BIO DAT - Review

How many DNA strands would be expected after 8 cycles of PCR?

2^8 x 2

Projaryotes

3.5 billion

The pH of gastric juice is under

2.0

Macrosporangia

produce the microspores (Femal spores)

Ethylene does what

promotes fruit ripening

Atrophy

refers to a decrease in cell size

Aplasia

refers to almost complete failure of development

What are Homologous Structures?

represet divergent evolution from a common ancestor. Examples: Wings, flippers, forelegs and arms.

More on flukes

reproductive organs nearly fill the interior of a mature fluke. Flues generally have life cycles with an alternation of sexual and asexual stages. Many species require an intermediate host where larvae develop before infecting the final host, where the adult fluke lives. For example, flukes that parasitize humans spend parts of their histories in snails.

Fungus like protists

resemble fungi because they form either filaments or spore bearing bodies similar to the fungi.

Night length is responsible for

resetting the circadian rhythm clock

The main function of the large intestine is

resorption of water, sodium, and other minerals

Role of Mitochondria:

responsible for making ATP, which serves as a source of energy for the cell.

Hypothalamus

responsible for regulating basic biological needs: hunger, thirst, temperature control Sex drive, water balance

Role of the Nucleus

responsible for replication of DNA and transcription.

Few Na+ ions enter a cell under _________ conditions

resting

Muscle contraction is described by the __________-______________ model.

sliding-filament

The process whereby mRNA codons are converted into a sequence of amino acids is best known as

translation of RNA

Phloem

transports nutrients down the stem

Vas Deferens

transports the sperm to the urethra then out the penis

A scientist identified glycosidases, aryl sulfates, and a phosphatase. Where would these most likely be found?

Lysosomes

Citric Acid Cycle or Krebs Cycle

MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX produces CO2 mammals exhale Produces a total of: 6 NADH 2 FADH2 2 ATP 4 CO2

Which of the following is the source of energy for the synthesis of small organic molecules that predated the earliest forms of life?

Lightning

T4 (Thyroxin) and T3 (triiodothyronine) Calcitonin

Secreted: Thyroid Target: General and Bone Action: Increases cellular metabolism and Lowers blood Ca2+

Blood travels the slowest in

capillaries

Totipotent

This describes a single cell with the ability to divide and produce an entire organism. Can also produce extra embryonic membranes. A zygote, up to a morula, consists of totipotent cells. Any one of these cells can produce an entire organism.

Seeds are resistant to

adverse conditions such as hot and cold

A ___________ is a group of populations living in the same area

community

Vascular bundles

consist of xylem and phloem tissues. xylem delivers water phloem delivers sugars.

External fertilization

eggs shed by the female are fertilized by the male in the environment. Seen in most fish and amphibians.

What is Peripheral Vascular Resistance (PVR) refers to

friction between the blood and walls of blood vessels.

Tropism

growth of a plant in response to something in the environment

At rest, [K+] inside is

greater than the [K+] outside the cell

Aldosterone functions

involved in Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion in the kidneys collecting duct, as well as a rise in blood pressure and blood volume.

Cytokines

involved in stimulating cell division

Memory cells

involved with the secondary immune response. The immune system remembers a previously encountered antigen

Tertiary structure consists of

irregular contortions from bonding between side chains

Lymph nodes may contain

lymphocytes and macrophages

Progeria

premature aging

Which of the following contains a contractile vacuole?

Paramecium, Amoeba, Hydra, and Sponges (freshwater)

A marathon runner discovers she has Althetes foot. What type of relationship exists between her and the fungal agent

Parasitism

Temporal lobe functions

Part of cerebral cortex; recognition of auditory stimuli, memory and speech.

Hippocampus

Part of limbic system Associated with learning and memory

Hypothalamus

Part of limbic system. Produces ADH, regulates homeostasis, thirst, hunger, temperature, autonomic nervous system and controls the pituitary gland.

Occipital lobe functions

Part of the cerebral cortex: visual processing

Parietal lobe functions

Part of the cerebral cortex; orientation, recognition, perception.

Frontal Lobe Functions

Part of the cerebral cortex; reasoning, planning, problem solving.

The development of individuals from unfertilized eggs is called

Parthenogenesis Male honeybees are a well-known examples of animals that develop by parthenogenesis. In parthenogenesis, new individuals are produced without fertilization

The food and air passages cross where?

Pharynx

Which buffer system works primarily in the intracellular fluids?

Phosphate buffer

Glucose 6 phosphate --> fructose 6 phosphate requires what to catalyze it?

Phosphoglucose isomerase

Axial skeleton

Portion of the skeletal system that consists of the skull, rib cage, and vertebral column

What era were invertebrates, monera, fungi?

Precambrian (Earlies) era

Convergent Evolution

Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments Example: Hummingbirds and sunbird examples

Echinodermata

Sea stars, sea urchins Tissue complexity = eumetazoa Germ layers = 3 Radial symmetry Gut openings = 2 Coelom = coelomate Embryonic development = Deuterostome

What is homeostasis?

The maintenance of stable, internal conditions within narrow limits. In many cases, stable conditions are maintained by negative feedback.

Which is the correct pathway air travels during inhalation?

The mammalian respiratory system starts from the nasal cavity and pharynx, then inhaled air passes through the larynx - trachea - bronchi - brioches - whiten end in lobed microscopic air sacs the alveoli

Release of oxytocin during lactation

When an infant begins suckling, the nerves in the breast simulate the hypothalamus and oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitary. Oxytocin causes the smooth muscle cells of the mammary gland to contract, which causes the release of milk. The infant continues suckling for more milk, which in turn triggers more oxytocin release. Since the original stimulus is amplified by the effect it causes, the release of oxytocin during lactation is an example of a positive feedback loop

Regulation of blood pH

When blood pH falls too low (and the blood becomes too acidic), buffering systems raise the blood pH back to a normal physiological range. Likewise, when blood pH becomes too high (and the blood is too basic), buffering systems lower it. This is an example of negative feedback, a form of regulation where a normal physiological range is maintained by raising the concentration of a substance when it is too low, and lowering it when it is too high

Type I Survivorship curve

describe species in which most individuals survive to middle age. After that age, mortality is high. Humans exhibit type I survivorship.

Small uncharge polar molecules and lipids can readily move through

a selectively permeable membrane

What is a negative feedback?

a sensing mechanism (A receptor) detects a change in conditions beyond specific limits. A control center or integrator (often the brain), evaluates the change and activates a second mechanism (an effector) to correct the condition.

In alcohol fermentation, which molecule is the final electron acceptor?

acetaldehyde

Schwann cells

act as insulator and are separated by gaps of unsheathed axons called nodes of Ranvier. Instead of traveling continuously down the axon, the action potential jumps from node to node, saltatory conduction, thereby speeding the propagation of the impulse.

The plasma membrane surface of B cells is characterized by specialized ___________ ______________ called ______________.

antigen receptors; antibodies

Nicolaas Tinbergen discovered

any object with a red underside initiates the same aggressive FAP.

Blood pressure e is highest in the

aorta; which is the largest artery in the body.

Pfr (or P730)

appears to reset the circadian rhythm clock. Pfr is the active form of phytochrome and appears to maintain photoperiod accuracy by resetting the circadian rhythm clock.

What are Biogeochemical cycles?

describe the flow of essential elements from the environment to living things and back to the environment.

Development

described the sequence of events that transform a fertilized egg to a multicellular organism

Reproduction

describes the production of eggs and sperm and the processes leading to fertilization

What is Ecological efficiency?

describes the proportion of energy represented at one trophic level that is transferred to the next level. The relative sizes of tiers in an energy pyramid indicate the ecological efficiency of the ecosystem.

What is Resting potential?

describes the unstimulated, polarized state of a neuron (at about -70 millivolts)

Echinoderms and chordates are considered

deuterostomes

villi and microvilli

fingerlike projections of the intestinal wall that increase its total absorptive surface area. Amino acids and sugars are absorbed into blood capillaries, while most of the fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lymphatic system.

Platyhelminthes

flatworms and are known to be acoelomate. Some of the flatworms include planarians (planarians, planar meaning flat) and tapeworms (tape is flat). Tapeworms do not have a complete digestive tract because they just absorb pre-digested food from the stomach of their hosts.

Which cell is involved in the synthesis of extracellular matrix and collagen?

fibroblast

Anthophyta

flowering plants sporophyte vascular wind or animal dispersed pollen seeds

Angiosperms

flowering plants; split into two groups: dicotyledons (dicots) and monocotyledons (monocots)

Countercurrent exchange

heat conduction from the warm blood to the returning cold blood is redirected to internal parts of the body before reaching the extremity.

Humoral immunity is responsible for the production of

immunoglobins or antibodies. the antibody will bind to the antigen and attempt to destroy it. T-lymphocytes are involved in cell-mediated immunity. T-lymphocytes however, do NOT make antibodies.

Nephrons in the Kidney

individuals nephrons in the human kidney consist of a tube and closely associated blood vessels. The nephron is strategically positioned in the kidney so that the tube winds from the outer portion of the kidney, the cortex, down though the medulla, then back up into the cortex, then back down through the medulla, draining into the center of the kidney, the renal pelvis.

Nerve gases are

inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase and cause death by respiratory paralysis

In fish for example, after enters the mouth

passes over the gills, and exits through the gill cover or OPERCULUM!

The ________ contains sperm cells plus glandular secretions from the prostate gland and seminal vesicles.

semen

Cerebelum

Coordination of movement, balance, and posture.

Which of the following behavioral patterns precede mating in most animals?

Courtship behavior

The ____________ glands add more thick mucous material to the semen.

Cowpers (bulbourethral)

Which serves as a rapidly available reserve of high energy phosphates in skeletal muscle?

Creatine phosphate provides a quick energy source for skeletal muscles to contract when they need an initial energy burst.

A certain pea plant has lavender colored flowers. An examiner is uncertain if the plant is homozygous or heterozygous. What is the most efficient way to resolve the genotype?

Cross the plant with an individual expressing the recessive trait`

Proteins are broken down into

amino acids

The monomers used to synthesize proteins are known as

amino acids

Non-steroidal hormones are made from ________ and are _______ soluble.

amino acids; water

Peptidoglycan contain

amino sugars

Aquatic animals such as bony fish excrete _____ because it is easily eliminated in water.

ammonia

Oogonium

DIPLOID stem cell in the fetal ovary that undergoes oogenesis to form primary oocytes.

Moss

DO NOT have seeds

What causes the Hemoglobin Disccoaition Curve to shift LEFT

High pH Low Temp Low CO2 Fetal Hemoglobin

Anaphase I

Homologous chromosomes separate

Foramen ovale....

Most blood in the right atria is partly oxygenated and can bypass the pulmonary circulation by entering the left aria directly from the right atria by the foramen ovale. This shunt will divert blood away from the pulmonary arteries.

Skeletal Muscle

Multinucleate, voluntary and striated. Normally does NOT undergo mitosis, contains thick myosin protein filaments that slide past the thin actin protein filaments.

chymotrypsin

One of the main pancreatic proteases; it is activated (from chymotrypsinogen) by trypsin.

A weak penetrating beam of alpha particles. Which tissue would be most affected as development proceeded.

Only the outermost gastrula layer would be damaged since a weak beam of alpha parties was used. The outermost layer is called the ectoderm. Nervous system tissue is derived from this layer and would is most likely be affected to the greatest extent.

A dog's urine accidents are cleaned up with a newspaper followed by harsh discipline. The dog hides under a bed any time the newspaper is brought out to read. The dog's behavior illustrate?

Operant conditioning

A virus lion learns to stand up on a chair and jump through a hoop to receive a tasty treat. This is an example of:

Operant conditioning

X-linked dominant disease

sometimes referred to as X-linked dominance, is a mode of genetic inheritance by which a dominant gene is carried on the X chromosome.

Auditory Communication

sounds are commonly used to communicated over long distances, through water and at night.

What is the Cell-Mediated Response?

uses mostly T cells and responds to any non self cell, including cells invaded by pathogens.

Cotyledons are formed by

using (digesting) the storage material in the endosperm. In dicots = 2 cotyledons In many monocots such as corn = endosperm, with a single cotyledon

Veins often have _______ that allow blood to flow only in one direction

valves

Blood moves in the direction of the heart because

valves in the veins prevent back-flow

A lymphatic vessel is most similar to that of an _________

vein

Oxygenated blood remains in the capillaries and RETURNS to the heart through

venues, which merge to form larger veins.

Arteries

vessels moving AWAY from the heart Arteries branch into smaller vessels, the arterioles, and then branch into the smallest vessels, the capillaries. arteries --> arteiros --> capillaries

Prophage

when a virus that infects bacteria (bacteriophage) infects a cell, generates DNA and then incorporate that DNA into the host genome, it is known as a prophage.

Xylem

Transpors H2O and minerals up the stem

Fe2+ is found in

Hemoglobin

Parietal cells

secrete HCl, intrinsic factor (B-12 absorption)

Consider the cell life cycle. Which stage is normally the longest?

G1 is normally the longest stage of the cell cycle. Organelles such as mitochondria are produced during this stage. M is the shortest stage (10 %)

The primary electron source used in the mitochondria is from

GLUCOSE!

Which process is common to both aerobic and anaerobic organisms?

GLYCOLYSIS - is the single metabolic pathway that will occur in all living cells.

SNOW DROP

Southern = DNA Northern = RNA Western = Proteins

Epididymis

Spermatozoa are mature in this coiled tube

Helical shaped bacteria

Spirilla

Sporangia are found in

Sporangia represent the spore-producing and spore-containing reproductive structures of ferns, angiosperms, gymnosperms, algae, fungi, and bryophytes. New swimming spores are released from the sporangia.

Which of the following has a similar function to the cristae of mitochondria?

Thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts. Since the mitochondria cristae houses the ETC and since the Thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts is equivalent to the ETC in function it is the most similar.

Rank the following in order of increasing size

Thymine < Adenine < Gene < Chromosome < Nucleus

The B-pleated sheet represents

a secondary structure held together by hydrogen bonds

Why is it important to concentrate the cytoplasm in one viable secondary oocyte?

assures that adequate amounts of stored food, as well as mitochondria, ribosomes, and other cytoplasmic organelles, will be available for the developing embryo. In contrast, the sperm contributes very little cytoplasm at fertilization.

Anaphase how many chromosomes are present in somatic cells?

at anaphase, the site chromatids of each chromosome are now separated from each other and have moved to opposite poles. This cell now has 92 chromosomes which is 4N

Vagina

at birth, the fetus passes through the cervix (an opening in the uterus), through the vagina and out of the body.

Pr accumulates at night

at night the levels of Pfr drop. This is because there is no sunlight to make the conversion from Pr to Prf.

Appendix

at the beginning of the large intestine, there is a short branch to a dead-end pouch which bears a fingerlike projection called the appendix. Other than a possible role in the immune response, the appendix is significant only when it becomes inflamed, causing appendicitis.

Where are feces stored?

at the end of the large intestine, in the rectum and excreted through the anus. Various harmless bacteria live in the large intestine, including some that produce vitamin K, which is absorbed through the intestinal wall.

In young seedling where does growth occur?

at the tips of roots and shoots called APICAL MERISTEMS these areas are actively dividing or MERISTEMATIC, cells. This is called primary growth

Tendons

attach muscles to bone

Which of the following is true of Tay-Sach's disease?

autosomal recessive disease in which a lysosomal enzyme defect occurs and causes lipid buildup in brain cells. this genetic disease is common among infants of Erupoean-Jewish decent. This disease is fatal in the first five years of human life. During the disesae, mental retardation, blindness, and eventually death.

Rod shaped bacteria

bacilli

What is an example of countercurrent exchange in gills?

between the opposing movements of water and the underlying blood through blood vessels maxims the diffusion of O2 into the blood and Co2 into the water.

Monocots

leaves have parallel views stem vascular bundles are scattered

Oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins goes in the

left atria of the heart

What are Teritary consumers?

or secondary carnivores, eat the secondary consumers.

Echniodermata

phylum of the animal kingdom. Echinoderms are hetertophic, but not microscopic. Do not contain cell walls. Echinoderms include sea urchins and sea stars. They posses bilateral symmetry when young, but are radially symmetrical in their adult form.

Coniferophyta

pines, firs, spruces, junipers, redwoods, cedars and others. Make up gymnosperms

The plants and animals that are first to colonize a newly exposed habitat are called _______ _________.

pioneer species: they are typically opportunistic, r-selected species that have good dispersal capabilities, are fast growing, and produce many progeny rapidly. Many pioneer species can tolerate harsh conditions such as intense sunlight, shifting sand, rocky substrate, arid climates, or nutrient deficient soil.

ovary + style + stigma =

pistil

Geotropism

plant growth in response to gravity

Phototropism

plant growth in response to light

Tracheophytes

plants lacking vascular tissue, these include simple plants

A single gene sometimes affects many traits in an organism. This is called

plieotrophy

Kinesis

plural kineses, is an undirected change in speed of an animals movement in response to stimulus. the animal slows down in a favorable environment or speeds up in an unfavorable environment. As a result, the animal remains longer in favorable environments. Example: When a log or rock is lifted animals will scurry about. These movements are kineses in response to light, touch, air temperature, or other stimuli recognized as unfavorable.

Taxis

plural taxes, is a directed movement in response to a stimulus. Movement is directed either TOWARD or AWAY from the stimulus. Movement towards light is called PHOTOTAXIS. Example: Moths move toward lights at night Sharks move toward food when food odors reach them by diffusion or bulk flow (ocean currents) Female mosquitos find mammals (on which they feed) by moving toward CO2 and lactic acid.

Origin

point of attachment of muscles to a stationary bone

Insertion

point of attachment of muscles to the moveable end of the bone.

At rest a neuron is

polarized the inside of the neuron is more negative than the outside the intracellular concentration of K+ is greater than Na+

Proteins are

polymers of amino acids

A _____________ is a group of individuals all of the same species living in the same area.

population. This there are populations of humans, populations of black oaks, and populations of bacteria S. mutans

Chemoautotrophs

use energy obtained from inorganic substances (As in chemosynthesis)

Photoautotrophs

use light every ( as in photosynthesis)

How many turns of the calvin cycle are required to produce one molecule of glucose?

6

In a typical eukaryotic cell the pH is usually around

7.4

In the normal adult, there are how many premolars?

8

pH in the small intestine works best in what pH

8

Flagella and cilia have a ____________ arrangement of microtubues

9+2

Phenotypic Ratio of F2 generation

9:3:3:1 1:2:1

What is Camouflage?

?aka cryptic coloration is any color, pattern, shape, or behavior that enables an animal to blend in with its surroundings. Both prey and predator benefit from camouflage.

Hemoglobin Dissociation curves: Two things we should know

A LEFT shifted curve is representative of hemoglobin binding more tightly to oxygen, which means it does not release it as easily to the body. A RIGHT shifted curve is representative of hemoglobin binding more loosely to oxygen, meaning that it is easier to release the oxygen to the tissues.

Spermatogonium

A DIPLOID cell that can undergo mitosis to form more spermatogonium, and can also be triggered to undergo meiosis to form sperm.

Secondary oocyte

A HAPLOID cell resulting from the first meiotic division of oogenesi (not that the cytoplasmic division in this case is unequal, producing one large cell with almost all of they cytoplasm - the secondary oocyte- and one smaller cell with virtually no cytoplasm - the first polar body.). The secondary oocyte (along with some follicular cells) is released from the ovary during ovulation.

Epithelial tissue

A body tissue that covers the surfaces of the body, inside and out

Electroporation

A brief pulse of high voltage electricity in a solution of bacteria will force them to open their pores and allow for plasmids to enter the bacteria as well. This process is known as electroporation. Notice the root words "electro-" and ""-poration". You can guess it has something to do with electricity and pores in the membrane.

Indeterminate cleavages

A cleavage is indeterminate if it produces blastomeres that, if separated, can individually complete normal development.

Multiple Alleles

A gene that has more than two alleles

Which of the following invertebrates exhibit a hydrostatic skeleton?

A hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment. This is the main type of skeleton in most cnidarians, flatworms (planarians), nematodes, annelids, and snails.

Gymnosperms

A plant that produces seeds that are exposed rather than seeds enclosed in fruits make se

Superior Vena Cava

A vein that is the second largest vein in the human body and returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from the upper half of the body.

Pleiotropy

A single gene having multiple effects on an individuals phenotype

From a fragment of DNA, which of the following molecules contains the least amount of nucleotides?

A single strand of cDNA from the original DNA

Which is most involved in the SLOW BLOCK to POLYSPERMY in the sea urchin?

A sperm-proof fertilization membrane is formed when the cortical granules in the egg fuse with the plasma membrane. As enzymes are released, biochemical reactions harden the vitelline layer and allow no further sperm from entraining. This cortical reaction is referred to as a Slow block to Polyspermy." Th acrosomal reaction is the fast block, in which an electrical response occurs to change the membrane potential to prevent polyspermy.

Pluripotent

A stem cell that can differentiate into any of the three germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm. They can give rise to any cell type, BUT they cannot develop an entire organism because they cannot develop extra embryonic tissue, like the placenta.

Inferior Vena Cava

A vein that is the largest vein in the human body and returns blood to the right atrium of the heart from bodily parts below the diaphragm.

What is an antigen?

An antigen represents an antibody generating foreign macromolecule. Antigens include bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa and parasites such as worms.

Facts about VACCINES

An attenuated vaccine contains a version of the living microbe that has been weakened and modified in the lab. However, the ability to induce protective immunity remained as virulence is lost.

Which organism lacks a notochord during development?

An earthworm. The earthworm is an invertebrate and does not ever have a notochord. Profiera, Cnidarian, Platyhelminthes, Nematodes, and Annelids all lack a notochord.

Kinase

An enzyme that transfers phosphate ions from one molecule to another

Tundra

An extremely cold, dry biome.

Fungi

An organism that absorbs nutrients from the environment.

Sister chromatid separation occurs in

Anaphase

Monoclonal antibodies

B-lymphocytes fused with myeloma cells

When stomata are OPEN

CO2 can enter the leaf, but the plant risks desiccation from excessive transpiration.

What is the most recent era?

Cenozoic era.

An organism belonging to a _______ species will be distinctly male or female

Dioecious species cannot self-fertilize; they are a species in which each individual is distinctly male or female. Mammals and most reptiles are dioecious. However, the term is used manly for plant species.

Dumb Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Sand

Domain, Kingdom, Phyla, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Most animals use aggression as a way to establish their status. An alpha chicken in a farmyard will chase and peck other chickens to establish a pecking order. This is an example of:

Dominance hierarchy

Release of oxytocin during childbirth

During childbirth, uterine contractions stimulate the release of oxytocin. In response to the increased oxytocin, uterine contractions are increased even further, which leads to more oxytocin release. Since the original stimulus is AMPLIFIED by the effect it causes, release of oxytocin during childbirth is an example of a positive feedback loop

Achondroplasia

Dwarfism

Animals can be loosely grouped into two groups based upon how body temperature is maintained. What are the two groups?

Ectotherms and Endotherms

"Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" refers to

Embryonic stages of development of an organism repeat the evolutionary history of the species. This notion has NOT been accepted in modern evolutionary theory. Embryos do not pass through stages that resemble adult ancestors.

Which hormone inhibits peristalsis and acid secretion by the stomach?

Enterogastrone is release day the duodenum to inhibit peristalsis and acid secretion by the stomach.

What does the Adrenal Medulla make?

Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Why does the endometrium thicken?

Estrogen and progesterone stimulate the development of the endometrium, inside lining of the uterus. It thickens with nutrient-rich tissue and blood vessels in preparation for the implantation of a fertilized egg.

ovulation phase

Estrogen levels increase, causing follicle to rupture and ovulation occurs. Egg is released into Fallopian tubes and stalled in metaphase of meiosis II. Cilia push cell toward uterus.

What are the products of the light-dependent reactions in photosynthesis?

Explanation: The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplast. Here, cyclic photophosphorylation produces ATP though an electron transport chain and noncylci phophophorylation produces NADPH. Water is split during these reactions, releasing O2. These products along with CO2 and rubisco, will become the reactants in the light-indpenent reactions of photosynthesis, which will produce glucose, NADP+ and ADP.

_______ are unique around land plants. They have two independent living structures within their life-cycle: the sporophyte and the gametophyte

Ferns; they are unique because they are not dependent on one another

The light energy from the sun is the ultimate source of energy from the vast majority of organisms on planet earth. This energy is harvested and converted into various forms. Which law of thermodynamics is illustrated?

First Law energy can neither be created nor destroyed; but only changed in form.

An organism has the following genotype: HhGgLLKk. How many different types of gametes could be produced?

First find the number of Heterozygotes. Once you have that number considered it n. Then do 2^n to find the number of gametes produced. In this case there are Three heterozygotes H, G, K therefore 2^3= 8

What is a Gastrula?

Formulation of the gastrula, or gastrulation, occurs when a group of cells invaginate (move inward) into the blastula, forming a two-layered embryo with an opening from the outside into a center cavity.

Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in the vertebrate differ in that

Four functional spermatozoa are produced in spermatogenesis, heras oogenesis produces one functional ovum

Fungi reproduce asexually by various means such as

Fragmentation - the breaking up of the hyphae Budding - the pinching off of a small hyphen outgrowth Asexual spores

What is the function of yellow bone marrow?

Functions as fat storage.

What happens to the endometrium if implantation occurs?

If implantation occurs, the implanted embryo secrets HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN (HCG) to sustain the corpus luteum. As a result, the corpus luteum will continue to produce estrogen and progesterone to maintain the endometrium. W/O HCG, menstruation would begin and the embryo would abort. Pregnancy tests check for the presence of HCG in the urine. Later in development, HCG is replaced by progesterone secreted by the placenta. In this way, the embryo directly maintains the pregnancy.

Which antibody class can significantly cross the human placenta?

IgG is the class of antibody that is found in the highest concentration in the blood, as we'll as the only one that can cross the human placenta.

What is the third line of defense?

Immune Response

Antibodies

Immunoglobulin proteins

Cuticle

In aerial potions of the plant, the epidermal cells secrete a way protective substance, the cuticle.

Radial and spiral cleavages

In deuterosomes, early cleavages are radial, forming cells at the animal and vegetal poles that are aligned together, the top cells directly above the bottom cells. In protostomes, cleavages are spiral, forming cells on top that are shifted with respect to those below them.

What is an Action potential?

In response to a stimulus, gated ion channels in the membrane suddenly open an permit the Na+ on the outside to rush into the cell. All-or-nothing event: when the stimulus fails to produce a depolarization that exceeds the threshold value, no action potential results, but when threshold potential is exceeded, complete depolarization.

Facts about Sickle Cell Anemia

In sickle cell anemia, a mutation occurs on the beta chain; a Glutamic acid reside is replaced by a Valine. Electrophoresis gel patterns would be different between HbA and HbS. HbA is ore negative than HbS, since it contained a Glutamic acid reside. Patients with sickle cell disease are homozygous for the sickle cell gene, while patients with sickle cell trait are heterozygous and have both kinds of hemoglobin in approximately equal mounts. Sickling causes pain, cell fragility, and even organ failure. In the sickle cell trait (heterozygous), interestingly, the allele confers a small but significant malaria resistance.

Bowman's capsule

In the kidney system, blood enters from an afferent arteriole into the glomerulus, where pressure forces water and solutes through the capillary walls into the Bowman's capsule like a sieve. small particles can be pushed through the capillary walls, but red blood cells and proteins cannot pass through and remain in the blood. The filtrate in the Bowman's capsule will then travel through the nephron, where the majority of salts, water and glucose will be reabsorbed.

Kangaroo rat kidneys are known to have very long loops of Henle. How does this adaptation produce mor concentrated urine?

Increase osmolarity gradient from cortex to medulla.

Medulla

Maintains vital body functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Penis

Male reproductive organ

Which of the following has a FOUR chambered heart?

Mammals and birds have four chambered hearts

Posterior Pituitary aka

Master Gland

Platelets are derived from...

Megakaryocytes. Platelets paris from large, multinucleate cells in the red marrow.

What era are dinosaurs found in?

Mesozoic era.

What is an example of a STRICT anaerobe?

Methanogens are strictly anaerobes, they are poisoned by oxygen. They convert H2 and CO2 into methane. These organisms can be found in the gut of elephants, cows and other ruminants. The Methanogens live in swamps and marshes.

Which ion is outside the neuron?

Na+ (Sodium)

Organs are constructed from which four basic tissue types?

Nervous, Epithelium, Muscle and Connective Tissue

What is the Nitrogen Cycle?

Nitrogen is required for the manufacture of all amino acids and nucleic acids. Reservoirs: atmosphere (N2); soil (NH4+ or ammonium, NO2- or nitrite, NO3- or nitrate) Assimilation: plants absorb nitrogen either as NO3- or as NH4+; animals obtain nitrogen by eating plants or other animals. The stages in the assimilation of nitrogen are as follows: Nitrogen fixation and Nitrification Release: denitrifying bacteria convert NO3- back to N2 (denitrication); detrivorous bacteria convert organic compounds back to NH4+ (ammonification); animals secrete NH4+ (or NH3), urea, or uric acid.

