bio final exam

case study: saving hawaiis native forest birds

'akiapōlā'au ("aki" for short) Sparrow-sized honeycreeper birds that exist only on the Hawaiian Islands Human actions now threaten native species of flora and fauna Cutting down trees Introducing non-native animals Foreign disease spread to the islands Refuge managers and conservation biologists Work hard to protect the Hakalau's forests.

controlled experiment

- an activity designed so that the scientist controls for the effects of all variables except for the one he/she is testing variable independent and dependent treatment control

montreal protocol

196 nations agreed to cut CFC production in half by 1998 Later agreements deepened cuts, advanced timetables, and addressed other ozone-depleting chemicals Industry shifted to safer alternative chemicals We stopped the Antarctic ozone hole from getting worse CFCs will remain in the stratosphere for decades It can serve as a model for international environmental cooperation

clean air act

1963 Funds research for pollution control Sets standards for air quality, limits on emissions Allows citizens to sue parties violating the standards The EPA encourages standards for automobiles and other point sources of pollutants States are required to monitor air quality Develop, implement, and enforce regulations The EPA takes over enforcement if plans are inadequate

ethanol

A biofuel made by fermenting carbohydrate-rich crops is added to U.S. gasoline to reduce emissions

Ecosystem

A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment. also nonliving surroundings

feedback loop

A circular process in which a system's output serves as input to that same system

population

A group of individuals of a species that live in the same area at the same time

thermal inversion

A layer of cool air forms beneath warm air Dense, cool air resists mixing Inversions trap pollutants in cities surrounded by mountains

treatment

A manipulated point of comparison

compound

A molecule composed of atoms of two or more different elements

sustainable agriculture begins with soil management

A number of approaches have been implemented since the Dust Bowl to alleviate soil degradation crop rotation contour farming terracing intercropping shelterbelts conservation tillage no till farming no till drill

conservation biology

A scientific discipline devoted to understanding factors, forces, and processes that influence the loss, protection, and restoration of biological diversity Study our impacts on other organisms and on environmental systems Design, test, and implement responses to these impacts

organic agriculture is booming

About 80% of Americans buy organic food at least occasionally, and most retail groceries offer it Both production and demand for organic foods have grown, with some governments offering financial incentives to convert to organic agriculture

tropical dry forest

Also called tropical deciduous forest Plants drop leaves during the dry season Wet and dry seasons Warm, but less rainfall Converted to agriculture Severe soil erosion Tropical dry forests have wet and dry seasons that each occupy about half of the year. Temperature is consistently warm. Leaves are shed during the dry season.

energy

An intangible phenomenon that can change the position, physical composition, temperature of matter Involved in biological, chemical, physical processes Potential energy - energy of position Kinetic energy - energy of motion Changing potential into kinetic energy Releases energy Produces motion, action, or heat

landfill gas

Anaerobic decomposition of waste by bacteria in landfills creates a mix of gases that consists of 50% methane Can be collected, processed, and used like natural gas

dam

Any obstruction placed in a river or stream to block the flow of water Erected to prevent floods, provide drinking water, allow irrigation, and generate electricity any obstruction placed in a river or stream to block its flow. Dams create reservoirs, artificial lakes that store water for human use. Dams help to prevent floods, provide drinking water, facilitate irrigation, and generate electricity. We have erected thousands of dams Dams provide a complex mix of benefits and costs. The Three Gorges Dam on China's Yangtze River is a good illustration of this complex mix. Cost $39 billion to build. Reservoir flooded 22 cities, farmland, and habitat, while displacing 1.24 million people. Deprived coastal marshes of sediment, causing them to erode away. Those who argue that the costs of dams outweigh their benefits promote the idea of dam removal. This would: Restore ecosystems. Reestablish fisheries. Revive river recreation, such as fly-fishing and rafting. Return shellfish and fish habitats in and around the mouths of rivers disrupted by the dam. Roughly 400 dams have been removed from the United States in the past decade.

environmental ethics

Application of ethical standards to relationships between human and nonhuman entities Pertains to relationships between people and the environment Application of ethical standards to relationships between human and nonhuman entities Answers to these questions depend on: The breadth of the person's domain of ethical concern. (anthropocentrism, biocentrism, ecocentrism) The ethical standards adopted by a person. (preservation ethic, conservation ethic, land ethic)

succession aquatic

Aquatic systems can also undergo succession Ponds eventually fill in to become terrestrial systems

flodplain

Areas nearest to the river's course that are flooded periodically Soils are fertile as a result of frequent deposition of silt Good areas for agriculture Frequent flooding and deposition of soil makes floodplain soils especially fertile. Agriculture thrives in flood plains, and riparian forests near riversides are especially rich in species.

food

As many as 80,000 edible wild plant species could be utilized by humans plant breeders bred virus-resistant commercial rice by crossing it with a wild population

innovative solutions in hawaii

At Hakalau Ranchland is being restored to forests Invasive plants are being removed and native ones planted Animals are being protected while new populations are being established Across Hawaii People are protecting land Restoring native habitats Protecting areas offshore

weather

Atmospheric conditions within small geographic areas, over short time periods (hours, days, weeks or shorter)

isotopes

Atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons Different mass numbers Isotopes of an element behave slightly differently some are radioactive Radioisotopes

ions

Atoms that gain or lose electrons They are electrically charged

temperatures continue to rise

Average surface temperatures (both land and ocean) have risen by about 1.1°C in the past 100 years. In the United States, temperatures in most areas have risen by more than 1 full degree Fahrenheit in just the past two decades Future changes in temperature are predicted to vary from region to region. Polar regions, for example, are expected to experience the most severe warming. In the next 20 years, temperatures will rise 0.4C At the end of the 21st century, temperatures will be 1.8 to 4.0C higher than today's We will have unusually hot days and heat waves Polar areas will have the most intense warming Sea surface temperatures will rise Hurricanes and tropical storms will increase in power and duration

treating drinking water

Before reaching the tap, water from a reservoir or aquifer is: Treated with chemicals to remove particulate matter. Filtered by sand, gravel, and charcoal. Disinfected with chlorine. Tested for levels of 90 contaminants based on standards set by the EPA.

conservation ethiv

Believing that people should put natural resources to use, but have a responsibility to use them wisely A call to use natural resources for the greatest good for the most people for the longest time

troposphere

Bottom layer (11km, 7mi) Contains the air we breathe Responsible for Earth's weather

phylogenetic trees

Branching diagrams that depict hypotheses about evolutionary relationships among species, groups, genes, etc. Represent life's history

passive solar energy collection

Buildings are designed to maximize absorption of sunlight in winter and yet keep the interior cool in the summer South facing windows capture winter sunlight Overhangs shade windows from overhead summer sunlight Planting vegetation buffers a home from temperature variation Straw, brick, concrete, etc. building materials absorb, store and slowly release heat

human impact on carbon cycle

Burning fossil fuels moves carbon from the ground to the air Cutting forests and burning fields moves carbon from organisms to the air Today's atmospheric carbon dioxide reservoir is the largest in the past 800,000 years

burning fossil fuels produces acid rain

Burning fossil fuels releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides These compounds react with water, oxygen, and oxidants to form sulfuric and nitric acids

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Carbon-containing chemicals emitted by vehicles and a wide range of solvents, industrial processes, and household chemicals acetone, formaldehyde, methane, propane, octane Can react to produce secondary pollutants, as occurs in urban smog

central case study: mining for cell phones

Cell phones and other high-tech products contain tantalum Coltan: columbite + tantalum Most tantalum from the Congo goes to China ~<50 years left of tantalum resources, based on extraction at current rates, demonstrating the need for increased recycling We mine and process mineral resources for countless products

landfills can be transformed after closure

Cities have converted closed landfills into public parks, stadiums, gardens, wetlands, and festival events Closed landfills are converted into public parks or other uses, such as the Freshkills Park in New York City.

Easter Island Case Study

Civilizations have fallen when population growth and consumption overwhelm resource availability

permanent modicifcation or destruction

Community never returns to its original state

comprehensive enviornmental response compensation and liability act

Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) (1980) Superfund - a federal program to clean up U.S. sites polluted with hazardous waste Administered by the EPA brownfields - lands whose reuse or development is complicated by the presence of hazardous materials In 1980, the U.S. Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA). This created a hazardous waste site cleanup program called the Superfund. Later laws charged the EPA with cleaning up brownfields, lands that contain hazardous materials.

meltdown

Coolant water drained from the reactor ... Temperatures rose inside the reactor core ... Melting the metal surrounding the fuel rods ... Releasing radiation ... Which was trapped inside the containment building Cleanup cost billions and took years

global climate change

Describes modifications in Earth's climate Changes in temperature, precipitation, frequency and intensity of storms across the world, etc. Global warming An increase in Earth's average surface temperature This is only one aspect of climate change The Earth's climate varies naturally, but disruptive changes are unfolding rapidly, with human activities accelerating them Earth's climate has varied naturally through time Today's climate change is happening at an extremely rapid rate Today's changes are due in large part to human fossil fuel combustion and deforestation Understanding climate change requires understanding how our planet's climate works

green revolution

Drastically increased food through new: Technology Crop varieties (wheat, rice, corn) Farming practices Spread to the developing world in the 1940s Began with Norman Borlaug, a Nobel Prize-winning scientist who introduced new strains of wheat to Mexico, India, and Pakistan Beginning in 1940, the Green Revolution introduced new technology, crop varieties, and farming practices to the developing world. Began with Norman Borlaug, a Nobel Prize-winning scientist who introduced new strains of wheat to Mexico, India, and Pakistan The Green Revolution helped to increase yields and reduce starvation, but has also degraded soil, water supplies, and pollinators.

energy returned on investment

EROI = energy returned/energy invested Higher ratios mean we receive more energy than we invest Fossil fuels have high EROI EROI ratios can change U.S. oil and natural gas EROI ratios have gone from 30:1 in 1950s to 11:1 today They decline when we extract the easiest deposits first We now must work harder to extract the remaining reserves

carbon capture and sequestration

Electrical generation The largest source of U.S. CO2 emissions Strategies to reduce fossil fuel use: Conservation, efficiency, cleaner or renewable energy, more efficient appliances Carbon capture Removes CO2 from power plant emissions Carbon storage (sequestration) Storage of carbon underground (under pressure in deep salt mines, depleted oil and gas deposits, or other underground reservoirs) Currently, we can't store enough CO2 to make a difference

enhanced geothermal systems

Engineers are working to overcome the limitation of geothermal availability Water is put into deep holes When heated, it is withdrawn to generate electricity It could be used in many locations But can trigger minor earthquakes Without safe and reliable geothermal energy, this source of power will stay localized

mountain removal mining

Entire mountaintops are blasted off "Valley filling": dumping rock and debris into valleys for coal in Appalachian Mountains of the eastern U.S. Degrades and destroys vast areas Pollutes streams Deforests areas Causes erosion, mudslides, flash floods, biodiversity loss

environmental impacts

Erosion from agriculture Deforestation Toxic substances Mineral extraction and mining Depletion of fresh water Air and water pollution Global climate change Loss of Earth's biodiversity

endemic species

Exists only in a certain, specialized area Geographically isolated Very susceptible to extinction Populations are usually small the ecological state of a species being unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation, country or other defined zone, or habitat type; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere.

