** Plant would like pollinator with fidelity to one species that moves quickly among individuals. - *** Animal wants to be a generalist to get the most food in a small area, reducing energy expenditure. - i.e. Epiphytes growing in trees do not harm the trees. - i.e. Cattle egrets benefit from cattle stirring up insects.

Domain Bacteria

- One of the most prominent features is their diversity. - Also called Eubacteria. - Prokaryotic - lack nucleus. - ***~50 bacterial phyla -> structural and metabolic features of half are still unknown. - *** Most bacteria favor moderate conditions -> however, some bacteria are extremophiles. - *** Many form symbiotic relationships with eukaryotes.

Domain Archaea

- One of the most prominent features is their diversity. - Prokaryotic - lack nucleus. - Eukaryotic nucleus and cytoplasm likely arose in an ancient archaeal organism. - Mitochondria and plastids originated from proteobacteria and cyanobacteria by endosymbiosis -> transfer of many genes from bacteria to eukaryotes. - Features in common with the eukaryotic nucleus and cytoplasm, suggesting common ancestry: histone proteins, ribosomal proteins, RNA polymerases. - Unique membrane lipids give resilience: ether-bonded lipids more resistant to heat and other conditions, allow archaea to live in extreme environments, "extremophiles." - Many Archaea are found in moderate conditions as well. - Phylum Koarchaeota -> primarily known from DNA samples of hot springs. - Phylum Eurachaeota -> methane producers, extreme halophiles, and some hyperthermophiles. - Phylum Crenarchaeota -> grow in extreme hot or cold and others in widespread terrestrial and aquatic habitats. - Phylum Nanoarchaeota -> hyperthermophiles.

Parasitism

- One organism feeds off another, but does not usually kill it outright. - *** Predatory organism is termed a parasite and the prey is called the host.

Polyploidy

- Organism has two or more sets of chromosomes. - Plants more tolerant of polyploidy than animals, no unusual mode of speciation in plants. - Reproductive isolation is often immediate. - Autoploidy can occur through nondisjunction (diploid to tetraploid). - Alloploids contain chromosomes from two or more different species.

Invasive Species

- Outcompete native species for space and resources. - Do not have their natural predators. - i.e. Brown tree snake introduced to Guam. By 1980's 8 or 11 of island's forest birds extinct. Birds had no defense against snakes since no coevolved history together.

Monogamy

- Partners form lasting pair bonds. - One male mates with one female. - Males and females generally similar in body size and appearance - no sexual dimorphism. - *** Mate-guarding hypothesis - males stay with a female to protect her from being fertilized by others. - *** Male-assistance hypothesis - males remain with females to help them rear offspring - otherwise, fewer offspring would survive.

Direct Exploitation

- Passenger pigeon and Carolina parakeet hunted to extinction by the early 20th century. - Whale species driven to the brink of extinction prior to a 1988 moratorium on commercial whaling.

Mesozoic Era

- Permian extinction marks boundary between Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. - *** The age of dinosaurs. - Consistently hot climate, dry terrestrial environments, little if any ice at poles.

Direct Observations

- Phenotype (heritable variation) changes with environmental changes a) Soapberry bug mouthpart length b) Galapagos finches c) Flat periwinkle

Morphological Traits

- Physical characteristics of an organism. - Drawbacks for determining species: how many traits to consider, traits may vary in a continuous way, what degree of dissimilarity to use, members of the same species can look very different, and members of a different species can look very similar.

The functions of vascular tissue in plants include:

- Physical support of the plant. - Transport of water. - Transport of minerals. - Transport of organic compounds.

Pollination Co-evolution

- Pollinators foster genetic variability (cross-pollinate individual plants) and plant potential for evolutionary change. - Constancy or fidelity - pollinators learn the flower characteristics and visit them preferentially -> precise pollen transfer, reduces amount of pollen plant needs to produce (vs wind pollinators). - Attract appropriate pollinator using attractive colors, odors, shapes, sizes. - Plants attract pollinators through color, shape, size, and scent. - Precision of pollen transfer increases pollinator rewards: lipid and protein-rich pollen, sugar-rich nectar but not always.

Bottleneck

- Population reduced dramatically and then rebuilds. - Randomly eliminates members without regard to genotype; some alleles overrepresented. - Surviving members may have allele frequencies different from original population. - Allele frequencies can drift substantially when population is small - *** New population likely to have less genetic variation.

Prezygotic Barriers

- Prevent formation of zygote. 1. Habitat Isolation 2. Temporal Isolation 3. Behavioral Isolation 4. Gametic Isolation 5. Mechanical Isolation

Reproductive Isolation

- Prevents one species from successfully interbreeding with other species.