_________ froms a major waste product in animals.

Nitrogen. When amino acids and nucleic acids are broken down, they release toxic ammonia (NH3). To rid the body of this toxin, several mechanism have evolved, each appropriate to the habitat or survival of the animal.

Introns

Noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding sequences.

Autotrophs

Organisms that are able to make their own food

Stigma

Receives pollen

Wha is the first proof of a new species?

Reproductive Isolation

Anaerobic respiration

Respiration that does not require oxygen

Reverse transcriptase is found in which of the following?

Retrovirus

Which fungal pathogen would most likely be involved in food spoilage?

Rhizopus The black bread mold Rhizopus stolonifer is a spoiler of bed goods. Despite the addition of food preservatives, black bread mold still is a major problem with processed food.

Which organelle is present in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

Ribosome

MYOGLOBIN exists as a

SINGLE chain

Companion cells

Sieve tubes are associated with companion cells, living parenchyma cells that lie adjacent to each sieve tube member. Companion cells, connected to adjacent sieve tube members by thin tubes of cytoplasm called PLASMODESMATA, maintain physiological support to the nuclei-lacking sieve tube members.

Smooth muscle

Single nucleated, found in walls of urinary bladder, digestive system, uterus, blood vessels, involuntary, non-striated, actin and myosin are present, but not organized into sarcomeres (like seen in skeletal muscle.

Complete Dominance

Situation in which one allele completely dominates over the other

Incomplete Dominance

Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele

Autosomal recessive pedigree

Skips a generation! Think grandmother to granddaughter

What is resource partitioning?

Some species coexist in spite of apparent competition for the same resources. Close study, however, reveals that they occupy slightly different niches. By pursuing slightly different resources or securing their resources in slightly different ways, individuals minimize competition and maximize success. Dividing up the resources in this manner is called resource partitioning. i.e. five species of warmers coexist in spruce trees by feeding on insects in different regions of the tree and by using different feeding behaviors to obtain insects.

A person has been exposed to HIV and immediately gets tested. The result is negative. What could be the most likely reason for this false negative?

Soon after exposure to HIV, the body develops antibodies to set up an attack against the invading virus. This process is called SEROCONVERSION generally takes place within a few weeks of initial infection and often is accompanied by flu-like symptoms, rash, swollen glands, and fever.

The nucleolus reappears in

Telophase

Acid rain

The burning of fossil fuels (such as coal) and other industrial processes release into the air pollutants that contain sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. When these substances react with water vapor, they produce sul- furic acid and nitric acid. When these acids return to the surface of the earth (with rain or snow), they kill plants and animals in lakes and rivers and on land.

Global climate change

The burning of fossil fuels and forests increases CO2 in the atmosphere. Increases in CO2 cause more heat to be trapped in the earth's atmosphere. As a result, global temperatures are rising. Warmer temper- atures could raise sea levels (by melting more ice) and decrease agriculture output (by affecting weather patterns).

Secondary protein structure is characterized by

The coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone

Melanin is a pigment produced by specialized cells called melanocytes. In which layer would melanocytes most likely to be found?

The deepest layer of epidermis is called STRATUM GERMINATIVE. This layer contains the melanocytes

follicular phase

The first phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a follicle (an oocyte and its surroudning cells) enlarges and matures. This phase is under the control of FSH from the anterior pituitary, and typically lasts from day 1 to day 14 of the menstrual cycle. The follicle secretes estrogen during this time period.

Cochlea

The fluid-filled, coiled tunnel in the inner ear that contains the receptors for hearing.

Hexokinase

The enzymes that catalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate in the first step of glycolysis. This is one of the ain regulatory steps of this pathway. Hexokinase is feedback-inhibited by glucose-6-P.

Phylogeny

The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species

Scanning electron microscopi (SEM)

The preparation of a sample for SEM requires it to be dried and coated, which results in death. SEM is useful for looking at the surface of 3d objects with high resolution

Which of the following best describes gene regulation and expression in a repressible system?

The repressor -corepressor binds to the operator and represses enzyme synthesis In a constant state of transcription with a corepressor

Which of the following best describes gene regulation and expression in an inducible system?

The repressor binds to the operator, forming a barrier that prevents genes from being transcribed. In the inducible system a specific small molecule, called an inducer, inactivates the repressor (which is naturally an active protein) in gene regulation.

What is the role of microvilli and villi in the small intestine?

The small intestine has a very large surface area, about 300 m^2. The villi contain capillaries and lacteals and are covered with microscopic "hairs" called microvilli that further increase surface area and aids in food adsorption.

Sodium/Potassium Pump

The sodium/potassium pump is actually an integral protein. This pump actively pumps 3Na+ OUT of a cell and 2K+ INTO a cell against their gradients, thus utilizing ATP. IF a drug such as oubain or digitalis is given, the pump will stop and Na+ will build up inside the cell.

Down Syndrome

We see Aneuploidy this chromosomes number is different from the normal species number. An extra #21 chromosome is noted. This is due to nondisjunction. Here we see a failure of the chromosomes to separate. We see 47 chromosomes.

What is a realized niche?

When competitors are present, however, one of both species may be able to coexist by occupying their realized niches, that part of their existence where niche overlap is absent, that is where they do not compete for the same resources.

Estrogen

While rising levels of estrogen do stimulate the hypothalamus to produce an LH surge (which then triggers ovulation), estrogen itself is not directly responsible for ovulation. In females, estrogen plays an important role in the menstrual cycle and in the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Facts about Neurons

Within a neuron, the principle cation is potassium (K+) and outside the neuron the principle cation is sodium (NA+) There is a blanked rest potential of about -70 mV inside the cell due to large organic molecules creating a membrane potential

Klinefelter syndrome

XXY - trisomy of sex chromosomes 44 autosomes + XXY These individuals will be sterile, feminine males.

Y-linked recessive

Y-linked disorders such as male cause infertility, are passed on from father to son on their Y chromosomes. No female descendants can ever have a gene or be a carrier.

What is a Polypeptide?

a protein

Connective tissue

bone, cartilage, blood

Dicots

broad leaves i.e. shrubs

Examples of non-steroidal hormones

epinephrine and norepinephrine

Myoglobin

has a single chain

Fresh water biomes

include ponds, lakes, streams, and rivers

Abscisic acid

inhibits growth

A true predator...

kils and eats another animal

Snails have

open circulatory systems

the main solute transported by the phloem is

sucrose

Endocytosis requires ATP

true; similar to active transport

Thermophiles

"heat lovers" live in hot (60 to 80 degrees C) environments such as hot springs or geysers. Most are sulfur base chemoautotrophs. Other extremophiles live in high acid environments, high base environments, or under high pressures.

There is a balanced rest potential of about

-70 mV inside the cell due to large organic molecules (proteins and amino acids) creating a membrane potential

p + q = p = q = p^2 = q^2 = 2pq =

1 gene frequency of dominant allele gene frequency of recessive allele frequency of homozygous dominants in pop. frequency of homozygous recessives in pop. frequency of heterozygotes.

Three things you NEED to know about light reactions of photosynthesis

1. ATP Produced 2. Water is Oxidized 3. NADP+ is Reduced

Sliding-filament model

1. ATP binds to a myosin head and forms ADP + Pi 2. Ca2+ exposes the binding sites to the actin filaments 3. Cross bridges between myosin heads and actin filaments form. 4. ADP and Pi are released and sliding motion of actin results. 5. ATP causes the cross bridges to unbind.

Muscle contraction is stimulated through the following steps:

1. Action potential generates release of acetylcholine 2. Action potential is generated on sarcolemma and throughout the T-tubules. 3. Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+ 4. Myosin cross bridges form.

Factors contributing to biotic potential of a species

1. Age at reproductive maturity 2. Clutch size (number of offspring produced at each reproductive event) 3. Frequency of reproduction 4. Reproductive lifetime 5. Survivorship of offspring to reproductive maturity.

What are the differs kinds of social behavior?

1. Agnostic behavior 2. Dominance hierarchies 3. Territoriality 4. Altruistic behavior

Facts about FISH

1. All fish have gills 2. Modern fish includes Agnatha, Chondrichthyes, and Osteichthyes. 3. These cold blooded creatures can be found in nearly all aquatic environments. (recently one fish called the Opah fish has been found to be warm blooded). 4. At 32,000 species, fish exhibit the greatest specie diversity, are than any other vertebrates

Facts about Sexual Reproduction in PLants

1. All plants exhibit alternations of generations 2. The diploid sporophyte generation produces haploid spores 3. Spores are cells that prevent the loss of water 4. Meristems provide a source of cells that can develop into an adult plant

Antibodies have the following properties:

1. Antibodies are proteins 2. Each antibody is specific to a particular antigen 3. Five classes of antibodies (or IMMUNOGLOBULINS)- IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM 4. Each class of antibodies is a variation of a basic Y-shaped protein- consists of constant regions and variable regions. The variable regions are sequences of amino acids that differ among antibodies and give them specificity to antigens. 5. Antibodies inactivate antigens by binding to them. Inactivation is followed by macrophage phagocytosis. In addition, by bidding to surface antigens of non self cells, antibodies stimulate complement proteins to bring about the lysis of pathogens.

What are the two hormones that influence osmoregulation by regulating the concentration of salts in the urine?

1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 2. Aldosterone

Facts about action potentials

1. As stimulus intensity increases, the number of action potentials increase 2. As stimulus intensity increases, the amplitude of the action potential remains constant 3. Action potentials move faster along fibers that are thick 4. As stimulus intensity is increased, speed is constant

What are the different kinds of lymphocytes?

1. B-cells 2. T-cells

Variations in gastrulation in humans and most other mammals.

1. Blastocyst 2. Trophoblast 3. Embryonic disc

Bird: Variations

1. Blastodisc 2. Primitive Streak

Different ways animals communicate?

1. Chemical 2. Visual 3. Auditory 4. Tactile

Herds, flocks, and schools provide several advantages such as:

1. Concealment. Most individuals in the flock are hidden from view 2. Vigilance. In a group, individuals can trade off foraging and watching predators. Further, it is easier to detect predators if many individuals are watching. 3. Defense. A group of individuals can shield their young or mob their predator.

Examples of important excretory mechanisms are as follows:

1. Contractile vacuoles 2. Flame cells (protonephridia) 3. Nephridia 4. Malpighian tubules 5. Kidney

How do animals regulate their body temperatures? By employing the following mechanisms:

1. Cooling by evaporation 2. Warming by metabolism 3. Adjusting surface area to regulate temperature

What are two second messengers?

1. Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is produced from ATP. Cyclic AMP, in turn, triggers an enzyme that generates specific cellular changes. 2. Inositol triphosphate (IP3) is produced from membrane phospholipid, IP3, in turn, triggers the release of Ca2+ from the ER, which in turn, activates enzymes that generate cellular changes.

The following gas exchange mechanism are found in animals:

1. Direct with environment 2. Gills 3. Trachea 4. Lungs

What are some characteristics of early cleavages follow:

1. Embryo polarity 2. Polar and equatorial cleavages 3. Radial and spiral cleavages 4. Indeterminate and determinate cleavages

Two general patterns of population growth are:

1. Exponential growth 2. Logistic growth

The operation of the human nephron consists of three processes:

1. Filtration 2. Secretion 3. Reabsorption

Ovarian Cycle consists of three phases:

1. Follicular phase 2. Ovulation 3. Luteal Phase

Three hormones involved in the digestive process:

1. Gastrin 2. Secretin 3. Cholecystokinin

Frog ( an amphibian)

1. Gray Crescent 2. Gastrulation 3. Yolk

Plant tissues form three distinct major groups

1. Ground tissues, 2. Dermal Tissue, an 3 Vascular Tissue

What are some foraging behaviors?

1. Herds, flocks, and schools 2. Packs 3. Search images

When skin is damaged for example and bacteria or other organisms enter the body the following events occur:

1. Histamine is secreted by BASOPHILS, WBC's found in connective tissue 2. Vasodilation, stimulated by histamine, increases blood supply to the damaged area and allows for easier movement of WBC's through the blood vessel walls (increases redness, temperature and swelling/fever). 3. Phagocytes, attracted to the injury by chemical gradients of complement, arrive and engulf pathogens and damaged cells. 4. Complement helps phagocytes engulf foreign cells, stimulate basophils to release histamine, and help lyse foreign cells.

The following list outlines the major storage location (reservoirs) for essential elements, the processes through which each element incorporates into terrestrial plants and animals (assimilation) and the processes through which each elements returns to the environment (release)

1. Hydrologic cycle 2. Carbon cycle 3. Nitrogen cycle 4. Phosphorus cycle

What makes exponential growth possible?

1. Increases in food supply 2. Reduction in disease 3. Reduction in human wastes 4. Expansion of habitat

Factors that influence development

1. Influence of the egg cytoplasm 2. Embryonic Induction 3. Homeotic genes

What are the three kinds of movements commonly found among animals?

1. Kinesis 2. Taxis 3. Migration

Flowering plants can be divided into three groups

1. Long day plants ---> plants flower in the spring and early summer when daylight is INCREASING. 2. Short day plants ---> flower in late summer and early fall when daylight is DECREASING 3. Day neutral --> plants do not flower in response to daylight changes. Some other cues, such as temperature or water, triggers flowering.

What are the four distinct altitudinal zones?

1. Lowlands 2. Montane 3. Sub-alpine 4. Alpine These are ordered above according to elevation. These zones depend on factors such as soil composition, elevation, humidity and temperature.

What are some major groups of archaea follow:

1. Methanogens 2. Extremophiles

Some evidence that points towards the endosymbiotic theory includes:

1. Mitochondria and chloroplasts both have their own DNA separate from the rest of the cell, and this DNA is circular and without any proteins, much like prokaryotes. 2. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have different ribosomes that are more similar to prokaryotes than eukaryotes 3. Mitochondria and chloroplasts reproduce independently of the host cell by a process that is similar to binary fission, used by prokaryotes. 4. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have a double membrane, which could have resulted from one prokaryote engulfing the other prokaryote in an endocytosis fashion, forming a vesicle. 5. The thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts resemble the photosynthetic membranes of cyanobacteria, which are autotrophic bacteria.

Gas Exchange in Humans occurs in the following ways:

1. Nose, pharynx, larynx 2. Trachea 3. Bronchi, bronchioles 4. Alveolus 5. Diffusion between alveolar chambers and blood 6. Bulk flow of O2 7. Diffusion between blood and cells 8. Bulk flow of CO2 9. Bulk flow of air into and out of the lungs (mechanics of respiration) 10. Control of respiration

Three mechanisms are involved in the movement of water and dissolved minerals in plants

1. Osmosis 2. Capillary Action 3. Cohesion-tension theory

Three basic types of ground tissues include

1. Parenchyma cells 2. Collenchyma cells 3. Sclerenchyma cells

What is the second line of defense?

1. Phagocytes 2. Complement 3. Interferons 4. Inflammatory response

All of the following are primary functions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

1. Phospholipid synthesis 2. Steroid synthesis 3. Sex hormone synthesis 4. Detoxification of drugs

The following stages occur during sexual reproduction

1. Plasmogamy 2. Karyogamy 3. Meiosis

What are the two kinds of succession?

1. Primary succession 2. Secondary succession

Blood contains....

1. RBC's or erythrocytes, 2. WBC's or leukocytes 3. Platelets 4. Plasma

Mitosis makes up _______% of the cell cycle

10%

What are examples of coevolution?

1. Secondary compounds 2. Camouflage 3. Aposematic Coloration (or warning coloration) 4. Mimicry 5. Pollination

Neurons can be classified into three general groups by their functions. Those three groups are:

1. Sensory or afferent neurons 2. Motor neurons or efferent neurons 3. Association or interneuron neurons.

What are the three kinds of muscles in humans and other vertebrates?

1. Skeletal muscle 2. Smooth muscle 3. Cardiac muscle

Two kinds of asexual spores

1. Sproangiospores - are produced in saclike capsules called sporangia that are each borne on a stake called sporangiophore 2 Condidia - are formed at the tips of specialized hyphae, not enclosed inside sacs. Hyphae bearing candid are called conidiophores.

Some of the changes induced by resident species are listed below:

1. Substrate texture: may change from solid rock, to sand, to fertile soil, as rock erodes and the decomposition of plants and animals occurs. 2. Soil pH may decrease due to the decomposition of certain organic matter, such as acidic leaves. 3. Soil water potential, or the ability of the soil to retain water, changes as the soil texture changes. 4. Light availability may change from full sunlight to partly shady, to near darkness as trees become established. 5. Crowding, which increases with population growth, may be unsuitable to certain species.

Pressure flow hypothesis

1. Sugars enter sieve tube members 2. Water enters sieve tube members 3. Pressure in sieve tube members at the source moves water and sugars to sieve tube members at the sink through sieve tubes 4. Pressure is reduced in sieve tube members at the ink as sugars are remove fro utilization by nearby cells

When a non self cell binds to a T cell, the T cell undergoes clonal selection, intimating the following chain of events:

1. T cells produce cytotoxic T cells --> these cells destroy non self cells 2. T cells produce helper T cells 3. Helper T cells bind to macrophages 4. Helper T cells produce interleukins to stimulate a proliferation of T cells and B cells.

Archaea are similar to eukaryotes in the following respects

1. The DNA of both archaea and eukaryotes are associated with histone proteins. Bacterial DNA is not. 2. Ribosome activity in both trachea an eukaryotes is NOT inhibited by the antibiotics streptomycin and chloramphenicol. In bacteria, ribosome activity is inhibited by these antibiotics.

How are self and non-self cells are distinguished?

1. The MHC markers on the plasma membrane of cells distinguish between self and non self cells. 2. When a body is invaded by a virus, by a foreign cell, or by any antigen, the body cell displays a combination of self and non self markers. T cells interpret this aberrant display of markers as non self. Examples: Cancer cells or tissue transplant cells, or other cells that display aberrant markers, are recognized as non self cells by T-cells.

Facts about PREGNANCY?

1. The first trimester is the main period in which organs develop. 2. Because of rapid organ development, the embryo is most sensitive to drugs and radiation which can cause birth defects. 3. The embryo is called a fetus at about 8 weeks. 4. During the second trimester, the fetus is very active and the uterus will grow enough for pregnancy to be noticeable. 5. The final growth around 1.6 feet and 7 lbs may occur during the final (third) trimester.

Facts about LUNGS

1. The left lung has 2 lobes 2. The right lung has 3 lobes 3. The right lung is larger than the left lung 4. The left lung is somewhat smaller than the right lung and has a cardiac notch to allow room for the heart and its vasculature.

Prokaryotic cells (prokaryotes) have the follow characteristics

1. There is a single chromosome consisting of a short, circular DNA molecule. Histone proteins may or may not be present. In addition, some cells contain plasmids, smaller circular DNA molecules, in addition to the major chromosome. 2. There is no nucleus 3. There are no organelles, although various membranes might serve similar functions 4. Flagella, when present, consist of the globular protein flagellin.

Facts about mammals

1. They include horses, elephants, pigs, deer, and politicians 2. Warm blooded animals, whose young are nourished by milk from mammary glands 3. They have four chambered hearts 4. They are endotherms

The following features are associated with the gastrula:

1. Three germ layers 2. Archenteron 3. Blastopore.

Cells are organized in the following ways

1. Tissues 2. Organ 3. Organ systems

There are two kinds of xylem cells

1. Tracheids and Vessel elements.

The embryo consists of the following parts:

1. epicotyl 2. Plumule 3. Hypocotyl 4. Radicle 5. Coleoptile

Six fungus groups are described

1. Zygomycota 2. Glomeromycota 3. Ascomycota 4. Basidiomycota 5. Deuteromycota 6. Lichens

Facts about Insulin

1. a hormone that promotes the entry of glucose and some amino acids into muscle and fat cells 2. lowers the level of blood glucose 3. derived from pro-insulin and pre-proinsulin 4. insulin acts by binding to receptors located in the plasma membrane of target cells.

Facts about hormones

1. are INTERcellular messengers produced by ductless glands 2. can be steroid or peptide derived 3. may bind directly to receptors in the nucleus 4. when a steroid binds to a nuclear receptor, we see an alteration of the rate in which specific genes are transcribed and translated int proteins

Killer T cells

1. are involved in destroying cancer cells 2. directly kills cells having antigen on their surface 3. develops in the thymus glands and do not release antibodies 4. killer T-cells use the protein perforin to lyse their targets HELPER T CELLS are the specific target for the virus that causes HIV

Common groups of bacteria

1. cyanobacteria 2. chemosynthetic bacteria 3. nitrogen-fixing bacteria 4. spirochetes

Major plant adaptations for survival on land

1. except for primitive bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts), the dominant generation of all plants is the DIPLOID sporophyte generation. 2. all plants possess a CUTICLE a waxy covering aerial parts that reduces desiccation 3. the development of a vascular system - xylem and phloem 4. sperm packaged as pollen are adapted for delivery by wind or animals 5. gametophytes are enclosed inside an ovary 6. Deciduous that is they shed their leaves to minimize water loss during slow growing seasons.

A child exhibiting aneuploidy experiences a genetic chromosomal abnormality as a result of

1. failure of homologous chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis I 2. failure of sister chromatids to separate properly during meiosis II

Pterophyta

1. ferns 2. horsetails 3. whisk ferns

Human Impact on the Biosphere

1. global climate change. 2. Ozone depletion 3. Acid rain 4. Desertification 5. Deforestation 6. Pollution 7. Reduction in species diversity

Facts about Cephalopods

1. have tentacles to capture prey 2. include the squid; the largest known invertebrate 3. highly active and require a lot of Oxygen 4. contain a well developed nervous system 5. giant nerve fibers connect the brain with muscles use

Facts about Progesterone

1. is a steroid hormone which is likely to assist sperm motility 2. cholesterol is a precursor to progesterone 3. inhibits lactation during pregnancy 4. the fall in progesterone levels following delivery is one of the factors allowing milk production

Acceptable definition of a species includes the following concepts:

1. it is a member of a population of organisms 2. all members of the population share a common gene pool 3. the members are capable of interbreeding 4. they are reproductively isolated from the other species

Surfactants

1. reduces surface tension and allow the fetus to breathe easier 2. they are substances present in the alveoli of the lungs 3. without adequate quantities of surfactant, an infant would have difficulty breathing

What are the three lines of defense?

1. skin and mucous membranes 2. Phagocytes, Complement, Interferons, Inflammatory response 3. Immune Response

Which of the following is the correct sequence of events in the origin of life?

1. synthesis of organic monomers 2. synthesis of organic polymers 3. formation of protobionts first accumulation of monomers from organic molecules. second the joining of these monomers to create polymers including proteins and nucleic acids. thirdly, the aggregation of abiotically produced molecules into droplets, called protobionts, that had chemical characteritists different from their surroundings.

Facts about EarthWorms

1. the amount of salt is critical to an earthworms survival. 2. The skin of an earthworm secretes mucous which keeps the skin moist. 3. Moist skin is needed for gas exchange, since earthworms have no respiratory organs. 4. Salt can destroy the sensitive skin of the earthworm and cause death.

What are the two methods by which hormones are known to trigger activities in target cells?

1. the hormone (steroid) diffuses through the plasma membrane, through cytoplasm an into the nucleus. Hormone binds to a receptor protein in the nucleus, receptor protein, in turn, activates a portion of the DNA that turns on specific genes. 2. the hormone (peptide) binds to a receptor protein on the plasma membrane of the cell (receptor mediated endocytosis). The receptor protein, in turn, stimulates the production of second messenger

All these are steps in genetic engineering: insert the gene, we need to

1. use the mRNA of the eukaryotic gene and reverse transcriptase to produce our cDNA, which we will insert into the prokaryote. 2. Use restriction enzymes to cut up the prokatyoe plasmid and insert out cDNA into the plasmid. 3. Use ligase to seal our cDNA into the prokaryote plasmid 4. Use transformation, heat and CaCl2, to introduce the plasmid into the prokaryote.

There are two pathways by which the water moves toward the center of the root

1. water moves through cell walls and intercellular spaces from one cell to another without ever entering the cells. This pathway is called the APOPLAST and consists of "nonliving" portion of cells 2. Water moves from one cell to another through the SYMPLAST or "living" cells. In this pathway, it moves from the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplasm of the next through PLASMODESMATA, small tubes that connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells.

Eukaryotes ow old

1.5 billion

Eukaryotic cells (eukaryotes) have the following characteristics

1.Chromosomes consist of a very long, linear DNA molecule package with histone proteins 2.The chromosomes are enclosed in a nucleus 3. Specialized membrane-enclosed bodies serve to isolate metabolic activities. These bodies or organelles, include mitochondria, chloroplasts, and ER and the golgi apparatus. 4. Flagella and cilia, when present, are made of the protein tubulin arranged in "9+2" microtubule arrays.

A polypeptide with 5 different amino acid can have how many possible sequences?

120

Which of the following isotopes were used to date the age of the Iceman found in 1991 eroding out of the glacier in the Italian Alps?

14-C Half Life = 5730 years

How are dizygotic twins produced?

2 eggs and 2 sperm aka fraternal twins may arise as a result of two separate eggs and two separate sperm.

During denaturation of a protein there is a change in

2, 3, 4 structures

It takes 3 codons to make one amino acid therefore....

210 amino acids times 3 = 630 possible amino acids.

Earth is how old

4.5 billion years

If human cell has 46 chromosomes at the beginning of meiosis, then at the end of meiosis I each cell would have?

46 CHROMATIDS Explanation: Meiosis will take a diploid cell an produce two haploid cells. This means that our chromosome number will decrease to 23 chromosomes for each daughter cell. However, each of these chromosomes have two chromatids, so they will also have 23x2 = 46 chromatids.

Suberin

A band of fatty material that impregnates the endodermal cell walls where they make contact with adjacent endodermal cell walls

If a single ancestral species was to evolve into a variety of forms, this would be an example of:

ADAPTIVE RADIATION! this exemplifies a divergent evolution. Example would be Darwin finches in the Galapagos Islands.

Posterior Pituitary Gland

ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and Oxytocin are produced by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus and are stored in the posterior pituitary and released as needed.

Where is pollen produced?

ANTHER

B-Lymphocytes produce

ANTIBODIES

This often officers during early stages of strenuous exercise because sugar catabolism for ATP production outpaces the muscles supply of oxygen from the blood.

ATP, NAD+, and Lactate supply are gained by the muscle cell.

Which of the following compounds represent a "high-energy" compound?

ATP, phosphoenolpyruvate and Acetyl Coa ALL represent high energy compounds.

The story of fertilization in a nut shell

About 24 hours after fertilization in the fallopian tube, the zygote undergoes mitosis, giving rise to two daughter cells. These cells in turn divide into 4 cells, then 8, then 16 and so on. With each subsequent division, the cells become smaller and smaller. This is called cleavage. After 3 days, a solid ball of about 32 cells form; it is called a morula. The embryo does not grow during cleavage. The morula cells continue to divide for 4 days to form a blastocyst that implants in the uterus. The implantation in the utters (endometrium) occurs about day 6.

Fatty acids enter the degradative pathway in which of the following forms?

Acetyl CoA Fats are broken down to glycerol and fatty acids. While glycerol enters glycolysis pathways, fatty acids (the majority of fat) are broken down into two fragments via B-oxidation entering the krebs cycle (TCA) as acetyl CoA. Fats produce more than time as much ATP as carbohydrates.

Fatty Acids are metabolized into

Acetyl-CoA units which then can enter the CAC to generate ATP.

Trypsin and Chymotrypis provide a fine example of zygote activation. Lets explain this:

Activation of their precursors (trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen) occurs by cleavage of peptide bonds using enzymes

A patient gets a vaccination from his doctor. Which of the following type of immunity would result?

Active immunity that is artificially acquired. A vaccination is an immunization against a given pathogen; it is artificially acquired.

_________ ___________ is a description of the abundance of individuals of each age. It is often graphically expressed in an age structure diagram.

Age structure

Bulk flow of air into and out of the lungs (mechanics of respiration)

Air is moved into and out of the lungs by changing their volume. The volume of the lungs is increased by the contraction s of the dishrag (a muscle under the lungs) and the intercostal muscles (muscles between the ribs)

Pollution

Air pollution,water pollution,and land pollution contaminate the materials essential to life.Many pollutants do not readily degrade and remain in the environment for decades. Some toxins, such as the pesticide DDT, concentrate in plants and animals. As one organism eats another, the toxin becomes more and more concen- trated, a process called biological magnification. Other pollution occurs in subtle ways. A lake, for example, can be polluted with runoff fertilizer or sewage. Abundant nutrients, especially phosphates, stimulate algal blooms, or massive growths of algae and other phytoplankton. The phytoplankton reduce oxygen supplies at night when they respire. In addition, when the algae eventually die, their bodies are consumed by detrivorous bacteria, whose growth further depletes the oxygen. The result is massive oxygen starvation for many animals, including fish and invertebrates. In the end, the lake fills with carcasses of dead animals and plants. The process of nutrient enrich- ment in lakes and the subsequent increase in biomass is called eutrophication. When the process occurs natu- rally, growth rates are slow and balanced. But with the influence of humans, the accelerated process often leads to the death of fish and the growth of anaerobic bacteria that produce foul-smelling gases.

What does the Adrenal Cortex make?

Aldosterone and Cortisol

Which of the following is a mineralcorticoid?

Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid isolated from the adrenal cortex. Mineracorticoids are involved with water and salt balance. Aldosterone stimulates the kidney cells to reabsorb sodium ions and water from the filtrate, thus we see a rise in blood volume and blood pressure.

Amino Acids are

Amphoteric; they act as acids and bases

Cytokinesis when the cytoplasms separates starts in late _______ or early __________

Anaphase; Telophase

Domain Eukarya

EUKARYOTES. There are four kingdoms: Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia

What is an example of a haplodiploid reproductive system?

Bees. queens and female workers are diploid, while male bees (Drones) are haploid.

Reduction in species diversity

As a result of human activities, especially the destruction of tropical rain forests and other habitats, plants and animals are apparently becoming extinct at a faster rate than the planet has ever pre- viously experienced. If they were to survive, many of the disappearing plants could become useful to humans as medicines, foods, or industrial products.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+

As a result of the action potential throughout the transverse system of tubules, the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+

Secretion

As the filtrate passes through the proximal tubule and later through the distal tubule, additional material from the interstitial fluids joins the filtrate. This added material, which originates from the capillary network surrounding the nephron, is selectively secreted into the convoluted tubule by both passive and active transport.

Mollusca

Clams, snails, octopuses Tissue complexity = eumetazoa Germ layers = 3 Bilateral symmetry Gut openings = 2 Coelom = Colemate Embryonic development = protostome

What kind of glands and sweat glands?

Apocrine = a gland that responds to stress such as taking an exam. Eccrine = resonspible in the maintenance of body temperature. As we age the activity of sweat glands decrease, and may become replaced by furious tissue. Also, as one ages, the skin becomes dry and loses oils; this is due to a decrease in sebaceous gland activity. As the the body temp increase, blood vessels dilate, this allows blood to enter the dermis an can dissipate some of the heat.

What are Primary producers?

Are autotrophs that convert sun energy into chemical energy. They include plants, photosynthetic protists, cynaobateria and chemosynthetic bacteria.

Sapwood

Area in plants that surrounds heartwood and is active in fluid transport

The fate of a cell is said to be __________ if its final form cannot be changed.

Because cytoplasmic influences can be narrowed by each successive cell division, cells are more likely to be determined later in the developmental sequence than earlier.

Penicillins inhibit bacteria to....

Bacteria are constantly rebuilding their cell walls to maintain structure and function. Penicillins interfere with the bacterias ability to synthesize its cell wall.

Determinate Cleavages

Blastomeres produced by a determinate cleavage cannot develop into a complete embryo if separated from other blastomeres. Instead, their developmental program is limited to the production of definite (or determined) cells that contribute to only a part of a complete embryo.

A dental student administers Novocain, a local anesthetic, to her patient. Why would this prevent an action potential from occurring?

Blockage of NA+ voltage gated channels

The most diverse and abundant vertebrates inlcude

Bony fish

Osteoclasts

Breakdown bone. CANNOT carry out mitosis either.

Evolutionary pathway of plants

Bryophytes > Gymnosperms > Angiosperms

Corpus callosum

Bundle of axons that connect the two hemispheres of the brain.

Which molecule participates in endocytosis by forming a polyhedral lattice around coated pits?

Clathrin is involved in cell mediated endocytosis. Certain receptors are found in regions called coated pits, which contain clathrin.

Obligate anaerobes ____________ survive in an atmosphere of oxygen

CANNOT

_________ moves from reservoirs in the atmosphere and oceans, through organisms, then back to reservoirs.

CARBON. This describes the carbon cycle Carbon enters the atmosphere by way of aerobic respiration, the burning fossil fuels and volcanic eruptions with release carbon from rock deep in the earths crust.

Metamorphosis

CHANGE; TRANSFORMATION

In birds, which of the following extra-embryonic membranes allow gas exchanged??

CHORION acts as an early pair of lungs for birds and reptiles. This allows them to excrete CO2 and absorb O2. In malls the chorion fuses with a part of the endometrium to form the placenta.

CO2 reacts with H2O and the following equilibrium is seen

CO2 + H2O ---> H2CO3 ---> HCO3- + H+ Both arrows are really double arrows

Both systems (Calvin and Kreb) use

CO2 but neither of them both produce and use CO2.

Stomata open when

CO2 concentrations are low inside the leaf. This allows active photosynthesis, since CO2 is required.

When stomata are CLOSED

CO2 is not available, and photosynthesis cannot occur.

What is true about photosynthesis?

CO2 is the carbon source in sugar produced The light dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur in the thylakoid membrane The source of O2 produced is the H2O that is split during the light reaction The product of dark reaction is glucose (Sugar). Sugar is NOT a produce of the light reaction

LacY, LacZ, and LacA are the three structural genes found in the __________________ of the lac operon

CODING REGION is the position where the three structural genes are found. This operon is needed for the transport and metabolism of lactose in E.coli and many other enteric bacteria.

Blood travels fastest at

CONSTRICITON. The radius of the blood vessel is the most important factor that affect blood flow since blood pressure is indirectly related to vessel radius to the fourth power.

Glycolysis

CYTOSOL Breakdown of glucose in pyruvate NET PRODUCTS: 2 pyruvate molecules 2 NADH molecules 2 ATP molecules

Alcohol Fermentation

CYTOSOL in plants, fungi and bacteria. Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde and CO2 Acetylaldehyde is then converted into ethanol NADH is converted into NAD+

Which ion binds to troponin during muscle contraction?

Ca2+

Ca2+ exposes the binding sites on the actin filaments

Ca2+ binds to the troponin molecule causing tropomyosin to expose positions on the actin filament for the attachment of myosin heads.

Consider the following experiment involving Xenopus tadpoles: The tadpole nucleus was inserted into an enucleated egg from a frog that was fertilized. In some case, the result was several normal tadpoles. What concept does this illustrate?

Cell differentiation; this illustrates a classic experiment done b John Gurdon. This shows that with few exceptions, cells become fully differentiated without loss of genetic information. The transplanted nucleus still has the same genes as the zygote that then allowed it to develop into a viable organism.

Order of eras from most modern to oldest.

Cenozoic (most recent) > Mesozoic > Paleozoic > Pre-cambrian (oldest)

Anaphase II

Centromeres split

A situation in which different body cells express different genotypes and all the cells are derived from different fertilized eggs is called a

Chimera. An animal chimera involves a single organisms that is made up of two or more different populations of genetically distinct cells. Different zygotes were involved.

Mg2+ is found in

Chlorophyll

ATP synthase is associated with both

Chloroplasts and Mitochondria Like mitochondria, chloroplasts contain their own DNA> ATP synthase is responsible for the synthesis of ATP. This enzyme is found in mitochondria as well as chloroplasts.

Which hormones stimulates the release of bile?

Cholecystokinin; is a hormone made by cells of the duodenum (first part of the small intestine) that stimulates bile release.

Deforestation

Clear-cutting of forests causes erosion,flooding,andchangesinweatherpatterns.Theslash-and- burn method of clearing tropical rain forests for agriculture increases atmospheric CO2, which contributes to the greenhouse effect. Because most of the nutrients in a tropical rain forest are stored in the vegetation, burning the for- est destroys the nutrients. As a result, the soil of some rain forests can support agriculture for only one or two years.

A zygomen is an inactive precursor of an enzyme which may become activated. Which best describes the likely mode of activation?

Cleavage of one or more peptide bonds catalyzed by an enzyme

Thromboplastin is primarily involved in which process?

Clot formation in blood

islets of Langerhans

Clusters of endocrine cells in the pancreas that contain alpha and beta cells

___________ is an enzyme produced by staphylococcus bacteria that also blood to clot

Coagulase

Right atrium

Deoxygenated blood enters this chamber on the RIGHT side of the heart though two veins, the upper SUPERIOR VENA CAVA and the lower INFERIOR VENA CAVA. right and left refer to the right and left sides of the body.

Connie the chameleon lives in Africa. She loves to change color, enjoys insect trees, and has rotating eyes. Where would her color forming cells most likely be found?

Dermis. Chameleons are a family of lizards that use color change for camouflage as well as finding a mate. The camouflage cells are located in the DERMIS in cells called dermal chromatophores.

Which of the following is the earliest event in the development of the first living cell?

Development of RNA its enzymatic functions

Which is unique to a mammal?

Diaphragm

Dino the dinosaur most likely lived when?

Dinosaurs first appeared about 230 million years ago during the Triassic Period, and became extinct around 65 million years ago. Dinosaurs did not have hair because only mammals grow hair and nurse their young. Current theory points to an asteroid hitting the Earth that caused weather changes from fire, dust, that caused possible extinction

Rising levels of estrogen stimulate a surge of LH

During the female menstrual cycle, FSH and LH stimulate the follicle to secrete estrogen. During the follicular phase, the estrogen levels spike upward, which in turn stimulates the hypothalamus to produce a surge of LH, triggering ovulation. Since the original stimulus is amplified by the effect it causes, the stimulation of an LH surge by rising levels of estrogen is an example of a positive feedback loop

Which protein is associated with a flagellum?

Dynein; is what is known as "motor protein" Every contained in ATP is converted into energy used for movement. Dyne may also be involved in chromosomal movement. During cell division chromosomes are moved into proper position with the aid of dyne.

DERMIS is below the

EPIDERMIS

What does the follicle secrete?

ESTROGEN; FSH stimulates the secretion of estrogen from the follicle.

Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes both utilize

ETC

Which processes generates the most ATP?

ETC; 90% of all the ATP is generate by the ETC and occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochodnria

Polar and equatorial cleavages

Each cleavages are polar, dividing the egg into segments that stretch from pole to pole (like sections of an orange). Other cleavages are parallel with the equator (perpendicular to the polar cleavages)

Law of Independent

Each member of a pair of homologous chromosomes separates independently of the members of other pairs so the results are random

Which of the following organisms contains flagellum for LOCOMOTION and often has CHLOROPLASTS?

Euglena most Euglena live sin fresh water.

What occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria?

Fatty acid oxidation and Kreb cycle occur in this region. Acetyl CoA accumulates her since pyruvate decarboxylates to enter the Krebs [TCA cycle] as Acetyl CoA.

The smooth ER of various cell types functions in diverse metabolic processes. Enzymes of the smooth ER are important to the synthesis of

Fatty acids, phospholipids, steroids, and other lipids. Enzymes of the smooth ER help detoxify drugs and other positions, especially in the liver cells.

What have TWO chambered hearts?

FISH

Consider the fact that spiders spin webs, animals flock together, and fish swim together. Which term best applies?

Fixed Action Pattern A specific environmental stimulus triggers a complex, coordinated behavioral response known as FAP. These FAP are NOT learned. Relaxes are the simplest FAPs, but more complex behaviors also fall into this area .

Platyhelminthes

Flatworms Tissue complexity = eumeatozoa germ layers = 3 Bilateral Gut openings = 1 Coelom = acoelomate

How does the follicle develop?

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) stimulates the development of the follicle and the oocyte.

FSH

Follicle Stimulating Hormone - In females stimulates the maturation of ovarian follicles to secrete estrogen. In males, it stimulates maturation of the seminiferous tubules and sperm production.

What is an example of an inducible system?

For the lac operon the inducer is allolactose. When combined with the repressor it changes confirmation of the repressor protein and renders it inactive. When allolactose inactivates the repressor, the lac operon is then able to produce mRNA for the enzymes of the lactose pathway.

A study revealed that the haploid stage f a life cycle dominated. Which of the following organisms most likely is being depicted?

Fungi

What is the Montane zone?

Forests include fir, spruce, and pine trees.

Cyanobacteria are likely to e found in

Freshwater and marine habitats aka Blue green algae are aquatic as well as photosynthetic. They are the oldest known fossils and generated the O2 in the early earth. Nutrient rich bodies of water such as ponds or lakes may support rapid growth of cyanobacteria and make the water green or blue green within a short period of time.

Diffusion between alveolar chambers and blood

Gas exchange occurs by diffusion across the moist, sac membranes of the alveoli. Oxygen diffuses into the moisture covering the membrane, through the alveolar wall, through the blood capillary wall, into the blood, and into RBC's. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.

Protein molecules may be modified by addition of sulfate, carbohydrate, or lipid groups to the side chains or certain amino acids. Which cellular organelle best describes this primary modification site?

Golgi complex. is found in both plants and animals

GnRH

Gonadotropin releasing hormone - released by the hypothalamus and stimulates the anterior pituitary to release both FSH and LH.

Which two plant hormones are involved in root growth and stem elongation?

Gibberellins and Auxins.

Hardy-Weinberg Equation?

Given recessive allele b = 0.20 this is our q term. We are asked for the q^2 term (homozygous for this allele) so (0.2)^2 = q^2 = 0.04 = 4%

Alpha cells secrete _________________

Glucagon

In 1982, fred Griffith discovered that non-pathogenic R pneumonic became pathogens S pneumococci. Griffith injected mice with a mixture of Live R and heat killed S-pneumococci. This mixture is lethal to the mice. What is being illustrate in this classic experiment?

Griffith showed that bacteria of one strain could incorporate genes from a second strain. This phenomenon is called TRANSFORMATION. During this process, we see a change in phenotype due to the assimilation of external genetic material.

Spermatid

HAPLOID cells which can differentiate into mature sperm cells.

Most CO2 in the body is transported in the blood as

HCO3-

What are the hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Gland?

HGH, LH, FSH, TSH and Prolactin.

Genes that regulate anatomical structural development in insects, plants and mammals?

HOMEOTIC genes are involved in building organs and body parts. These genes encode various proteins known as transcription factors which direct cells to form various anatomical parts such as wings, antennae and legs.

Several months ago, Mary bought a new computer that made a noisy humming and clicking sound. At first she was distracted by the sounds and could not concentrate. However, she no longer seems distracted by these sounds. This is an example of:

Habituation

Which is the correct pathway blood flows in humans?

Heart - aorta - arteries - arterioles - capillaries - veins - heart

Which enzyme has the greatest catalytic efficiency?

IF asked this question and given Km and Kcat efficiency take the ratio of Kcat/Km and which ever one give you the larger number has the highest efficiency

Mosaic

IF different cells come from the same zygote.

Glycine is the ONLY optically

INACTIVE amino acid

Identical twins are made possible due to:

INDETERMINATE CLEAVAGE of a zygote will allow a human twin to be produced. In this type of cleavage, each cell that is made retains its capacity to develop into a viable embryo.

The process in an embryo in which one tissue causes another to differentiate is called

INDUCTION

Which second messenger will activate Ca2+ channels?

IP3 is second messenger that ill activate Ca2+ release from the ER.

The opening diameter of the eye (the pupil) is controlled by what structure?

IRIS! the anterior choroid forms the donut shaped iris which gives the eye its color. By changing the size, the iris regulates the amount of light entering the pupil, the ho

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)

If K+ gates open, the membrane becomes more polarized (hyper polarized) and result in IPSP. As a result, it beach more difficult to generate an action potential on this membrane.

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

If Na+ gates open, the membrane becomes depolarized and results in EPSP. If the threshold potential is exceeded, an action potential is generated.

Consider a cross between Aa and Aa. We would get AA, Aa and aa as our genotypes.

If aa was "lethal" we would then have AA and Aa for our 2:1 ratio.

Arthropoda

Insects, spiders, crustaceans Tissue complexity = eumetaoa Germ layers = 3 Bilateral symmetry Gut openings = 2 Coelom = coelomate Embryonic development = protostome

Beta cells secrete ________________

Insulin

Which of the following structures are found between heart muscle cells?

Intercalated Disks. Adjacent cells are held together in cardiac muscle by intercalated disks. These disks have a very low resistance to the passage of impulses to allow the cardiac muscle fibers to transmit electrical impulses rapidly.

In males LH is aka

Interstitial cell stimulation hormone (ICSH); LH stimulates the intersistial cells in the testes to produce testosterone and other male sex hormones (androgens).

What is Ecological Succession?

Is the change in the composition of species ver time. The traditional view of succession describes how one community with certain species is gradually and predictable replaced by another community consisting of different species. As succession progresses, species diversity (the number of species in a community) and total biomass increase. Eventually, a final successional stage of constant species composition this is called the climax community.

Urthera

Is used to push out sperm and urine.

The pores in the nuclear envelope serve which of the following functions?

It allows proteins to move into the nucleus It allows ribosomal components to exit the nucleus It allows mRNA to exit the nucleus.

What is the fate of lactic acid in muscles?

It enters the Cori cycle The blood transports lactate to the liver. The Cori cycle allows the conversion of lactate back into glucose, which can be carried back to the muscles via the blood. The glyoxylate cycle occurs in plants and bacteria.

Facts about Pheromones

It is a chemical that travels outside the body, carrying information to members of the same species. They may act as "sex attractants" Formic acid produced by ants is an example of a pheromone Many vertebrates use pheromones in feces, urine, or scent glands to mark territories

Which of the following describes the evolution of fish, from earliest to latest ancestor?

Jawless fish --> Cartilaginous fish --> Lobe-finned fish The first fish to evolve did not have jaws and looked like eels. Afterwards, cartilaginous fish (such as sharks) evolved. Lastly, lobe-finned fish developed, from which terrestrial organisms developed.

Arrange them in correct chronological order from oldest to most recent: Bony fish, jawless fish, mammals, reptiles, birds and amphibians

Jawless fish > Bony fish > Amphibians > Reptiles > Birds > Mammals Ancestral vertebrates began with jawless fish. Next came any fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and finally mammals. Here is an easy way to remember; First think simple. Jawless fish then bony fish. Next say, "A Real Bad Man" A = Amphibian R = Reptile B = Birds M = Mammals

Cnidaria

Jellyfish, corals Tissue complexity = eumetazoa Germ layers = 2 Radial Symmetry Gut openings = 1

Which ion is in the neuron

K+ (potassium)

_________ species reduced the density of the strongest competitors in a community, thus species diversity is maintained.

KEYSTONE species allow for specie maintenance.

Luteal phase

LH (luteinizing hormome) causes burst follicle to develop into corpus luteum (secretes estrogen and progesterone); progesterone causes glands in endometrium to mature and become prepared for implantation of an embryo; the estrogen and progesterone are essential in maintaining the endometrium

Where is UREA made?

LIVER: Urea is the major end product of nitrogen metabolism. Urea is formed in the liver and then transported to the kidneys for excretion.

Which organelle can be referred to as the "STOMACH OF THE CELL"

LYSOSOME

The theory of acquired characteristics is associated with

Lamark because it was not known how genes are inherited, the theory of aquired characteristics was not initially refuted. This Lamarkian theory proposed that characteristics acquired by one generation can be inherited by the next. It is now clear that this is FLASE.

Requirements for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

Large Random M&M 1. Large pop to minimize the effects of genetic drift 2. Random mating 3. No mutation 4. No Natural selection 5. No Migration

A reptile such as a lizard can tolerate drier terrestrial climates than an amphibian such as a salamander. Which of the following is not a trait possessed by a reptile to facilitate this tolerance?

Loss of gills during development. . Reptiles consists of thick shelled egg, internal fertilization, amniotic egg, and thickened skin.

What causes the Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve to shift RIGHT

Low pH High Temp High CO2 2, 3-BPG

Which of the following features have allowed amphibians to successfully invade land?

Lungs and Legs Amphibians do not live completely free on dry land since their reproduction depends on water. Amphibians were successful to invade land due to development of lungs, legs, redesigned heart and the ability to develop a means to prevent drying of the skin. Amphibians do not have amnion. Amphibian are believed to have descended from air-breathing lobe fin fishes.

LH

Luteinizing hormone - during the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle, estrogen levels spike upward, which in turn stimulates the hypothalamus to produce a surge of LH. In females, LH stimulates the formation of corpus interstitial cells of the testes to produce testosterone.

What are the primary agents of the immune response?

Lymphocytes WBC (leukocytes) that original in the bone marrow but concentrate in lymphatic tissues such as lymph nodes, the thyme gland and the spleen.

Acid hydrolyses are contained in which cellular organelle?

Lysosome

Turner syndrome

MONOSOMY. A chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted. Sterile female lacking X chromosome We see 45 chromosomes; the individual is lacking an X chromosome. We see a sterile female with no ovaries and little development of secondary sex characteristics.

Cilia would be most affected by a drug that causes destruction of:

Microtubules

A tick bird on a rhinoceros is an example of what type of symbiotic relationship?

Mutualism - is where the interaction is beneficial to both species involved. The tick bird feeds off of ticks on the rhino and the rhino benefits by getting ticks removed and being altered to possible threats.

What is Nitrogen fixation?

N2 to NH4+ by nitrogen fixing prokaryotes (in soil and root nodules); N2 to NO3- by lightning and UV radiation

What do muscle cels during oxygen deprivation gain from the conversion of pyruvate?

NAD+ and lactate

In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from

NADH to O2 through an electron transport chain to produce ATP.

What terminates the reproductive cycle?

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK; the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary terminate the reproductive cycle. They do this due to HIGH levels of estrogen and progesterone causes the anterior pituitary (through the hypothalamus) to abate production of FSH and LH.

Aquatic animals excrete __________ directly into the surrounding water

NH3 (or NH4+)

What was in the early earth atmosphere?

NH3, H2, CH4, H2O, CO, CO2 and H2S NO O2 in the early earths reducing atmosphere

What is Nitrification?

NH4+ to NO2- and NO@- to NO3- by various nitrifying bacteria. NH4+ or NO3- to organic compounds by plant metabolism.

Facts about Downsyndrome

Nondisjunction causes errors in chromosome number such as in Trisomy 21 If nondisjunction occurs, one cell could get both chromosomes and the other cell none Individuals with Down Syndrome are prone to leukemia and alzhemiers disease During nondisjunction and egg sperm cell may lack a chromosome or has additional chromosome

Why does yeast undergo anaerobic respiration in the absence of oxygen?

Normally, NADH will donate its electrons to oxygen in aerobic conditions, producing NAD+ for use again in respiration. In the absence of oxygen as a final electron acceptor, NADH builds up inside of the cell (because it has no where to give its electrons). So the yeast will activate anaerobic respiration, which converts pyruvate into acetaldehyde, which releases CO2. Acetaldehyde will then convert into ethanol and this is where the magic happens. The energy in NADH is used to drive this reaction, which releases NAD+. Now the free NAD+ can undergo glycolysis and the cell can produce at least 2 more ATP though anaerobic respiration, rather than dying.

What are the hormones of the Posterior Pituitary Gland?

ONLY stores ADH (Vasopressin) and Oxytocin, both are made in the hypothalamus

Heartwood

Older xylem near the center of a woody stem that no longer conducts water

What is a Poikilotherms?

Organisms with environmentally influenced variable body temperature. Some birds and insects that allow their body temperature to vary are known as Poikilotherms.

Desertification

Over grazing of grasslands that border deserts transform the grasslands into deserts. As a result, agricultural output decreases, or habitats available to native species are lost.

In glucose degradation, which of the following is true?

Oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons Oxygen is not necessary for ATP synthesis

Nucleic acids are linear polymers linked by

PHOSPHODIESTER BONDS

When does Ovulation occur?

POSITIVE FEEDBACK; from rising levels of ESTROGEN stimulate the anterior pituitary (through GnRH from the hypothalamus) to produce a sudden mid cycle surge of LH. This high level of LH triggers ovulation.

What stimulates osteoclastic activity?

PTH (parathyroid hormone)

Metaphase I

Paired chromosomes align at cell equator

What is the Phosphorus Cycle?

Phosphorous is required for the manufacture of ATP and all nucleic acids. Biogeochemical cycles of other minerals, such a calcium an magnesium are similar to the phosphorus cycle: Reservoirs; rocks and ocean sediments (erosion transfers phosphorous to water and soil; sediments and rocks that accumulate on ocean floors return to the surface as a result of uplifting by geological processes). Assimilar: plants absorb inorganic PO$3- (phosphate) from soils; animals obtain organic phosphorous when they eat plants or other animals. Release: plants and animals release phosphorous when they decompose; animals excrete phosphor in their waster products.

A suitable vector for recombinant DNA cloning can be?

Plasmids and Bacteriophages (a virus) can be used as carriers for recombinant DNA, hence called a vector. Products recombinant DNA technology include interferons, human growth hormone, vaccines and interleukins and monoclonal antibodies which can bind and transport a drug or radioisotope to a tumor.

Shrinkage of a cell due to water loss is called:

Plasmolysis In a hypertonic solution, one in which the water concentration is lower than the solute concentration, a cell will shrink; this is called plasmolysis.

Lac-operon

Promoter, Operator, Structural Genes and floating thing that attaches is a repressor

Chromatids shorten and thicken, nucleoli disappears, spindle fibers form, and centrioles in animals cells move to opposite ends in

Prophase

Timeline

Protobionts > prokaryotes > eukaryotes > amphibians > reptiles > primates

Which procedure is most useful to study the intracellular location of proteins?

Pulse-Chase Experiment Involves using a radioactive label on a protein to detect what is happening to the molecules in cells. In this technique, one can track the fate of proteins through a cell, and learn important information about biochemical pathways.

A species displays a very little genetic or morphological change. However if this period of equilibrium interrupted by environmental events, which result in a new species produced in a relatively short period of time, it is called:

Punctuated Equilibrium evolution is concentrated in very rapid events of creating a new species

RNA polymerase versus DNA polymerase

RNA polymerase does not have proofreading ability. Therefore, RNA synthesis has a greater error level than DNA

Where structure does Nitrogen Fixation occur in?

ROOT NODULE. Plants require N2 to grow. Atmospheric N2 is converted into NH4+ or NO3- to be utilized by plants. Nitrogen fixing bacteria are located in root swellings called nodules. Plants that contribute to nitrogen fixation include the legume family. peas, peanuts, soybeans, and beans are examples. In nitrogen fixation, N2 from the atmosphere is converted to NH3.

A Strom approaches a mountain and undergoes an orthographic lift in which all the rain is removed, as it leaves virtually no moisture on the other side of the mountain. The area without moisture is called a

Rain shadow. can be seen in areas such as a desert The Gobi desert of Mongolia as well as the Mojave desert are examples represents a reduction in rainfall on the leeward side of a high mountain. The leeward side is the side not facing the wind. Rains shadows may also occur in the high mountains of Europe and even in the Andes of South America.

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Releasing hormones are produced by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus and secreted into the blood. This blood flows directly to the anterior pit. where the releasing hormones stimulate the release of tropic hormones.

Blood flow through the circulatory system can be asked in several ways:

Right ventricle pumps into pulmonary arteries to lung capillary beds then back to heart via pulmonary veins. Next,t through the left atrium to left ventricle then to aorta, then arteries, arterioles, systemic capillaries to venues, veins, vena cava, then back to the heart at the R atrium.

Following death, ATP production ceases along with other metabolic activities and biochemical pathways. In all skeletal muscles, cross-bridges remain locked in place. Which of the following terms best applies?

Rigor mortis; due to the lack of ATP, the actin and myosin filaments remains bonded together until the muscle begin decomposing.

Rotifera

Rotifers Tissue complexity = eumetaoza Germ layers = 3 Bilateral symmetry Gut Openings = 2 Psuedocoelomate

Nematoda

Roundworms Tissue complexity = eumetazoa Germ layers = 3 Bilateral symmetry Gut openings = 2 Pseduocoelomate

Porifera

SPONGES! Think sponges are porous and "porifera" sounds similar. They are also classified with the parazoa, meaning even though they are multi-cellular, the cells are not organized and no organs develop.

Mouth

Salivary amylase -> secreted into the mouth by the salivary glands, begins the breakdown of starch into maltose (a disaccharide). Chewing reduces the size of food particles, thereby increasing the surface area upon which amylase and subsequent enzymes can operate. Food is shape into a ball, or bolus, and then swallowed.

Glucocorticoids (cortisol) and mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

Secreted: Adrenal Gland (cortex) Target: General/Kidney Action: Increases Blood glucose, increase reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+

Epinephrine (adrenalin) and Norepinephrine (noradrenalin)

Secreted: Adrenal gland (medulla) Target: Blood vessels, liver and heart Action: Increases blood glucose, constricts blood vessels (fight or flight)

Growth Hormone

Secreted: Ant. Pit. Target: Bone and Muscle Action: Stimulates growth

Prolactin

Secreted: Ant. Pit. Target: Mammary Glands Action: PRO-duction of milk

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Secreted: Ant. Pit. Target: Ovaries, testes Action: Regulates oogenesis and spermatogenesis

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Secreted: Ant. Pit. Target: Ovaries, testes Action: Regulates oogenesis and spermatogenesis

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Secreted: Anterior Pit Target: Adrenal Cortex Action: Secretion of glucocorticoids

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Secreted: Anterior Pituitary Target: Thyroid Action: Secretion of T4 and T3

Estrogen

Secreted: Ovary Target: Uterus, general Action: Menstrual ccle, secondary sex characteristics

Progesterone

Secreted: Ovary Target: Uterus Action: Menstrual cycle, pregnancy

Glucagon

Secreted: Pancreas (alpha cells) Target: Liver Action: Increases blood glucose

Insulin

Secreted: Pancreas (beta cells) Target: Liver, muscles, fat Action: Lower Blood Glucose

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Secreted: Parathyroid Target: Bone Action: Increase blood Ca2+

Melatonin

Secreted: Pineal Target: Body Action: Circadian rhythms

ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

Secreted: Posterior Pituitary Target: Kidneys Action: Increases reabsorption of water

Oxytocin

Secreted: Posterior Pituitary Target: Mammary glands Action: Stimulates release of milk

Testosterone

Secreted: Testis Target: Testes Action: Spermatogenesis, secondary sex characteristics

Gymnosperms were the first plant to have

Seeds

Annelida

Segmented Worms Tissue complexity = eumetazoa Germ layers = 3 Bilateral symmetry Gut openings = 2 Coelom = Coelomate Embryonic development = protostome

A biology student added I2-KI reagent to an unknown compound dissolved in water in a test tube. The solution turned blue-black. The unknown is compound is most likely?