Background and mass extinction

Extinction usually occurs slowly, one species at a time Killed off massive numbers of species at once Fossil record reveals five of these events in Earth's history 50-95% of all species went extinct each time Best-known event occurred 65 million years ago A gigantic asteroid caused dinosaur extinction 250 million years ago 75-95% of species went extinct from unknown causes

population and society

Factors that affect fertility in a society Public health factors Access to medical care Infant mortality rate Culture factors Religious traditions Degree of gender equality Relative acceptance of contraceptive use Economic factors Level of affluence Degree of child labor Availability of governmental support for retirees

benefits and risks of organic farming

Farmer benefits Lower input costs Enhanced income (higher value products) Reduced chemical pollution and soil degradation Farmer risks Organic approaches must be used for 3 years before products become certified and sold at higher prices Obstacle for consumers Higher price for organic food, but many are willing to pay the price Worldwide, sales surpassed $63 billion

reclamation and reclamation act of 1977

Governments in developed countries require companies to reclaim (restore) surface-mined sites The U.S. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977) mandates restoration Aims to bring a site to a condition similar to its pre-mining condition Involves removing structures, replacing overburden, replanting vegetation Even on restored sites, impacts may be severe and long-lasting Complex communities are simplified Forests, wetlands, etc., are replaced by grasses Essential symbioses are eliminated and often not restored Water can be reclaimed Moderate the pH Remove heavy metals

habitat fragmentation

Gradual, piecemeal degradation and loss of habitat Farming, logging, roads, etc. Continuous habitats are broken into patches Species needing continuous habitat disappear

pelagic zone

Habitats and ecosystems occurring between the ocean's surface and floor In the open ocean, most primary productivity occurs in the top layer, called the photic zone. Microscopic phytoplankton constitute the base of the food chain. Pelagic habitats are found between the ocean surface and floor.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Halocarbons used as refrigerants, in fire extinguishers, in aerosol cans, styrofoam, etc. They stay in the stratosphere for a century Sunlight releases chlorine atoms that split ozone

randoms

Haphazardly located individuals, with no pattern Resources are widespread

hazardous waste landfills

Hazardous waste landfills do not lessen the hazards of the substances but help keep the substances isolated from people, wildlife, and ecosystems design and construction standards are stricter than those for ordinary sanitary landfills must have several impervious liners and leachate removal systems must be located far from aquifers

hydrogen fuel may be produced from water or other matter

Hydrogen gas does not exist freely on Earth Energy is used to force molecules to release the hydrogen Electrolysis - electricity splits hydrogen from water 2H2O 2H2 + O2 It may cause pollution, depending on the source of electricity (e.g. if coal is used to split H2O) Hydrogen production's impact depends on the source of electricity used in electrolysis and the hydrogen source Using methane produces the greenhouse gas CO2 CH4 + 2H2O 4H2 + CO2

integrated pest management combines varied approaches to pest control IPM

Incorporates numerous techniques to suppress pests, including: Close monitoring of pest populations Biocontrol Synthetic chemical use when needed Habitat alteration Crop rotation Transgenic crops Alternative tillage methods Mechanical pest removal IPM in Indonesia increased rice yields and eliminated subsidy payments and decreased pesticide use combines biocontrol, chemical pesticides, habitat alteration, crop rotation, transgenic crops, alternative tillage methods, and mechanical pest removal. This has been highly effective in Indonesia, which increased rice production while cutting pesticide subsidies and overall pesticide use.

captive breeding

Individuals are bred and raised so they can be reintroduced into the wild Reintroductions can be resource-intensive

inference #1

Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals 1. population with varied inherited traits 2. elimination of individuals with certain traits 3. reproduction of survivors 4. increasing frequency of traits that enhance survival

natural selection summary

Individuals with certain heritable traits survive and reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals Natural selection increases the match between organisms and their environment over time If an environment changes over time, natural selection may result in adaptation to these new conditions and may give rise to new species Natural selection results in the adaptation of organisms to their environment Adaptations (adaptive traits) Characteristics that promote reproductive success

biodiversity enhances food security

Industrial agriculture has narrowed our diet 90% of our food comes from 15 crop and 8 livestock species Wild and rare species can improve food security Crop ancestors hold reservoirs of genetic diversity They can save monocultures through crossbreeding or genetic engineering Wild strains provide disease resistance New potential food crops are waiting to be used

seed banks conserve wild genes

Industrial agriculture's use of genetically similar crops (monocultures) has led to efforts to conserve wild relatives of crops Wild crops contain genes we will need in the future Seed banks Institutions that store seed types Seeds are collected, stored, and periodically planted

hazardous wastes are diverse

Industry produces the largest amount of hazardous waste but is highly regulated Households are the largest source of unregulated hazardous waste Paint, batteries, oils, solvents, cleaners, pesticides, etc. Industry produces the most hazardous waste, but there are many forms of household hazardous waste as well: Paints Batteries Oils Solvents Cleaning agents Lubricants Pesticides Many hazardous substances become less hazardous over time but others may be especially persistent radioactive waste, organic compounds, heavy metals Many synthetic organic compounds are toxic because they are readily absorbed through the skin and can act as mutagens, carcinogens, teratogens, and endocrine disruptors. They are also persistent, meaning they do not break down easily. Heavy metals like lead and mercury are fat soluble and break down slowly, making them prone to bioaccumulate and biomagnify.

interspecific interations affect the community

Interactions between predators and prey, herbivore and plant, parasite and host... structure food webs influence community composition can be complex and changing predators can also become prey

lakes and ponds are ecologically diverse systems

Lakes and ponds Bodies of standing surface water They have several zones Lakes and ponds are bodies of standing surface water. The shallow area along the edges where aquatic plants can grow is called the littoral zone. The benthic zone extends along the bottom. The limnetic zone is the upper layer of water that is shallow enough to receive sunlight and allow photosynthesis by phytoplankton. The profundal zone is between the benthic and limnetic zones and lacks photosynthesis.

acid deposition impacts

Leaches nutrients from topsoil Changes soil chemistry Converts toxic metal ions (aluminum, zinc, etc.) into soluble forms that pollute water Affects surface water and kills fish Damages crops and forests Erodes stone buildings, corrodes vehicles, erases writing on tombstones

convective circulation

Less dense, warmer air rises Creates vertical currents Rising air expands and cools and releases moisture Cool air descends and becomes denser Falling dry air creates arid climates

terracing

Level platforms cut into steep hillsides This "staircase" contains rain and irrigation water a similar idea, where the creation of level platforms on very steep terrain slows water erosion.

ferrel cells and polar cells

Lift air and create precipitation at 60 degrees latitude north and south Conditions at the poles are dry

biofuels

Liquid fuels used to power automobiles Ethanol & biodiesel

anaerobic environment

Little or no oxygen present Buried quickly at the bottom of lakes, swamps, seas Produces fossil fuels

soil degradation

Loss of soil quality and productivity Has caused 13% loss of grain production in last 50 years We lose 12-17 million acres of productive cropland to degradation each year but may gain another billion people in the next decade or two

starving the louisiana coast of sediment

Louisiana's vital coastal wetlands Support biodiversity Protect the coast from storms Mississippi River sediments: Keep soil levels high, water stable, and plants healthy Wetlands are shrinking Dams stop sedimentation Levees prevent water from spreading into the delta Louisiana is losing 75 km2 of coastal wetlands each year due to a loss of sediments entering the Mississippi River delta. The primary cause of this loss is the roughly 2000 dams throughout the Mississippi River basin as well as levees that prevent flooding.

mesosphere

Low air pressure

oil sands

Low-quality fuel requiring a great deal of energy to extract and process With rising oil prices, mining oils sands is profitable

organisms provide drugs and medicines

Many drugs come from wild plants Wild species produce up to $150 billion/year of drugs that save thousands of lives

groups advancing climate change efforts

Mayors from more than 1000 cities have signed on to the U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement, committing to policies that "meet or beat" Kyoto Protocol guidelines. The most aggressive is California, which has a goal to cut greenhouse gas emissions 25% by 2020 and has established a cap-and-trade program. Many governors, mayors, university presidents, and corporate leaders have pledged action to support the Paris Accord. Many businesses, utilities, universities, and governments are seeking carbon-neutrality, a condition where no net carbon is emitted. Carbon offsets are voluntary payments paid by a producer that is unable to reduce its emissions and given to another institution that can. For example, a coal plant could buy offsets that would fund a reforestation project. In principle, these offsets could help incentivize a reduction in carbon emissions.

measuring health impacts of mexico citys air pollution

Measuring the Health Impacts of Mexico City's Air Pollution Many studies confirm that Mexico City residents show poorer lung function than people from less polluted areas Respiratory problems and emergency room visits become more numerous when pollution is severe Studies have also linked increased death rates with pollution intensity Infant mortality was significantly higher after strong pollution episodes

observation #2

Members of a population vary in their inherited traits

inorganic fertilizers

Mined or synthetically manufactured mineral supplements urea, ammonium sulfate, calcium nitrate mined potash, phosphate rock, and lime

mountaintop removal mining

Mineral extraction by removing 100 vertical meters from hill and mountain tops

Melting ice has far-reaching effects

Melting snow and ice exposes darker, less-reflective bare ground or surface water This (lower albedo) reduces the Earth's capacity to reflect light, creating a positive feedback loop and more melting Arctic warming is thawing permafrost Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) Destabilizing soil, buildings, etc., and releasing methane the release of underground methane, further intensifies warming, a positive feedback loop. Melting of Greenland's Arctic ice sheet is accelerating Warmer water is melting Antarctica's coastal ice shelves Interior snow is increasing because of more precipitation As snow and ice melt, less reflective surfaces (bare ground or surface water) are exposed. This reduces the Earth's capacity to reflect light, creating a positive feedback loop. The loss of Arctic sea ice has led to the opening of new shipping lanes and many countries jockeying for position to claim regions of the Arctic for oil and mineral extraction. Arctic warming is also thawing permafrost (permanently frozen ground), causing the release of underground methane, which further intensifies warming. The entire West Antarctic ice shelf is potentially on its way to an unstoppable collapse. This would create a 3-m rise in sea levels. The ice sheet in Greenland is also melting, and Arctic sea ice is thinning. Nations are rushing to exploit underwater oil and mineral resources made available by newly opened shipping lanes Many tropical mountaintop glaciers have disappeared, and the few that remain are shrinking. One out of six people worldwide live in regions that depend on mountain meltwater as a source of fresh water. The remaining 25 of 150 glaciers in Glacier National Park will be gone by 2030, reducing summertime water supplies to millions Mountaintop glaciers are disappearing Glaciers on tropical mountaintops have disappeared The remaining 25 of 150 glaciers in Glacier National Park will be gone by 2030 Reducing summertime water supplies to millions

Acid drainage does not normally occur in areas before mines are built but tends to happen after the mine has been in operation for many years. What causes acid drainage

Mining exposes unweathered rock surfaces that react with water and the atmosphere to generate acids.

weighing issues: restoring mined areas

Mining has severe environmental impacts, and restoring a mined site to a condition similar to its state before mining is costly and difficult How much do you think we should require mining companies to restore a site after a mine is shut down? What criteria should we use to guide restoration? Should we require complete restoration? No restoration? Explain your recommendations

cells

Most basic unit of organismal organization Simplest component of all living things Vary in size, shape, and function Classified according to their structure

extend reach for fossil fuels in several ways

Mountaintop removal mining has brought coal extraction to a whole new level Secondary extraction of oil and gas Directional drilling Hydraulic fracturing Offshore drilling in deeper waters Moving into ice free waters of the Arctic Exploiting "unconventional" sources

enviornmental science is interdisciplinary

Natural sciences - Examine how the natural world works Environmental science programs Social sciences - Examine human interactions and institutions. Environmental studies programs

nitrous oxide

Nitrous oxide Auto emissions, feedlots, chemical manufacturing, and synthetic nitrogen fertilizers Levels have risen 20% since 1750

phosphorus cycle

No significant atmospheric component Most phosphorus is in rocks Weathering releases phosphorus into water Allows it to be taken up by plants Phosphorus is a key component of cell membranes, DNA, RNA, and other biochemical compounds look at charts

sinkholes

Occur when aquifers lose water; the land above can't support strata, and the surface sinks As aquifers lose water, they become less able to support overlying strata, causing the land surface to subside. This can cause buildings to lean or large areas of land to suddenly collapse, creating sinkholes.