Primates

- Primarily tree-dwelling species. - Evolved about 85 mya. - Defining characteristics -> grasping hands with opposable thumbs, large brain, some digits have flat nails (not claws), binocular vision, complex social behavior, and well-developed parental care. - *** Humans related to chimpanzees and apes but did not evolve directly from them. - All hominoids shared a common ancestor. - *** Family Hominidae -> Subfamily Ponginae - orangutans; -> Subfamily Homininae -> Tribe Gorillini - gorillas, Tribe Panini - chimpanzees, Tribe Hominini - humans and their ancestors.

EEC 4. Selective Breeding = Artificial Selection

- Programs and procedures designed to modify traits in domesticated species. - Darwin influenced by pigeon breeders. - Nature chooses parents in natural selection while breeders choose in artificial selection. - Genetic variation occurs naturally and breeders choose desirable phenotypes. - i.e. Dog breeds, Brassica plants, and corn.

EEC 1. Fossil Record

- Provides evidence of the extinction of species, the origin of new groups, and evolutionary changes within groups over time. - Fossils can document important transitions (i.e. The transition from land to sea in the ancestors of cetaceans). - Change in morphology over time: body size, foot anatomy, tooth morphology. - Change is not linear rather branching.

Gram Positive

- Relatively thick peptidoglycan layer. - Purple dye held in thick layer. - Cells are stained purple. - Vulnerable to penicillin that interferes in cell wall synthesis.

Empirical Thought

- Relies on observation to form an idea or hypothesis, rather than trying to understand life from a non-physical or spiritual point of view. - In the 1600s, a shift toward empirical thought encouraged scholars to look for the basic rationale behind a given process of phenomenon.

Relative Amounts Of Species

- Research in the Human Microbiome Project is starting to identify the relative amount of each microbe present at different locations in the body. - The Microbiome of one person can be different than others in species and relative amounts.

Comparative Embryology

- Reveals anatomical homologies not visible in adult organisms. - *** Descent from common ancestor explains such similarities.

Is a Sixth Mass Extinction Under Way?

- Scientists estimate that the current rate of extinction is 100 to 1,000 times the typical background rate. - Extinction rates tend to increase when global temperatures increase. - Data suggest that a sixth, human-caused mass extinction is likely to occur unless dramatic action.

Vestigal Structures

- Serve no current function but are remnants of features that served important functions in the organism's ancestors. - Anatomical structures that have no apparent function but resemble structures of presumed ancestors.

Bryophytes

- Share common structural and reproductive. - Tied to moist environments. - Earliest terrestrial plants. - Lack vascular tissue.

Class Chondricthyes

- Sharks, skates, rays. - *** Cartilaginous fish -> skeleton of flexible cartilage; derived character within the Chondrichthyes (not ancestral). - *** Sharks among earliest fish to develop teeth -> but teeth are not set into jaw.

Homology at the Molecular Level

- Similarities in cells at the molecular level show that living species evolved from a common ancestor. - All living species use DNA to store information. - *** Certain biochemical pathways are found in all or nearly all species. - Homology at the molecular level shows that genes shared among organisms inherited from a common ancestor and all organism same genetic code (A, C, G, T).

Flagship Species

- Single large or instantly recognizable species -> attractive and engender public support; American buffalo, giant panda, Florida panther.

Lakes

- Size varies from small ponds to very large lakes. - Temperature lakes may have a seasonal thermocline; tropical lowland lakes have a year-round thermocline.

What similarities do bacteria and archaea share?

- Small size. - Rapid growth. - Simple cellular structure. - *** Just 1-5 μm in diameter -> most plant and animal cells are between 10 and 100 μm in diameter. - *** Small cell size limits the amount of materials in a cell but allows faster cell division.

Auditory Communication

- Sounds travel farther away from the ground, so birds and insects perch high in the air to sing. - At dawn and dusk the air is less turbulent and sound carries farther. - Males use auditory communication to attract females but sound production can also lure predators.

Cenozoic Era

- Spans most recent 65 million years. - Tropical conditions replaced by a colder, drier climate. - *** Sometimes called the age of mammals. - Amazing diversification of birds, fish, insects, and flowering plants.

Biological Species Concept

- Species is a group of individuals whose members have the potential to interbreed with one another in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring. - But cannot successfully interbreed with members of other species.

Introduced Species

- Species moved by humans from a native location to another location. - Forms of invasive/native interaction. - *** Predation - rats, cats, and mongoose account for 43% of recorded bird extinctions. - *** Disease - 50% of native Hawaiian birds extinct due to avian malaria.