Starch contains amylose and amylopectin. I2 reacts with I- to form I3-. The I3- molecule inserts itself into the amylose "coiled" structure and forms a complex that appears blue-black. Only the amylose reacts.

Endosymbiotic Theory

States that eukaryotic cells originated from a mutualistic relationship between two prokaryotes.

What are Helper T cells?

Stimulate the proliferation of B cells and cytotoxic T cells.

_____________ __________ describe how mortality of individuals in a species varies during their lifetime.

Survivorship curves. Type I, II, and III curves

A sperm cell and egg cell unite to produce a zygote. This process is called fertilization OR

Syngamy

A + G =

T + C

Calcitonin

TONES down the blood calcium levels by decreasing osteoclastic activity

If nondisjunction occurs during Meiosis II or anaphase, only two of the four gametes would be abnormal, one abnormal cell has an extra chromosome, while the other cell lacks a chromosome. Thus 50% of the cells are normal, 25% show monosomy, and 25% show trisomy.

TRUE

T or F If non-disjunction occurs during Meiosis I of anaphase, a trisomy or monosomy can occur because one daughter cell may retain both replicated chromosomes, while the other daughter cell lacks a chromosome. This would imply that haploid sperm cell can fertilize either cell resulting in a monosomy or trisomy

TRUE

When B cells encounter antigens that specifically bind to their antibodies what happens?

The B cells proliferate, producing two kinds of daughter B cells 1. Plasma cells 2. Memory cells

Myosin cross bridges form

The Ca2+ released by the sarcoplasmic reticulum signs to troponin molecules on the actin helix, prompting tropomyosin molecules to expose binding sites for myosin cross-bridge formation. If ATP is available, muscle contraction begins.

What is the Intertidal zone?

The area where land and sea meet

ADP and Pi are released and sliding motion of actin filaments form.

The attachment of cross bridges between myosin and actin causes the release of ADP and Pi. This, in turn, causes a change in shape of the myosin head, which generates a sliding movement of the actin toward the center of the sarcomere. This pulls the to Z-lines together, effectively contracting the muscle fiber.

A bacterial cell has its cell wall removed and is placed in distilled water. Which of the following will happen?

The bacterial cell will lyse because it s HYPERosmotic to the water.

The Benthic zone?

The bottom of the water, it is the sea floor.

Continental Drift

The gradual movement of the continents across the earth's surface through geological time.

Facts about ATP

The hydrolysis of ATP is EXERGONIC (negative AG) ATP Hydrolysis releases energy that can be utilized to drive ENDERGONIC rxns. At pH = 7, ATP is negatively charged. ATP is the universal carrier of free-energy in biological systems.

if the operator is the control point for transcription, what determines whether the polymerase can bind to the promoter and transcribed the structural genes?

The operon must be switched off by a protein called the repressor. The repressor binds to the operator and blocks the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promoter, stopping transcription of the structural genes. The repressor is initially synthesized in an inactive form. A small molecule that cooperates with a repressor protein to switch on operon off is called a COREPRESSOR. Ex: this happens with top repressor binding to tryptophan then become active.

Autosomal Dominant pedigree

The original affected couple. The affected male passed down the trait to both sons and daughters! must be Autosomal. The fact that it doesn't skip a generation tells us its dominant

Ozone depletion

The ozone layer forms in the upper atmosphere when UV radiation reacts with oxygen(O2) to form ozone (O3). The ozone absorbs UV radiation and thus prevents it from reaching the surface of the earth where it would damage the DNA of plants and animals. Various air pollutants, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), enter the upper atmosphere and break down ozone molecules. CFCs have been used as refrigerants, as propellants in aerosol sprays, and in the manufacture of plastic foams. When ozone breaks down, the ozone layer thins, allowing UV radiation to penetrate and reach the surface of the earth. Areas of major ozone thinning, called ozone holes, appear regularly over Antarctica, the Arctic, and northern Eurasia.

Osmosis

The rigid cell wall of bacteria is designed to protect it from changing osmolarities in the environment. Underneath the cell wall is a permeable plasma membrane. Placing the cell in distilled water will cause water to rush in, ultimately lysing the cell. This is because the cell has a higher osmolarity than the surrounding water, making it hyperosmotic to the water. Water will diffuse from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. The higher the osmolarity, the lower the concentration of water. This is similar to freshwater fish in a lake - water constantly enters the fish because they have a higher osmolarity.

Bronchi, bronchioles.

The trachea branches into two bronchi (Singular, bronchus), which enter the lungs and the branch repeatedly, forming narrower tubes called bronchioles

Mycology is a branch of a sincere that studies fungi. the three major divisions are base don?

The type of sexual spores they reproduce

Pinna

The visible part of the ear - sound waves collected by the outer ear create vibrations in the

Formation of the Fertilization membrane

The vitelline layer forms a fertilization membrane which blocks the entrance of additional sperm.

All living things are composed primarily of

There are four major atomic components of organic molecules; CARBON, OXYGEN, HYDROGEN and NITROGEN! Some texts will also include sulfur and phosphorous

Florigen

There is evidence that this hormone is a protein produced in leaves that travels to shoot tips.

The amount of adenine must equal the amount of thymine, and the amount of cytosine must equal the amount of guanine.

Therefore, 16% of the DNA consists of C, and 16% must also consist of G. So 32% of the DNA consists of C and G. The other 68% must consist of A and T. We divide this by 2 and find that 34% of the DNA consists of A and 34% also consists of T. Checking our work, we see that C + G + A + T = 16% + 16% + 34% + 34% = 100%.

In fruit flies, the traits for red eye color (R) and straight wings (W) are dominant and the traits for white eye color (r) and dumpy wings (w) are recessive. A cross is done between two flies and produces a progeny of 59 red-eyed flies with straight wings and 21 red-eyed flies with dumpy wings. Which of the following are most likely to be the genotypes of the parents? A. RrWw X RRWw B. RRWW X RRWw C. RrWw X RrWw D. RRWW X RrWW E. RRWW X RRWW

This is a great problem to use the process of elimination. To have dumpy wings we have to have a homozygous recessive allele. This is impossible in Choices [B], [D], and [E]. All of these answer choices will produce straight-winged flies because one parent is homozygous dominant for the straight wing trait. Similarly, to have a progeny with only red eyes, at least one of the parents must be homozygous dominant for red eyes. Choice [C] would produce some white-eyed flies, so the only answer left is Choice [A].

Medulla oblongata

This part of the brain controls many model functions such as respiration and heart rate.

Plants release most of their water into the hydrological cycle by

Transpiration

Edward Syndrome

Trisomy of chromosome 18

Ejaculatory Duct

Tube through which semen enters the male urethra

Flow Charts: Food chain and Food Web

Two kinds of flow charts are often used to show the flow of energy between specific organisms. The arrows used in the flow chart indicate the direction of energy flow.

Metaphase II

Unpaired chromosomes align at cell equator

Birds, insects, and many reptiles convert urea to ___ _____.

Uric acid; since uric acid is mostly insoluble in water, it precipitates and forms a solid. This allows considerable water conservation by permitting the excretion of nitrogen waste as a solid. In birds, the precipitation also allows the nitrogen wastes to be securely isolated in a special sac in the egg (the allantois) apart from the vulnerable developing embryo.

In the glomerular filtrate, which of the following should be completely reabsorbed?

Usually all of the glucose in the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed. This reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule. However, in diabetes, blood glucose levels rise high, and significant quantities of glucose appear in the urine.

_________ in the lymphatic veins prevent back flow.

Valves.

Chordata

Vertebrates Tissue complexity = eumetazoa Germ layers = 3 Bilateral symmetry Gut openings = 2 Coelom = coelomate Embryonic development = deuterostome

Streptococci

Virulent and can kill an organism

Which of the following is a plant like protist?

Volvox. the volvox is a plant like protist that can be seen swimming in a pond. We see a spinning colony of green colored cells that range from a few hundred to several thousand.

DNA contain adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, transcribed in groups of three with possible base repetition. How many codons would be possible?

We have four base pairs, A, T, C, G. Since they will be transcribed in groups of three, we get 4^3 = 4x4x4 = 64

Heart Contractions

When the heart contracts, the ventricles force blood through the semilunar valves and into our arteries. Also during this time, the AV valves are shut to prevent the blood from being forced back into the atriums. When the ventricles relax, the semilunar valves are shut to prevent backlflow from the blood they just forced into the arteries, and the AV valves are reopened; this is called the diastole phase. The opening and closing of the AV valves and semilunar valves causes the "lib-dup" sounds in the heart.

Blood platelet accumulation in blood vessels

When tissue is injured, platelets make contact with the exposed collagen of blood vessels. These platelets (and the injured tissue) release chemicals that attract more platelets to the site of injury, which in turn release more chemicals to attract even more platelets, until a platelet plug is formed. Since the original stimulus is amplified by the effect it causes, the accumulation of blood platelets in blood vessels is an example of a positive feedback loop

What is the competitive exclusion principle (Gause's principle)?

When two species compete for exactly the same resources (or occupy the same niche), one is likely to be more successful. As a result, one species outcompetes the other, and eventually, the second species is eliminated. The completive exclusion principle, formulated by G.F. Cause, states that no two species can sustain coexistence if they occupy the same niche. i.e. paramecium outcompeted each other

A fertilized egg is a

ZYGOTE

Petroleum is

a mixture of hydrocarbons such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatics.

Eustachian tube

a narrow passage leading from the pharynx to the cavity of the middle ear

Primary spermatocyte

a cell that divides to form two secondary spermatocytes

One of the primary differences between a plant cell and animal cell is that plant cells contain

a cell wall

Metaplasia

a change from one cell type to another such as inflammation or irritation

What is a hormone?

a chemical messenger produced in one part of the body that affects target cells in another part of the body. 1. hormones are transported throughout the body in the blood 2. minute amounts of hormones can have significant influence on target cells 3. hormones may be steroids, peptides or modified amino acids

Stomata opening is accompanied by

a diffusion of potassium ions into the guard cells (from surrounding subsidiary cells). An increase in K+ creates a gradient for the movement of water into the guard cell, which in turn, results in guard cell expansion and the opening of the stomata.

Facts about Keratin

a family of fibrous proteins found in mammals, reptiles, birds, and amphibians claws, horns, hooves, and nail of animals contain keratin the epidermis is almost waterproof because of its keratin matrix

Uterus

a fertilized ovum implants (attaches) on the inside wall or endometrium, of the uterus. Development of the embryo occurs here until birth.

What is Keratin?

a fibrous protein critical in the structural makeup of hair, skin, and nails. Keratin polymers form intermediate filaments, which provide support for cell shape.

Collagen

a fibrous proton that makes up bone and connective tissue is the MOST abundant protein in vertebrates. A TRIPLE helix is present along with hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine. It is interesting that every third position is occupied by the amino acid glycine.

Pituitary gland

a gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus consisting of two parts: posterior and anterior

An organ is

a group of different kinds of tissue functioning together to perform a particular activity. For example: the heart consists of tissues from all four categories functioning together to pump blood through the body.

What are Interferons?

a group of small proteins made by most body cells following a viral attack. Interferons belong to a class of glycoproteins called cytokines. Interferons are also produced in response to bacterial, parasitic, and foreign agents as well as tumor cells. Interferon is now used as treatment for many types of cancer and is especially useful when combined with chemotherapy and radiation.

Protista

a kingdom of unicellular living organisms that are neither animals nor plants; includes some groups of algae, slime molds and protozoa. Microscopic Can be either heterotrophic and autotrophic

Acrosome

a lysosome containing enemies which are used to penetrate the egg. The acrosome originates from Golgi body vesicles that fuse to form a single lysosome.

What does a nerve impulse do...

a nerve impulse begins at the tips of the dendrite branches, passes through the dendrites to the cell body, then through the axon, and finally terminates at branches of the axon.

Epinephrine

a neurotransmitter derived from amino acids, has many important body functions. It acts on receptors to regulate blood flow during Autonomic Nervous System Action.

Effects of Carrying Capacity on Population Growth

a newly introduced population may grow exponentially beyond Population size (N) Population size (N) the carrying capacity of the habitat before limiting factors inhibit growth (Figure 15-5). When limiting factors do bring the population under control, the population size may decline to levels lower than the carrying capacity (or it may even crash to extinction). Once reduced below carrying capacity, however, limiting factors may ease, and population growth may renew. In some cases, a new carrying capacity, lower than the original, may be established (perhaps because the habitat was damaged by the excessively large population). The population may continue to fluctuate about the carrying capacity as limiting factors exert negative feedback on population growth when population size is large. When popula- tion size is small, limiting factors exert little negative feedback, and population growth renews.

Hyperthryodisim

a person may display anxiety, weakness, and increased heart rate. T3 and T4 levels are elevated TSH produced by the pit gland is decreased It is often caused by Graves Disease

Skin is

a physical and hostile barrier covered with oily and acidic secretions from sweat glands

The member of the Monogenean and Trematoda are best characterized bu the presence of

a posterior and oral sucker Monogenean and trematoda are flukes that live as parasite in or on other animals. Many have suckers for attached to internal organs of the host and a tough covering helps protect the parasite.

Blood pressure is measure by what

a sphygmomanometer

Root cap

a structure that covers the tip of a root, protecting the root from injury

Gel electrophoresis

a technique to separate macromolecules (DNA, RNA , proteins) by size and charge. Shorter macromolecules will move faster than longer macromolecules and travel further.

The three germ layers are

a third cell layer forms between the outer and inner layers of the invaginated embryo. These three cell layers, the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm (outside, middle, and inside layers, respectively) are the primary germ layers from which all subsequent tissues develop.

Nephridia exemplify...

a tube-type excretory system, where body fluids are selectively filtered as they pass through the tube. Materials to be retained are secreted back into the body fluids, while concentrated wastes continue through the tube to be excreted at the far end.

auto-brewery syndrome,

a type of yeast colonizes the human digestive system to produce intoxicating quantities of ethanol within the gastrointestinal tract, leading to a person becoming drunk without drinking any alcohol.

Capsid

a virus coat is made up of a series of protein subunits called capsomeres. Capsomeres come together to form a protein shell called the capsid. The capsid surrounds the genetic material (RNA or DNA) or a virus, and offers the nucleic material protection.

Parasympathetic nervous system

activates tranquil functions, such as stimulating the secretion of saliva or digestive enzymes into the stomach.

Movement of cellular material from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration is known as

active transport - the pumping of solutes against their gradients. This requires the expenditure of the cells own metabolic energy to transport material this way

Where is lactate found?

actively contracting muscle has a high rate of lactate formation

Primary growth

actively dividing cells occur only at the apical meristem producing grown that increases the length of a shoot or root. This is called primary growth --> the tissues that develop from this growth are primary tissues, primary xylem and primary phloem refer to vascular tissues originating from the apical meristem growth.

ATP ---> cyclic AMP is catalyzed by

adenylate cyclase and integral membrane protein

Trachea

after passing through the larynx, air enters the trachea, a cartilage lined tube.

What happens when the ventricles relax?

aka the diastole phase. back flow into the ventricles causes the semilunar valves to close. The closing of AV valves, followed by the closing of semilunar valves produces the characteristic "lub-dup" sounds of the heart.

Tracheophytes

aka vascular plants because they posses xylem and phloem as a result, they have roots, true stem and true leaves.

Left Atrium

after the lungs, the OXYGENATED blood returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins.

How is the neurotransmitter degraded and recycled?

after the neurotransmitter binds to the postsynaptic membrane receptors, it is broken down by enzymes in the synaptic cleft. Example: a common neurotransmitter acetylcholine, is broken down by cholinesterase. Degraded neurotransmitters are recycled by the presynaptic cell.

Peter's patches are numerous areas of lymphoid tissue associated with the

aggregations of lymphoid tissue can be found in the ileum of the small intestine. Peyers patches contain macrophages, B-lyphocytes, T-lymphocytes and dendritic cells. Peter's patches are considered the "immune sensors" of the intestine.

Agnostic behavior

aggression and submission originates from competition for food, mates and territory. Because most agnostic behavior is ritualized, injuries and time spent in contests are minimized.

Nose, pharynx, and larynx

air enters the nose and passes through the nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx!

What are sensory neurons?

aka AFFERENT neurons receive the initial stimulus example: sensory neurons embedded in the retina of the eye are stimulated by light, while certain sensory neurons in the hand are stimulated by touch.

Ubiquinone

aka Coenzyme Q is a lipid soluble electron carrier seen in the ETC.

Bulbourethral glands

aka Cowper's glands. These two glands secrete a small amount of fluid of UNKNOWN function into the urethra.

Methylation

aka DNA methylation method of gene suppression. The methylation creates a positive charge that attracts DNA making it less available to do transcription for gene expression.

Trisomy 21 is

aka Down Syndrome and is due to non-disjunction

What are motor neurons?

aka EFFERENT neurons stimulate effectors, target cells that produce some kind of response. Example: efferent neurons may stimulate muscles, sweat glands, or cells in the stomach.

What are association neurons?

aka INTERNEURON neurons are located in the spinal cord or brain and receive impulses from sensory neurons or send impulse to motor neurons. Interneurons are integrators, evaluating impulses for appropriate responses.

Facts about Ozone

aka O3 is split by sunlight but quickly reforms converts much of the harmful UV light into heat energy reduction in the ozone layer by the use of flurorohydrocarbons would likely cause an increase in cataracts and skin cancer the early earth had very little oxygen, a condition that favors the formation of life

Vascular cylinder

aka Stele makes up the tissues inside the endodermis.

Anthophyta

aka angiosperms consist of the flowering plants

Taiga

aka boreal forests located south of the tundra biome (below the tundra) is the LARGEST terrestrial biome. very long, harsh winters and precipitation in the form of heavy snow, along with short rainy and humid summers. Vegetation = coniferous forest

Capillary action

aka capillarity is the rise of liquids in narrow tubes. It also contributes to the movement of water up xylem. Capillary action results from the forces of adhesion (molecular attraction between unlike substances) between the water and the capillary tube. These forces combine to pull water up the sides of the tube. As a result, a meniscus, or crescent shaped surface, forms at the top of the water column.

RBC's

aka erythrocytes. transport oxygen (attached to hemoglobin) and catalyze the conversion of CO2 and H2O to H2CO3. Mature RBC's lack a nucleus, thereby maximizing hemoglobin content and their ability to transport O2.

Oviduct

aka fallopian tube. Eggs move from the ovary to the uterus through the oviduct. There are two oviducts, one for each ovary.

What are Cytotoxic T cells?

aka killer T cells. recognize and destroy non self cells by puncturing them, causing them to lyse.

WBC's

aka leukocytes. consist of five major groups of disease fighting cells that defend the body from infection

What is character displacement?

aka niche shift As a result of resource partitioning, certain characteristics may enable individuals to obtain resources in their partitions more successfully. Selection for these characteristics reduces competition with individuals in other partitions and leads to a divergence of features, or character displacement. i.e. two species of finches that live on two different Galapagos Islands have similar beaks, both suited for using the same food supply (Seeds). On a third island, they coexist, but due to evolution, the beak of each bird species is different. This minimizes competition by enabling each finch to feed on seeds of different size.

What is a sarcolemma?

aka plasma member of the muscle cell, is highly invaginated by transverse tubules (or T tubules) that permeate the cell.

What is Aposematic coloration?

aka warning coloration is a conspicuous pattern or coloration of animals that arms predators that they sting, bite, taste bad or are otherwise to be avoided. Predators learn to associate the yellow and black body of bees with anger.

What is the Hydrologic cycle?

aka water cycle Reservoirs: ocean, air (as water vapor), groundwater, glaciers (evaporation, wind, and precipitation move water from oceans to land) Assimilation: plants absorb water from the soil; animals drink water or eat other organisms (which are mostly water) Release: plants transpire: animals and plants decompose.

Tertiary protein structure is supported by

all of the factors listed. Disulfide bonds Hydrogen bonding Hydrophobic effect Ionic bonding Covalent bonding

Carbon fixation

all of the reactions carbon fixation occur in the dark

The endodermal cells

allow the water to enter the stele (vascular cylinder) but are SELECTIVE as to which minerals are allowed to enter. Example: Potassium an essential mineral, is allowed to pass, while sodium common in soils but UNUSEd in plants, is blocked. Once through the endodermis, water and minerals continue by the apoplast pathway to the xylem. They xylem tissue consisting of tracheas and vessels, is the major conducting mechanism of the plant.

An animal like protist that uses pseudopodia to move and feed is an

amoeba have pseudopodia all protists are eukaryotic, and most have flagella or cilia at some point in their life cycles. The euglena has a flagellum, the paramecium has cilia and the amoeba have psuedopodia

An allele is

an alternative molecular form of a gene

Lysozyme is

an enzyme found in body fluids such as tears which aid in destroying certain bacteria.

trypsin

an enzyme from the pancreas that digests proteins in the small intestine

At daybreak, light rapidly converse the accumulate Pr to PRf

an equilibrium between Pr and Pfr is again attained

What is a zygomen?

an inactive form of an enzyme

Chloroplasts contain

an inner and outer membrane. the inner laters contains a fluid called Stroma. A series of stacked disks are present. Each disk is a thylakoid, which contains the photosynthetic pigment.

What are anchor junctions?

anchor junctions (consisting of desmosomes) provide strong mechanical stability and are present in tissues subject to mechanical stress (Such as the CERVIX and outer layer of the SKIN).

Petals

and sometimes sepals, function to attract pollinators

Protozoa

animal like protists are heterotrophs they consume either living cells or dead organic matter

Three chambered hearts

animals and reptiles

Pseudocoelomate

animals have a cavity that is not completely lined by mesoderm derived tissue.

Acoelomate

animals lack a coelom

What are Endotherms?

animals that generate their own body heat. aka homeotherms because they maintain a constant internal temperature or a "warm-blooded" because their temperature is relatively warm compared to ectotherms.

Crustaceans are the only arthropods with two pairs of

antennae

Plasma cells produce

antibodies

Domain Archaea

archaea aka archaebacteria are PROKARYOTES 1. Archaeal cell walls contain various polysaccharides, but not peptidoglycan, cellulose or chitin 2. Archaeal plasma membranes contain phospholipids that differ from the phospholipids of bacteria and eukaryotes.

Chemosynthetic bacteria

are AUTOTROPHS some of these are called NITRIFYING bacteria because they convert nitrite NO2- to nitrate NO3-

What are Plasma Cells?

are B cells that release their specific antibodies which then circulate through the body, binding to antigens.

Nitrogen fixing bacteria

are HETEROTROPHS that fix nitrogen. Many of these bacteria have mutulatistic relationships with plants; that is both the bacteria and the host plant benefit from an interdependent relationship. The bacteria live in nodules, specialized structures in plant roots.

Ungulates

are LARGE hooved plant eating mammals such as giraffes seen in the African savanna

Cytokinins

are a group of hormones that stimulate cytokinesis (cell division) Produced in roots and are transported throughout the plant. Stimulate the growth of lateral buds, thus weakening apical dominance (dominate growth of the apical meristem). Cytokinins have been found to delay senescence (aging) of leaves and are often sprayed on cut flowers and fruit to prolong their usefulness.

Gibberellins

are a group of plant hormones that, like auxin promote cell growth. over 60 various related gibberellins abbreviated GA1, GA2, GA3 etc for Gibberellin Acid. Synthesis in young leaves, rots and seeds but are often transported to other parts of the plant.

Dinoflagellates

are a type of plant-like protists. They are microscopic, but they are autotrophic and do not have cell walls. They have two flagella.

Rhizopoda

are amoebas that move by extensions of their cell body called pseudopodia. Pseudopodia encircle food and absorb it by phagocytosis.

Platelets

are cell fragments that are involved in blood clotting. Platelets release factors that are involved in the conversion of the major clotting agent, fibrinogen, into its active form, fibrin. Threads of fibrin protein form a network that stops blood flow.

Taigas

are characterized by coniferous forests (pines, firs, and other trees with needles for leaves). Winters are cold, and precipitation is in the form of snow.

Tropical rain forests

are characterized by high temperature and heavy rainfall. The vegetation consists predomi- nately of tall trees that branch only at their tops, forming a spreading canopy that allows little light to reach the forest floor. Epiphytes (plants that live commensally on other plants) and vines commonly grow on the trees, but due to lack of light, little grows on the forest floor.

Antibitoics

are chemicals derived from bacteria or fungi that are harmful to other microorganisms

Spirochetes

are coiled bacteria that move with a corkscrew motion. Their flagella are internal, positioned within the layers of the cell wall.

Sperm

are compact packages of DNA specialized for the effective delivery of the male genome. They consist of the following structures, sperm head, midpiece, and tail.

What are Detritivores?

are consumers that obtain their energy by consuming dead plants and animals (detritus). The smallest detritivores, called decomposers, include fungi and bacteria. Other detritivores include nematodes, earthworms, insects, and scavengers such as crabs, vultures and jackals.

Ligand-gated channels

are controlled by a substance present in the extracellular fluid to the receptor. An excited neuron releases acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft.

Ciliates

are distinguished by their cilia, which they use for moving and other functions.

Gills

are evaginated structures, or outgrowths from the body, that create a larger SA over high gas exchange occurs. Inside the gills, a circulatory system removes the oxygen and delivers waste CO2

Population cycles

are fluctuations in population size in response to varying effects of limiting factors. For example, since many limiting factors are density dependent, they will have a greater effect when the population size is large as compared to when the population is small.

Contractile vacuoles

are found in the cytoplasms of various protists, such as paramecia and amoebas. These vacuoles accumulate water, merge with the plasma membrane, and release the water to the environment.

Symbiotic bacteria

are found in the digestive tract and the vagina outcompete many other organism that could cause damage

Flame cells (protonephridia)

are found in various Platyhelminthes, such as planaria. The flame cells are distributed along a branched tube system that permeates the flatworm. Body fluids are filtered across the flame cells, whose internal cilia move the fluids through the tube system. Wastes (water and salts) are excreted from the tube system through pores that exit the body.

Savannas

are grasslands with scattered trees. Because savannas are tropical,they are subject to high temperatures. However, they receive considerably less water than rain forests.

Tissues

are groups of similar cells performing a common function. Animal tissues are organized into four general categories: epithelial, connective, nervous and muscle.

Deserts

are hot and dry. Growth of annual plants is limited to short periods following rains. Other plants have adapted to the hostile conditions with leathery leaves, deciduous leaves, or leaves reduced to spines (cacti). Many animals have thick skins, conserve water by producing no urine or very concentrated urine, and restrict their activity to nights.

What are aminoacyl-tRNA's?

are how amino acids are carried to the ribosome for elongation in translation.

Pr and Pfr

are in equilibrium during daylight. During daylight Pr is converted to Pfr, since red light is present in sunlight.

Fixed action patterns (FAP)

are innate behaviors that follow a regular, unvarying pattern. An FAP is initiated by a specific stimulus. Typically the behavior is carried out to completion even if the original intent of the behavior can no longer be fulfilled.

Lungs

are invaginated structures, or cavities within the body of the animal.

Sertoli cells

are involved in the transformation during this maturation process.

What are Tight Junctions?

are junctions that completely encircle the sides of each cell, providing a seal that prevents passage of material between cells. This junction is characteristic of cells lining the DIGESTIVE tract where materials are required to pass though cells into blood. they prevent the passage of molecules and ions through the space between cells so that materials much actually enter the cells (by diffusion or active transport) in order to pass through the tissue.

Obligate anaerobi bacteria

are killed by O2

Papillary muscles

are located int he ventricles of the heart and they are responsible for controlling the AV valves. They prevent the inversion of these valves during systole (ventricular contraction)

Tracheids

are long and tapered, water passes from one trachea to another through pits on the overlapping tapered ends of the cells

What are Memory Cells?

are long-lived B cells that do not release their antibodies in response to the immediate antigen invasion. Instead, the memory cells circulate in the body and respond quickly to eliminate any subsequent invasion by the same antigen. This mechanism provides immunity to many diseases after the first occurrence of the disease.

What are T cells?

are lymphocytes that originate in the bone marrow, but mature in the THYMUS GLANDS THINK: T for Thymus They have antigen receptors. These receptors are not antibodies, BUT recognition sites for molecules displayed by non self cells.

Peptidoglycans

are macromolecules found in PROKARYOTES only. composed of polysaccharide and polypeptide chains. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan layer and appear purple after gram-staining. The thin peptidoglycan layer of bacteria causes most of the Gram stain to be washed off.

Prostaglandins?

are modified fatty acids which help induce fever, pain sensation, and inflammation. Aspirin may inhibit prostaglandin activity.