extinction

Occurs when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to exist

ocean thermohaline circulation

Ocean water exchanges heat with the atmosphere Currents move energy from place to place affects regional climates moves warm, tropical water north Greenland's melting ice sheet could disrupt this flow The thermohaline circulation of the oceans moves warm, tropical water north, where the heat is released near Western Europe. Freshwater input from Greenland's melting ice sheets may disrupt this flow.

generalist

Organisms with a broad niche Can live in many different places Eat a variety of foods Tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions

ambient air pollution

Over history, the atmosphere has changed Human activity is now changing the amount of some gases CO2, methane (CH4), ozone (O3) Greenhouse gas emissions may be our worst problem Outdoor (ambient) air pollution Has recently decreased owing to government policy and improved technologies in developed countries Developing countries and urban areas still have significant problems

overharvesting

Overharvesting - human harvesting of wild plants or animals at rates exceeding the ability of populations of those species to rebound Large organisms with low reproductive rates are especially vulnerable to overharvesting elephant populations declined because of harvesting for ivory African elephants: Tusks for ivory African rhinoceroses: horns Asian tigers: body parts African gorillas and primates: "Bush meat" Whales Sharks: fins for soup Governments pass laws, sign treaties, and strengthen anti-poaching efforts

ozone depletion

Ozone in the troposphere is a pollutant in photo-chemical smog Ozone in the lower stratosphere absorbs the sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation UV radiation can damage tissues and DNA Ozone-depleting substances Human-made chemicals that destroy ozone Halocarbons

scientific process continues beyond scientific method

Peer review Other scientists judge the work Conferences Scientists interact with others Grants and funding From private or government sources Intense competition Repeatability Others try to reproduce the results

solutions to depletion of fresh water

Population growth, expansion of irrigation, and industrial development have doubled our use of fresh water over the past 50 years. Pollution contaminates water Biodiversity loss damages ecosystem services Climate change will worsen water conditions Changed precipitation patterns Melting glaciers Droughts Rising ocean levels (saltwater intrusion) Addressing water shortages means either increasing supply or reducing demand.

changing face of agriculture

Practice of raising crops and livestock for human use and consumption Cropland - Land used to raise crops for human use Rangeland / Pasture - Land used for grazing livestock Land devoted to agriculture now covers 38% of Earth's land for human use and consumption. Most of our food and fiber is obtained from cropland, land used to raise crops for human use. Rangeland, or pasture, is land used for grazing livestock. Growing crops and raising animals require inputs of resources - soil, sunlight, water, nutrients, and pollinators. Today, more than 1 out of every 3 acres of land on Earth is used to produce food and fiber. Agriculture provides our most basic daily needs - from the cotton in our clothes to the food on our plates. Agriculture is also responsible for some of our biggest impacts on the environment, making the development of sustainable practices essential. Agriculture provides our most basic daily needs—from the cotton in our clothes to the food on our plates. Agriculture is also responsible for some of our biggest impacts on the environment, making the development of sustainable practices essential.

Parks and protected areas conserve biodiversity at the ecosystem level

Preserving land in parks and protected areas conserves habitats, communities, ecosystems, and landscapes 13% of the world's area is in parks, wilderness, reserves, etc. But not all of these areas are managed for biodiversity They are used for recreation, water protection, etc. They are also illegally logged, are poached, or have their resources extracted Some are large enough to preserve whole systems Linking protected areas by corridors allows populations to intermix

producers the 1st trophic level

Primary Producers, or autotrophs ("self-feeders") Organisms that use photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to make their own sugars. Green plants Cyanobacteria Algae

consumers consume producers

Primary consumers(second trophic level) Organisms that consume producers Herbivores: deer, grasshoppers Secondary consumers (third trophic level) Organisms that prey on primary consumers wolves, rodents, birds Tertiary consumers (fourth trophic level) Organisms that prey on secondary consumers Predators: hawks, owls

smelting

Process in which a desired metal is separated from the other elements in an ore mineral. A metal is mixed, melted, or fused with another metal or nonmetal substance Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon

overnutrition

Receiving too many calories each day Overindulgence or excessive intake of specific nutrients Excess weight leads to heart disease, diabetes, stroke, some forms of cancer, and other health issues. lowers life expectancy, lowers productivity, etc. Worldwide, 1.5 billion adults are overweight At least 500 million of those are obese

organismal ecology

Relationships between individuals and their environment

strip mining

Removal of layers of soil and rock to expose the resource just below the surface For coal, oil sands, sand, gravel Overburden Destroys natural communities over large areas and triggers erosion

alternatives to fossil fuels

Renewable sources nuclear nonrenewable solar wind geothermal ocean hydroelectric bioenergy

keystone pipeline

Required clearing of vast forest areas Deforestation of boreal forest in northern Alberta, Canada Immense volumes of used/polluted water are pumped to reservoirs Kills waterfowl

reclamation

Restoration of mined areas to pre-mining conditions

addressing acid deposition

Restrictions on power plants reduced NOx emissions, which significantly reduced nitrogen deposition. Overall, the pH of precipitation has improved significantly since the passage of the law.

a river may shift course over time

Rivers shape the landscape through which they run Carve out valleys as they change course Damming reduces river meandering Floodplain Areas nearest to the river's course that are flooded periodically Soils are fertile as a result of frequent deposition of silt Good areas for agriculture

recycling steps

Step 1: collection and processing of recyclable materials curbside recycling or designated locations Materials recovery facilities (MRFs): workers and machines sort, clean, shred, and prepare items Step 2: using recyclables to produce new goods Glass, metal, paper, plastics use recycled materials Step 3: consumers buy goods made from recycled materials Incentives for further recycling Facilities are built or expanded

fertilizers boost yields but can be overapplied

Substances containing essential nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, etc.) to enhance crop production inorganic organic Inorganic fertilizers are mined or synthetically manufactured. Organic fertilizers are made of the remains or wastes from organisms, including manure, crop residue, charcoal, fresh vegetation, and compost. Compost is a mixture produced when decomposers break down organic matter in a controlled environment. Boosted global production in the late 1900s But can severely pollute Leaching and runoff of fertilizers causes: Groundwater contamination Dead zones in water systems (eutrophication) Air pollution from evaporated nitrates

ocean currents

Surface winds and heating also create vertical currents in seawater. Upwelling pulls cold, deep, nutrient-rich water to the surface. Surface currents that converge create downwellings, which transport warm surface water to deeper waters, providing an influx of dissolved oxygen and "burying" carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

el nino southern oscillation

Systematic shifts in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Causes multiyear climate variability Multiyear climate variability also arises from the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Systematic shifts in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical Pacific Ocean.

clean air act of 1990

The Clean Air Act of 1990 established the Acid Rain Program to fight acid deposition. This program set up an emissions trading program for sulfur dioxide, allocating permits for SO2 pollution and allowing emitters to buy, sell, or trade these allowances. This created a strong economic incentive to reduce emissions. The cap-and-trade program successfully reduced SO2 emissions in the United States by 67%.

watershed

The area of land drained by a river and its tributaries

ecological restoration

The on-the-ground efforts to restore an area Difficult, time-consuming, and expensive It is best to protect natural systems from degradation in the first place

energy conservation

The practice of reducing energy use Efficiency is one way toward conservation We can extend our nonrenewable energy supplies Be less wasteful Reduce our environmental impact

air pollution

The release of pollutants

restoration ecology

The science of restoring an altered area to an earlier (pre-settlement/pre-disturbance/pre-industrialized) condition Tries to restore the system's functionality (Example: filtering of water by a wetland)

biodiversity

The variety of life across all levels of biological organization Genetic diversity - genetic variation within a population and between populations Species diversity - variety and abundance of species in a community, an ecosystem or throughout the biosphere Ecosystem diversity - variety of ecosystems in the biosphere

inference #2

This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations 1. population with varied inherited traits 2. elimination of individuals with certain traits 3. reproduction of survivors 4. increasing frequency of traits that enhance survival

carbon cycle

Through photosynthesis, producers move carbon from the air and water to organisms Respiration returns carbon to the air and water Decomposition returns carbon to the sediment, the largest reservoir of carbon Oceans are the second largest reservoir of carbon look at charts

savanna

Tropical grassland interspersed with trees Precipitation occurs only during the rainy season The dominant plant species are fire-adapted and tolerant of seasonal drought Grasses and forbs make up most of the ground cover Zebras, gazelles, giraffes, lions, hyenas Savannas are tropical grassland interspersed with acacias or other trees. Found in dry tropical areas, including parts of Africa, Australia, and India. Distinct wet and dry seasons. kenya

subsurface mining

Tunneling deep underground to extract minerals

superfund legislation

Two events spurred creation of Superfund legislation Love Canal, Niagara Falls, New York, in 1978-1980, families were evacuated after buried chemicals rose to the surface and were breached by construction contaminating homes and an elementary school and apparently leading to birth defects, miscarriages, and other health impacts Times Beach, Missouri, was evacuated after contamination with dioxin from oil sprayed on roads

un framework

U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992 - A plan to voluntarily reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2000 This voluntary approach did not succeed

Nonrenwable energy resources

Unavailable after depletion

hydraulic fracturing expands access to oil and gas

Unlocking formerly inaccessible deposits of shale gas and tight oil Has enabled many power plants to switch from coal to natural gas U.S. carbon dioxide emissions have fallen since 2007 Debate over environmental impact and health concerns versus increased economic benefits and well-paying jobs

industrial agriculture

Uses large-scale mechanization and fossil fuel consumption to boost yields Higher rates of irrigation, synthetic fertilizers, and chemical pesticides Plant monocultures - a single, genetically similar crop More efficient but reduces diversity; is disease prone Narrows the human diet introduced large-scale mechanization and fossil fuel consumption into agriculture. Higher rates of irrigation, synthetic fertilizers, and chemical pesticides Greater prevalence of monocultures, where farmers grow vast areas of single crops in orderly rows

low input agriculture

Uses less amounts of fossil fuels, water, pesticides, fertilizers, growth hormones, and antibiotics than industrial agriculture an approach that uses less amounts of fossil fuels, water, pesticides, fertilizers, growth hormones, and antibiotics than are used in industrial agriculture.

ocean thermal energy conversion OTEC

Uses temperature differences between the surface and deep water Warm surface water evaporates chemicals or is evaporated in a vacuum and its steam turn turbines to generate electricity Cold deep waters condense and recover the water Costs are high and no facility operates commercially yet

hydrogen ions and acidity

Water can split into H and OH The pH scale quantifies the acidity or basicity of solutions acidic basic neutral

freshwater and human pops are unevenly distributed across earth

Water is unevenly distributed in space and time Different areas possess different amounts of water The distribution of the human population does not match the distribution of water creating areas that do not have adequate local water supply Climate differences and other factors have created varying amounts of groundwater, surface water, and precipitation across the Earth. The distribution of the human population does not match the distribution of water, creating areas that do not have adequate local water supply. Climate change will worsen water conditions Changed precipitation patterns Melting glaciers Droughts

surface water

Water on Earth's surface Comprises 1% of freshwater Vital for our survival and ecological systems Becomes groundwater by infiltration Surface water becomes groundwater by infiltration. Groundwater becomes surface water through springs, keeping rivers flowing and wetlands moist even in dry conditions. Water that falls from the sky or melts from snow or a glacier that flows over a land surface is called runoff. Runoff converges in low-lying areas, forming streams, which can merge into rivers, which eventually reach a lake or ocean. The area of land drained by a river system and all of its tributaries makes up that river's drainage basin or watershed. Over thousands or millions of years, the shifting course of a meandering river can carve out a flat valley. Areas near a river's course that are flooded periodically are within the river's floodplain. Frequent flooding and deposition of soil makes floodplain soils especially fertile. Agriculture thrives in flood plains, and riparian forests near riversides are especially rich in species.