Developmental Homology

- Species that differ as adults often bear striking similarities during embryonic stages. - Presence of pharyngeal pouches in human embryos indicates that humans evolved from an aquatic animal with gill slits. - Human embryos have long bony tails. - Similarities would be highly unlikely if these structures had arisen anew in each species.

Indicator Species

- Species whose status confirms the overall health of an ecosystem -> corals are good indicators of siltation; proliferation of the dark variety of the peppered moth (Bistonbetularia) has been shown to be a good indicator of air pollution; polar bears are an indicator for global climate change.

Adaptations

- Structures, physiological process, or behaviors that aid in survival and reproduction. - Adaptations that improve survival & reproduction in one environment may not be advantageous in another.

Organismal Ecology

- Studies how an organism's structure, physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet environmental challenges. - Includes physiological, evolutionary, and behavioral ecology.

Population Genetics

- Study of genes and genotypes in a population. - Want to to know extent of genetic variation, why it exists, how it is maintained, and how it changes over the course of many generations. - Help us understand how genetic variation is related to phenotypic variation.

EEC 2. Biogeography

- Study of the geographical distribution of extinct and modern species. - Geography has played a key role in the evolution of new species. - Isolated continents and island groups have evolved their own distinct plant and animal communities. - Earth's continents were united in a single large continent called Pangaea (250 mya), but have since separated by continental drift. - An understanding of continent movement and modern distribution of species allows us to predict when and where different groups evolved.

Amphibians

- Successfully invaded land but must return to water to reproduce. - Buccal pumping to force air into lungs. - Skin can absorb oxygen. - Fertilization external. - Larval stages aquatic. - Metamorphosis.

Flagellates

- Swim using eukaryotic flagella. - Some flagellated reproductive cells.

Temperate Deciduous Forest

- Temperature: -30ºC to 30ºC, yearly average is 10ºC, hot summers, cold winters. - Precipitation: 750 to 1,500 mm of rain per year. - Vegetation: Broadleaf trees (oaks, maples, beeches), shrubs, perennial herbs, and mosses. - Location: Eastern United States, Canada, Europe, China, and Japan. - Other: Temperate deciduous forests are most notable because they go through four seasons. Leaves change color in autumn, fall off in the winter, and grow back in the spring; this adaptation allows plants to survive cold winters.

Tundra

- Temperature: -40ºC to 18ºC. - Precipitation: 150 to 250 mm of rain per year. - Vegetation: Almost no trees due to short growing season and permafrost; lichens, mosses, grasses, sedges, shrubs. - Location: Regions south of the ice caps of the Arctic and extending across North America Europe, and Siberia (high mountain tops). - Other: Tundra comes from the Finnish word tunturia, meaning "treeless plain"; it is the coldest of the biomes. - Covers expansive areas of the Arctic; alpine tundra exists on high mountaintops at all latitudes. - Precipitation is low in arctic tundra and higher in alpine tundra. - Winters are cold (below -30ºC); summers are relatively cool (less than 10ºC). - Vegetation is herbaceous (mosses, grasses, forbs, dwarf shrubs and trees, and lichen). - Permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of soil, restricts the growth of plant roots. - Mammals include musk oxen, caribou, reindeer, bears, wolves, and foxes; many migratory bird species nest in the summer. - Settlement is sparse, but tundra has become the focus of oil and mineral extraction.

Northern Coniferous Forest

- Temperature: -40ºC to 20ºC, average summer temperature is 10ºC. - Precipitation: 300 to 900 millimeters of rain per year. - Vegetation: Coniferous-evergreen trees (trees that produce cones and needles; some needles remain on the trees all year long). - Location: Canada, Europe, Asia, and the United States. - Other: Coniferous forest regions have cold, long, snowy winters, and warm, humid summers; well-defined season, at least four to six frost-free months.

Desert

- Temperature: Average of 38ºC (day), average of -3.9ºC (night). - Precipitation: About 250 mm of rain per year. - Vegetation: Cacti, small bushes, short grasses. - Location: Between 15º and 35ºC latitude (North and South of the equator); examples are Mojave, Sonoran, Chihuahua, and Great Basin (North America); Sahara (Africa); Negev (Middle East), and Gobi (Asia). - Other: Perennials survive for several ears by becoming dormant and flourishing when water is available. Annuals are referred to as ephemerals because some can complete an entire life cycle in weeks.

Temperate Grassland

- Temperature: Dependent on latitude, yearly range can be between -20ºC to 30ºC. - Precipitation: About 500 to 900 mm of rain per year. - Vegetation: Grasses (prairie clover, salvia, oats, wheat, barley, coneflowers). - Location: The praires of the Great Plains of North America, the pampas of South America, the veldt of South Africa, the steppes of Central Eurasia, and surrounding the deserts in Australia. - Other: Found on every continent except Antarctica.