Brown algae

are multicellular and have flagellated sperm cells. Some brown algae are giant seaweeds, or kelps.

What is Plasmodesmata?

are narrow tunnels between plant cells that consist of a narrow tube of endoplasmic reticulum (called a desmotubule). Material between cells is actually exhancged through the cytoplasm surrounding the desmotubule. This type of cell junction is exclusive to PLANT cells.

Acquired characteristics......

are not transmitted to the progeny

Methanogens

are obligate anaerobes that produce methane (CH4) as a by-rpoduct of obtaining energy from H2 to fix CO2. They live in mud, swamps, and the guts of cows, humans, termites, and other animals.

Clams

are of the same protostome, but the phylum mollusca and class Bivalvia (meaning soft bodied). Many contain a hard shell made of calcium carbonate

Stomata

are openings in the epidermis that slow gas exchange between the inside of the leaf and the external environment

Apicomplexans

are parasites of animals. They are characterized by an apical complex, a complex of organelles located at an end of the cell.

Cyanobacteria

are photosynthetic, using chlorophyll a to capture light energy, splitting H2O and releasing O2 as do plants. They also contain accessory pigments called phycobilins.

Episomes

are plasmids which have successfully integrated into the host's genome autonomously and NOT integrated as a result of bacteriophage infection.

Blue-Green Algae

are prokaryotes from the Kingdom MONERA! Blue-Green Algae is aka CYANOBACTERIA, have CELL WALLS! *In lichen, a cyanobacteria provides organic nutrients for the fungus, thus they live symbiotically (The fungus offers protection) together.

Bacteria

are prokaryotes that are in the Kingdom Monera

Histones?

are proteins associated with eukaryotic DNA and archea DNA.

Vessel elements or members

are shorter and wider than tracheas and have less or no taper at their ends

Repressor proteins

are similar to transcription factors in that they have a DNA Binding Domain. The biding of a repressor to a DNA sequence prevents RNA polymerases from binding preventing transcription leading to gene suppression

Guard cells

are specialized epidermal cells that control the opening and closing of stomata.

Tundras

are subject to winters so cold that the ground freezes. During the summer, the upper topsoil thaws, but the deeper soil, the PERMAFROST, remains permanently frozen. During the summer, the melted topsoil supports a grassland type of community consisting of grasses, sedges, and other vegetation tolerant of soggy soils.

What are interferons?

are substances secreted by cells invaded by viruses that stimulate neighboring cells to produce proteins that help them defend against the viruses

Vaccines

are substances that stimulate the production of memory cells. Inactivated viruses or fragments of viruses, bacteria, or other microorganisms are used as vaccines. Once memory cells are formed, the introduction of the live microorganism will stimulate a swift response by the immune system before any disease can become established.

Malphigian tubules

are the excretory organ of insects

Angiosperms

are the flowering plants; they divided into monocots and dicots

Angiosperms

are the most diverse type of plants and have dominated the land fro over 100 million years. It is believed that the angiosperms evolved from a now extinct group of gymnosperms.

Conifers

are the oldest and largest trees of the world

What are Desmosomes?

are the structure found in anchoring junctions. Desmosomes consist of adhesion plaques attached to the interior of cells by keratin filaments and to neighboring cells by connecting adhesion proteins. They provide strong mechanical stability and are present in tissues subject to mechanical stress (such as the CERVIX and out layer of the SKIN).

Primary sex characterisitcs

are the structures directly involved in reproduction. The uterus and ovaries in females and the testes in males are examples

Vectors

are the vehicles used to transfer foreign genetic material into a cell. example: plasmids and viral cevtors such as bacteriophages..

Limiting factors

are those elements that prevent a population from attaining its biotic potential. Limiting factors are categorized into density-dependent and density-independent factors.

What is Secondary Compounds?

are toxic chemicals produced in plants that discourage would be herbivores. Examples, Tannins, commonly found in oaks, and nicotine, found in tobacco are secondary compounds that are toxic to herbivores.

What are ecological pyramids?

are used to show the relationship between trophic levels. Horizontal bars or tiers are used to represent the relative size of trophic levels, each represented in terms of energy (also called productivity), biomass, or numbers of organisms. The tiers are stacked upon one another in the order in which energy is transferred between levels. The result is usually a pyramid-shaped figure although other shapes may result.

Peripheral proteins

are usually bound to the charged polar head group of the bilayer. Mild treatment with salts for example can remove them. Hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions allow peripheral proteins to be associated with the membrane.

Role of Lysosomes

are vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus that contain digestive enzymes that function in the breakdown of nutrients, bacteria, and cell debris as well as the process of apoptosis.

What are Phagocytes?

are white blood cells (leukocytes) that engulf pathogens by phagocytosis. They include neutrophils and monocytes. Monocytes enlarge into large phagocytic cells called macrophages. Other WBC's called natural killer cells (NK cells) attack abnormal body cells (such as tumors) or pathogen infected body ells

Vascular bundles

arrangement of bundles of vascular issue (xylem and phloem) in stems Dicots = organized in a circle Monocots = scattered

The greatest resistant to blood flow is in the

arterioles

Which blood vessel contains the strongest and thickest walls?

artery

What is a Blastula?

as cell divisions continue, liquid fills the morula and pushes the cells out to form a circular cavity surrounded by a single layer of cells. This hollow sphere of cells is called the blastula, and the cavity is the blastocoel.

Organogenesis

as cells continue to divide after gastrulation, they become different from one another (Cell differentiation) taking on characteristics of specific tissues and organ.

Teichoic acids are used

as recognition and binding sites by bacterial viruses that causes infection. These acids are in gram-positive bacteria and covalently attached to the peptidoglycan layer.

Reabsorption

as the filtrate moves DOWN the loop of Henle, it becomes more CONCENTRATED due to passive flow of H2O out of the tube. as the filtrate moves UP the loop of Henle, it becomes more DILUTE due to passive and active transport of salts out of the tubule. At the end of the loop of Henle, then, the filtrate is NOT more concentrated. The interstitial fluid surrounding the nephron are MORE concentrated with slats. Next, the filtrate descends through the collecting duct toward the renal pelvis. As it passes through the salts concentrated in the interstitial fluids, water passively moves out of the collecting duct and into the interstitial fluids. When the filtrate drains into the renal pelvis, it is concentrated urine.

Depolarized

as the positively charged Na+ rush in, the charge on the cell membrane becomes depolarize, or more positive on the inside (from -70 toward 0 millivolts).

Halophiles are

bacteria that live in extremely salty water

The cell wall distinguishes two broad groups of bacteria:

bacteria that stain positive with the Gram stain technique have a THICK peptidoglycan cell wall. while Gram-negative bacteria have THIN peptidoglycan wall covered with a layer of lipopolysaccharides.

Domain Bacteria

bacteria, aka eubacteria or true bacteria are PROKARYOTES 1. Bacterial cell walls are made with peptidoglycan, a polymer of a monosaccharide with amino acids 2. Bacterial DNA is not associated with histone proteins 3. Ribosome activity is inhibited by the antibiotics streptomycin and chloramphenicol

How does blood continue to move through the veins if it is NOT by the contractions of the heart?

because of the movements of adjacent skeletal muscles which squeeze the blood vessels

Recognition

before penetration can occur, the sperm secretes a protein that binds with special receptor molecules that reside on a glycoprotein layer surrounding the plasma membrane of the oocyte. This VITELLINE LAYER (or ZONA PELLUCID in humans) insures that fertilization occurs only between egg and sperm of the same species.

Allantois

begins as a sac that buds off from the archenteron. Eventually it encircles the embryo, forming a layer below the chorion.

Oogenesis

begins during embryonic development. Fetal cells called oogonia divide by mitosis to produce primary oocytes, which then begin meiosis.

What is Secondary Succession?

begins in habitats where communities were entirely or partially destroyed by some kind of damaging event. For example, secondary succession begins in habitats damaged by fire, floods, insect devastations, overgrazing and forest clear-cutting and in distributed areas such as abandoned agricultural fields, vacant lots, road sides and construction sites.

Spermatogenesis

beings at PUBERTY within the seminiferous tubules of the testes. Cells called spermatogonia divide by mitosis repeatedly to produce primary spermatocytes that begin meiosis. Meiosis I produces two secondary spermatocytes which at the end of meiosis II become 4 spermatids.

Hypocotyl

below the epicotyl and attached to the cotyledons is the hypocotyl. It become the young shoot.

Facts about the mosaic model?

bilayer is NOT symmetric the inner and outer faces are not the same lipids and proteins are capable of lateral movement, but movement of either from one face of the bilayer to the other is prohibited. the fluid mosaic model is the most widely accepted description of the cell membrane. In this model the proteins can float within the lipid bilayer while traversing the plane of the membrane.

The LIVER produces _______

bile which functions to emulsify fats is also alkaline, serving to help neutralize the HCl in the chyme bile is stored adjacent to the liver in the GALLBLADDER and flows through the bile duct where it merges with the pancreatic duct.

Prokaryotes reproduce by

binary fission

Ligand

bind to and form a complex with biomolecules such as receptors. The conformational state of a receptor is altered upon binding. Ligands include substrates, activators, inhibitors , hormones, and neurotransmitters

During allosteric interaction, when a molecule binds, a conformational change occurs and the primary binding sit will no longer

bind to its usual substrate.

The biosphere is divided into regions called _______ that exhibit common environmental characteristics

biomes; each biome is occupied by unique communities or ecosystems of plants and animals that share adaptations which promote survival within the biome.

The _______ is composed of all the regions of the earth that contain living things. The generally includes the top few meters of soil, the oceans and other bodies of water, and the lower ten kilometers of the atmosphere.

biosphere

Diffusion between blood and cells

blood capillaries permeate the body. Oxygen diffuses out of the RBC, across blood capillary walls, into interstitial fluids (the fluids surrounding the cells), and across cell membranes. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction

Right ventricle

blood moves through the right atrioventricular valve (or AV valve, also called the tricuspid valve) and enters the right ventricle. The ventricles, have walls thicker and more muscular than those of the atria, contract and pump the blood into the pulmonary artery, through the pulmonary semilunar valve and toward the lungs.

What happens when blood reaches the capillaries,

blood pressure drops dramatically and approaches zero in the venues.

If the body needs calcium,

bone is broken down by the osteoclasts.

Appendicular skeleton

bones of the shoulder, pelvis, and upper and lower extremities

Pancreas

both an endocrine and exocrine gland. has dual function. Exocrine tissue produces lipase, amylases, and proteases and exports them to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Endocrine function is to produce hormones such as insulin and glucagon.

During the denaturation process AH and AS are what sign?

both positive

Glycogen is a

branched polymer of glucose represents a stored energy called "potential energy" and is found in skeletal muscle and the liver. Glycogen can be stored intracellularly. Starch and glycogen are polymers of alpha glucose

If fertilization does not occur what happens to the corpus luteum?

breaks down into the Corpus Albicans

Medusoid stages in the life cycle of some members of the Cnidaria are formed by the process of _____. The resulting medusa reproduce by ________ reproduction

budding; sexual When environmental conditions are favorable, hydra reproduces asexually by budding, the formation of outgrowths that pinch off from the parent to live independently. When envionrmental conditions deteriorate, hydra reproduces sexually, forming resistant zygotes that remain dormant until conditions improve.

The _______________ consists of bacteria, cellulose fibers and other indigestible substances.

bulk of feces

Gas and nutrient exchange occurs

by diffusion across capillary walls into interstitials fluids and into surrounding cells.

Hyperpolarization

by the time the K+ gated channels close, more K+ have moved out of the cell than is actually necessary to establish the original polarized potential. (-80 millivolts).

Ca2+ ions

calcium ions are not often used as neurotransmitters per se. Instead they form an essential part of the neurotransmitter please cascade. Calcium binds to the proteins, leading to vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release.

What is the main form of calcium in bone?

calcium phosphate

Hormones

can be steroid or non steroidal derived.

Phase contrast microscopy

can be used to view live cells;NO raining is required

Obligate anaerobes

can survive only in the absence of oxygen

Blood travels the slowest in ________ and has the lowest average blood pressure in ______

capillaries; veins

What is the Carbon Cycle?

carbon is required for the building of all organic compounds Reservoirs: atmosphere (as CO2), fossil fuels (coals, oil), peat, durable organic material (Cellose) Assimilation: plants use CO2 in photosynthesis; animals consume plants or other animals Release: plants and animals release CO2 through respiration and decomposition; Co2 is released when organic material (such as wood and fossil fuels) is burned.

Blood pressure is also the product of

cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance BP = CO x PVR

Both the Supreior and Inferior Vena Cava ----

carry deoxygenated blood from the upper and lower extremities respectively to the right atria.

Lyase

catalyzes the cleavage of C-C, C-O and C-N ons by elimination; a double bond is formed.

Phosphatase

catalyzes the hydrolytic cleavage of a phosphate ester bone.

Cholecystokinin

causes the gall bladder to contract; it is also made in the duodenum

If an organism is TOO warm, blood vessels will __________

cdilate

In herbivores, the dead-end pouch is much enlarge and is called the __________.

cecum. It harbors bacteria that help int he digestion of cellulose.

What are Integrins?

cell adhesion molecules. they couple the extracellular matrix from outside to the inside of the cell (cytoskeleton). Interns are heterodimers of alpha and beta subunits. These cell surface receptors that interact with the extracellular matrix are responsible for the mediation of intracellular signals.

Chrondrocyte

cell associated with cartilage formation

Notochord

cells along the dorsal surface of the mesoderm germ layer form the notochord, a stiff rod that provides support in lower chordates. The vertebrae of higher chordates are formed from nearby cells in the mesoderm.

Parazoa

cells are not organized into true tissues and organs do not develop

Taiga

characterized by coniferous forest and COLD winters. Think Tiga goes to the snow and its cold.

Chaparral

characterized by stands of dense, spiny shrubs with tough evergreen leaves. Their arid climates, short growing seasons, low nutrient soil and frequent fires results in the abundance of limits shrubby vegetation. THINK BONANAZA

Nematodes have a _________digestive system

complete

Chemical Communication

chemicals used for communication are called pheromones.

Control of respiration

chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries monitor the pH in the blood. In response, the chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to increase reparatory rate.

Fungi contain the polymer

chitin

Which of the following are proteins EXCEPT for one? dynein clathrin kinesin keratin chitin

chitin - is a type of cell wall found n fungi. Chitin is a polysaccharide similar to cellulose but with a nitrogen containing group called glucosamine. Chitin can also be found in the exoskeleton of arthropods like insects.

Which of the following are derived from cholesterol?

cholesterol is the precursor to steroid hormones such as estrogens, progesterone, cortisone, cortisol, testosterone, and aldosterone. Epinephrine and Thyroxin are AMINO ACID derived.

Steroid hormones are made from ________________ and are _______ soluble.

cholesterol; lipid

The stomach mixes the food with water and gastric juice to produce a creamy medium called ________

chyme

Stomata _____ at night and ____ during the day

close; open. This may be due in response to CO2 fluctuations caused by photosynthesis. During daylight hours, CO2 is low because it is used by photosynthesis, but at night, CO2 levels are high because of respiration

Lycophyta

club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts sporophyte vascular flagellated sperm spores

Staphylococci

clusters

Spherical bacteria

cocci

Exons

coding regions

Temperate Coniferous forest

cold temperatures and generally dry forests vegetation ha evolved adaptions to conserve water (via needle-like leaves)

Ossicles

collective name for incus, malleus, and stapes primarily responsible for AMPLIFYING sound ener

The origin of alternation of generations in plants

comes from certain life cycles of algae which exhibit alternation of haploid and diploid generations.

If two organisms occupy the same niche, they will

compete for food mate at the same time of the year

In the Bohr Effect, we see hemoglobin-unloading O2 under

conditions of low pH (high CO2 [H+]) acidic

Active immunity

conferred by recovering from an infectious disease

Coniferophyta

conifers sporophyte vascular wind-dispersed pollen seeds

Gymnosperms

conifers - seed plants

What does the dermis consist of?

connective tissue, containing erector muscles, hair follicles, sensory receptors, sweat and sebaceous glands.

Tropical rain forest

consistently high temperatures and humidity, heavy rainfall, and tall trees with many branches that allow little light to enter and reach the ground MOST DIVERSE biome

Kidney

consists of about a million individual filtering tubes called nephrons. Two kidneys produce waste fluids, or urine, which pass through ureters to the bladder for temporary storage. From the bladder the urine is excreted through the urethra. Ureters --> bladder --> urethra

Seed

consists of an embryo, a seed coat and some kind of storage material

Dermal tissue

consists of epidermis cells that cover the outside of plant parts, guard cells that surround stomata, and various specialized surface cells such as hair cells, stinging cells and glandular cells.

The palisade mesophyll

consists of parenchyma cells equipped with numerous chloroplasts and large surface areas, specializations for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis in leaves occurs primarily int his tissue. The parenchyma cells are usually tightly packed in one or more layers at the upper surface but can occur at both surfaces of vertically oriented leaves of plants adapted to dry habitats.

The spongy mesophyll

consists of parenchyma cells loosely arranged below the palisade mesophyll. The numerous intercellular spaces provide air chambers the provide CO2 to photosynthesizing cells.

Peripheral Nervous system (PNS)

consists of sensory neurons that transit impulses to the CNS and motor neurons that transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors. The motor neuron system can be divided into two groups: somatic and autonomic nervous system

Central nervous system (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord

Gametogenesis

consists of the meiotic cell divisions that produce eggs in females and sperm in males.

Menstrual cycle

consists of the thickening of the endometrium of the uterus in preparation for implantation of a fertilized egg and the shedding of the endometrium if implantation does not occur.

Stem: Cortex

consists of the various ground tissues types that lie between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder. Many of these contain chloroplasts.

Stem: Vascular Clyinder

consists of xylem, phloem, and pith.

In contrast to females, however, hormone and gamete production are __________ during the reproductive life of the male

constant

IF an organism is TOO cold, the blood vessels will ______________

constrict

Apical meristem

contains cells that produce branches and flowers.

The krebs cycle

decomposes PYRUVATE into CO2

Stem: Epidermis

contains epidermal cells covered with waxy (fatty) substance called CUTIN. The cutie forms a protective layer called the cuticle. Other epidermal cells include various specialized cells such as guard cells and stinging cells.

Cell body

contains the nucleus and other cellular organelles

Ovary: Flower

contains the ovules (which themselves contain the female gametophytes of the plant)

Enterokinase

contest trypsinogen (a zymogen) into its active form, trypsin

Ependymal cells

contribute to cerebrospinal fluid

Homeotic genes

contribute to the control of development by turning on and off other genes that code for substances that directly affect development. Mutant homeotic genes in fruit flies are responsible for producing body parts in the wrong places, such as legs where antennae should be. A unique DNA segment, about 180 nucleotides long, has been found in most homeotic genes in numerous species, from fungi to humans. This gene segment, called a homeobox, identifies a particular class of genes that control development.

Stomata

control gas exchange by opening and closing.

Extra ocular msucles

control of movement of the eye and elevation of the eyelid. Finally, there is no biological term name reticular muscles.

Autonomic nervous system

controls the activities of organs and various involuntary muscles, such as cardiac and smooth muscle Two divisions: sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

menstruation phase

corpus luteum regresses, decreased prostaglandin and estrogen

Influence of the egg cytoplasm:

cytoplasmic material is distributed unequally in the egg (or in subsequent daughter cells). The gray crescent in frogs and yolk in bird eggs are examples. Nonuniform distribution of cytoplasm results in embryonic axes, such as animal and vegetal poles. When cleavages divide the egg, the quality of cytoplasmic substances will vary among the daughter cells. Substances unique to certain daughter cells may influence their subsequent developments.

Microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments are the primary types of fibers comprising the _________

cytoskeleton

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes both have a

cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton is contained within the

cytosol

Cri du Chat syndrome

deletion of short arm of chromsome 5; low birth weight, microcephaly, mental retardation, baby's cry sounds like cat. A PARTIAL MONOSOMY occurs when only part of one chromosome is lost.

The _______ of a population is the total number of individuals per area or volume occupied. There may be 100 buffalo/km^3 or 100 mosquitos/m^3

density

Type II Survivorship curve

describe organisms in which the length of survivorship is random, that is the likelihood of death is the same at any age. Many rodents and certain invertebrates (such as Hydra) are examples.

Type III survivorship curves

describe species in which most individuals die young, with only a relative few surviving to reproductive age and beyond. Type III survivorship is typical of oysters and other species that produce swimming larvae that make up a component of marine plankton. Only those few larvae that survive being eaten become adults.

In most animals, the food ingested is too large to be engulfed by individual cels therefore it first must be

digested in a gastrovascular cavity by extraceullar digestion and then absorbed by individual cells

lipase

digestion of fats

pancreatic amylase

digestion of starch

Somatic nervous system

directs the contraction of skeletal muscles

____________ describes how individuals in a population are distributed.

dispersion. For example, they may be clumped like humans in cities, uniform like trees in an orchard or random like trees in some forests.

Gymnosperms

do NOT have flowers i.e. red woods, pines, juniper tree.

After a seed reaches maturity, it remains _______ until specific environmental cues are encountered.

dormant MOST IMPORTANT environment cue is WATER

How can blood bypass the liver?

due to the ductus venous.

Enterogastrone is made in the _______________

duodenum; and hen fatty food is in the intestine, it inhibits stomach gland secretion and slows the stomach's muscular movement. By slowing the stomach's emptying, more time is allowed for meals that contain fat to digest.

When does Negative Pressure occur?

during INSPIRATION . during inspiration, the lung volume will increase, resulting in a decrease in lung pressure compared to atmospheric pressure. The increase in volume is brought about by the contraction of the diaphragm and the action of the intercostal muscles.

Seminal vesicles

during ejaculation, these two glands secrete into the vas deferent mucus (which provides a liquid medium for the sperm), fructose (which provides energy for the sperm), and prostaglandins (which stimulate uterine contractions that help sperm move into the uterus).

Coelom

during embryonic development in more advanced animals, a cavity called a coelom develops from tissue derived from the mesoderm germ layer. The fluid filled coelom cushions the internal organs and allows for the expansion and contraction.

Frog: Gastrulation

during gastrulation, cells migrate over the top age of the blastopore. The top edge, called the DORSAL LIP, forms from the same region earlier occupied by the gray crescent. The bottom and sides of the blastopore edge are called the ventral lip and lateral lips, respectively.

Where does most of the cytoplasm concentrate during development?

during the remainder of meiosis I, cytoplasm is concentrated in only one of the daughter cells (unequal cytokinesis). Thus at the end of meiosis I, one daughter cell is the secondary oocyte containing most of the cytoplasm and the other daughter cell is a polar body with very little cytoplasm.

Alveolus

each bronchiole branch ends in a small sac called an alveolus (plural, alveoli). Each alveolus is densely surrounded by blood-carrying capillaries.

Testis (plural testes)

each of the two testes consists of SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES for the production of sperm and interstitial cells which produce male sex hormones (testosterone and other androgens). The external scrotum provides a temperature about 2 degrees C below that of the body cavity, a condition necessary for the development of sperm

Vas deferens (plural vasa deferentia)

each of these two tube TRANSFERS SPERM from one epididymis to the urethra. Sperm exit the penis through the urethra.

Consider the food pyramid.

each trophic level contains different quantities of potential energy energy and mass are LOST as the food pyramid ascended The producers represent that trophic level of highest potential energy.

Tympanic Membrane

eardrum - vibrations come in from the Pinna and are conducted via three bones, malleus, incus, and stapes, in the middle ear to the inner ear

Deuterostome

early cleavages - straight down (radial cleavage) first infolding of archenteron form the ANUS Coelom develops from out pouching (hollowing out) or archenteron wall

Protostome

early cleavages, slight angle (spiral cleavage)first infolding of archenteron form the MOUTH coelom developed from split in tissues at sides of archenteron

An _________ describes the interrelationships between the organisms in a community and their environment

ecosystem

In reference to a muscle cell, pyruvate, the end-product of glycolysis, serves as an

electron acceptor for oxidizing NADH back to NAD+. The NAD+ can then be reused to oxidize sugar during glycolysis which yields two net molecules of ATP by substrate level phosphorylation.

Packs

enable members to corner and successfully attack large prey

The developing embryo will most likely attach to the

endometrium

What is the major storage material?

endosperm or cotyledons.

Learning acquired by association can be forgotten or reversed if the performed behavior no longer elicits the expected response. The loss of an acquired behavior is called ______________.

extinction.

Lymph nodes

enraged bodies throughout the lymphatic system, act as cleaning filters and as immune response centers that defend against infection.

A neurotransmitter is removed from the synapse either by

enzyme degradation, re-uptake or simple diffusion

Chymotrypsin and Trypsin are

enzymes that are made by the pancreas theses enzymes are proteases; involved in protein digestion

When the animal is swallowing, a special flap called the ___________ covers the trachea, preventing the entrance of solid and liquid material.

epiglottis

Epinephrine is NOT a second messneger

epinephrine is a HORMONE that would be considered a FIRST messenger.

The phenomenon that occurs when one gene pair masks or modifies the expression of another gene pair is called:

epistasis

The corpus luteum secretes _________ and __________.

estrogen ; progesterone after ovulation, the follicle, now called corpus luteum, continues to develop under the influence of LH and secretes both estrogen and progesterone.

Protists are.....

eukaryotic organisms such as the hydra, paramecium, euglena (some euglena have plant and animal features and algae. All protists live in MOIST environments..

Neurons can be both

excitatory and inhibitory

The nerve cell body receives both

excitatory and inhibitory impulses.

Cellular slime molds

exhibit both fungus like and protozoa like characteristics during their life cycle. Spores germinate into amoebas which feed on bacteria.

r-selected species

exhibit rapid growth (J-shpaed curve). This type of reproductive strategy is characterized by opportunistic species such as grasses and many insects, that quickly invade a habitat, quickly reproduce and then die. They rpdocue more offspring that are small, mature quickly and require little if any prenatal care.

Avery-McLeod Experiment

experimental demonstration, reported in 1944 by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, that DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation, in an era when it had been widely believed that it was proteins that served the function of carrying genetic information

In some animals such as polychaete worms (annelida), the gills are

external and unprotected! In other animals the gills are internal and protected!

Facts about Plasmids

extrachromosomal genetic elements found in yeast and bacteria. sometimes called "Vector DNA" can be transferred from one cell to another by viruses may contain as fews a two genes or as many as several hundred if a plasmid becomes incorporated into a chromosome, it is called an episome they are double-stranded circular DNA

The greater the diameter of the axon the

faster the impulse will travel

Pterophyta

ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns sporophyte vascular flagellated sperm spores

Where does development occur?

follicle; which protects and nourishes the developing oocyte.

menstrual cycle phases

follicular phase, ovulation, luteal phase, menstruation

Autosomal dominant

follow the normal pattern of Mendelian inheritance. It is impossible for two unaffected individuals to have an offspring that shows the diseased phenotype.

Esophagus

food moves through the esophagus, a tube leading to the stomach, by muscular contractions called peristalsis.

maltase and lactase

for the digestion of disaccharides

Phosphatases

for the digestion of nucleotides

Amnion

for which this group of vertebrates is named, encloses the amniotic cavity, a fluid-filled cavity that cushions the developing embryo much like the coelom cushions internal organs in coelomate animals.

Root

form the root Dicots = taproot ( a large single root) Monocots = fibrous system ( a cluster of many fine roots)

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin are derived

from amino acids and are mostly secreted between neurons of the central nervous system.

Phloem

functions in the conduction of SUGARS. made up of cells called SIEVE-TUBE members that form fluid conducting column called sieve tubes. Living at maturity, although they lack nuclei and ribosomes.

Cephalization refers to

having sensory structures and nerve cells mainly up front, in a head

Mitochondria will most likely be found in

heart muscle

Xylem

functions in the conduction of WATER and MINERALS and also provides mechanical support. In addition to the primary cell wall that all plants have, xylem cells have a secondary cell wall that gies them additional strength. Sometimes, the walls of xylem cells have a seoncday cell wall that gives them additional strength. Sometimes the walls of xylem cells have pits or places where the secondary wall is absent. Xylem are dead at maturity

Gametes are produced in protective structures called

gametangia on the surface of the gametophytes, the dominant haploid stage of the life cycle of bryophytes.

The opening and closing of the stomata influence

gas exchange, transpiration, the ascent of sap and photosynthesis.

A monometer measures

gas pressures

Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own

genetic information

Starches are broken down into

glucose molecules

Fats (or lipids) are broken down into

glycerol and fatty acids

Yellow bone marrow

gradually replaces red bone marrow in adult bones; functions as storage for fat tissue and is inactive in the formation of blood cells

The farther apart the genes are the

greater the probability of crossing over

Thick filaments consist of

groups of filamentous protein MYOSIN. Each myosin filament forms a protruding head at one end. An array of myosin filaments possesses protruding heads at numerous positions at both ends.

Plasmodial slime molds

grow as a single, spreading mass (or plasmodium) feeding on decaying vegetation.

Facultative anaerobe

grows in the presence of oxygen but, when oxygen is absent, can switch to an anaerobic metabolism.