runoff

Water that flows over land Water merges in rivers and ends up in a lake or ocean

single species conservation

What would you say are some advantages of focusing on conserving single species, versus trying to conserve broader communities, ecosystems, or landscapes? What might be some of the disadvantages? Which do you think is the better approach, or should we use both, and why?

aquaculture

Worldwide fish populations are plummeting due to Increased demand and technology (fish farms) - raising aquatic organisms in a controlled environment Open-water pens or land-based ponds or holding tanks The fastest-growing type offood production

tropical rainforest

Year-round rain and warm temperatures Dark and damp Lush vegetation Diverse species But in low densities Very poor, acidic soils Nutrients are in the plants Tropical rainforests have dark, damp interiors, lush vegetation, and highly diverse communities. High numbers of tree species intermixed at low densities. Acidic soils that are low in organic matter.

variable

a condition that can change or be manipulated

smog

a general term for a mixture of air pollutants Industrial smog Cities suffer from a specific type of smog that can accumulate as a result of fossil fuel combustion, especially over areas with heavy automobile traffic Burning coal or oil releases CO2, CO, soot, mercury, sulfur

precision agriculture

agriculture involves monitoring soil nutrient levels and only applying specific types of fertilizer when nutrient levels are low involves monitoring soil nutrient levels and only applying specific types of fertilizer when needed.

irrigation

artificially providing water beyond what is received by precipitation in order to support agriculture Unproductive regions become productive farmland 70% of fresh water is for irrigation Depletes aquifers and dries up rivers and lakes The artificial provision of water beyond what is received by precipitation is irrigation. Irrigation is necessary with water-intensive crops (like rice) and in areas with dry climates. Irrigation is the largest use of water by humans, making up 70% of all fresh water withdrawn.

sick building syndrome

building-related illness caused by an unknown pollutant

Tsunamis

can follow earthquakes, volcanoes, or landslides - huge volumes of water are displaced by earthquakes, volcanoes, or landslides Can travel thousands of miles across oceans Damages coral reefs, coastal forests, and wetlands Saltwater contamination makes it hard to restore them Preserving natural vegetation (e.g., mangrove forests) decreases the wave energy of tsunamis

solutions in electricity generation transportation

carbon capture and storage Automobile is highly inefficient Solutions Drive fuel-efficient, hybrid, or electric cars Drive less and use mass transit Live near your job, so you can bike or walk

open pit mining

creates immense holes Used with evenly distributed minerals Terraced, so workers and machines can move about Copper, iron, gold, diamonds, coal Quarries - Open pits for clay, gravel, sand, stone (limestone, granite, marble, slate) Huge amounts of rock are removed to get small amounts of minerals Habitat loss, Aesthetic degradation Acid drainage The world's largest open pit mine This Utah mine is 2.5 mi across and 0.75 mi deep; almost half a million tons of ore and rock are removed each day

food webs show feeding relationships and energy flow

food chain - A series of feeding relationships food web - incorporate interlinking food chains within an entire community A visual map showing feeding relationships and energy flow among organisms more complex than a food chain but greatly simplify community interactions and leave out most species The flow of energy and feeding relationships from lower to higher trophic levels is depicted in a food chain. Food webs incorporate all of the interlinking food chains within an entire community, showing the map of energy flow. Asian carp are predicted to affect the Lake Erie food web by decreasing the biomass of plankton-eating fish and their predators, while increasing the biomass of fish that can use juvenile carp for prey.

pre industrial stage

low population growth High death (disease, starvation, few medicines) and birth (compensation for mortality) rates

Why is coltan such a valuable mined resource?

panning of the various rivers in the Congo Coltan contains tantalite, which yields the element tantalum. Tantalum is required for microprocessors such as the ones in your cell phone.

Biosphere

part of Earth in which life exists including land, water, and air or atmosphere - all ecosystems

transpiration

release of water vapor by plants

precipitation

return of water to Earth's surface in the form of rain/snow

ocean currents

such as the Gulf Stream, can be used Many different designs Underwater turbines have been erected off of Europe

hubberts peak

the peak in U.S. production (1970)

biosphere

the planet's living organisms plus the abiotic (nonliving) parts they interact with

habitat selection

the process by which organisms actively select habitats in which to live criteria: Food, shelter, breeding sites, and mates

Environmental Science

the scientific study of: How the natural world works How the environment affects humans and vice versa The pursuit of knowledge about the environment and our interactions with it The Earth may seem enormous to us But Earth and its systems are finite and limited We can change Earth and damage its systems

chemistry

the study of matter and the changes it undergoes The study of types of matter and their interactions Study of types of matter and their interactions Is crucial for understanding how: Chemicals affect the health of wildlife and people Pollutants cause acid precipitation Synthetic chemicals thin the ozone layer Some gases contribute to global climate change

driftnetting

the use of long nets that span large expanses of water and target species that traverse open water in large schools.

intergovernmental panel on climate change

was established in 1988 by the United Nations hundreds of international scientists and government representatives review and summarize all available data in climate studies for policymakers and the general public. Documents observed trends in: Surface temperature, precipitation patterns, snow and ice cover, sea levels, storm intensity, and other factors. Predicts future changes in wildlife, ecosystems, and human societies Discusses strategies to pursue in response to climate change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by the United Nations to review and summarize all available data in climate studies for policymakers and the general public. In 2013 and 2014, the IPCC released its Fifth Assessment Report, summarizing trends in surface temperature, precipitation patterns, snow and ice cover, sea levels, storm intensity, and other factors.

overshoot

when a population becomes larger than the environment's carrying capacity Humans are using renewable resources 68% faster than they are being replenished. This is called _________________, because we are surpassing Earth's capacity to sustainably support our population When humans have surpassed

atmospheric deposition

when any solid or liquid material from the atmosphere is dropped onto the Earth. The wet or dry deposition of pollutants (mercury, nitrates, organochlorines, etc.)

obligate

where one species cannot survive without the other

fossil record

The cumulative body of fossils worldwide The fossil record provides evidence of the extinction of species the origin of new groups changes within groups over time Numbers of species speciation extinction

The race to feed the world

The industrialization of agriculture has boosted worldwide production of food and fiber immensely, but has also brought increased pollution and resource depletion. Organic farming decreases efficiency, but also has far fewer environmental impacts. Food production currently exceeds population growth But not everyone has enough to eat 800 million people suffer from undernutrition The industrialization of agriculture has boosted worldwide production of food and fiber immensely, but has also brought increased pollution and resource depletion. Organic farming decreases efficiency, but also has far fewer environmental impacts. Despite improved food production Food security

primary extraction

The initial extraction of available oil or gas

atomic number

The number of protons

nuclear fission

The splitting apart of atomic nuclei The reaction that drives the release of nuclear energy in power plants Neutrons can hit other atoms, causing a chain reaction An uncontrolled chain reaction can cause an explosion - nuclear power plants control fission

landscape ecology

The study of how landscape structure affects the abundance, distribution, and interaction of organisms Useful for studying migrating birds, fish, mammals Helpful for planning sustainable regional development Geographic information systems (GIS) computer software that layers multiple types of data together Help to view ecosystems on a larger geographic scale

solar radiation

The sun supplies most of our planet's energy, with the atmosphere absorbing or reflecting most of it before it even reaches the surface. As Earth's surface absorbs solar radiation, the surface temperature increases and emits infrared radiation. The sun supplies most of our planet's energy, with the atmosphere absorbing or reflecting most of it before it even reaches the surface.

factors that influence earths climate

The sun, which provides light and warmth Without it, Earth would be dark and frozen It supplies most of Earth's energy The atmosphere, which prevents major temperature shifts from night to day Without it, Earth's temperature would be much colder It is a protective and buffering layer of gases The oceans, which shape climate by storing and transporting heat and moisture

We are exploiting new fossil fuel resources such as oil sands, oil shale, and methane hydrate

Their net energy values are low because they are expensive to extract and process Extracting oil sands and oil shale consumes large volumes of water, devastates landscapes, and pollutes waterways Combustion of these fossil fuels is likely to emit more greenhouse gases and pollution than combustion of oil, coal, and gas

intertidal zones

This area is periodically submerged and exposed by tides Between the farthest reaches of the high and low tides Organisms spend part of their time submerged in water and part of their time exposed to sun and wind

air quality and epa

Today, the EPA and state agencies monitor the concentration of six criteria pollutants that are known to pose substantial risk to human health. Each pollutant has an ambient air quality standard, which sets the maximum allowable concentration for each pollutant in the air. Four of the six include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and lead. More than 4000 monitoring stations take hourly or daily air samples. These data are used to calculate the air quality index, a 0-500 scale measuring how healthy the air is that day for an area.

overgrazing

Too many animals eat too much of the plant biomass without adequate regeneration and impede plant regrowth Soil is exposed, degraded, eroded and compacted makes it harder for plants to grow (positive feedback loop) Non-native plants invade, which are less palatable to livestock and outcompete native vegetation Humans keep over 3 billion cattle, sheep, and goats 70% of the world's rangeland is degraded, costing $23 billion/year in lost productivity If livestock populations do not exceed the carrying capacity, rangelands can still be functional ecosystems. Without adequate regeneration of plant biomass, the result is overgrazing. Overgrazing exposes soil and makes it vulnerable to erosion. In a positive feedback loop, soil erosion makes it more difficult for native plants to grow, perpetuating the problem

gross primary production

Total amount of chemical energy produced by autotrophs Most energy is used to power their own metabolism

eradication

Total elimination of a population Often difficult to accomplish

reduced air pollution US pollutant emissions

Total emissions of the six monitored pollutants have declined 72% since the Clean Air Act of 1970 Despite increased population, energy consumption, miles traveled, and gross domestic product Federal policies and technology Cleaner-burning engines and catalytic converters Reduced SO2 emissions Clean coal technologies

global fisheries

Total fisheries catch leveled off after 1998 Despite increased fishing effort Many fear a global decline in fisheries is imminent if conservation measures are not taken Humans have overharvested the oceans since the 18th century, when Steller's sea cow went extinct due to overhunting. A 2003 study showed that oceans today contain about one-tenth the large fish and sharks they once did. Many fisheries have collapsed, including Atlantic cod and red snapper. Fishing fleets have been "fishing down the food chain," or shifting to smaller, less desirable species.

ecotourism

Tourists visit protected areas Hawaii's residents are benefiting from their conservation efforts.

ecotones

Transitional zones between two ecosystems in which elements of each ecosystem mix

several steps precede the disposal of hazardous waste

Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, the EPA sets standards by which states manage hazardous waste. Hazardous waste must be tracked "cradle to grave" and collected at special sites or facilities. Large generators of hazardous waste must obtain permits Materials must be tracked "from cradle to grave" to try to prevent illegal dumping Hazardous waste disposal is costly Often results in illegal dumping Illegal dumping creates health risks and financial headaches for dealing with it Industrial nations illegally dump in developing nations The Basel Convention, an international treaty, should prevent dumping, but it still happens High costs also encourage companies to invest in reducing their hazardous waste Incineration, bacterial and plant decomposition, etc. Facilities that generate, transport, or dispose of hazardous waste must report to the EPA the type and amount of material generated; its location, origin, and destination; and the way it is handled. This creates high disposal costs, which result in some companies illegally dumping the waste or exporting it to developing countries Large generators of hazardous waste must obtain permits Materials must be tracked "from cradle to grave" to try to prevent illegal dumping Hazardous waste disposal is costly Often results in illegal dumping Illegal dumping creates health risks and financial headaches for dealing with it Industrial nations illegally dump in developing nations The Basel Convention, an international treaty, should prevent dumping, but it still happens High costs also encourage companies to invest in reducing their hazardous waste Incineration, bacterial and plant decomposition, etc. Communities designate sites, collection days, or facilities to gather household hazardous waste Waste is then transported for treatment and disposal Industrial nations illegally dump in developing nations The Basel Convention, an international treaty, should prevent dumping, but it still happens High costs also encourage companies to invest in reducing their hazardous waste Incineration, bacterial and plant decomposition, etc.