Shrubland

- Temperature: Hot and dry in the summer, cool and moist in the winter. - Precipitation: 200 to 1,000 mm of rain per year. - Vegetation: Aromatic herbs (sage, rosemary, thyme, oregano), shurbs, acacia, chamise, grasses. - Location: West coastal regions between 30º and 40º North and South latitude. - Other: Plants have adapted to fire caused by the frequent lightning that occurs in the hot, dry summers. - The natural fire return interval for chaparral is 30 to 150 years plus. Today there are more fires than the chaparral ecosystem can tolerate. - Fires more than once every 20 years can eliminate chaparral by first reducing its biodiversity through the loss of fire-sensitive species, then by converting it to non-native weedlands (type conversion).

Taxonomy

- The branch of biology concerned with naming and classifying of living and extinct organisms. - A species is placed into progressively smaller groups that are more closely related. - Emphases the unity and diversity of different species. - Science of describing, naming, and classifying living and extinct organisms and viruses. - Linnaeus classified species into groups nested within larger groups (based on shared traits).

CCBL 1. Evolution

- The diversity of life evolved over time by processes of mutation selection, and genetic change. - Change in allele frequency over time.

The Fossil Record

- The fossil record shows changes in kinds of organisms on Earth over time. - Few individuals have fossilized, and even fewer have been discovered. - The fossil record is biased in favor of species that: existed for a long time, were abundant and widespread, had hard parts, and were aquatic.

Mass Extinctions

- The fossil record shows that most species that have ever lived are now extinct. - *** Extinction can be caused by changes to a species' environment. - *** At times, the rate of extinction has increased dramatically and caused a mass extinction. - *** Mass extinction is the result of disruptive global environmental changes. - 5 large mass extinctions. - Near end of Ordovician, Devonian, Permian, Triassic, and Cretaceous periods. - Boundaries between geologic time periods are often based on these events. - *** Rapid extinction of many modern species due to human activities is sometimes referred to as the sixth mass extinction.

EEC 3. Convergent Evolution

- The independent evolution of similar traits or adaptations in distantly related organisms. - Two different species from different lineages show similar characteristics because they occupy similar environments. - Suggests adaptation to the environment. - Similar characteristics can arise in distant biomes through convergent evolution. - i.e. Giant anteater and echidna both have long snouts and tongues to feed on ants, Aerial rootlets for clinging in English ivy and wintercreeper, and Antifreeze proteins in different, very cold water fish. - i.e. Cacti in North America and euphorbs in African deserts appear similar but are from different evolutionary lineages.

What's happening in the nose?

- The nose is a primary defender against inhaled pathogens. - Inflammation from viral infection and allergic reactions. - Cilia and mucous lining trap inhaled microbes. - *** There is a delicate balance of microbes that are maintained to keep that environment healthy. Weakened immune systems can throw off that balance and allow the wrong microbes to grow out of control.

Stromatolites

- The oldest known fossils (layered rock). - *** Solid structures created by single-celled microbes called cyanobacteria. - *** Date back to 3.5 bya.

Trophic Efficiency

- The percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next. - It is usually about 10%, with a range of 5% to 20%. - Trophic efficiency is multiplied over the length of a food chain. - Approximately 0.1 of chemical energy fixed by photosynthesis reaches a tertiary consumer. - A pyramid of net production represents the loss of energy with each transfer in a food chain.

What's happening on the skin?

- There are several skin environments: oily, dry, moist. Some microbes prefer one over another. - Microbes in crevices to recolonize skin after washing with soap. - The skin has natural defenses including slightly acidic sweat and antimicrobial peptides. - Antibiotic washes and oral antibiotics disturb normal balance of microbes on the skin. - *** There is a normal balance of microbes on the skin that protect introduced microbes from harming us. Damaged skin gives opportunities for microbes to invade the bloodstream and cause serious illness.

Oceanic (Pelgaic and Coastal) Zone

- This biome covers approximately 70% of Earth's surface. - The oceanic pelgaic zone is constantly mixed by wind-drive oceanic currents. - Oxygen levels are high. - Kept forests are ecosystem within Ocean Biome. - Kelp forests provide food and shelter for thousands of species.

Species Diversity

- Threatened species are likely to become endangered, endangered species are in danger of extinction. - They differ in morphology, behavior, life-history, physiology, taxonomy. - All species may be made equal but human preferences (warm, large, fuzzy), utilitarian value, and taxonomic distinctiveness make they unequal. - Influence on ecological systems -> keystone species and ecosystem engineers.