The _______ of an organism is the type of place where it usually lives.

habitat. A description of the habitat may include other organisms that live there (often the dominant vegetation) as well as the physical and chemical characteristics of the environment (such as temp, soil quality or water salinity).

Fungi are dominantly

haploid, but most form temporary diploid structures for sexual reproduction.

Golgi bodies

have a membrane

Bilateral symmetry

have a top (dorsal), bottom (ventral) head (anterior) and tail (posterior)

Euglenoid

have one to three flagella at their apical (leading) end. they have thin protein strips called pellicles that wrap over their cell membranes. can be heterotrophic in the absence of light. Some have an eyespot that permits phototaxis the ability to move in response to light..

Diatoms

have tests (shells) that fit together like a box with a lid. The tests consist of silica (SiO2)

Dinoflagellates

have two flagella one flagellum is posterior, while the second flagellum is traverse and rest in an encircling mid groove perpendicular to the first flagellum. Some os these are bioluminescent. Otters produce nerve toxins that concentrate in filter-feeding shellfish, which then cause illness in humans when eaten.

Search images

help animals find favored or plentiful food. Birds can easily find food they are accustomed to eating because they seek a specific, perhaps abbreviated, image of the target.

Excretory System

helps maintain homeostasis in organisms by regulating water balance and by removing harmful substances.

Zone of maturation (or differentiation)

here cells mature into xylem, phloem, parenchyma, or epidermal cells.

Fungi

heterotrophic kingdom or organisms that can be microscopic. The cell walls of fungi contain chitin, a polymer of beta glucose molecules with nitrogen containing groups attached to the ring.

The earliest organisms were probably _______________

heterotrophs

Autosomal recessive disorders

heterozygotes generally show no symptoms when both parents are heterozygotes 50% of the children will be heterozygotes sickle cell anemia, PKU disease, and galactosemia are examples of a sons and daughters are equally likely to inherit a particular autosomal allele

Ball and socket joints include

hip and shoulder and allow movement in all planes

Perforations

holes between cells; water movement through vessel members is more efficient than though tracheas.

The function of many animal systems is to contribute toward ___________.

homeostasis

Endocrine System produces

hormones that help maintain homeostasis and regulate reproduction and development.

What are tropic hormones?

hormones whose target cells are other endocrine glands. Thus they regulate hormone production by other glands.

The alpha helix is held together by

hydrogen bonds

Restriction Endonuclease Activity

hydrolyze only a specific bond in DNA. This sequence is known as a palindrome. A palindrome is read the same from left to right as it is from right to left.

Cnidaria

hydrozoans, jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals.

Fungi grow as filaments called

hyphae mass of hyphae is called mycelium.

The ____________ and the ____________ ___________ initiate the reproductive cycle.

hypothalamus;anterior pituitary. the hypothalamus monitors the levels of estrogen and progesterone in the blood. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK - low levels of these hormones stimulate the hypothalamus to secrete GnRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone), which in turn, stimulates the Ant. Pit to secrete FSH and LH.

Secondary protein structure

in a three dimensional protein with either alpha helices or beta pleated sheets, depending not he types of amino acids present. These structures occur due to HYDROGEN BONDNG between the amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids.

Cephalization

in animals with bilateral symmetry, there is progressively greater increase in nerve tissue concentrated at the anterior end or head of an organism, increasing its complexity.

Extra embryonic membrane development

in birds, reptiles, and humans, collectively called the amniotes, extra-embryonic (outside the embryo proper) membranes develop such as chorion, allantois, amnion, and yolk sac.

Completion of meiosis II in the secondary ooctye

in humans, sperm penetration triggers meiosis II in the oocyte, producing an ovum (egg) and polar body. The polar body is discharged through the plasma membrane.

Coleoptile

in many monocots, a sheath called the coleoptile surrounds and protects the epicotyl, In a developing young plant, the coleoptile emerges first, appearing as a leaf.

Depolarization

in response to the inflow of Na+, another kind of gated channel opens, this time allowing the K+ on the inside to rush out of the cell. The movement of K+ out of the cell causes repolarization by restoring the original membrane polarization.

Antimicrobial proteins are

in saliva, tears, and other secretions found on mucous membranes (such as lysozyme, which breaks down the cell walls of bacteria)

Radicle

in some embryos, a radicle develops below the hypocotyl. The radicle develops into the root.

When does the endometrium disintegrate?

in the absence of FSH and LH, the corpus luteum deteriorates. As a result, estrogen and progesterone production stops. Without estrogen and progesterone, growth of the endometrium is no longer supported and it disintegrates, a sloughing off during menstruation (Flow phase of the menstrual cycle).

Fatty Acid Synthesis occurs

in the cytosol

Neural tube

in the ectoderm layer directly above the notochord, a layer of cells forms the neural plate. The plate indents, forming the neural groove, then rolls up into a cylinder, the neural tube. The neural tube develops into the CNS. Additional cells roll off the top of the developing neural tube and form the neural crest. These cells form various tissues including teeth, bones, and muscles of the skull, pigment cells in the skin, as well as nerve and other tissues.

B-Oxidation of fatty acids occurs where

in the matrix of the mitochondria.

Sertoli cells

in the seminiferous tubules provide nourishment to the spermatids as they differentiate into mature sperm. The sperm complete their development in the epididymis, where they are stored until needed.

Facultative anaerobic bacteria

include E.coli DO NOT require O2, but grow better when it is present the human intestine may harbor facultative anaerobic bacteria

Marine biomes

include estuaries (where oceans meet rivers), intertidal zones (where oceans meet land),conti- nental shelves (the relatively shallow oceans that border continents), coral reefs (masses of corals that reach the ocean surface), and the pelagic ocean (the deep oceans).

Lycophyta

include the club mosses, spike mosses and quill worts

Oomycota

include the water molds, downy mildews, and white rusts. They are either parasites or spores.

Secondary sex characteristics

includes such human features as body hair (pubic hair and beards), distribution of muscle and fat, voice quality and breasts. Dear antlers, lion manes, and peacock tails are examples. In general, they are used to indicate sexual maturity or sexual readiness and to attract or locate mates or are used by males to compete for females.

Platyhelminthes (flatworms) have ______ digestive system

incomplete they have a single opening for substances to enter and leave the body. Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical and contain centralized nervous system containing a brain and nerve cord.

Hypertrophy

increase in cell size

During oxidative phosphorylation, by before chemiososis, the pH of the mitochondrial matrix

increases as the electron transport chain proceeds.

Aldosterone

increases both the reabsorption of water and reabsorption of Na+. It does this by increasing the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct to Na+ As a result, more Na+ diffuses out of the this tubule and duct. Since the Na+ increases he salt concentration outside of the tubule, water passively follows.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

increases the reabsorption of water by the body and increase the concentration of salts in the urine. It does this by increasing the permeability of the collecting duct to water. As a result, urine becomes more concentrated as water diffuses out of the collecting duct as the filtrate descends into the renal pelvis.

Radial cleavages of deuterostomes are usually ______________________, while spiral cleavages of protostomes are often ______________.

indeterminate;determinate

Dominance hierarchies

indicate power and status relationships between individuals in a group. Established hierarchies minimize fighting for food and mates.

Zona Reticularis

innermost cortical layer produces androgens, the precursors to testosterone in humans

The energy source for CHEMOAUTOTROPHS comes from

inorganic molecules including methanogens, halophiles and thermophiles

Two pairs of antennae distinguishes ______ from __________

insects from crustaceans

Tracheae

insects have chitin-lined tubes, or tracheae, that permeate their bodies. Oxygen enters (or CO2 exits) the tracheae through openings called SPIRACLES; diffusion occurs across moistened tracheal endings.

Lymphatic system

interstitial fluids and wastes are returned to the circulatory system via the lymphatic system (a second network of capillaries and veins)

Glucose and other sugars are absorbed into the blood from where?

intestinal tract and reach the liver via the portal vein.

When the reproductive rate, r, is maximum (the biotic potential), is is called the __________ _________ of growth

intrinsic rate; Note however that when deaths exceed births, r, will be negative and the population size will decrease. On the other hand, when births are equal to deaths, the growth rate is zero and the population size remains constant (Zero Population Growth or ZPG).

What is the humoral response (or antibody-mediated response)?

involves most cells and responds to antigens or pathogens that are circulating in the lymph or blood humor is a medieval term for body fluid. Involves the following events: 1. B cells produce plasma cells 2. B cells produce memory cells 3. Macrophage and helper T cells stimulate B cell production

Internal fertilization

involves sperm being deposited into the female reproductive tract. Think copulation. Offers protein from predators, whereas external fertilization, predators greatly reduce the chance of surviving into adulthood.

What is Dynein and Kinesin?

is a MOTOR protein that uses ATP to transport substances within a cell via movement on microtubules, generally towards the center of the cell.

Placenta

is a blend of maternal and embryonic tissues across which gases, nutrients and wastes are exchanged.

What is the blood-brain barrier?

is a blockade of cells that prevents or slows the passage of drugs, ions, and pathogens into the central nervous system. This barrier however is permeable to O2, CO2, glucose and general anesthetics.

A tonus

is a condition of skeletal muscle in which a sustained slight contraction is maintained.

Binary fission

is a form of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes and some organelle within eukaryotes (mitochorndia and chloroplasts). The DNA is duplicated and then the two copies migrate to opposite sides of the cell, and the cell then splits into two. The consequence of this is that all the bacteria and progeny are genetically identical.

What is a complement?

is a group of about twenty proteins that "complement" defense reactions. These proteins help attract phagocytes to foreign cells and help destroy foreign cells by promoting cell lysis (breaking open the cell)

Abscisic acid (ABA)

is a growth inhibitor. In buds, it delays growth and causes the formation of scales in preparation for overwintering. In many species of plants, ABA maintains dormancy in seeds.

Knee

is a hinge joint which allows movement in one plane ONLY

What is Ecdysone?

is a hormone that is involved in insect noting and metamorphosis.

Sepal

is a leaf-like structure that functions in the protection of the flower. This is unrelated to the female reproductive structures.

Habituation

is a learned behavior that allows the animal to disregard meaningless stimuli. i.e. sea anemones pull food into their mouths by withdrawing their tentacles. If the tentacles are stimulated with nonfood items (i.e. a stick), the tentacles will ignore the stimulus after several futile attempt to capture the food.

What is a food chain?

is a linear flow chart of who eats whom. For example grass--> zebra--> lion---> vulture

Migration

is a long distance movement of animals based on the season. Birds will often migrate from the north towards the south to avoid cold winters with a lack of resources.

Acrosome

is a membrane bound structure found at the anterior end of most sperm cells. The acrosome contains HYALURONIDASE, which is a hydrolytic enzyme that causes the breakdown of the protective surfaces of the egg.

RNA Interference (RNAi)

is a method of gene slicing that leads to the repression of eukaryotic genes.

DNA Microarray

is a method to determine which genes are expressed and which genes are not expressed in a sample. This is useful in cancer research because we can see which genes are over/under expressed compared to a normal cell.

Pecking order

is a more or less linear order of status often used to describe dominance hierarchies in chickens.

Serotonin

is a neurotransmitter that is highly active in the GI tract and in the CNS. Imbalances in serotonin have been implicated in neuropsychological disorders such as depression.

Anther

is a part of the stamen (male reproductive). The anther contains the microsporangia that go through meiosis to produce haploid gametes in plant reproduction.

Filament: Flower

is a part of the stamen. It is a stalk that supports the pollen-bearing anther that sits on top of it.

What is the Halden effect?

is a property of the hemoglobin molecule which shows that the deoxygenated form [ when O2 is unloaded] has an increased ability to carry CO2

Leaf: Epidermis

is a protective covering of one of more layers of cells. As in other aerial portions of the plant, the epidermis is covered by the cuticle, a protective layer consisting of a waxy material cutin.

What is the reflex arc?

is a rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus. It consists of two or three neurons -- a sensory and motor neuron, and in some reflex arcs, an interneuron.

What is Clathrin?

is a receptor protein on the surface of the plasma membrane involved in shaping vesicles during endocytosis. Cathrin is a protein that coats vesicles and plays a critical role in their formation, as well as three incorporation into the cell membrane during exocytosis and endocytosis.

Mutualism

is a relationship in which both species benefit (+,+)

Summation

is a response seen when stimuli are given to a muscle at short intervals so that the muscle does not have time to relax in between stimuli

Thigmotropism

is a response to touch. When vines and other climbing plants contact some object, they respond by wrapping around it. The mechanism for this kind of differential growth is not well understood.

Cillary muscle

is a ring of smooth muscle that changes the shape of the lens within the eye to view objects at different distances

Endodermis

is a ring of tight packed cells at the innermost portion of the cortex

Ca2+

is a secondary messenger used in signal transduction pathways, the smooth ER can be triggered to release intracellular calcium, which can directly causes a response in the cell or subsequently activate other molecules.

cAMP or cyclic AMP

is a secondary messenger used in signal transduction. In the cAMP dependent pathway, activated G protein coupled receptors lead to the activation of adenylyl cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP.

DAG and IP3

is a secondary messenger. In the phosphatidylinositol pathway, activated G protein coupled receptors lead to the activation of phospholipase C, which leaves PIP2 into IP3 and DAG which trigger further intracellular effects

Jacobson's organ

is a sense organ that detects chemical stimuli. snaks have a forked tongue that passes airborne particles to the Jacobson's organ in the mouth for examination.

What is the inflammatory response?

is a series of nonspecific events that occur in reposes to pathogens.

Plasmid

is a short circular piece of DNA outside the chromosome. Plasmids replicate independently of the rest of the genome and can carry genes that are beneficial for survival such as antibiotic resistance. They are not a part of the host genome.

Tetanus

is a sustained forceful muscle contraction, which lacks even a partial relaxation.

ELISA

is a technology to determine if a specific antigen exists. Antiobdoeis are placed into a micotiter plate and if they bind to their specific antigen there will be a color change in the microtiter plate, indicating that a specific antigen exists.

Symbiosis

is a term applied to two species that live together in close contact during a portion (or all) of their lives.

Style

is a tube through which the content of the pollen are transferred to the ovary

Heterochromatin packaging

is a type of tightly packed DNA that is UNAVAILABLE for transcription, due to how tight it is packed. Transcription factor proteins are unable to bind to the DNA and thus this result sin gene silencing.

Karyotyping

is a useful tool to count the number of chromosomes in a cell. The is useful in the diagnosis of trisomy diseases or an abnormal number of chromosomes.

Convoluted Tubule

is a winding tube that begins with the PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE at the Bowman's capsule and ends with the DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE where it joins with the COLLECTING DUCT. The middle of the tubules aka loop of Henle, is a shaped like a hairpin and consists of a descending and ascending limp. Surrounding the tubule is a dense network of capillaries the originate from branches of the efferent arteriole that exited the glomerulus. These capillaries merge into the renal vein as they exit the nephron. The blood flow though the nephron, then, actually passes through two capillary beds, the glomerulus and the capillary network surrounding the tubule.

What is Tidal Volume?

is air exchanged during normal breathing

A herbivore...

is an animal that eats plants. Some herbivores, especially seed eaters (granivores) act like predators in that they totally consume the organism. Other animals, such as those that eat gasses (Grazers) or leaves of other plants (Browsers), may eat only part of the plant by may weaken it in the process.

Medullary cavity

is an area found INSIDE the shaft of the long bone (the diaphysis). Yellow bone marrow can be found in the medullary cavity (which contains adipose cells for fat storage). as well as red bone marrow (where red blood cell production occurs).

Facts about Cartilage

is an avascular form of connective tissue can be found in the trachea, external ear, larynx and external auditory canal arises from mesenchyme

Fetus

is an embryo that resembles the infant form

Reverse Transcriptase

is an enzyme seen in retroviruses in which rNA, rather than DNA, is the genetic material.

Telomerase

is an enzyme that attaches to the end of template of DNA strand and extends the template strand by adding short sequences of DNA over and over known as telomeres) allowing elongation of the lagging strand to continue during DNA replication. This helps minimize the gradual shortening of DNA that occurs over time.

Primase

is an enzyme that creates sa small strip of RNA primary off of which DNA Pol III can synthesize new DNA. It is necessary as DMA pol III cannot create new DNA without an existing strand present to continue synthesis int he 5 to 3 direction

Topisomerase

is an enzyme that relieves strain created ruing the unwinding of replication and transcription in the double helix structure of DNA by cutting the phopshodiester backbone ahead of the replication fork. Later it seals the backbone back together.

What is a food web?

is an expanded, more complete version of a for chain. It would show all of the major plants in the ecosystem, the various animals that eat the plants (such as insects, rodents, zebras, giraffes, antelopes) and the animals that eat the animals ( lions, hyenas, jackals, vultures). Detritivores may also be included in the food web. Arrows connect all organisms that are eaten to the animals that eat them, that is, in the direction of energy flow.

Imprinting

is an innate program fro acquiring a specific behavior only if a n appropriate stimulus is experienced during a critical period (a limited time interval during the life of the animal). Once acquired it is irreversible.

A parasitoid....

is an insect that lays its eggs on a host (usually an insect or spider). After the eggs hatch, the larvae obtain nourishment by consuming the tissues of a host. The host eventually dies, but not until the larvae complete their development and begin pupation.

Spatial learning

is another form of associative learning. It occurs when an animal associates attributes of a location (landmarks) with the reward it gains by being able to identify and return to that location.

Trial and error learning (or operant conditioning)

is another form of associative learning. It occurs when an animal connects its own behavior with a particular environmental response. If the response is desirable (positive reinforcement), the animal will repeat the behavior in order to elicit the same response (for example, to receive a reward). If the response is undesirable (for example, painful), the animal will avoid the behavior. This is the basis for most animal training by humans.

Predation

is another form of community interaction. In general sense, a predator is any animal that totally or partly consumes a plant or another animal.

Skeletal muscle

is attached to bones and causes movements of the body

Instinct

is behavior that is innate or inherited. In mammals, care for offspring by female parents is innate.

Acetylcholine

is commonly secreted at neuromuscular junctions; the gaps between motor neurons and muscle cells, where it stimulates muscles to contract. At other kinds of junctions, it typically produces an inhibitory post-synaptic potential.

Community ecology

is covered with the interaction of populations. One form of interaction is interspecific competition (competition between different species)

Kingdom Animalia

is extremely diverse all animals are multicellular all animals are heterotrophic the dominant generation in the life cycle of animals is the diploid generation most animals are motile during at least some part of their life cycle most animals undergo a period of embryonic development during which two or three layers of tissue form

Meristem

is found in higher plants and represents undifferentiated cell types.

Acetycholinesterase

is found in nerve and muscle tissue, central and peripheral tissues, as well as sensory and motor fibers. This enzymes hydrolyzes the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is released by the nerve into the synaptic cleft where it binds to ACh receptors on the post-synaptic membrane allowing for nerve transmission. Acetylcholinesterase breaks acetylcholine down to terminate signal transmission and is locate don the post-synaptic membrane.

Ethylene

is gas that promotes the ripening of fruit. During the later stages of fruit development, ethylene gas fills the intercellular air spaces within the fruit and stimulates its ripening by enzymatic breakdown off cell walls. Inhibits the elongation of roots, stems, and leaves and influences leaf abscission, the aging and dropping of leaves.

Dehydrogenase

is involved in an oxidation-reduction reaction

In humans the allantois does what?

is involved in oxygen and nutrient transport and become part of the placenta. Eventually the allantois stalk becomes the umbilical cord.

Primary structure of a protein

is its sequence of amino acids

TSH

is made in the pituitary gland in the brain. TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to make thyroxin. If the thyroxin in the blood is HIGH, then this gland releases less TSH. LOW TSH levels means hyperthyroidism

Passive Immunity?

is obtained by transferring antibodies from an individual who previously had a disease to a newly infected individual. Example: newborn infants are protected by passive immunity through the transfer of antibodies across the placenta and by antibodies in breast milk.

ACL ligament

is one of four ligaments connecting bones to the knees joint. This ligament will connect the femur and tibia. ACL ligament limits rotational knee movement. It is commonly injured by aatheltes, such as football players and sprinters

K-selected species

is one whose population size remains relatively large offspring that require extensive parental care until they mature. Reproduction occurs repeatedly during their lifetimes.

What is Gastrin?

is produced by cells in the stomach lining when food reaches the stomach or when the nervous system, through smell or sight, senses the availability of food. Gastrin enters the blood stream and stimulates other cells of the stomach to produce gastric juices.

What is Secretin?

is produced by the cells lining the duodenum when food enters. Secretin stimulates the pancreas to produce bicarbonate which, when deposited into the small intestine, neutralizes the acidity of the chyme.

What is Cholecystokinin?

is produced by the small intestine in response to the presence of fats. Cholecystokinin stimulates the gallbladder to release bile and the pancreas to release its enzymes.

Pyruvate

is reached directly by NADH to form lactate as a waste product. Therefore, a human muscle cells can then gain or make ATP by lactic acid fermentation when oxygen is scarce.

Capacitation

is required by spermatozoa in the female oviduct and uterus that allows for egg penetration. Capacitation is actually a functional maturation of the spermatozoa. During the capacitation process, physiological changes occur in the spermatozoa. These changes include changes in sperm intracellular ion concentrations, molly and metabolism.

Cardiac muscle

is responsible for he rhythmic contractions of the heart. Although, striated, cardiac muscle differs from skeletal muscle in that it is highly branched with cells connected by gap junctions. In addition, cardiac muscle generates its own action potential, which spreads rapidly throughout muscle tissue by electrical synapses.

Altruistic behavior

is seemingly unselfish behavior that appears to reduce the fitness of the individual. It commonly occurs when an animal risks its safety in defense of another or sacrifices its reproduction to help another individual (of the same species) rear its young. Altruistic behavior actually increases inclusive fitness, the fitness of the individual plus the fitness of relatives. Evolution of these behaviors occurs by kin selection, a form of natural selection that increases inclusive fitness.

Facilitated diffusion

is similar only that it requires a transport protein -- there is NO expenditure of energy and the diffusion is moving down its concentration gradient.

Ventral root

is the MOTOR branch of a spinal nerve

Dorsal root

is the SENSORY branch of spinal nerve

Osmoregulation

is the absorption and excretion of water and dissolved substances (solutes) so that proper water balance (and osmotic pressure) is maintained between the organism and its surroundings. Two examples Marine and Fresh water fish

Territoriality

is the active possession and defense of the territory in which an animal or group of animals (often related) lives. Territories insure their owners adequate food and a place to mate and rear their young.

Stroke volume

is the amount of blood pumped fro one ventricle of the heart. In healthy patients, both ventricles pump equal volumes of blood. Stroke volume does not have anything to do with cerebrovascular accidents or strokes.

Metaphysis

is the area of the long bone between the ends (epiphysis) and shaft (diaphysis). It contains the epiphyseal plate (or growth plate) where lengthening of the long been occurs until adulthood, when the hyaline cartilage is replaced by bone and no further ossification occurs.

What is Emulsification?

is the breaking up of fat globules into smaller fat droplets, increasing the SA upon which fat-digesting enzymes (lipase) can operate.

Ligase

is the enzyme that connects Okazaki fragments together in prokaryotes. Synthesis on the lagging strand of DNA is not continuous - DNA POL is not able to continually synths in the 5 to 3 direction here because the replication fork must continue to extend first before more of the template strand becomes available. As a result, DNA on the lagging strand is synthesized in chunks known as Okazaki fragments that bus the joined together with DNA ligase, which creates phopshodiester bonds that seal together the separate pieces of DNA into a continuous strand.

DNA Polymerase III

is the enzyme that synthesizes DNA in the 5 to 3 direction. IT also has limited proofreading ability via a 3 to 5 exonuclease. If mistakes are made during synthesis, DNA Pol III can use this exonuclease to move backward and remove incorrect bases. REMEMBER: new DNA can only be synthesized in the 5 to 3 direction

What is Coevolution?

is the evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species.

pistil

is the female reproductive structure and consists of three parts: an egg bearing ovary, a style, and a stigma.

secretory phase

is the final phase of the cycle. the corpus lute produces progesterone which allows the endometrium to be receptive to implantation of the blastocyst

Pr (or Pr660)

is the form of phytochrome synthesized in plant cells. synthesized in the leaves of plants

Plasmogamy

is the fusing of cells from two different fungal strains to produce a single cell with nuclei from both strains. A pair of haploid nuclei one from each train is called a dikaryon. A hypha containing a dkaryon is called a dikaryotic hypha.

Karyogamy

is the fusing of the two haploid nuclei of a dikaryon to form a single diploid nucleus.

Synapse or synaptic cleft

is the gap that separates adjacent neurons.

Natural selection

is the gradual, NON-random process where alleles become more or less common as a result of the individuals interactions with the environment. Given limited resources, some individuals will not survive. Only the most fit individuals will be able to survive and pass on their genes to the next generation. Overtime, the accumulation of favorable traits and alleles in a population results in evolution.

Plasma

is the liquid portion of the blood that contains various dissolved substances

Migration

is the long-distance, seasonal movement of animals. It is usually in response to seasonal availability of food or degradation of environment conditions (they usually occur together). Example: Whales, birds, elk, insects, and bats are examples of animals that migrate to warmer climates.

the femur

is the longest bone in the body

Stamen

is the male reproductive structure of flowering plants. The stated includes the pollen-bearing anther that sits on top of a stalk known as the filament

Biotic potential

is the maximum growth rate of a population under ideal conditions, with limited resources and without any growth restrictions. For example, some bacteria can divide every twenty minutes. At that rate bacterium could give rise to over a trillion bacteria in ten hours. In contrast, elephants require nearly two years for gestation of a single infant. Even at this rate, however, after two thousand years, the weight of descendants from two mating elephants would exceed that of earth.

Carrying capacity

is the maximum number of individuals of a population that can be sustained by a particular habitat

What is the Major Histocompatibility Complex or MHC?

is the mechanism by which the immune system is able to differentiate between self and non self cells. The MHC is a collection of glycoproteins that exists on the membranes of all body cells. The proteins of a single individual are unique, originating from twenty genes, each with more than fifty alleles each.

Translocation

is the movement of carbohydrates through phloem from a source, such as leaves, to a sink, a site of carbohydrate utilization. Translocation is described by the pressure-flow hypothesis

Periosteum

is the outer membrane that covers the outside of bone (except at the joints of long bones). The perineum consists of an outer fibrous layer and and inner osteogenic layer with cells that develop into osteoblasts. The periosteum is also vascular, containing arteries and blood vessels.

Chorion

is the outer membrane. In birds and reptiles it acts as a membrane for gas exchange. In mammals, the chorion implants into the endometrium. Later the chorion, together with maternal tissue, forms the PLACENTA.

Stratum corneum

is the outermost layer containing the DEAD epithelial cells

Acetylcholine

is the primary neurotransmitter released by lower motor neurons at the neuron-muscluar junction. This produces a voluntary movement, the goal of the somatic nervous system.

Transduction

is the process of introducing new DNA through a bacteriophage or virus. A virus carrying bacterial dNA injects that DNA into a host bacterium and the DNA is then incorporated into the host genome.

Cloning

is the process of taking a somatic cell from an animal and producing a genetic copy form that cell. It is different from fertilization in that there is no genetic variation; each clone is genetic replica of the parent animal. This was best characterized by Dolly, the cloned sheep.

Photoperiodism

is the response of plants to changes in the photoperiod, or the relative length of daylight and night. To respond to changes in the photoperiod, plants maintain a circadian rhythm. Mechanism is endogenous that is it is an internal clock that continues to keep time even if external cues are absent. The mechanism is not well understood but Phytochrome a protein modified with light absorbing chromophore seems to be involved.

Ecology

is the study of the distribution and abundance of organisms, their interactions with other organisms, and their interactions with the physical environment

Conjugation

is the transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells by cell-to-cell contact. The donor bacterium forms a pilus to connect to the recipient bacterium. The donor then sends DNA to the recipient, who can incorporate it into their genome.

An organ system

is two or more organs working together to accomplish a particular task. For example, the digestive system involves the coordinated activities of many organs including the mouth, stomach, small and large intestines, pancreas an liver.

Axon

is typically a long, slender extension of the cell body that sends nerve impulses.

Dendrite

is typically a short, abundantly branched, slender extension of the cell body that receives stimuli.

PCR

is used to amplify the amount of DNA available, usually as an intermediate step of other genetic techniques.

Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)

is usually an inhibitory neurotransmitter among neurons in the brain.

Taxis

is when an animal moves in a specific direction after receiving a stimulus. The animal can move either towards or away from the stimulus. A type of taxed by flied being attracted towards lightbulbs at night.

What is the photic zone?

is where there is light; photosynthesis is seen. The photic zone is where many fish species, phytoplankton, and zooplankton are seen.

When water reaches the endodermis

it can continue into the vascular cylinder only through the symplast pathway. The apoplast pathway is blocked by the suberin that permeates the casparian strips.

What is the Immune Response?

it differs from the inflammatory response in that it targets specific antigens. An antigen is any molecule, usually a protein or polysaccharide that can be identified as foreign. It may be a toxin, virus, or a molecule that i foreign.

Allantois in Birds and Reptiles

it initially stores waste products (in the form of uric acid). Later in development, it fuses with the chorion, and together they act as a membrane for gas exchange with blood vessels below.