agriculture

Use efficient irrigation methods "Flood and furrow" method floods fields, but plants use only 40% of the water applied Low-pressure spray irrigation sprays water downward Drip irrigation systems target individual plants Match crops to land and climate Don't grow cotton, rice, or alfalfa in arid areas Use selective breeding and genetic modification to produce crops that require less water Since agriculture makes up the majority of water demand, it is the most logical place to start conserving. Lining irrigation canals to prevent leaks. Leveling fields to minimize runoff. Moving from inefficient irrigation methods, like "flood and furrow," to more efficient ones, like drip irrigation. Eliminating water-intensive crops from arid regions. Almond trees grown in California's central valley use 10% of all water consumed by the state.

solar energy offers many benefits

Use no fuels, emits no greenhouse gases or air pollutants, are quiet, are safe, contain no moving parts, require little maintenance, and an average unit can produce energy for 20-30 years allow local, decentralized control over power Especially helpful in isolated areas or developing nations owners can sell excess electricity to their local utility Green-collar jobs are being created

legislation

Water pollution was worse decades ago The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972) Renamed the Clean Water Act in 1977 Made it illegal to discharge pollution without a permit Set standards for industrial wastewater Funded building of sewage treatment plants The situation is much better now The Great Lakes are much cleaner but still have issues Conditions improve when citizens push their government to take action Water pollution has been reduced greatly by the passage of the Clean Water Act of 1977, which set standards for contaminant levels in surface waters and funded construction of sewage treatment plants. Underfunding in recent years has led to an increase in documented violations, numbering more than 100,000 per year. The Great Lakes in North America are one of the biggest success stories: toxic chemical levels have been reduced by 71%, phosphorus by 80%, and chlorinated pollutants by 82%.

infiltration

Water soaks down through rock and soil to recharge aquifers

water vapor

Water vapor The most abundant greenhouse gas Contributes most to the natural greenhouse effect But concentrations have not changed

Personal choice and efficient technologies are two ways to conserve

We can choose to reduce energy consumption Drive less, turn off lights, buy efficient machines We don't have to decrease our quality of life Reducing energy use will also save money Energy-consuming devices can be made more efficient Cars and power plants lose ⅔ of energy as waste heat cogeneration

processing metals after mining ore

Processing minerals exerts environmental impacts Most methods are water- and energy-intensive Chemical reactions and heating to extract metals from ores emit air pollution and toxic wastes tailings surface impoundments

celluosic ethanol

Produced from structural plant material (e.g., cornstalks) that has no food value

biodiesel

Produced from vegetable oil, cooking grease, animal fat, soybeans, oil palms, rapeseed Vehicles can run on 100% biodiesel Biodiesel reduces emissions Its fuel economy is good It costs a bit more than gasoline Crops are specially grown Using land, leading to deforestation

climate models

Programs that combine data from atmospheric and ocean circulation and interactions to simulate climate processes If a model accurately reconstructs past or current climate, it may accurately predict future climate. Modeling is difficult and imperfect because climate is complex and many feedback cycles are not known or clearly understood The efficiency of the model is tested by entering past climate data and running the model toward the present. Current models are imperfect because the Earth's climate system is complex, and many feedback systems are not known.

sex ratios

Proportion of males to females Human sex ratios at birth slightly favor males

mass number

Protons plus neutrons (particles in nucleus)

purse seining

Purse seining deploys large nets around schools of fish at the surface. Floating buoys suspend the nets in the upper water column.

productivity

Rate at which autotrophs convert energy to biomass High net primary productivity Ecosystems whose plants rapidly convert solar energy to biomass

population growth rate

Rate of change in a population's size per unit time Equals (birth rate immigration rate) (death rate emigration rate) Tells us the net changes in a population's size per 1000 individuals per year Growth rate is expressed as a percent: Population growth rate 100% Allows comparison of populations of different sizes

atom

Smallest component of an element

overburden

Soil and rock that is removed After extraction, each strip is refilled with the overburden

sludge

Solid material resulting from treatment Is decomposed microbially Then landfilled, incinerated, or used as fertilizer

Energy is unevenly distributed

Some regions of the globe have substantial reserves of oil, coal, or natural gas, whereas others have very few

zone of saturation

Spaces are filled with water (all water)

biodiversity is unevenly distributed on earth

Species diversity is higher near the equator Some groups have more species than others Insects predominate over all other life-forms Beetles outnumber all non-insect animals and plants

allopatric speciation

Species form as a result of physical separation of populations The main mode of speciation Populations can be separated by glaciers, rivers, mountains Each population, with its own set of mutations, diverges

conservation geneticists

Study the effects of loss of genetic variation (e.g., inbreeding depression) Minimum viable population size How small a population can become before it runs into problems Small populations are most vulnerable to extinction and need special attention Scientists study species dispersal and gene flow To determine how likely that a population will persist when faced with habitat change or other threats

natural resources

Substances and energy sources that we rely upon to survive

acid drainage

Sulfide in newly exposed rock reacts with oxygen and rainwater, producing sulfuric acid Sulfuric acid leaches toxic materials from rock Flows into streams, killing fish and other organisms Pollutes groundwater used for drinking and irrigation Although acid drainage is natural, mining greatly accelerates it by exposing many new rock surfaces at once

Sun energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction

Sun energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction

renewable resource

Supplies are not depleted by our use Natural processes replenish sources Includes sunlight, geothermal energy, and tidal energy

surface impoundments

Surface impoundments Store liquid hazardous waste Shallow depressions are lined with an impervious material (plastic, clay, etc) The liquid or slurry evaporates This storage method is only temporary The residue of solid hazardous waste is transported elsewhere for permanent disposal The clay layer can crack and leak waste Rainstorms cause overflow, contaminating nearby areas shallow depressions lined with plastic and an impervious material that are used to store liquid hazardous waste. The water evaporates from the waste, leaving a solid residue that is removed and transported for permanent disposal.

strip mining

Surface layers are removed to expose and extract horizontal mineral deposits

replacement fertility

TFR that keeps the population size stable (about 2.1) Causes of decreasing TFR Medical care reduces infant mortality Urbanization increases childcare costs Children go to school instead of working Social Security supports the elderly Educated women enter the labor force

concentrated solar power

Technologies that concentrate solar energy to generate electricity Mirrors track the sun's movement Cons - impacts large areas and requires much water Solar cookers - simple, portable ovens that use reflectors to focus sunlight onto food

economics determines how much is extracted

Technology limits how much can be extracted Economics limits how much will be extracted Extraction gets harder and more costly as oil or gas is removed The amount of "economically recoverable" oil and gas is based on the price of the fuel At higher prices, economically recoverable amounts approach technically recoverable amounts

limit to pop growth

Technology, sanitation, medication, and food increase population by reducing infant mortality rates Death rates drop, but not birth rates Earth's carrying capacity for people? 1-2 billion prosperous people 33 billion very poor people Thomas Malthus' An Essay on the Principles of Population (1798) War, disease, starvation will reduce populations

storm surge

Temporary, localized rise in sea level caused by the high tides and winds of storms Vulnerability to storm surges will increase Rising seas eliminate marsh grasses; dams stop sediment from replenishing deltas

experiment

Tests the validity of a prediction or hypothesis Involves manipulating variables

evolution

change over time

interspecific

competition takes place between members of different species.

mortality

deaths within the population

emigration

departure of individuals from the population

exhaustible renewable natural resources

fresh water, forest products, biodiversity, soils

population

group of organisms of one type that live in the same area

molecules

groups of atoms; smallest unit of most chemical compounds

transitional stage

high population growth Industrialization, increased food, and medical care reduce mortality rates but birth rates are still high

eutrophic lakes and ponds

high-nutrient and low-oxygen conditions Eutrophication can also result from human-caused nutrient pollution high-nutrient, low-oxygen—conditions. Given enough plant growth, the water body may eventually fill in completely.

baghouse

huge filters that physically remove fly ash

renewable sources

hydroelectric power and biomass (well established and widely used) "New renewables"(not widely used yet and still being developed)

what happens if there is low genetic diversity

inbreeding depression

benefits of industrialized agriculture

increases crop yields while reducing pressure to develop natural areas for new farms Has allowed food production to keep pace with population growth reduced starvation Increases crop yields while reducing pressure to develop natural areas for new farms

trawling bottom

involves dragging weighted cone-shaped nets through the pelagic zone. Bottom-trawling works the same way, but targets the benthic zone.

xeriscaping

is landscaping using plants adapted to arid conditions.

trophic feeding structure

is the feeding relationships between organisms in a community Food chains - Species in a community are given a rank within the feeding hierarchy Flow of energy and feeding relationships from lower to higher trophic levels is depicted

commensalism

one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor helped

intertidal zones

periodically submerged and exposed by the tides

neutral

ph of 7

industrial stage

population growth decreases Women get jobs and use birth control Kids do not need to help produce food

4 stages of demographic transition

preindustrial, transitional, industrial, postindustrial

prevention

prevent introduction or spread of exotic species rather than control, is the best policy Predicting where a species might spread is important Analyzing the biology of the organism allows scientists to model the environmental conditions they might thrive in.

Energy is converted to chemical energy in biomass

primary production gross primary production net primary production

dynamic equilibrium

processes are moving in opposite directions but at equal rate so their effects balance out

lithosphere

rock and sediment

strip mining vs subsurface mining

strip mining: overburden is removed from mining siteused to extract resources that are near the surfacedestroys large areas of wildlife habitat subsurface mining: used to extract resources that are deep undergroundone of the most dangerous occupations in the United Statessafety requires good ventilation systems both: generates acid drainageused to extract coal

dispersion

the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population/ Spatial arrangement of organisms

thermosphere

top layer

atmospheric layers

troposphere stratosphere mesosphere thermosphere

international climate negotiations

un framework convention kyoto protocol

crude oil

liquid made of hydrocarbons

unconventional fossil fuels not used yet

methane hydrate oil shale

takes energy to make energy

We don't get energy for free To harness, extract, process, and deliver energy requires substantial inputs of energy Powerful machinery, vehicles, storage tanks, pipelines, etc. All this requires huge amounts of energy Net energy The difference between costs in energy invested and benefits in energy received Net energy Energy returned - Energy invested EROI

some mining in the ocean

We extract minerals (e.g., magnesium) from seawater Minerals are dredged from the ocean floor Logistical difficulties in mining have kept extractions limited, so far

paradigm shift

Where one paradigm, or dominant view, is replaced by another A new dominant view replaces the old Example: Earth, not the sun, is the center of the universe Prior to the work of Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century, European scientists believed the Earth was at the center of the universe.

wetlands

a habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil

lead

a heavy metal that can enter the atmosphere as a particulate pollutant In leaded gasoline and metal smelting Bioaccumulates and damages the nervous system Banned in gasoline in developed countries, but not in developing countries

anthropocentrism

a human-centered view that evaluates costs and benefits of actions solely on their impact on people Only humans have rights Anything not providing benefit to people has no value

source

a reservoir that releases more materials than it accepts

nonrenewable natural resources

a resource that is formed much more slowly than it is used Formed more slowly than we use them No longer available once depleted

renewable natural resources

a resource that is replenished, or renewed over short periods of time Replenished over short periods Inexhaustible and Exhaustible

hydrosphere

all water on Earth

entropy

an increasing state of disorder

herbivory

an interaction in which an herbivore eats parts of a plant or alga It has led to evolution of plant mechanical and chemical defenses and adaptations by herbivores animals feed on the tissues of plants. Insects are the most common type of herbivore. Plants have also evolved defenses, such as toxic chemicals, thorns, spines, or irritating hairs. Figure 54.6 A West Indies manatee (Trichechus manatus) in Florida. Herbivores feed on tissues of plants It may not kill the plant but affects its growth and reproduction Defenses against herbivory include Chemicals: toxic or distasteful Mechanical defenses: thorns, spines, tough coverings, or irritating hairs Herbivores may overcome these defenses

facilitation

an interaction in which one species has positive effects on another species without direct and intimate contact (not a symbiotic relationship)

biomes and ecotone

biomes usually grade into each other, without sharp boundaries The area of intergradation, called an ecotone, may be wide or narrow

natality

births within population

forensic science

can help protect species Analyzes evidence to identify or answer questions relating to a crime Conservation scientists use forensics to protect species at risk from illegal harvesting DNA identifies a species and its geographic origin Detecting illegal activity helps enforce laws protecting wildlife DNA from killed elephants shows many more were killed than the Zambian government realized

reduce emissions

There is no "magic bullet" for stopping climate change, but there are many smaller changes that can add up: Encouraging recycling, reuse, and composting. Using cogeneration to maximize power plant efficiency. Sustainably managing croplands and rangelands. Preserving and restoring forests.

oceans pt 2

96.5% water, the rest consisting of ions from dissolved salts The salts arise from runoff that carries salts and sediments from continents into the oceans. Surface water is Warmer and is less dense affected by wind, storms, sunlight, and temperature Deeper water is colder, more dense, sluggish unaffected by winds, storms, sunlight, and temperature Continental shelves sit below the shallow waters bordering the continents. These shelves drop off at the shelf-slope break. The continental slope angles steeply downward toward the deep ocean basin.