Bony Fish

- Three living classes: 1. Ray-finned fish 2. Coelacanths 3. Lungfish - Three features different from Chondricthyes: 1. Bony skeleton. 2. Operculum covers gills. 3. Swim bladder for buoyancy.

Microbe

- Tiny living organism, such as bacterium, fungus, protozoan, or virus. - *** Some are native, normally found in the body. - *** Some are introduced, suddenly arriving at a new residence in the body.

Estuary

- Transition area between river and sea. - Salinity varies with the rise and fall of the tides. - Nutrient-rich and highly productive. - Include a complex network of tidal channels, islands, natural levees, and mudflats. - Saltmarsh grasses and algae are the major producers. - Humans consume oysters, crabs, and fish.

Tetrapods: Gnathosomes with Four Limbs

- Transition to land involved adaptations for locomotion, reproduction, and to prevent desiccation. - Sturdy lobe-finned fishes became animals with four limbs. - Vertebral column strengthened, hip and shoulder bones braced against backbone.

Phylogenetic Trees

- Trees are a diagram that describes phylogeny; usually based on morphological or genetic data. - A hypothesis of evolutionary relationships among various species.

Class Testudines

- Turtles, tortoises, and terrapins. - Hard protective shell. - In most, vertebrae and ribs fused to shell. - Lack teeth but have sharp beak.

Pili

- Twitch or glide across surfaces. - Allows for directional movement. - Threadlike structures on surface of cell. - Also play important roles in bacterial reproduction and disease processes.

Emergent Properties

- Units of matter are organized and integrated into levels of increasing complexity. - Higher levels are more complex and demonstrate more variation & characteristics. - When units of biological material are put together, the properties of the new material are not always additive or equal to the sum of the properties of the components. - New properties and rules emerge that cannot be predicted by observations of lower levels.

Ciliates

- Use cilia. - Shorter and more abundant than flagella.

Communication

- Use of specifically designed signals or displays to modify the behavior of others. - Chemical communication. - Auditory communication. - Visual communication. - Tactile communication.

Tactile Communication

- Used to establish bonds between group members. - i.e. Round dance or waggle dance of the honeybee scout conveys food location.

Ecological Factors

- Variety of factors related to an organism's habitat can be used to distinguish one species from another. - Many bacterial species have been categorized as distinct species based on ecological factors -> Drawback - different groups of bacteria sometimes display very similar growth characteristics, and even the same species may show great variation in the growth conditions it will tolerate.

Ferns & Fern Allies

- Vascular tissue. - Ability to branch. - Ability to grow tall. - Do not produce seeds.

Vascular Plants

- Vascular tissues occur in the major plant organs: stems, roots, and leaves (capture sunlight). - Xylem, transports water, structural support. - Phloem, conducts sugars and other metabolic products.

The Vertebrates

- Vertebrates: Chordates with a Backbone. - Gnathosomes: Jawed Vertebrates. - Tetrapods: Gnathosomes with Four Limbs. - Amniotes: Tetrapods with a Dessication-Resistant Egg. - Mammals: Milk-Producing Amniotes.

Climate

- Very important in determining why terrestrial biomes are found in certain areas. - Climate is a major factor determining the locations of terrestrial biomes.

What are the adaptations to conserve water?

- Waxy cuticle present on most surface of vascular plant sporophytes - prevents desiccation. - Cutin found in cuticle - helps block pathogens. - Stomata - pores that open and close to allow gas exchange while minimizing water loss.

What are the adaptations associated with colonization of land?

- Waxy cuticle, epidermal modification. - Protection of embryos. - Production of roots and leaves. - Vascularization of tissues. - Fungal mutualisms. - Novel features to adapt to stress of life on land -> genes for heat and drought tolerance. - Developed -> tissue-producing meristems, tough walled spores, and sporophyte generation. - *** Multi-cellular diploid sporophyte generation is advantageous because it allows a single plant to disperse widely. - Break tie to water for male gametes.

Archaeon Eon

- Where diverse microbial life flourished in primordial oceans. - *** First known fossils at 3.5 bya. - First and all cells prokaryotic. - *** Hardly any free oxygen so organisms were anaerobic. - First cells were heterotrophs. - Autotrophs evolved as the supply of organic molecules dwindled.

MHC-Dependent Mate Preferences in Humans (1995) Wedeking et al.