Oxidative phosphorylation

it involves the electron transport chain it involves redox reactions it produces approx. 3 ATP for every NADH that is oxidized it depends on chemiosmosis

Integral proteins

it is MORE difficult to remove them. Can be removed by detergents, organic solvents, and ultrasonic vibrations. Held in the membrane by hydrophobic interactions with the lipids.

What is true about smooth muscle?

it is found in the aorta, pulmonary artery, esophagus, and bladder. It is mononucelated. Involuntary muscle that is slow to contract. They respond to stimulation with action potentials.

What is the AV node?

it is located in the lower wall of the right atrium sends an impulse through the bundle of His, nodal tissue that passes down between both ventricle and then branches into the ventricles through the Purknje fibers. This impulse results in the contraction of the ventricles.

What does non-specific mean?

it is not specialized for a particular invader. Rather it is a general defense against all kinds of pathogens.

Down syndrome

it may originate through nondisjunction of chromosome 21 failure of paired homologues to disjoin during Anaphase I or II would result in Down syndrome it is an autosomal disorder which occurs equally

Ligament

join bones together at JOINTS lIgament and joInts both have "I" in them!

What are Gap Junctions

junctions that form narrow tunnels between cells via proteins called connexions. These junctions prevent the cytoplasms of each cell from mixing, but allow for the passage of ions and small molecules between cells. These junctions are found in tissues like the HEART, which pass electoral impulses across many cells.

Cornea

like a corn, it is peeled during LASIK surgery to show the iris and pupil

By tracing the fates of cells during development a _____ ____ can be built.

lineage map. A complete lineage map has been described fro the nematode (roundworm) Caenorhabditis elegans. Every one of the 959 cells in an adult C. elegant can be traced back to the egg, cell division by cell division.

Epidermis

lines the outside surface of the root

Smooth muscle

lines the walls of blood vessels and the digestive tract where it serves to advance the movement of substances. Due to its arrangement of actin and myosin filaments, smooth muscle doe not have the striated appearance of skeletal muscle. In addition the sarcolemma does not form a system of transverse tubules, and as a result, contraction is controlled and relatively slow, properties appropriate for its function.

Neurosecretory cells

link the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland. structured like neurons, but rather than secreting neurotransmitters into synapses that affect neighboring neurons, they secrete hormones into the blood.

Myofibrils?

nearly the entire volume of the muscle cell is filled with numerous, long MYOFIBRILS! Myofibrils consist of to types of filaments: Thin and Thick filaments

Pupil

little black dot in the middle of the eye

Extremophiles

live in environments where environmental conditions are extreme.

Pons

located in the hindbrain. acts as a relay center that allows communication between the cerebral cortex and cerebellum.

The Cnidoblasts are specialized cells

located in the tentacles and body wall of coelenterates. The interior is filled by the stunning cells, NEMATOCYSTS!!!

SA (sinoatrial) node or pacemaker

located in the upper wall of the right atrium, spontaneously initiates the cycle by simultaneously contracting both atria and also by sending a delayed impulse that stimulates the AV (atrioventricular) node.

Euchormatin

loosely packed DNA that is available for transcription.

What is the fluid called in these lymphatic veins..

lymph, moves slowly through lymphatic vessels by the contraction of adjacent muscles.

Ribosomes read _______ and synthesize _________ out of aminoacyl-tRNAs.

mRNA; polypeptides

Where is Glucagon made?

made by the Pancreatic Alpha Cells

Where is Insulin made

made by the Pancreatic Beta Cells

Polarization is established by

maintaining an excess of sodium ions (Na+) on the outside and an excess of potassium ions (K+) on the inside. A certain amount of Na+ and K+ is always learning across the membrane, but Na+/K+ pumps in the membrane actively restore the ions to the appropriate side.

What do the adrenal glands make?

make hormones such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and aldosterone.

Cortex

makes up the bulk of the root. Its main function is the storage of starch. Often contains numerous intercellular spaces, providing aeration of cells for respiration

the state is the

male reproductive structure and consist of a pollen bearing anther and its stalk, the filament.

Autotrophs

manufacture their own organic molecules

Cooing by evaporation

many animals lose heat by sweating. Since changing from a liquid to a gaseous state requires energy (an endergonic reaction), body heat is removed when water vaporizes. Evaporative heat loss also occurs from the respiratory tract, a cooling process employed when animals pant.

Segmentation

many animals, such as insects and certain worms have segmented body parts. In some cases the body parts are the same and repeat while in other cases, the body parts are modified and adopt specialized functions

Visual Communication

many visual displays are observed in animals during displays of aggression (agnostic behavior) or during courtship.

Norepinephrine

may act with epinephrine to increase glycogen breakdown and allow glucose release into the bloodstream. Norepinephrine can also act as a neurotransmitter.

Kingdom Protista

may be algae like, animal like, fungus like, unicellular, or multicellular.

Transmission of an impulse across a synapse from presynaptic cell to postsynaptic cell

may be electrical or chemical.

Electron scanning microscopy

may be employed to view microbial surfaces; cells are not alive

Polar body

may continue with meiosis II and divide into two daughter polar bodies, but they ultimately disintegrate

Root hairs

may form as extensions of epidermal cells. Except for the absence of a root cap, similar regions of growth occur at the growing tips of shoots.

______________ is a protective skin pigment that can help block UV radiation from the sun which can potentially cause skin cancer.

melanin made by cells called melanocytes, located in the epidermis. The darker the skin color, the more melanin is produced. Melanin is an excellent absorber of light and dissipate most of the UV radiation from the sun, protecting one from skin cancer.

Algae like or plant-like

members of the protista all obtain energy by photosynthesis. all have chlorophyll a but may have various other chlorophylls and afferent accessory pigments. The main features: chlorophylls and accessory pigments, the form of carbohydrate used to store energy, the number of flagella and th make-up of the cell walls.

Connective tissue is derived from ______________ which consists of various types of cells such as fibroblasts, mast cells, and macrophages.

mesoderm Some connective tissues such as bones and cartilage are quite rigid whereas adipose connective tissue and fibrous connective tissue are more flexible.

CO2 is the most abundant

metabolic waste product

Electrophoresis

method of separating serum proteins by electrical charge

In plants and some bacteria, acetyl cOa can serve as the starting material for the biosynthesis of carbohydrates. What is the name of this reactive sequence?

modified CAC called the GLYOXYLATE cycle which can produce sugars from acetyl cOa.

Glucose and fructose are examples of

monosaccharides Glucose is an aldehyde monosaccharide, which fructose is a ketone monosaccharide simple sugar.

X-linked recessive disease

more common than X-linked dominant

Byrophytes

mosses, liverworts, hornworts gametophyte nonvascular flagellated sperm spores

Bulk Flow of CO2

most CO2 is transported as dissolved bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in the plasma, the liquid portion of the blood. The formation of HCO3- however occurs int he RBC's, where the formation of carbon acid is catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.

Tissue complexity?

most animals, collectively called the eumetazoa, have closely functioning cells organized into tissues

Obligate aerobes

most have oxygen to live

Cohesion tension theory

most water movement through xylem is explained by this theory 1. Transpiration - the evaporation of water from plants, removes water from leaves, causing a negative pressure or tension to develop within the leaves and xylem tissue. 2. Cohesion -- between water molecules produces a single, polymer like column of water from roots to leaves. Cohesion is the molecular attraction between like substances. 3. Bulk flow -- of water through xylem cells occurs as water molecules evaporate from the leaf surface.

Cerebellum

motor balance and hand-eye coordination

Similar to the valves on the right side of the heart, the left AV valve prevents

movement of blood into the atrium, and the semilunar valve prevents backflow into the ventricle.

Skeletal muscle cells are _________________________.

multinucleate. The nuclei lie along the periphery of the cell, forming swellings visible through the sarcolemma.

Warming by metabolism

muscle contraction and other metabolic activities generate heat. For example, shivering warms animals from the heat generate by muscle contraction.

A skeletal muscle consists of numerous muscle cells called ___________ __________.

muscle fibers

Sphincter pupillae

muscle is a muscle in the eye that constricts the pupil, usually in response to bright light

Heterotrophs

must obtain their energy by consuming organic substance produced by autotrophs. Some heterotrophic organisms are parasites, obtaining their energy from the living tissues of a host.

Monocots

narrow leaves, such as grass

The stinging cells of cnidarians are called

nematocysts

Which of the following has the poorest ability for regeneration in humans?

nerve

What is the basic structural unit of the nervous system is a ____ _____ or _______.

nerve cell neuron

Neurons form specialized synapses with muscles called ________________ ____________.

neuromuscular junctions

The functional unit of the nervous system is the

neuron or nerve cell

Zone of elongation

newly formed cells absorb water and elongate, forming the next region. Since elongation actually makes the root tip get longer, this zone is technically responsible for our perception of growth

the role that an organism occupies within an ecosystem is its

niche

The _______ of an organism describes all the biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) resources in the environment used by an organism.

niche. When an organism is said to occupy a particular niche, it means that certain resources are consumed or certain qualities of the environment are changed in some way by the presence

Excretion in arthropods can be best described by

nitrogenous astes excreted in the form of small solid uric crystals uric acid accumulating in the malphigian tubules.

Optic disc

no photoreceptors aka blind spot

Each gene pair tends to assort into gametes independently of other gene pairs that are located on _____________________ chromosomes.

nonhomologus

Nucleic acids are broken down into

nucleotides

Flower parts

numbers of petals, sepals, stamens, and other flower parts Dicots = in 4s, 5s or multiples thereof Monocots = in 3s or multiples thereof

What is an Ectotherm?

obtain body heat from their ENVIRONMENT. Since their temperatures often vary with the temp of their environment, they are sometimes referred to as POIKILOTHERMS ("changing temperature") Examples: most invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, and fish. Because many of these animals may feel cold to the touch they are call "cold-blooded" animals, but many land-dwelling ectotherms can exceed ambient temperatures by basking in the sun.

Sap robes or saprophytes

obtaining their energy from dead, decaying matter. Since sap robs contribute to the decay of organic matter, they are called DECOMPOSERS.

Temperate deciduous forests

occupy regions that have warm summers, cold winters, and moderate precipitation. Deciduous trees shed their leaves during the winter, an adaptation to poor growing conditions (short days and cold temperatures).

Malpighian tubules

occur in many arthropods such as terrestrial insects. Tubes attached to the midsection of the digestive tract of insects (midgut) collect body fluids from the hemolymph that bathe the cells. The fluids which include both nitrogen wastes and materials to be retained (salts and water) are deposited into the might. Wastes continue in the tract and are expected through the anus.

Density-indpednent factors

occur independently of the density of the population. Such as natural disasters (fires, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions) and extremes of climate (Storms, frosts)

Book Lungs

occurring in many spiders, are stacks of flattened membranes enclosed in an internal chamber

Nephridia (or metanephridia)

occurs in pairs within each segment of most annelids, such as earthworms. Interstitial fluids enter a nephridium through a ciliated opening called a nephrostome. Fluids are concentrated as they pass through the collecting tubule due to selective secretion of materials into the surrounding coelomic fluid. Blood capillaries that surround the tubule reabsorb the secreted materials. At the end of the collecting tubule, the concentrated waste materials are excreted through n excretory pore.

Acetylation

occurs on amino acids of histone proteins within chromatin. Adding acetyl chains to these histone proteins results in a relaxation of the DNA wrapped around them. This relaxation makes the DNA more available fro transcription factor binding. Ultimately leading to increase of gene expression. Makes it more negative --> DNA become less attracted.

What is Primary Succession?

occurs on substrates that never previously supported living things. For example, primary succession occurs on volcanic islands, on lava flows, and on rock left behind by retreating glaciers.

Associative learning (association)

occurs when an animal recognizes (learns) that two or more events are connected. A form of associative learning is called classical conditioning occurs when an animal performs a behavior in response to a substitute stimulus other than the normal stimulus

What is Bayesian mimicry?

occurs when an animal without any special defense mechanism mimics the coloration of an animal that does posses a defense. For example: some defenseless flies have hello and lack markings but are avoided by predators because they resemble the warning coloration of bees.

Insight

occurs when an animal, exposed to a new situation and without any prior relevant experience, performs a behavior that generates a desirable outcome. Example: A chimpanzee will stack boxes so she can climb them, providing her with access to bananas previously beyond reach.

Observational learning

occurs when animals copy the behavior of another animal without having experienced any proper positive reinforcement with the behavior. Example: Japanese monkeys usually remove sand from a potato by holding the potato in one hand and brushing sand away with the other hand. One money discovered that she could more easily brush the sand away if she held the potato in the water. Through observational learning, nearly all of the other monkeys in the troop learned the behavior.

Logistic growth

occurs when limiting factors restrict the size of the population to the carrying capacity of the habitat. In this case, the equation for reproductive rate give above is modified to. When limiting factors restrict size of population to the carrying capacity of the environment. Forms an S-shaped curve.

What is Mullerian mimicry?

occurs when several animals, all with some special defense mechanism, share the same coloration. It is an effective strategy because a single pattern, shared among several animals, is more easily learned by a predator than would be a different pattern for every animal. Thus, bees, yellow jackets, and wasps all have yellow and black body markings.

What is Mimicry?

occurs when two or more species resemble one another in appearance. There are two kinds of mimicry: Mullerian and Batesian

Exponential growth

occurs whenever the reproductive rate is greater than zero.On a graph where population size is plotted against time, a plot of exponential growth rises quickly, forming a J-shaped curve.

How does pollination of many kinds of flowers occur as a result of coevolution?

of finely tuned traits between the flowers and their pollinators.

Meiosi

of the diploid nucleus restores the haploid condition. Daughter cells develop into haploid spores, which germinate and form haploid hyphae.

Gastric juice

of the stomach kills most microbes

Plumule

often attached to the epicotyl are young leaves usually called the plumule

Autosomal dominant disease

on autosomes, abnormal allele is dominant; normal allele is recessive; only need the abnormal allele to express the disease

Autosomal recessive disease

on autosomes, abnormal allele is recessive; must be homozygous for abnormal alleles in order to express the disease

Rhodophyta

or red algae, contain red accessory pigments called phycobilins. They are multicellular and their gametes do not have flagella.

Miller-Urey's experiment

on the chemical origins of life! Several nonorganic molecules (excluding oxygen) were enclosed in a flask and allied to react with firing electrodes to replicate lightning. There was a significant amount of lightning on primitive Earth, which e believe helped give the "Spark" of life.

Pores

on the end walls of sieve tube members form slice plates, areas where the cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with that of the next cell.

Any gene that has the potential to induce cancerous transformations is called an

oncogene

Mitosis and meiosis differ in a few ways.

one difference is that during metaphase of MITOSIS the chromosomes align at the center of the cell forming the metaphase plate. HOWEVER, in MEIOSIS, metaphase I - homologous pairs (two sets) of chromosomes align at cell center which then separate in anaphase I. Through metaphase II - similar to mitosis, chromosomes will separate into sister chromatids.

The first meiotic division of an egg cell produces

one large cell and one small cell; the smaller cell forming a polar body

Glutamine

one of the essential amino acids, is often incorporated into proteins within the body.

Commensalism

one species benefits, while the second species is weight helped nor harmed (+,0)

Stereo-mircoscope

only allow for relatively low magnification. Stereo microscopes utilize light and are generally used to observe the surface of a sample.

Y-linked diseases

only transmitted from male to male, females are not carriers

Wastes and excess interstitial fluids move in the _______________ direction as they diffuse into the capillaries.

opposite

Mid piece

opposite the acrosome, the flagellum, consisting of the typical 9+2 microtubule array, emerges from the sperm head from one member of a pair of centrioles. The first part of the flagellum, the mid piece, is characterized by mitochondria that serial around the flagellum and supply ATP for flagellar movement.

Male gametagium

or antheridium plural antheridia produces flagellated sperm that swim through water to fertilize the eggs produced by the female gametagium or archegonium.

Soe fungi have septa or septum

or cross walls, which divide the filament into compartments containing a single nucleus.

What is a sarcoplasm?

or cytoplasm of the muscle cell, contains calcium-storing sarcoplasmic reticulum, the specialized endoplasmic reticulum of a muscle cell.

Foraminifera

or forms, have tests usually made of calcium carbonate. Many ancient marine sediments consisting of certain forma tests are good indicators of underlying oil deposits.

Chlorophyta

or green algae, have both chlorophyll a and b have cellulose cell walls and store their carbohydrates as starch.

Gastrovascular cavity

or guts are areas where food is digested. if they have one opening they are saclike, and the types of processes that can occur are limited. Two openings designate a digestive tract, allowing specialized activities to occur as food travels from beginning to end.

What are Primary consumers?

or herbivores, eat the primary producers

What are Secondary consumers?

or primary carnivores, eat the primary consumers

proteolytic enzymes

or proteases, enzymes that digest proteins, such as amino peptidase.

Prokaryotes lack

organelles such as mitochondria, golgie bodies, ER, nucleus and lysosomes. They do CONTAIN ribosomes, nucleic acids, plasma membrane, and a nuclear region called a nucleoid.

In the presence of light, the green parts of plants produce

organic material and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water.

Taxonomy

organisms are classified into categories called taxa

Radial symmetry

organisms have only one orientation, front and back (or top and bottom). They display a circular body pattern.

Chemotrophs are

organisms that use redox reactions to produce ATP

Bile (not an enzyme)

origin --> Liver, stored in gallbladder macromolecule target --> fats/lipids product of enzyme action --> Emulsified fats place of enzyme action --> Small Intestine

Trypsin, Lipase, and Amylase

origin --> Pancreas macromolecule target --> Proteins, Fats/Lipids, Carbohydrates Product of enzyme action --> Amino acids, Glycerol/Fatty Acids, and Simple Sugars Place of Action --> Duodenum

Maltase, Lactase, Aminopeptidase, Phosphatases

origin --> Small Intestine macromolecule target --> carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids Product of enzyme action --> smile sugars, amino acids, nucleotides Place of enzyme action --> Small Intestine

Salivary Amylase

origin --> salivary glands macromolecule target --> carbohydrates-sugars product of enzyme action--> simple sugars place of enzyme action --> mouth

Pepsin

origin --> stomach macromolecule target ---> protein product of enzyme action --> amino acids place of enzyme action --> stomach

Facts about RBC's

originate from stem cells, transport oxygen, are a biconcave disk (adding to surface area), lacking nuclei and mitochondria. They generate their ATP exclusively by anaerobic metabolism. Their efficiency relies upon being a small cell therefore having greater the total area of plasma membrane in a given volume of blood. Leukocytes are much larger in size and fewer in number.

Vascular cambium

originates between the xylem and phloem and becomes a cylinder of tissue that extends the length of the stem and root. The cambium layer is meristematic, producing new cells on both the inside and outside of the cambium cylinder. Cells on inside differentiate = secondary xylem Cells on outside differentiate = secondary phloem

Secondary growth

other plants, like conifers and the woody dicots undergo secondary growth. Occurs are two lateral merits, the vascular cambium and the cory cambium. These cells are meristematic, capable of dividing and producing new cells throughout the lifetime of the plant. The tissues that originate from the vascular cambium are the secondary xylem and the secondary phloem.

Epithelial tissue

outer skin layers and internal protective coverings

Zona Glomerulosa

outermost layer produces the mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone.

Pistil

ovary + style + stigma, which are the female reproductive structures of flowering plants.

The human female reproduction cycle is characterized by events in two cycles?

ovary --> ovarian cycle and the uterus (menstrual cycle)

Polar amino acid side chains contain mostly ____________ and _________. Non-polar amino acids chains contain mostly ____________ and __________.

oxygen and nitrogen carbon and hydrogen

________ makes up most of the earths crust. Earths atmosphere is most abundant in _______

oxygen; nitrogen The earths crust is composed of 47% oxygen, 28% Silicon The gases in the earths atmosphere include 78% N2 and 21% O2

What kind of blood does the pulmonary and the umbilical vein carry?

oxygenated blood.

Fungi are either

parasites or saprobes, absorbing the breakdown products from the action of digestive enzymes that they secrete. Many parasitic fungi have hyphae called haustoria that penetrate their host.

Left ventricle

passing through the left AV valve (aka the mitral or bicuspid valve), the blood moves into the left ventricle. From here, the muscular left ventricle pumps the blood into the large artery, the aorta, through the aortic semilunar valve, and throughout the body.

What is the hexose monophostae shunt?

pentose phosphate pathway converts glucose into five-carbon sugars and generates NADPH which is used in reductive biosynthesis of lipids.

Proteins are chemically broken down (digested) by the enzyme _____

pepsin

Stomach cells producing pepsin are protected from self-digestion because they produce and secrete an inactive form _______________.

pepsinogen

Failure of the mucus to protect the stomach can lead to lesions called _______ _____

peptic ulcers

Cork cambium gives rise too

periderm, the protective material that lines the outside of woody plants.

What is the climax community?

persists relatively unchanged until destroyed by some catastrophic event, such as a fire.

An observable trait of an organism is termed its

phenoytpe

A nucleic acid backbone consists of

phosphate and sugar units

cyclic AMP ---> AMP is catalyzed by

phosphodiesterase

Evidence suggests that 3.5 billion years ago ________________ appeared

photoautotrophs

Cyanobacteria can carry out

photosynthesis to produce O2 gas It is thought that these bacteria played a major role in converting a reducing atmosphere devoid of O2 into an oxidizing atmosphere. This dramatically changed the life form composition on our planet.

Purple or green bacteria are ______________________ bacteria.

photosynthetic; in which oxygen is the by-product found in anaerobic sediments of lakes or ponds carry out photosynthesis in which H2, H2S, or D is the electron donor, oxygen is not a by-product.

Law of Parsimony

phylogenetic tree with least assumptions is preffered

Lycophyta and Pterphyta

produce spores that germinate into small gametophytes. Like the bryophytes the gametophytes produce antehrridia and archegonia which produce sperm and eggs

Microsporangia

produce the microspores (male spores)

The greatest amount of energy will be at the ______________ level

producer. As you move down the pyramid we get approximately, a 10 fold increase, thus producers would be 1x10^8

Cambium tissue

produces new xylem and phloem cells (vascular tissue)

Red bone marrow

produces red and white blood cells and platelets

Juxtaglomerular apparatus

produces renin

Oxidative Phosphorylation

production of ATP using the process of chemiosmosis and oxygen During oxidative respiration, electrons flow through the ETC util they react with oxygen to form water. During this time, protons are pulled into the inter membrane space, or OUT of the matrix. If protons are being removed from the matrix, then the pH must INCREASE. (becoming less acidic)

Apoptosis

programmed cell death

Ribosomes are found in both

prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Auxin or IAA (Indoleacetic acid)

promotes plant growth by facilitating the elongation of developing cells. Auxin does this by increasing the concentration of H+ in primary cell walls, which, in turn, activates enzymes that loosen cellulose fibers. The result is an increase in cell wall plasticity. In response, turgor pressure causes the cell wall to expand, thus generating growth. Auxin is produced at the tips of shoots and roots when in concert with other hormones influences plant responses to light and gravity.

Crossing over occurs in __________ in meiosis

prophase

Cyclic amp and Clyic gmp will activate

protein kinases

Sulfur is found in

proteins two amino acids, cysteine and methionine, contain sulfur. Sulfur belongs to the same group in the periodic table as oxygen but is much less electronegative. This difference accounts for some of the distinctive properties of the sulfur containing amino acids.

What is a protein?

proteins are made up of amino acids.

Mollusks, arthropods and annelids are considered

protostomes In protostomes, the opening of the first indentation becomes the mouth

Determinate cleavage is a characteristic of

protostomes examples mollusks, annelids, and arthropods In protostomes the blastpore eventually develops into the mouth, while in deuterostomes the blastopore eventually developed into the anus.

The oncotic pressure tends to __________ fluid into capillary.

pull

The blood pathway between the right side of the heart, to the lungs, and back to the left side of the heart is called the

pulmonary circuity.

Open circulatory systems

pump blood into an internal cavity called a hemocoel (or cavities called sinuses) which bathe tissues with an oxygen and nutrient carrying fled called hemolymph. The hemolymph returns to the pumping mechanism of the system, a hart, through holes called ostia. Occur in insects and most mollusks.

The hydrostatic pressure tends to __________ fluid out of the capillary.

push

Movement of chyme into the small intestine is regulated by the valve at the end of the stomach called the _____________ _______________.

pyloric sphincter

Hemoglobin contains a

quaternary structure.

The growth of a population can described by the following equation

r = births-deaths/N r= the reproductive rate (or growth rate) N = the population size at the beginning of the interval which the births and deaths are counted. The numerator of the equation is the net increase in individuals. If, for example, a population of size N = 1000 had 60 births and 10 deaths over a one year period, r = (60-100)/1000 = 0.05 per year. OR more simply written Change in N/Change in time = rN = births-deaths

Electron microcscpes

reveal many organelles, but the chemical and physical methods employed kill the cells

As soil, water, light and other conditions change ____-selcted species are gradually replaced by more stable ____-selected species.

r and K. Examples include perennial grasses, herbs, shrubs and trees. Because K-selected species live longer, their environmental effects slow down the rate of succession. Once the climax community is established, it may remain essentially unchanged for hundreds of years.

Glucagon and Cortisol _______ glucose levels in the blood while Insulin ________ glucose levels.

raises;lowers

Wound repair is critical event for our survival, the process of wound coverage is called ____-__________________

re-epithelilization; which can occur about 24 hours after trauma. Interns help mediate the movement of epidermal cells into the area that was injured. This is but one of many examples in which intern play a major role in cell signaling.

Temperate grasslands

receive less water and are subject to lower temperatures than are savannas. The North American prairie is an example.

Action potential is generated on sarcolemma and throughout the T-tubules.

receptors on the sarcolemma initiate a depolarization event and action potential. The action potential travels along the sarcolemma throughout the transverse system of tubules.

In spongy bone, we see ______ marrow that functions in the formation of RBC's, certain WBC's and platelets (thrombocytes)

red

Which is the most and least effective colors in promoting photosynthesis?

red and blue = most effective green = least effective green light is reflected by plants, not absorbed

the cardiac or heart cycle refers to the

rhythmic contraction and relaxation of heart muscles.

Hyperplasia

refers to an increase in cell numbers

Hypertrophy

refers to an increase in the cell size of a tissue or organ

Facts about Evolution

refers to the changes in populations or groups of species. more specially referee to changes in allele frequencies in populations over time.

Epiphysis

refers to the ends of the long bond. The epiphysis forms joints with adjacent bone and contains red marrow.

Longitudinal flow

refers to the flow of endolymph inside the cochlea in the ear. This is associated with hearing and disequilibrium

Diaphysis

refers to the shaft of the long bone. Yellow bone marrow can be found inside the diaphysis (which contains adipose cells for fat storage) as well as red bone marrow (where hematopoiesis aka red blood cell production occurs).

NO is involved in

relaxing smooth muscle

Thalamus

relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex Keyword RELAY from the spinal cord

Arthropod

segmented organisms population includes, crustaceans, spiders, lobsters, shrimp, barnacles, and more.

Annelida

segmented worms, such as leeches, earthworms, and polychaete worms.

Role of the Golgi Apparatus

responsible for transport of various substances in vesicles, and is a necessary organelle for cell secretions. One would expect this organelle to be heavily expressed in pancreatic beta cells, due to their secretion of insulin into the body which would first have to be packaged into vesicles.

Translation of mRNA occurs primarily at the

ribosome Translation occurs in the cytoplasms primarily at the ribosome. As a strand of mRNA slides through a ribosome, codons are translated into amino acids, one by one. The interpreters are tRNA molecules, each type with a specific anticodon at one end and a certain amino acid at the other end

Water and dissolved minerals enter the roots through

root hairs by osmosis

Rotifera

rotifers, again both names sound very similar. Rotifers are especially cool because they are microscopic animals. They have a pseudocoelom.

Halophiles

salt lovers live in environments with high salt concentrations, such as in the Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea, or in salted foods, where they can cause spoilage. Most are aerobic and heterotrophic, white others are anaerobic and photosynthetic with the pigment bacteriorhodopsin.

Chief cells

secrete Pepsinogen

Mucous cells

secrete mucous that lubricates the stomach and protects the stomach from HCl produced

Leydig cells

secrete testosterone that allows germ cells to mature into sperm cells

G-cells

secrete the hormone gastrin which stimulates HCl production in parietal cells.

Some duodenal cells produce the hormone ________

secretin; which stimulates the production of pancreatic juice, especially the bicarbonate portion.

The rough ER makes

secretory proteins. The rough ER is rough (due to ribosomes) and largely protein producing.

Fibroblasts

seem to be the least specialized in the connective-tissue family. it si involved in collagen and extracellular matrix synthesis. These cells are derived from primitive mesenchyme. Fibroblasts show a remarkable ability to differentiate into other cell types. They can differentiate into adipose, muscle, bone, and cartilage cells.

cerebral cortex

sensory input, motor coordination

The quaternary structure occurs when

separate polypeptide chains come together and interact to form a larger protein help in place by Disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic effect, ionic bonding, and covalent bonding. A classic example is hemoglobin, which consists of four different polypeptide chains held in place by hydrogen, disulfide bridges and hydrophobic effects.

Hershey Chase Experiment

series of experiments conducted in 1952[1] by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase that helped to confirm that DNA is genetic material.