Species

A population or populations whose members share characteristics and can breed with each other to produce fertile offspring

species

A set of individuals that share certain characteristics and can interbreed producing fertile offspring

tributary

A smaller river flowing into a larger river

compost

- produced when decomposers break down organic matter in a controlled environment

science

A systematic process for learning about the world and testing our understanding of it The body of knowledge arising from the dynamic process of observation, questioning, testing, and discovery

stratosphere

11-50 km (7-31 mi) above sea level Drier, less dense, little vertical mixing Ozone layer - Blocks UV radiation

acid deposition

Acid deposition is the deposition of acid or acid-forming pollutants from the atmosphere on the Earth's surface. As with ozone depletion, this is a global problem that we have had some success in solving. Acid deposition can take place by any form of precipitation—acid rain, fog, gases, or the deposition of dry particles. Acid deposition is one form of atmospheric deposition, which occurs when any solid or liquid material from the atmosphere is dropped onto the Earth. Acid deposition occurs as a result of burning fossil fuels and releasing sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which react with water and oxygen in the atmosphere to form low pH acids.

Expanding wealth can increase the environmental impact per person

Affluent societies have enormous resource consumption With severe, far-reaching environmental impacts Ecological footprints are huge One American has as much environmental impact as 3.4 Chinese or 8 Indians or 14 Afghans

demographers study

Age structure Sex ratio Population size Density and distribution Birth, death, immigration, and emigration rates

matter

All material in the universe that has mass and occupies space It can be solid, liquid, or gas

niche

An organism's functional role in a community

human influence on nitrogen cycle

Artificial fixation (Haber-Bosch) used to bottleneck flux of N out of atmosphere. Key component in explosive and fertilizers. Has caused: 1. double the rate of terrestrial nitrogen 2. Increase of N2O (greenhouse gas) 3. Depleted calcium and potassium from oil 4. Artificial eutrophication- algal blooms, hypoxia, fish kills. Historically, nitrogen fixation was limited Industrial fixation - fixes nitrogen on a massive scale

fossil

A trace of an ancient organism that has been preserved in rock.

biomass decreases at higher trophic levels

Biomass is the collective mass of living matter in a given place and time There are far fewer organisms and less biomass (mass of living matter) at the higher trophic levels At each trophic level, most of the energy input is either used for maintenance or lost as heat. A trophic level will only have about 10% of the energy content, organisms, and biomass compared to the level below it. Biomass is the collective mass of living matter in a given place and time. The pyramid pattern of energy and biomass illustrates why eating at lower trophic levels decreases your ecological footprint.

hazardous waste characteristics

By EPA definition, hazardous waste has at least one of the following characteristics: Ignitable: Likely to catch fire. Corrosive: Can corrode metals in storage tanks or equipment. Reactive: Chemically unstable and readily able to react with other substances. Toxic: Harmful to human health when inhaled, ingested, or touched.

carbon capture and carbon storage

Captures CO2 emissions, converts the gas to a liquid, and stores it underground or in the ocean Some companies are already attempting this Could be a model for a new generation of power plants This technology is still too unproven to depend on The gas may escape, contaminate water, acidify oceans, or trigger earthquakes It is energy-intensive and reduces coal's EROI It prolongs our dependence on fossil fuels

organic compounds

Carbon atoms bonded together They may include other elements: nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus

Emissions pollute air and drive climate change

Carbon dioxide is released from land into the air Driving changes in global climate May become the greatest impact of fossil fuel use Emissions cause severe health problems and pollution Cancer, irritation, smog, poison

molecules

Combinations of two or more atoms

recombinant dna

Combined DNA segments from multiple organisms

conservation

Conservation could save 6 million barrels of oil a day Conserving energy is better than finding a new reserve Decreases health and environmental impacts while extending our access to fossil fuels Along with conservation, we still need energy from somewhere

Land Ethic (Aldo Leopold)

Healthy ecological systems depend on protecting all their interacting parts People should view themselves and the land as members of the same community Aldo Leopold, a forest and wildlife manager, author, and philosopher, articulated a new relationship between people and the environment. He originally embraced the government policy of shooting predators to increase the population of deer and other game animals but over time, he took on an ecocentric view

hydroelectric power is widely used but it may not expand much more

Dams have helped many nations develop Canada, Brazil, Norway, Austria, Venezuela, etc. China's Three Gorges Dam is world's largest dam But hydropower isn't likely to expand much more Most of the world's large rivers have already been dammed 98% of U.S. suitable rivers have been dammed The rest are protected.....people have grown aware of the ecological impact of dams and resist more construction

data info gathered

Data Types Quantitative data - numerical Qualitative data - non numerical Representative Data Not biased or selected Random sample

nature of science

Descriptive (observational) science Information is gathered about organisms, materials, systems, or processes not yet well known Phenomena are observed and measured Cannot be manipulated by experiments Used in astronomy, paleontology, taxonomy, molecular biology, and genomics Hypothesis-driven science Structured research Experiments test hypotheses using the scientific method

green collar jobs

Design, installation, maintenance, and management of renewable energy technologies Rebuild and operate our energy infrastructure Growing market As technology improves As prices fall As population and consumption rise As fossil fuel supplies decline As people demand cleaner environments, less pollution, and lower greenhouse gas emissions

solution mining

Dissolves and extracts resources via a narrow borehole

divergent evolution

Divergent evolution Selective pressures among closely related species cause them to acquire different traits Evolution towards different traits in closely related species Can lead to speciation Selective pressures among closely related populations cause them to acquire different traits the accumulation of differences between these groups can lead to the formation of new species

electricity

Easy to transfer and has lots of uses

family planning

Efforts to plan the number and spacing of children The greatest single factor slowing population growth Clinics offer advice, information, and contraceptives Birth control Controlling the number of children born by reducing the frequency of pregnancy Contraception Deliberate prevention of pregnancy through a variety of methods Hindered by religious and cultural influences Rates range from below 10% (Africa) to 86% (China)

el nino and la nina

El Niño refers to the large-scale ocean-atmosphere climate interaction linked to a periodic warming in sea surface temperatures across the central and east-central Equatorial Pacific. La Niña episodes represent periods of below-average sea surface temperatures El Niño and La Niña episodes typically last nine to 12 months Some prolonged events may last for years Their frequency can be quite irregular but El Niño and La Niña events occur on average every 2 to 8 years. Typically, El Niño occurs more frequently than La Niña.

e waste is hazardous waste

Electronic waste (e-waste) Waste involving electronic devices Obsolete computers, printers, cell phones, TVs, MP3 players, and other electronic devices Americans discard >300 million devices per year 3/4 still work Most are put in landfills or incinerators but should be treated as hazardous waste Due to the heavy metals and flame retardants in e-waste, the EPA and many states are treating it as hazardous waste

recycle metals from e waste

Electronic waste (e-waste) from computers, printers, cell phones, etc., is rapidly rising Cell phones can be refurbished and resold in developing countries Or their parts can be dismantled or refurbished Today, only 10% of cell phones are recycled

nutrients

Elements that organisms need in large amounts

first law of thermodynamics

Energy can change form but cannot be created or destroyed

wind energy

Energy derived from movement of air An indirect form of solar energy

net primary production

Energy remaining after respiration Equals gross primary production minus cellular respiration It is used to generate biomass (leaves, stems, roots) Available for heterotrophs NPP increases with temperature and precipitation on land, and with light and nutrients in aquatic ecosystems

rate of natural increase

Equals (birth rate) (death rate)

uniform

Evenly spaced individuals Territoriality, competition

lakes and ponds

Eventually, water bodies fill in completely through the process of aquatic succession

open pit mining

Excavating a giant hole in the landscape to remove widely spread mineral deposits

cogeneration

Excess heat produced during electrical generation can heat buildings or produce other power It can double the efficiency of a power plant Improvements can reduce energy to heat and cool buildings Passive solar, insulation, plants, roof color Appliances have been reengineered to increase efficiency Savings on utilities exceeds the appliances' costs

worldwide family planning

Funding and policies that encourage family planning lower population growth rates in all nations Thailand's education-based approach to family planning reduced its growth rate from 2.3% to 0.4% Brazil, Mexico, Iran, Cuba, and other developing countries have active programs 1994's UN population and development conference in Cairo, Egypt, called for universal access to reproductive health care Offer education and health care, and address social needs

humus

Further biological activity deposits organic matter in the form of decomposed organisms or waste. Partially decomposed organic matter is called humus and is very productive for plant life.

Biotechnology is transforming the products around us

GM crops today are engineered to resist: Herbicides Insect attack In U.S. today: 90% of corn, soybeans, cotton, and canola consist of genetically modified strains Worldwide: GM crops have been adopted and planted around the world 4 out of 5 soybean and cotton plants are now transgenic 1 out of 3 corn and canola plants 70% of processed foods in U.S. stores contain GM ingredients Sales of GM seeds have increased in the United States and other countries. Soybeans account for more than half of the GM crops grown worldwide. The United States, Brazil, Argentina, India, and Canada accounted for 90% of production in 2017.