- Why we do the things we do - in the context of evolution. - The "sweaty T-shirt experiment which showed that the sense of smell may have more to do with mate choice than previously thought. Females sniffing the T-shirts recently worn by males favored the scent of those whose immune response genes were different from their own. (Wedeking et al. 1995)

Wolbachia

- Wolbachia species are found in mature eggs, not mature sperm. - Infection is passed generation to generation via female. - Wolbachia maximize their spread by altering the reproduction in the host. - There are 4 modes: 1. Male killing: infected males die during larval development. 2. Feminization: infected males developed as females or infertile pseudo-females. 3. Parthogenesis: reproduction of infected females without males. 4. Cytoplasmic incompatibility: the inability of Wolbachia-infected males to successfully reproduce with uninfected females (or infected by another Wolbachia strain).

What is your 'carbon footprint'?

- Your footprint is a way of showing your carbon emissions (e.g., carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide), compared to other people and other countries. It's your impression on the planet. - Your individual emissions are built up from the energy you use personally for electricity and travel, as well as the energy that's required to produce your food and all the other stuff you buy,

Hybrid Zones

- Zones where two populations can interbreed. - Geographic separation is not complete. - Once gene flow through the hybrid zone is greatly diminished, the two populations are reproductively isolated.

Cheating

- i.e. Grass-pink orchid produces no nectar but it mimics the nectar-producing rose pogonia and is therefore still visited by bees. - i.e. Plants cheat seed-dispersal agent out of meal with barbs or hooks on seeds.

Endosymbiont Theory

-Proposes that mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts and related organelles) were formerly small prokaryotes living within larger host cells. - *** An endosymbiont is a cell that lives within a host cell. - *** The prokaryotic ancestors of mitochondria and plastids probably gained entry to the host cell as undigested prey or internal parasites - *** In the process of becoming more interdependent, the host and endosymbionts would have become a single organism

What are the three major protist groups?

1. Algae 2. Protozoa 3. Fungus-like *** Terms lack evolutionary meaning.

What are the two fundamental calculations in population genetics?

1. Allele frequency 2. Genotype frequency

Core Concepts for Biological Literacy

1. Evolution 2. Structure and Function 3. Information flow, exchange and storage 4. Pathways and transformations of energy and matter 5. Systems

Evidence of Evolutionary Change

1. Fossil record 2. Biogeography 3. Artificial selection 4. Convergent evolution 5. Homologies

What are the nine plant phyla?

1. Liverworts - Hepatophta (Bryophyte) 2. Mosses - Bryophyta (Bryophyte) 3. Hornworts - Anthocerophyta (Bryophyte) 4. Lycophytes - Lycophyta (Ferns & Fern Allies) 5. Pteridophytes - Pteridophyta (Ferns & Fern Allies) 6. Cycads - Cycadophyta (Gymnosperms) 7. Ginkgos - Ginkogophyta (Gymnosperms) 8. Conifers - Coniferophyta (Gymnosperms) 9. Angiosperms - Anthophyta (Angiosperms)

What are the four main problems for determining species?

1. May be difficult to determine in nature. 2. Can interbreed and yet do not. 3. Does not apply to asexual species. 4. Cannot be applied to extinct species.

What are the "hotspots" for microbial life?

1. Nasal 2. Oral 3. Skin 4. Gastrointestinal 5. Urogenital

Life

1. Order 2. Evolutionary adaptation 3. Regulation 4. Reproduction 5. Energy processing 6. Growth and development 7. Response to the environment

Seven Broad Principles/Processes of Life

1. Order (with the cell being the simplest unit of life) 2. Response to environment 3. Reproduction 4. Growth and development 5. Evolutionary adaptation 6. Regulation (homeostasis) 7. Energy processing or metabolism

Taxonomic Rank

1. Species 2. Genus 3. Family 4. Order 5. Class 6. Phylum 7. Kingdom 8. Domain 9. Life

What are the levels of biological organization?

1. The Biosphere 2. Ecosystems 3. Communities 4. Populations 5. Organisms 6. Organs and Organ Systems 7. Tissues 8. Cells 9. Organelles/molecules/macromolecules 10. Atoms

Biofilm

A community of microbes that live together on a surface.

All Taxa Biodiversity Inventory (ATBI)

A research effort that seeks to generate a comprehensive inventory of all life forms in a targeted region (i.e. Great Smoky Mountains National Park).

PostB 2. Hybrid Sterility

Interspecies hybrid viable but sterile.

Gas Vesicles

Adjust buoyancy; buoy this photosynthetic organism to the lighted water surface, where it often forms conspicuous scums.

Single-celled bacterium

Alive, but the macromolecules that combine to create the bacterium are not alive.

Seeds

Allow plants to reproduce in diverse habitats.

Pollen

Allows seed plants to disperse male gametophytes.

Amobae

Amoeboid movement - using pseudopodia.

Symbiosis

An organism that lives in close association with one or more other organisms.