Under the influence of FSH and testosterone, __________ cells promote the development of sperm.

sertoli

Bacteria use multiple ETC's

sometimes at the same time

Secretin

signals the pancreas to release bicarbonate (a buffer) which can neutralized the acidic chyme. Secretin is also made by the duodenum.

Cardiac muscle

single nucleus, has striations as well as complex junctions between adjacent individual cells called Intercalated discs, it is involuntary

The _______ of a population, symbolically represented by N, is the total number of individuals in the population

size

Population distribution are described by the following terms:

size, density, dispersion, age structure, and survivorship curves.

What is the first line of defense against invaders?

skin and mucous membranes provide a nonspecific first line of defense against invaders entering through the skin or through openings into the body.

What are siRNA?

small interfering RNA, are small snippets of double stranded RNA that interfere with the expression of certain genes.

Most digestion occurs in the

small intestine

The thymus of a 35 year old is most likely ____________than that of a 2 year old.

smaller

Respiration: Direct with environment

some animals are small enough to allow gas exchange directly with the outside envionrment. Many of these animals, such as Platyhelminthes (Flatworms), typically have large SA and every cell either is exposed to the outside environment or is close enough that gases are available by diffusion through adjacent cells. In larger animals, such as the Annelida (Segmented worms), gas exchange through the skin is augmented by a distribution system (A circulatory system) just inside the skin.

Endospores

some bacteria are distinguished by their ability to produce endospores, resistant bodies that contain the genetic material and a small amount of a cytoplasm surrounded by a durable wall.

The ducts arteriosus conducts

some blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta, thus bypassing the lungs.

Heterocysts

specialized cells that produce nitrogen fixing enzymes. When nitrogen is fixed, unreactive nitrogen gas is converted into ammonia (NH3) which can then be used for making nitrogen containing amino acids and nucleotides

Kupffer cells

specialized macrophages located in the liver

Statoliths

specialized starch strong plastids, which settle at the lower ends of cells somehow influence the direction of auxin movement

A parasite

spends most (or all) of its life living on another organism (host) obtaining nourishment from the host by feeding on its tissues. Although the host may be weakened by the parasite, the host does not usually die until the parasite has completed at least one life cycle, though usually many more.

Seminiferous Tubules

sperm production occurs here aka spermatogenesis.

Porifera

sponges tissue complexity = parazoa

Estrogen is a _________ hormone, while insulin is a __________ hormone.

steroid; peptide

Prolactin

stimulates milk production in females from mammary gland cells. No milk production occurs before due to the inhibitory effects of progesterone and estrogen on prolactin levels

Cardiac Output [CO] =

stoke volume x heart rate thus, as stroke volume increases, cardiac output increase, thus blood pressure increases.

Gastrin is made in the __________

stomach; this hormone stimulates HCl secretion.

Cotyledons

storage tissue that provides nutrition to the developing seedling Dicots = 2 cotyledons Monocots = 1 cotyledon

What is the allantois role in both birds/reptiles and mammals?

stores wastes like uric acid and develops into an umbilical cord respectively.

the climax community refers to

the most stable community marked by a large biomass with no environmental change

E. coli uses 3 enzymes to take up and metabolize lactose; permeate, B-galactosidase, and transacetylase. These 3 enzymes are most directly associated with which part of the operon?

structural genes The structural sense that make these three enzymes are clustered in a single operon

Fluorescence correlation spec

studies cell-to-cell communication

What is a Morula?

successive cleavage divisions result in a solid ball of cells

X-linked dominant

such as X-linked rickets, are passed on from affects males to none of their sons and all of their daughters. Affected females have a 50% chance of passing the disorder on to their offspring.

X-linked recessive

such as hemophilia, are passed on from affected females to all of their male offspring. Skips a generation

The circulation pathway throughout the body (between the left and right sides of the heart) is the...

systemic circuit

What are other important environmental cues?

temperature, light, or seed coat damage.

Stomata close when

temperatures ar high. This reduces loss of water (but shuts down photosynthesis)

Respiration

the movement of gases into and out of the entire organism

Which tropic level has the least biomass?

tertiary consumers

When it asks you for the phenotypic ratio simply do the

test cross. First do a cross with the parent by itself and the cross the two separate ones together

Konrad Lorenz discovered

that during the first day of life, graylag goslings will accept any moving object as their mother.

Physiologist Ivan Pavlov found

that if a bell were rung just before dogs were given food, they would, after repeated experiences, salivate in response to the bell ringing alone. Dog associated the ring of the bell (the substitute stimulus) with the presentation of food (the normal stimulus)

Cilia

that line the lungs serve to sweep invaders out of the lungs

What did Nikolaas Tinbergen observe in wasps?

that they were able to associate nearby markers (pinecones) with the location of their nests. When Tinbergen removed the market, the wasps were unable to locate their nests.

Tundra

the ALASKAN tundra Think the alaskan bush people, extremely cold there, permafrost etc.

When the ventricles contract....

the AV valve closes and prevents blood from moving backward into the atrium.

Where is BILE produced

the LIVER stored in the gall bladder

Parenchyma cells

the MOST common component of ground tissue, have thin walls and serve various functions including storage, photosynthesis and secretion

What era were first land vertebrates, land plants, fish; many alga appeared in?

the Paleozoic era.

Which organ contains a surplus of RBC's which may be needed for an emergency situation?

the SPLEEN is similar in structure to a large lymph node. This organ removes old worn out RBC's and carries a reserve of blood which can be utilized for emergency situations.

Urine leaves the Kidney via

the URETERS. From the Kidney, the ureters carry the urine to the urinary bladder. Urine is stored here until voided through a single urethra.

Marine fish

the body of a marine fish is HYPO-OSMOTIC with its environment -- that is, it is less salty than the surrounding water. Thus, water is constantly lost by osmosis. In order to maintain their proper internal environment, marine fish constantly drink, rarely urinate, and secrete accumulated salts (that they acquire when they drink) out through their gills.

What are auto rhythmic cells?

the cardiac cycle is related by these specialized tissues in the heart, which are self-excitable and able to initiate contractions without external stimulation by nerve cells.

Allantois is Mammals

the allantois transport waste products to the placenta. After subsequent development, it forms the umbilical cord, transporting gases, nutrients and wastes between the embryo and the placenta.

Annual Rings

the alternation of growth and dormancy produces annual rings, in the secondary xylem tissue. These rings can be used to determine the age of a tree. Since the size of the rings is related to the amount of water available during gate year, rings can also provide

In Scurvy (bleeding gums) we see

the amino acid Proline not being hydroxylate to hydroxyproline. This accounts for less stability in the collage molecule.

Which technique is most widely used to elucidate the 3-D structure of a macromolecule?

the best technique to determine the tertiary structure of a protein is x-ray crystallography

Humans and most other mammals: Blastocyst

the blastula stage, called the blastocyst, consists of two parts, an outer ring of cells, the TROPHOBLAST and an inner mass of cells the EMBRYONIC DISC.

Fresh water fish

the body of a fresh water fish is HYPER -OSMOTIC, or saltier than the surrounding water. Thus water constantly diffuses into the fish. In response, fresh water fish rarely drink, constantly urinate and absorb salts (that they lose in their urine) through their gills.

Leaf: The function of the cuticle

the cuticle reduces transpiration, or the loss of water through evaporation. Specialized epidermal cells may bear trichomes (hairs, scales, glands, and other cell outgrowths).

What is the Archenteron?

the center cavity formed by gastrulation. It is completely surrounded by endoderm cells.

FOVEA

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster the area of the eye responsible for our cheap central vision, like you are using now. Nearly 50% of all the optic nerves travel to this region since is has so many photoreceptors.

Which two structures form the placenta?

the chorion is an extra embryonic membrane formed during development. The chorion allows for gas exchange in birds and reptiles, which in mammals it attaches to the endometrium and develops into the placenta. The placenta is a structure that allows for the exchange of gases, nutrients, water from the embryo and the mother.

Bulk Flow of O2

the circulatory system transports O2 throughout the body within RBC's. RBC's contain hemoglobin, iron-containing proteins to which O2 bonds.

Opsonization

the coating of a microbe with antibodies to make it more susceptible to phagocytosis

After ovulation the ovarian follicle creates:

the corpus luteum

In addition to influencing the proaction of sperm and eggs, testosterone and estrogen stimulate what?

the development of secondary sex characteristics in males and females, respectively.

Follicular phase

the development of the egg and the secretion of estrogen from the follicle

Collecting duct

the distal convoluted tube empties into the collecting duct which descends in the same direction as the descending limb toward the center of the kidney. A single collecting duct is shared by numerous nephrons and empties into the renal pelvis, which, in turn, drains into the ureter.

Zone of cell division

the dividing ells of the apical meristem form the zone of cell division `

Embryo polarity

the egg has an: upper = animal pole lower = vegetal pole. Cells formed at the vegetal pole contain more yolk, or stored food, because the yolk material, denser than the surrounding cytoplasm, settles to the bottom of the egg.

Caspian strip

the encircling band around each cell, creates a water -impermeable barrier between the cells. As a result of the casparian strips, all water passing through the endodermis must pass through the endodermal cells and not between the cells.

Primary tissue in the stem posses the same characteristics as the root expect they do not have

the endodermis and casparin strips are lacking, as these tissues are specialized for water absorption

Which statement is correct when the graph levels off?

the enzyme is saturated with substrate

Facts about Skin

the epidermis has NO blood supply stratum corneum is the surface layer which varies considerably in thickness stratum granulosum is that layer containing granules which can easily stain Stratum germinativum contains dividing cells

Adjusting surface area to regulate temperature

the extremities of bodies add considerable surface area to the body. By changing the volume of blood that flows to these areas by vasodilation or vasoconstriction (increasing or decreasing the diameter of blood vessels), heat can be lost or conserved. In hot environments, for example, elephants and jackrabbits increase blood flow to their large ears to reduce body temperature. In contrast, animals in cold environments reduce blood flow to their extremities conserve heat.

Small intestine

the first 25 cm of the small intestine is called the duodenum, continues the digestion of starches and proteins as well as all remaining food types.

Role of Flagella

the flagella functions in cell movement.

the flower is a major evolutionary advancement for the following reasons

the flower is a special adaption to attract pollinators, such as insects and birds the ovules are protected inside an ovary the ovary develops into a fruit which fosters the dispersal of seeds by wind, insects, birds, mammals and other animals.

Which is correct about hydrogen peroxide?

the formula is H2O2 Catalase can convert hydrogen peroxide to H2O and O2 since it is toxic to cells it can be an oxidant (oxidizing agent) such as the found in toothpaste). Peroxisomes are membranous vesicles that contain enzymes to break down H2O2

Glycolysis

the glucose molecule is oxidized into pyruvate ( actually 2 moles of pyruvate) during glycolysis

Sperm head

the head of the sperm contains the haploid nucleus with 23 chromosomes (in humans). At the tip of the sperm head is the acrosome.

Hydrostatic pressure is created when..

the heart forces blood to move through the arteries.

Convergent Evolution

the independent evolution of similar features in different lineages

Dynein "arms" are attached to

the microtubules and serve as molecular motors.

Ovulation

the mid cycle release of the egg

Zona Fasciculata

the middle zone of the adrenal cortex and produces the glucocorticoid cortisol.

Embryonic induction is

the influence of one cell or group of cells over neighboring cells. Cells that exert this influence are called ORGANIZERS. Cells act as organizers by secreting chemicals that diffuse among neighboring cells, influencing their development. Spemann discovered that the dorsal lip of the blastopore induced the development of the notochord in nearby cells. In particular, when a second dorsal lip was grafted into an embryo, two notochords developed. The dorsal lip functioned as an organizer.

Synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitter

the influx of Ca2+ into the terminal end of the axon causes synaptic vesicles to merge with the presynaptic membrane, releasing molecules of a chemical called a neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.

What happens at the end of Exhalation?

the intrapleural pressure of the lungs is the LEAST negative (highest)

AZT treats AIDS. Why could this drug possibly interfere wth DNA replication?

the key here is to find a way to interfere with DNA replication. During the replication process, an OH group facts with the 5' triphosphate group of a growing polypeptide chain. If a group such as N3 is present, NO NUCleophilic attack can occur; hence polynucleotide chain growth cannot occur.

The more highly specialized a tissue is

the less will be its capacity for regeneration

Large intestine

the main function of the large intestine, or colon, is the reabsorption of water to form solid waste, or feces.

What is respiration controlled by?

the medulla and pons

Bryophytes

the mosses liverworts hornworts

The opening and closing of the stomata then is controlled by

the movement of water into and out of the guard cells

Bowman's capsule..

the nephron tube begins with a BULB-SHAPED body at one end, the Bowman's capsule. A branch of the renal artery (the afferent arteriole) enters into the Bowman's capsule, branches to form a dense ball of capillaries called the glomerulus, and then exits the capsule (efferent arteriole).

Neurotransmitter binds with postsynaptic receptors

the neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds with proteins on the postsynaptic membrane. Different proteins are receptors for different neurotransmitters.

What is a fundamental niche?

the niche that an organism occupies in the absence of competing specifics is its fundamental niche

Closed circulatory system

the nutrient, oxygen and waste carrying fluid, blood, is confined to vessels. Found young members of the phylum Annelida (earthworms) certain mollusks (octopuses and squids) and vertebrates

What is the Blastopore?

the opening into the archenteron is the blastopore. IT becomes the mouth (in protostomes) or the anus (in deuterostomes)

Heterotrophic

the organism must seek its energy from sources other than itself.

What is the trophoblast?

the outer in of cells or trophoblast, serves several functions. 1. it accomplishes implantation by embedding into the endometrium of the uterus. 2. it produces human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) to maintain progresteone production of the corpus luteum (which in turn, maintain the endometrium). 3. Later the trophoblast forms the chorion, the extra-embryonic membrane, that together with maternal tissues forms the PLACENTA!

Pericycle

the outer part of the vascular cylinder consist of one to several layers of cells called the periculce, from which lateral roots arise. Inside the pericycle is the vascular tissue.

Parasitism

the parasite benefits from the living arrangement while the host is harmed (+,-)

Leaf venation

the pattern of veins in leaves Dicots = netted (a branching pattern) Monocots = parallel

Penetration

the plasma membranes of the sperm and oocyte fuse and the sperm nucleus enters the octet.

Stomach

the stomach secretes gastric juice, a mixture of digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid (HCl) and serves a variety of functions as follows: storage, mixing, physical breakdown, chemical breakdown, and controlled release.

Transition electron microscopy (TEM_

the preparation of a sample for TEM is extensive and requires incredibly thin sample size. TEM is useful for laking at very thin cross sections of a cel lin high detail. CANNOT be used on living samples.

What happens at the end of Inhalation?

the pressure within the pleural space (the fluid filled space between the double layered membranes covering the lungs). It is negative relative to the atmospheric pressure.

Each birth is an independent event therefore

the probability of having a boy or girl is 50%

Habitat Selection

the process by which organisms actively select habitats in which to live

Action potentials cause

the release of neurotranmistters into the synapse

Ovulation marks

the release of the secondary oocyte from the follicle. If it is fertilized by a sperm as it moves through the oviduct, the secondary oocyte will begin meiosis II and produce an egg that combines with the chromosomes contributed by the sperm. The second daughter cell of meiosis II, again a polar body, disintegrates.

Tail

the remained of the flagellum, behind the mid piece, is the tail. Sperm is propelled by whiplike motion of the tail and mid piece

Systematics

the study of the evolutionary relationships among organisms

Gavitropism or geotropism

the response to gravity by stems and roots is not fully understood

Phototropism

the response to light, is achieved by the action of the hormone auxin. The process includes: auxin is produced in the apical meristem, moves downward by active transport into the zone of elongation and generates growth by stimulating elongation

Fruit is

the ripened ovary of a floer

Luteal phase...

the secretion of estrogen and progesterone from the corpus luteum after ovulation

When the ventricles relax.....

the semilunar valve prevents back flow from the pulmonary artery back into the ventricles.

Quartenary structure is

the sequence of polypeptide chain aggregates to form a functional protein

What is the promoter site?

the site on DNA at which RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription

Fusion of nuclei and replication of DNA

the sperm and ovum nuclei fuse, forming a zygote nucleus consisting of 23 pairs of chromosomes (in humans). Each chromosome replicates so that it consists of two identical chromatids.

Sympathetic nervous system involves

the stimulation of activities that prepare the body for action such as increasing heart rate, increasing the release of sugar from the liver into the blood and other activities. Fight or Flight responses

Population ecology is

the study of the growth, abundance and distribution of populations

Epicotyl

the top portion of the embryo, the epicotyl becomes the shoot tip

Penis...

the urethra passes through the penis and serves to transport semen, the fluid containing sperm and secretions, into the vagina. It also serves in the transport of urine out of the body.

Animals represented by the genera Ascaris and Turbatrix display a unique attribute of movement which is

the use of LONGITUDINAL MUSCLES ONLY! The arrangements of protein fibers in the cuticle allow changes in the length of the worm but not its diameter. This results in the characteristic torso-ventral thrashing motion that can be translated to efficient forward movement in a viscous medium or an environment, such as wet sand or the walls of ghosts intestine, with solid or resistant surfaces to push against.

Chemiosmosis

the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work

Small intestine...

the wall of the small intestine is the source of various enzymes including proteolytic enzymes (or proteases, enzymes that digest proteins, such as amino peptidase), maltase, and lactase (for the digestion of disaccharides), and phosphates.

Frog: Yolk

the yolk material is much more extensive in the frog than in the sea urchin. Cells from the vegetal pole rich in yolk material form a YOLK PLUG near the dorsal lip.

What is a blastodisc?

the yolk of the bird egg is very large and most of it is not involved in cleavages. Instead, the cleavages occur in a blastula that consists of a FLATTENED disc shaped region that sits on top of the yolk. This kind of blastula is called a blastodisc.

Yolk sac: placental mammals

the yolk sac is empty. Instead, nutrition is obtained through the placenta.

Yolk sac: In birds and reptiles

the yolk sac membrane digests the enclosed yolk. Blood vessels transfer the nutrients to the developing embryo.

Cleavage

the zygote now begins a series of cleavage divisions, rapid cell divisions without cell growth. As a result, each of the resulting cells, called blastomeres, contains substantially less cytoplasm than the original zygote.

Heat shock with CaCl2

there are numerous ways we can force bacteria to uptake new DNA. Plasmids are short, circular DNA molecules outside of the main chromosome. Placing the bacteria in a solution of CaCl2 and heat will force the bacteria to uptake plasmids and incorporate them into their genome, this process is a form of transformation.

Polarized

there is a difference in electrical charge between the outside and inside of the membrane

An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which

there is at least one double bond within the fact acid chain

What are B-cells?

these are lymphocytes that ORIGINATE and MATURE in the BONE MARROW B cells for BONE B cells respond to antigens

Facts about Fungi

they are heterotrophic haploid spores are formed via sexual and asexual reproduction they are UNICELLULAR their cell walls are made of chitin they are all eukartyouic

Which is true about ferns?

they are vascular plants with large, feathery leaves. they have large leaves with many veins. fern spores develop on the sporophyte in sporangia Sori, or clusters of sporangia develop on the lower surface of the leaf.

Facts about viruses

they contains DNA or RNA but never both they are obligate intracellular parasites they are unable to reproduce outside a living cell the capsid of the virus may be spherical or rod-like

What happens when K+ enters a guard cell?

they create an unbalanced charge state. In some plants, the charge is balanced by the movement of chloride ions into the guard cells along with the K+. In other platens, H+ are pumped out of the cell. The H+ original form the ionization of various organic substances within the cell.

What happens when T-cells encounter non self cells?

they divide and produce two kinds of cells: 1. Cytotoxic T cells or Killer T cells 2. Helper T cells

Releaser pheromones

they release or trigger the behavior. Chemicals that cause immediate and specific behavioral changes. Some chemicals elicit responses when they are smelled; others trigger responses when they are eaten.

Why do all primary oocytes, progress to only prophase I?

they remain at this stage until puberty, at which time one primary oocyte during each menstrual cycle continues its development through the reminder of meiosis I.

Cornea

think CONES allows light to enter the eye

Retina

think RODS inner layer of eye containing photoreceptors

Iris

think colors colored portion of the eye

Epididymis..

this coiled tube, one attached to each testis, is the site for FINAL MATURATION and STORAGE of the SPERM

Prostate gland

this gland secretes a milky alkaline fluid into the urethra and serves to neutralize the acidity of urine that may still be in the urethra, as well as the acidity of the vagina.

What happens when the ventricles contract?

this is called the systole phase. Blood is forced through the pulmonary arteries and aorta. Also, the AV valves are forced to close.

Ovary

this is the organ where ova (singular ovum) or eggs are produced. Each female has two ovaries.

without the addition of a new ATP molecule, the cross bridges remain attached to the actin filaments. ....

this is why corpses are stiff-new ATP molecules are unavailable

Root pressure

this osmotic force, can be seen as guttation, the formation of small herbs in the early morning.

Density dependent factors include

those agents who limiting effect becomes more intense as the population density increases. Examples include parasites and ideas, competition for resources, and the toxic effect of waste products. Also predation is frequently density-dependent. In some animals, reproductive behavior may be abandoned when populations attain high densities. In such cases, stress may be density-depending limiting factor.

Semicircular canals

three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear responsible for our sense of balance

An action potential may be generated ONLY when the outside of the cell reaches the

threshold potential

An action potential may be generated only when the outside of the cell reaches the

threshold potential. Neurons can have both Excitatory and Inhibitory impulses EPSP and IPSP.

What are sebaceous glands?

tiny glands in the skin that secrete an oil called sebum. They are located in the dermis of the skin and found nearly everywhere in human skin EXCEPT for the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. The body releases this oil to waterproof and protect the skin, but it also is a lipid and reduces friction.

Photoautotrophs

use energy from the sun to carry out photosynthesis; CO2 is also used

What is a major goal in the study of ecosystems?

to examine the production and utilization of energy. To assist int his goal, plants and animals are organized into groups called trophic levels that reflect their main energy source.

What is the purpose of the ovarian and menstrual cycles?

to produce an egg and prepare the uterus for the implantation of the egg, should it become fertilized.

Tactile communication

touching is common in social bonding, infant care, grooming and mating. Wolves greet the dominant male in the pack by licking his muzzle.

Psychologist B.F. Skinner

trained rats to push levers to obtain food or avoid painful shocks.

List of biomes

tropical rain forests, savannas, temperate grasslands, temperate deciduous forests, deserts, taigas, tundras, fresh water biomes and marine biomes

Enzymes produced by pancrease

trypsin chymotrypsin lipase pancreatic amylase These and other enzymes, packaged in an alkaline solution that serves to neutralize the HCl in the chyme, enter the duodenum through the pancreatic duct.

Agonistic behavior can result if

two animals conflict over a mate or food source

In the heart of an amphibian such as a frog

two atria and one ventricle are usually noted.

Each stoma is surrounded by

two guard cells

Diploblastic or triploblastic

two or three layers of tissues called germ layers may be present. The three germ layers, the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.

Thin filaments consist of....

two strands of the globular protein ACTIN arranged in a double helix. Along the length of the helix are troponin and tropomyosin molecules that cover special binding sites on the actin.

Mammals convert NH3 to ______ in their livers.

urea; Urea is significantly less toxic than NH3 and thus requires less water to excrete in the urine.

Birds, insects, and reptiles excrete ______ _____

uric acid

dark field microscopy

views live cells or flagella that are too thin to be seen by phase contrast microscopy

The large intestine harbors bacteria, which are the main source of what?

vitamin K production

The larynx is the

voice box and contains the vocal cords

Temperate deciduous forest

warm summers, cold winters, moderate precipitation characterized by vertical stratification -> wants and animals live on the ground, in low branches and high in treetops. Mammals in this biome hibernate through the cold winter

Tropical Savanna

warm temperature year round, some small seasonal variation. very little perciipation in terms of rainfall and the dry season can last many months each year Fires are common during the dry season

Xylem will transport ____________ from the soil throughout a plant.

water and minerals

Osmosis

water moves from the soil through the root and into xylem cells by osmosis.

Hemoglobin and myoglobin are

water soluble globular proteins

The casparin strip is a

waxy band in plants that aid in water control

Explain how ATP binds to a myosin head and forms ADP + Pi

when ATP binds to a myosin head, it is converted to ADP and Pi which remain attached to the myosin head.

Intracellular digestion

when a lysosome containing digestive enzymes merges with a food vacuole

ATP causes the cross bridges to unbind

when a new ATP molecule attaches to the myosin head, the cross bridge between the actin and myosin breaks, returning the myosin head to its unattached position.

Action potential generates release of acetylcholine.

when an action potential of a neuron reaches the neuromuscular junction , the neuron secretes the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which diffuses across the synaptic cleft.

Calcium (Ca2+) gates open

when an action potential reaches the end of an axon, the depolarization of the membrane causes gated channels to open and allow Ca2+ to enter the cell.

What is Clonal Selection?

when an antigen binds to a B cell or when a non self cell binds to a T cell, the B cell or T cell begins to divide, producing numerous daughter cells, all identical copies of the parent cell.

Cross bridges between myosin heads and actin filaments form

when attachment sites on the actin are exposed, the myosin heads bind to actin to form cross bridges.

Filtration

when blood enters the glomerulus, pressure forces water and solutes through the capillary walls into the Bowman's capsule. Solutes include glucose, salts, vitamins, nitrogen wastes,, and any other substances in small enough to pass through the capillary walls. Larger substances such as RBC's and proteins, remain in the capillaries. The material that enters the Bowman's capsules is called FILTRATE, and flows into the convoluted tubule.

Pharynx

when food is swallowed and passed into the throat, or pharynx, a flap of tissue, the epiglottis, blocks the trachea so that solid and liquid material enter only the esophagus.

What is the primitive streak?

when gastrulation begins, invagination occurs along a line (rather than a circle) called the primitive streak. As cells migrate into the primitive streak, the crevice formed becomes an elongated blastopore (rather than a circular blastopore, as found in sea urchins and frogs.

Frog: Gray crescent

when the sperm penetrates a frog egg, a reorganization of the cytoplasm results in the appearance of a gray, crescent shaped region, called the gray crescent. Hans Spemann, in a famous experiment, separated the cells formed during early cleavages and showed that each individual cell could develop into a normal frog only if it contained a portion of the gray crescent.

Fertilization occurs

when the sperm penetrates the plasma membrane of the secondary oocyte. Fertilization is accompanied by the following steps: 1. recognition 2. penetration 3. formation of the fertilization membrane 4. completion of meiosis II in the secondary oocyte 5. Fusion of nuclei and replication of DNA

Divergent Evolution

when two or more species sharing a common ancestor become more different over time

oogamous

where a large egg cell remains with the parent and is fertilized by a small motile sperm

Isogamous

where both sperm and eggs are motile and equal size

Kinesis

where the animal will move in a random direction. The animal will slow down if it is in a favorable environment and speed up if it is in an unfavorable environment. This way, the animal will spend more time in a favorable environment.

anisogamous

where the sperm and egg differ in size

Osteoblasts

which do not carry out mitosis, secrete collagen. Osteoblasts build bone,

Collenchyma cells

which have thick but flexible cell walls, serve mechanical support functions

Cardiac output

which is the stroke volume times the heart rate. This tells us the volume of the blood being pumped by the heart in one minute. Fun Fact: At rest, humans pump nearly 3 two liter soda bottles of blood every minute.

Sclera

white part of the eye

Sclera

white portion of the eye

When does germination begin?

with the imbibition (Absorption) of water. The rate initiates the activity of various enzymes, which activate biochemical processes including respiration.

Refractory period

with the passage of the action potential, the cell membrane is in an unusual state of affairs. The membrane is polarize, but the NA+ and K+ are on the wrong sides of the membrane. During this refractory period the neuron will not respond to a new stimulus. Na+/K+ pumps returns the ions to their proper locations allowing the neuron to respond to stimulus.

Sclerenchyma cells

with thicker walls than collenchyma, also provide mechanical support funcitons

Explain the myofibril

within a myofibril, actin and myosin filaments are parallel and arranged side by side. The overlapping filaments produce a repeating pattern gives skeletal muscle a STRIATED appearance. Each repeating unit of the pattern, called a sarcomere, is separated by a border or Z-line, to which the actin filaments are attached. The myosin filaments, with their protruding heads, are located between the actin, unattached to the Z-line.

What is the Embryonic disc?

within the cavity created by the trophoblast, a bundle of cells called the inner cell mass (ICM), clusters at one pole and flattens into the embryonic disc. The embryonic disc is analogous to the blastodisc of birds and reptiles. A primitive streak develops, gastrulation follows, and development of the embryo and extra-embryonic membranes (except the chorion) ensues.

Steroid hormone receptors usually occur where?

within the cell rather than part of the membrane.

Fluorescence microscopy

would be used to observe the migration of chromosomes during mitosis, as it allows one to view fluroescently tagged parts of living cells. By using biological fluorescent saint, numerous intracellular processes can be observed.

Vascular tissue consists of two major kinds of tissues:

xylem and phloem. The two usually occur together to form vascular bundles.

If blood cell supply is LOW, it is possible that

yellow bone marrow changes into red bone marrow.