what are the potential benefits of gm foods

GM foods can advance sustainable agriculture Grown with no-till farming Drought resistant and high-yielding they can: Enhance food security and reduce poverty Alleviate pressure to clear forests and grasslands Conserve water by reducing the need for irrigation Improve nutrition with crops that contain key nutrients (such as golden rice and vitamin A) Reduce pesticide use

air pollutants

Gases and particulate material added to atmosphere Can affect climate or harm people or other organisms

conclusion

Geologic processes shape Earth's terrain and form the foundation for living systems We depend on minerals and metals to make our products Mineral resources are mined by various methods Contribute to material wealth but cause extensive environmental damage (habitat loss, acid drainage, etc.) Restoration and regulations help minimize the environmental and social impacts of mining Recycling and sustainable use prolong mineral resources

harness geothermal energy for heating and electricity

Geothermal power plants harness naturally heated water and steam to generate electricity

geothermal power has pros and cons

Geothermal power reduces emissions It is not sustainable if the water is withdrawn faster than it can be recharged Patterns of geothermal activity in the crust shift Dissolved salts and minerals corrode equipment and pollute the air It is limited to areas where the energy can be tapped

ground source heat pumps

Geothermal pumps heat buildings in the winterby transferring heat from the ground to the building In summer, heat is transferred from the building to the ground More than 600,000 U.S. homes use GSHPs heat and cool spaces more efficiently They reduce electricity and emissions

global change

Global change - alterations in climate, atmospheric chemistry, and broad ecological systems Pollution Acid precipitation contains sulfuric acid and nitric acid from the burning of wood and fossil fuels Climate Change

coal

Has been used for thousands of years to cook, heat homes, and fire pottery Coal-fired steam engines power factories, trains, ships, and industrial furnaces Coal-fired power plants convert water to steam, which turns a turbine to create electricity

drawbacks to industrialized agriculture

Has many bad environmental and social effects Degraded soil, water supplies and pollinators Water, fossil fuels, fertilizers, and pesticides worsen pollution, erosion, and desertification Requires far more energy than traditional methods Displaces low-income farmers who can't afford the technology, forcing them to move to cities

drugs and medicines

In the United States, 25% of prescriptions contain substances originally derived from plants Pharmaceutical companies actively prospect tropical countries for products For example, the rosy periwinkle contains alkaloids that inhibit cancer growth

chemical formula

Indicates the type and number of atoms in a molecule or compound

infant mortality

Infant mortality rates are closely tied with level of industrialization Highest in poorer nations (sub-Saharan Africa) Lowest in wealthier nations

supplementing water and nutrients to boost crop yields can affect natural systems near and far

Irrigation boosts productivity but can damage soil Waterlogging Salinization

industrial solid waste

Is not municipal or hazardous waste Waste from factories, mining activities, agriculture, petroleum extraction, etc. U.S. industries generate 7.6 billion tons of waste per year 97% is wastewater so ~230 million tons is solid waste

multiple strategies needed

Just 15 strategies can eliminate 1 billion tons of carbon per year by 2050 if deployed on a large scale 7 of the 15 would stabilize CO2 emissions Environmental scientists advocate breaking down the problem into smaller, more manageable strategies, such as the 15 identified here: Just 15 strategies can eliminate 1 billion tons of carbon per year by 2050 if deployed on a large scale 7 of the 15 would stabilize CO2 emissions

enhancing indoor air quality

Keys to alleviating indoor air pollution include: Using low-toxicity materials Monitoring air quality Keeping rooms clean Providing adequate ventilation People in developed nations can: Limit use of plastics and treated wood Limit exposure to toxic substances (pesticides, etc.) Test homes and offices for radon and mold spores Use CO detectors Keep rooms and air ducts clean and free of mildew and other biological pollutants

criteria pollutants

Known to pose substantial risk to human health Carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, lead, and all nitrogen dioxides and tropospheric ozone EPA compiles data for these pollutants into a list called the Air Quality Index (AQI)

nutrient pollution and financial impacts

Large amount of nitrogen and phosphorous entering the Chesapeake Bay originates from farms and other sources far from the bay. People living near the bay, such as oystermen, bear many of the negative impacts. Who do you believe should be responsible for addressing the problems? Should environmental policies on this issue be developed and enforced by state governments, federal governments, both, or neither?Explain the reasons for your answer.

oil pollution

Large spills are infrequent but can be devastating Other sources Natural seepage, boat leakage, road and parking lot runoff Spills during transport and leakage during extraction Large oil spills are infrequent, but their impacts around the spill site are staggering. The Exxon Valdez ran aground in 1989, causing an ecological disaster along the Alaskan coast. The Deepwater Horizon was an offshore oil platform that exploded in 2010, spilling oil that washed ashore throughout the Gulf of Mexico region.

polymers

Long chains of repeated organic compounds Play key roles as building blocks of life Three essential types of polymers Proteins Nucleic acids Carbohydrates Lipids are not polymers, but they are also essential Fats, oils, phospholipids, waxes, steroids

groundwater pollution

Most pollution control measures have focused on surface waters, but groundwater is also vulnerable to pollution. Groundwater, unlike rivers, retains contaminants until they decompose. Chemicals break down much more slowly in aquifers due to the lack of sunlight and microbes. Over withdrawal of groundwater concentrates the pollutants that are present. Certain chemicals, such as aluminum, fluoride, nitrates, and sulfates, occur naturally in groundwater due to its contact with rocks. Human sources include leaking underground storage tanks and the leaching of solvents and pesticides through soil. More than one-third of the underground tanks housing radioactive waste at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation in Washington are leaking into groundwater supplies.

threats to biodiversity

Most species loss can be traced to five major threats Habitat loss Pollution Overharvesting Invasive species Climate change

aphotic zone

Not enough life penetrates this deep Not enough light to support autotrophs, producers

limnetic zone

Open portion of the lake or pond where sunlight allows photosynthesis a zone of open water in lakes and ponds

climate

Patterns of atmospheric conditions across large geographic regions over long periods of time (years or longer)

3 mile island

Pennsylvania (1979), the most serious accident in the U.S. Was due to mechanical failure and human error

toxic chemicals

Pesticides, petroleum products, synthetic chemicals Toxic metals (arsenic, lead, mercury), acid rain, acid drainage from mines Effects include poisoning of animals and plants, alteration of aquatic ecosystems, and human health problems Solutions Issue and enforce more stringent regulations of industry Modify industrial processes Modify our purchasing decisions Many types of toxic chemicals have been released into water sources: Pesticides. Petroleum products. Heavy metals, like arsenic, lead, and mercury. Acid from acid precipitation and mining runoff. Disease-causing organisms, such as bacteria and parasites, can enter drinking water supplies from improperly treated sewage.

populations

Populations continue to rise in most countries Particularly in poverty-stricken developing nations Although the rate of growth is slowing, we are still increasing in numbers India will soon surpass China as most populous http://www.prb.org/india_rising/index.html Despite decline in global growth rate, the population continues growing by adding tens of millions of people each year

who pays for cleanup

CERCLA operates under the polluter-pays principle: charge polluting parties for cleanup However, the responsible parties often can't be found A trust fund was established by a federal tax on the petroleum and chemical industries The fund is bankrupt, and Congress has not restored it; taxpayers now pay all costs of cleanup When a Superfund site is identified, scientists prioritize the site on the National Priorities List based on how near the site is to homes, whether wastes are confined or likely to spread, and whether the pollution threatens drinking water supplies. As of 2017, 1336 Superfund sites remained on the National Priorities List, and only 393 had been cleaned up or otherwise deleted from the list.

greenhouse gas concentrations are rising fast

CO2 has increased from 280 ppm (late 1700s) to >400 ppm The highest in 800,000 (possibly 20 million) years Burning fossil fuels transfers carbon from one reservoir (underground deposits) to another (the atmosphere) The main reason CO2 levels have increased Deforestation reduces the biosphere's ability to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere contributes to rising atmospheric CO2 Plants/trees store carbon in their tissues Combustion of fossil fuels transfers carbon from one reservoir (underground deposits) to another (the atmosphere). Forests, another reservoir, have been cleared, reducing the biosphere's ability to remove carbon dioxide.

demography 4 factors affect population size

Natality Mortality Immigration Emigration

Dependence on foreign energy affects the economies of nations

Nations importing fossil fuels are vulnerable to supplies becoming unavailable or costly Seller nations control prices, causing panic

businesses are adopting industrial ecology

One example of industrial ecology is found in breweries that take waste from the beer-brewing process and use it to grow mushrooms, make bread, feed pigs, etc.

disposal methods have improved

Developed nations have improved waste collection and disposal Source reduction, reuse, recycling and composting are decreasing pressure on landfills Efforts minimize impacts on health and the environment In 2012 in the U.S., 35% of waste was recycled or composted

must reduce population growth and consumption

Developing nations: slow population growth and consumption rates Developed nations:slow consumption Our global ecological footprint is at least 50% more than the Earth can support

genetic diversity

Differences in DNA among individuals Provides the raw material for adaptation to local conditions Natural selection cannot lead to evolution or adaptation if all individuals in a population are exactly the same

primary pollutants

Directly harmful or can react to form harmful substances (e.g., soot and carbon monoxide)

reuse is a main strategy to reduce waste

Donate used items to charity Shop for used items at Goodwill stores and Salvation Army Some colleges run a "Trash to Treasure" program to collect used items at colleges as students leave and resell items that arriving students need at a low cost to raise money for sustainability on campus

solution to louisiana

One proposed solution is to divert water from the river into coastal wetlands. The Atchafalaya River delta has benefited from this change and is now gaining land mass. The Tourist Opportunities and Revived Economies of the Gulf Coast States Act (RESTORE Act), passed following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, created a comprehensive restoration plan

some pollution from natural sources

Fires generate soot and gases Volcanoes release particulate matter, sulfur dioxide Winds send huge amounts of dust aloft, even across oceans Humans make impacts worse Farming, grazing and mining cause erosion, desertification Fire suppression and encroachment into fire-prone ecosystems

mining methods and impacts

Mining provides jobs and money for communities It provides raw materials for products we use Mining has environmental and social impacts Large amounts of material are removed during mining, disturbing lots of land Different mining methods are used to extract different minerals The method used depends on economic efficiency

many species await discovery

Our knowledge of species numbers is incomplete Small organisms are easily overlooked Many organisms are difficult to identify Some areas of Earth remain little explored ~1.8 million species have been described Most widely accepted estimate of the number of species? 14 million Estimate range from 3-100 million species on Earth

pathogens

Parasites that cause disease in hosts Protists, bacteria, and viruses Scabies Elephantiasis Toxoplasmosis Giardiasis Dengue fever Malaria (protist) Tuberculosis (bacteria) Hepatitis (virus) Etc. Parasites that cause disease are called pathogens. Pathogens can be protists (malaria), bacteria (tuberculosis), or viruses (hepatitis).

reduce smog

Pollution control technology Vehicle inspection programs Financial incentives to replace aging vehicles Restricting driving Cleaner-burning fuels Cleaner industrial facilities Close those that can't improve Pollution indicator boards

wind power is growing fast

5 nations produce 75% of the world's wind power But dozens of nations now produce wind power

wind power has limitations

Wind varies from time to time and place to place It can be one of several sources of electricity Batteries or hydrogen fuel can store the energy Wind sources are not always near population centers that need energy Transmission networks need to be expanded Local residents often oppose wind farms Turbines kill birds and bats when they fly into rotating blades

zone of aeration

Pore spaces are partly filled with water (water & air)

point sources

Specific spots where large quantities of pollutants are discharged (e.g., power plants)

foods can be genetically modified

The first genetically modified animal to become approved for human consumption is a salmon that can grow faster and reach larger sizes than wild salmon. biotechnology

hydrologic cycle

The flow of liquid/gaseous/solid water through environment evaporation transpiration precipitation infiltration the movement of water through the biosphere Water is renewed and recycled as it passes through the water cycle. Precipitation falling from the sky sinks into the ground or acts as runoff to surface water bodies. Rivers interact with ponds, wetlands, and coastal aquatic ecosystems. Underground aquifers exchange water with surface waters. These interactions create a web of interconnected freshwater and marine aquatic ecosystems.

manipulative experiments

The independent variable is manipulated Reveal causal relationships Provide the strong evidence

oceanic pelagic zone

This biome covers approximately 70% of Earth's surface Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the dominant organisms Overfishing has depleted fish stocks Humans have polluted oceans with dumping of waste

oceans

This biome covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface Oceans hold 97% of surface water Oceans influence and are influenced by every system They receive all inputs, sediment, and pollutants Humans have polluted oceans with dumping of waste Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the dominant organisms Overfishing has depleted fish stocks The world's five oceans are all connected, making a single body of water that covers 71% of Earth's surface. Ocean water contains approximately 96.5% water by mass, with the rest consisting of ions from dissolved salts. The salts arise from runoff that carries salts and sediments from continents into the oceans. Sunlight does not penetrate ocean water deeply, so temperatures tend to decrease with depth. In the open ocean, most primary productivity occurs in the top layer, called the photic zone. Microscopic phytoplankton constitute the base of the food chain. Pelagic habitats are found between the ocean surface and floor. Benthic habitats occur on the ocean floor.