α-proteobacteria

Ancestors of mitochondria, Rhizobium.

Environmental Science

Application of ecology to real world problems.

Abiotic Interactions

Are between organisms and their nonliving environment.

Biotic Interactions

Are interactions among living things.

Ciliate Reproduction

Asexual or sexual reproduction.

Prokaryotes are classified as belonging to two different domains; what are they?

Bacteria and Archaea

What features distinguish microbial domains?

Bacteria: - Have no nucleus or membrane bound organelles. - Often sphere (cocci) or rod (bacillus) shape, but others as well. Archeabacteria: - Have no nucleus or membrane bound organelles. - Can look similar to bacteria or drastically different shapes, such as flat and square. - Have some metabolic similarities to eukaryotes Eukaryotes: - Have a true nucleus and membrane bound organelles. - Wide variety of shapes. For this presentation, we will focus on fungi. - Fungi are unique since they have a cell wall and form spores during reproduction.

Taxonomic Groups

Based on hypotheses regarding evolutionary relationships derived from systematics.

CCBL 2. Structure and Function

Basic units of structure define the function of all living things.

CCBL 4. Pathways and transformations of energy and matter

Biological systems grow and change by processes based upon chemical transformation pathways and are governed by the laws of thermodynamics.

Ciliate Asexual Reproduction

By mitosis, form cysts.

Predation

Categories of predation can be classified by how lethal they are for the prey and length of association between consumer and prey.

1. What are cells?

Cells are the simplest units of life.

Regional and Local Effects on Climate

Climate is affected by seasonality, large bodies of water, and mountains.

Microbiome

Collectively all the microbes in the human body; a community of microbes.

Major Histocompatibility Complex in Sexual Selection

Concerns how MHC molecules allow for immune system surveillance of the population of protein molecules in a host cells. In Yamazaki et al. (1976) demonstrated that male mice prefer females of a different MHC.

How do you analyze genetic variation in populations?

Consider the frequency of specific alleles and genotypes in a quantitative way.

Macroclimate

Consists of patterns on the global, regional, and landscape level.

Ecosystem Diversity

Diversity of structure and function within an ecosystem.

Ecological Species Concept

Each species occupies an ecological niche - the unique set of habitat resources that a species requires, as well as its influence on the environment and other species.

Gradualism

Earth was transformed not by unimaginable catastrophes but by imperceptibly slow changes, many of which we can see around us today. (Hutton)

Catastrophism

Earth's history has direction. From it's formation, catastrophes altered the planet's surface step by step leading towards the present Earth.

Deuterostomia

Echinodermata + Chordata.

Community Ecology

Examines the effect of interspecific interactions on community structure and organization.

Global Ecology

Examines the influence of energy and materials on organisms across the biosphere.

Carolus Linnaeus

Extended John Ray's early classification system.

Disruptive/Diversifying Selection

Favors the survival of two or more genotypes that produce different phenotypes.

PostB 1. Hybrid Inviability

Fertilized egg cannot progress past an early embryo.

Population Ecology

Focuses on factors affecting population size over time.

Landscape Ecology

Focuses on the exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms across multiple ecosystems.

What's your Ecological Footprint?

Footprint measures the amount of biologically productive land and water area an individual, a city, a country, a region, or all of humanity uses to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb the waste it generates.

PreB 4. Gametic Isolation

Gametes fail to unite successfully; Important in species that release gametes into the water or air.

Algae

Generally photoautotrophic.

6. What does genetic material do?

Genetic material provides a blueprint for reproduction.

Adaptation to Local Environments

Geographic area may have variation so that some members of a population may diverge and occupy different local environments that are continuous with each other.

PreB 1. Habitat Isolation

Geographic barrier prevents contact.

Group of Scientists in the Late 1700s

George Buffon and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Taxa

Groups of organisms (i.e. populations, species, orders).

Vertebrates: Chordates with a Backbone

Have chordate features as well as: 1. Vertebral column (provides support and protects nerve cord). 2. Cranium. 3. Endoskeleton of cartilage or bone. 4. Neural crest (contribute to development of skeleton). 5. Diversity of internal organs.

δ -ε -proteobacteria

Heliobacter.

Protozoa

Heterotrophic.

Climate Change

Human-induced climate change, or global warming, has been implicated in the dramatic decrease in the population sizes of frog species in Central and South America.

PostB 3. Hybrid Breakdown

Hybrids viable and fertile but subsequent generations have genetic abnormalities.

Abiotic Factors

Include nonliving attributes such as temperature, light, water, and nutrients.

Biotic Factors

Include other organisms that are part of an individual's environment.

Directional Selection

Individuals at one extreme of a phenotypic range have greater reproductive success in a particular environment. - i.e. Soapberry bug

Interference Competition

Individuals interact directly with one another physical force or intimidation.

Thylakoids

Ingrowths of plasma membrane that increase surface area for photosynthesis.

What are recurring themes?

Inheritance, change, and adaptation.

Community

Is a group of populations of different species in an area.

Landscape (or seascape)

Is a mosaic of connected ecosystems.

Why are big, predatory animals rare? Most big predatory animals are tertiary consumers, which implies that...

It's hard for an ecosystem to support many of them because so much energy is lost at each level of energy exchange.

Did the first life forms appear on land or in water?

Life forms first appeared in the water.

5. What do living organisms do?

Living organisms grow and develop.

3. What do living organisms interact with?

Living organisms interact with their environment.

4. What do living organisms maintain?

Living organisms maintain homeostasis.

2. What do living organisms use?

Living organisms use energy.

CCBL 5. Systems

Living systems are interconnected and interacting.

Structure & Function: Seeds

Major critical innovations: - Pollen - Ovules - Seeds - Wood

Kinesis

Movement in response to stimulus but not directed toward or away from source.

Oligotrophic Lakes

Nutrient poor and generally oxygen-rich.

Eutrophic Lakes

Nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen in deep zones or throughout if ice covered in winter.

Evolutionary Relationship

Often illustrated with treelike diagrams that show ancestors and their descendants.

Phoresy

One organism uses another for transportation -> flower-inhabiting mites use hummingbird nostrils.

Parasitism

One partner benefits at the expense of the other.

Exploitation Competition

Organisms compete indirectly through the consumption of a limited resource.

What is the conducting tissue found in vascular plants that functions in transportation of materials throughout the plant, but does not lend structural support to the stem?

Phloem.

Phytoplankton

Photosynthetic.

Climograph

Plots the annual mean temperature and precipitation in a region.

7. What do populations of organisms do?

Populations of organisms evolve from one generation to the next.

The trophic level that ultimately supports all others consists of...

Primary producers.

Ovules

Provide protection and nutrition to female gametophytes and embryos.

Cuvier

Published his extensive studies of vertebrate fossils in 1812.

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Realized that some animals remain the same while other change -> Believed living things evolved upward toward human "perfection," inheritance of acquired characteristics (i.e. Giraffe necks, Blacksmith's muscles).

PreB 2. Temporal Isolation

Reproduce at different times of the day or year.

Mimicry

Resemblance of mimic to another organism (model).

Fungus-like

Resemble fungi in body form and absorptive nutrition.

George Buffon

Says life forms change over time.

A caterpillar eats 100 joules of energy in a leaf. Thirty of those joules go into creating new biomass. This is describing...

Secondary production.

Homologous Features

Share common ancestry but not necessarily similar function.

Analogous Features

Share similar function but not common ancestry.

Adaptive Radiation

Single species evolves into array of descendants that differ greatly in habitat, form or behavior.

PreB 5. Mechanical Isolation

Size or incompatible genitalia prevents mating.

Evolutionary Lineage Concept

Species should be defined based on the separate evolution of lineages.

Wood

Strengthens plants, allowing them to grow tall and produce many branches, leaves, and seeds.

Systematics

Study of biological diversity and the evolutionary relationships among organisms, both extinct and modern.

Serial Endosymbiosis

Supposes that mitochondria evolved before plastids through a sequence of endosymbiotic events.

Plankton

Swimming or floating.

TWiGs

Taxonomic Working Group

What did Darwin propose?

That natural selection could caused an ancestral species to give rise to two or more descendant species (i.e. The finch species of the Galápagos Islands are descended from a common ancestor.

How old is the Earth?

The Earth is about ~4.5 billion years old. Evidence of life dates to ~3.6 bya.

Biosphere

The global ecosystem, the sum of all the planet's ecosystems.

CCBL 3. Information flow, exchange, and storage

The growth and behavior of organisms are activated through the expression of genetic information in context.

Is my gut microbiome the same as yours?

The number and amount of the many different microbes can vary greatly from person to person.

What best demonstrates unity among all organisms?

The structure and function of DNA.

Biological Systematics

The study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees.

Bacteria & Archaea: Structure and Function

Traits adaptations to environment: - Cell wall - integrity of shape, avoid lysis. - Shape - surface area varies with shape. - Motility - flagellum, single or multiple. - Biofilms - staying in place, in favorable environment.

γ-proteobacteria

Vibrio, Salmonella, Escherichia coli.

Species Concepts

Way to define the concept of a species and/or provide an approach to distinguish one species from another.

Interspecies Hybrid

When two species do produce offspring.