contaminated sites are being cleaned up slowly

Thousands of former military and industrial sites are contaminated with hazardous waste Dealing with these messes is hard, time-consuming, and expensive In 1980, the U.S. Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA). This created a hazardous waste site cleanup program called the Superfund. Later laws charged the EPA with cleaning up brownfields, lands that contain hazardous materials. CERCLA 1980 When a Superfund site is identified, scientists prioritize the site on the National Priorities List based on how near the site is to homes whether wastes are confined or likely to spread whether the pollution threatens drinking water supplies As of 2017 1336 Superfund sites remained on the National Priorities List only 393 had been cleaned up or otherwise deleted from the list Each cleanup costs ~$25 million and takes ~15 years

carbon cycle

Through photosynthesis, producers move carbon from the air and water to organisms Respiration returns carbon to the air and water Decomposition returns carbon to the sediment, the largest reservoir of carbon Oceans are the second largest reservoir of carbon

reproductive window

Time when women can become pregnant Decisions that affect their reproductive window Jobs or school: delays the birth of a first child Contraceptives: space births Women may "close" the window after she reaches the desired family size

active solar energy collection

Uses technology to focus, move, or store solar energy Flat plate solar collectors Dark-colored, heat-absorbing metal plates mounted on rooftops Water, air, or antifreeze runs through the collectors, transferring heat throughout the building Heated water is stored and used later Used most widely in China and Europe

malnutrition

a shortage of specific nutrients, such as lipids, proteins, vitamins, or minerals medical condition caused by improper or insufficient diet

Community

assemblage of different populations that live together in a defined area

no till drill

cuts furrow, drops in a seed, closes furrow over seed Cuts furrow Drops in a seed Closes furrow over seed Critics of no-till farming Argue that it requires more use of chemical herbicides Proponents Point out that many farmers rely more heavily on green manures to fertilize and cover crops to choke out weeds Can improve soil quality and store carbon in soils (combating global climate change)

blood diamonds

diamonds mined in war zones with profits used to fund a revolution or rebellion mined and sold to fund, prolong, and intensify wars in Angola and other areas Poor people are exploited for mine labor

solution mining

dissolves resources and extracts resources in place (in-situ recovery) Resources in a deep deposit are dissolved in a liquid and sucked out Water, acid, or other liquids are injected into holes Used for salt, lithium, boron, bromine, magnesium, potash, copper, uranium Less environmental impact than other methods Less surface area is disturbed But acids, heavy metals, uranium can accidentally leak or leach out of rocks and contaminate groundwater

materials recovery facilities

facilities where workers and machines separate items by weight and size using automated processes including magnetic pulleys, optical sensors, water currents, and air classifiers. The second step is for the materials to be used to manufacture new goods.

nets and plastic debris

fishing nets, plastic bags and bottles, fishing line, buckets, floats Mammals, seabirds, and sea turtles eat plastic and die Plastic trash is accumulating in gyres, ocean regions where currents converge North Pacific's Great Pacific Garbage Patch Congress passed the Marine Debris Research, Prevention, and Reduction Act in 2006 Minimize this harm by reducing, reusing, and recycling plastic Discarded fishing nets, fishing line, plastic bags and bottles, and other trash accumulate in regions of the ocean where currents converge called gyres. One such area is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, an area in the southern Pacific where plastic outnumbers plankton by a 6-to-1 ratio.

irrigation

for agriculture is the main contributor to unsustainable water use Worldwide, roughly 15-35% of water withdrawals for irrigation are thought to be unsustainable

coral reefs

formed from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals Shallow reef-building corals live in the warm, clear water Deepsea corals live at depths of 200-1,500 m Collection of coral skeletons, overfishing, global warming, pollution, and aquaculture are threats to coral reef ecosystems

coal

formed when organic matter (plants) is compacted so tightly (under high pressure) that there is little decomposition The world's most abundant fossil fuel Created 300-400 million years ago

ecocentrism

judges actions based on their effects on ecological systems Whole ecological systems have value Values well-being of species, communities, ecosystems both living and nonliving elements and relationships between them This is the most holistic perspective: it preserves connections between entities

natural gas

methane (CH4) and other hydrocarbons

climate varies for several reasons

solar output milankovitch cycles ocean absorption ocean thermohaline circulation el nino southern oscillation

hazardous waste

solid or liquid waste that is toxic, chemically reactive, flammable, or corrosive A liquid, solid, or gas that has at least one of the following characteristics: Ignitable Likely to catch fire (natural gas, alcohol) Corrosive Corrodes metals in storage tanks or equipment (acids/bases) Reactive Chemically unstable and readily able to react with other substances Often explosively or by producing noxious fumes Toxic Harms human health when inhaled, ingested, or touched

renewable energy sources

sources of energy able to be replaced through ongoing natural processes Replenished over short periods Inexhaustible (perpetually renewable) Exhaustible (may be locally depleted if overharvested)

oil sands

unconventional method tar sands Moist sand and clay deposits with bitumen Bitumen - a form of petroleum rich in carbon, poor in hydrogen Degraded and chemically altered crude oil deposits Removed by strip mining or deep underground extraction

waste to energy facilities

use the heat produced by waste combustion to create electricity

oil

used for fuel (gasoline, diesel, jet fuel) lubricating oils asphalts precursors of plastics other petrochemical products lubricants fabrics cosmetics pharmaceuticals etc.

exploitation

the action or fact of treating someone unfairly in order to benefit from their work. One member benefits while the other is harmed (/ interactions) Examples: predation, parasitism, herbivory In other types of interactions, some participants benefit while others are harmed. Predation, parasitism, and herbivory are exploitative interactions in which one participant benefits at the expense of another.

coriolis effect

the apparent north-south deflection of air currents of the convective cells Results in curving global wind patterns Global wind patterns helped sailing ships travel the oceans

parent material

the base geologic material in a particular location. This may include: Hardened lava or volcanic ash. Sediment deposited by glaciers or flowing water. Wind-blown dunes. the base geologic material in a particular location. This may include: Hardened lava or volcanic ash. Sediment deposited by glaciers or flowing water. Wind-blown dunes. Bedrock, the mass of solid rock that makes up most of the Earth's crust.

atmosphere

the layer of gases that envelops our planet and performs many important functions: Moderates our climate. Provides oxygen. Shields us from meteors and hazardous solar radiation. Transports and recycles water and nutrients. The atmosphere is mostly nitrogen and oxygen, with smaller amounts of other gases, as well as water vapor. The atmosphere has evolved since life first began on Earth, particularly with the introduction of oxygen when the first microbes began using photosynthesis. Humans are beginning to alter the quantities of some atmospheric gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane.

petroleum

natural gas plus oil These fossil fuels are formed from organic material (mostly dead plankton) buried by sediments millions of years ago

fly ash

particulate matter that can be very toxic

aphotic zone

permanently dark layer of the oceans below the photic zone

chernobyl

plant in Ukraine The 1986 explosion was the most severe nuclear plant accident that has ever occurred Was due to human error and unsafe design For 10 days, radiation escaped while crews tried to put out the fires More than 100,000 residents were evacuated 19 miles of surrounding landscape still remain contaminated The accident killed 31 people directly

photosynthesis

plants convert radiant energy from sun into chemical energy as glucose 6H20 + 6CO2 + radiant energy -- C6H12)6 + 602 water + carbon dioxide + sunlight -- glucose and oxygen Process of turning the light energy into chemical energy Sunlight converts carbon dioxide and water into sugars Moving to lower entropy

post industrial stage

population stabilizes Low birth and death rates

successful reproduction

The best adapted to their environment are likely to have many offspring that survive.

element

A chemical substance with a given set of properties

non point sources

More diffuse, consisting of many small, widely spread sources (e.g., automobiles)

speciation

The process of generating new species Natural selection cause an ancestral species to give rise to two or more descendent species

vernal pools

- Adapted to seasonal drying

ectoparasites

- Parasites that live on the external surface of a host live on exterior of host Fleas, ticks, mites, lice, Mosquito Sea lampreys Mistletoe, orchids, bromeliads

increasing affluence lowers fertility

-poor societies have higher population growth rates -poverty and population growth make each other worse -99% of the next billion people added will be born in poor, less developed regions that are least able to support them

organism

An individual living thing

covalent bond

Atoms without electrical charges "share" electrons Example: hydrogen gas (H2) or oxygen (O2)

solar energy is expanding

China leads the world in PV cell production The U.S. may recover its leadership As a result of tax credits and state initiatives Solar energy use should increase as a result of: Falling prices Improved technologies Economic incentives

societal

Climate change can contribute to humanitarian, geopolitical, and national security problems. Economies and infrastructure may be weakened. Oil and gas flows can be disrupted. People in some affected regions may become refugees or turn to terrorism

habitat loss

Human alteration of habitat is the greatest threat to biodiversity In almost all cases, habitat fragmentation and destruction lead to loss of biodiversity

case study: hydrofracking

Hydrofracking the Marcellus Shale Hydraulic fracturing (hydrofracking or fracking) Drilling deep into the earth and then angling the drill horizontally once it meets shale formation Electric charges create fractures in the shale Then a slurry of water, sand, and chemicals is pumped in Sand lodges in the fractures and holds them open as some liquid returns to the surface, including natural gas Hydraulic fracturing is used to extract natural gas trapped in shale deposits deep underground At first, Dimock, PA, residents were happy to allow Cabot Oil and Gas Corporation to drill for natural gas They were to receive royalties on gas sells Job opportunities increased Then, many residents had second thoughts Drinking water turned brown, gray, or cloudy Strange chemical smells from their wells A well exploded because of methane buildup Resulting events Cabot, local political leaders, and Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) would not listen to residents' concerns News media picked up the story Documentary filmmaker Josh Fox produced the 2010 film Gasland and won numerous awards Finally, Pennsylvania DEP fined Cabot and required them to pay for hauling in clean drinking water However, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Corbett ordered an end to the water shipments U.S. EPA found that 5 of 64 wells tested were contaminated with chemicals that could threaten health State governments have approached hydraulic fracturing in various ways Pennsylvania's political leaders welcomed the gas industry with open arms, exempting regulations New York's leaders placed a moratorium on fracking until further studies were conducted Ohio, Texas, Louisiana, Wyoming, North Dakota, and others encourage fracking Vermont has banned it California is debating the issue, concerned about drought conditions and the fact that fracking requires large amounts of water Ways to minimize impacts of fracking are being researched

kelp forests

Kelp is large brown algae growing from the floor of continental shelves along temperate coasts Can grow to 200ft (61m) tall, forming "forests" Provide shelter and food for organisms Absorb wave energy and protect shorelines from erosion Kelp serves as food, thickeners in cosmetics, paints, paper, and soaps Along many temperate coasts, large brown algae called kelp grow from the floor of the continental shelves, reaching toward the sunlit surface. Dense stands form underwater "forests," which provide food and shelter for many animals.

la nina

La Niña events are the opposite of El Niño events; unusually cold waters rise to the surface and extend westward, causing winds blowing to the west to strengthen. ENSO cycles occur every 2-8 years. Scientists are studying whether changes in air and sea temperatures are increasing the frequency and strength of these cycles.

rapid growing pop

Our population grows by over 80 million each year Human population continues to grow exponentially

endoparasites

Parasites that live within the body of their host live within the host Tapeworms Heartworms Hookworm Pinworms

marine and costal ecosystems

Regions of ocean water differ greatly, with certain zones supporting more life than others depending on characteristics such as: Topography Temperature Salinity Nutrients Sunlight

swamps

Shallow water in forested areas

streams and rivers

The most prominent physical characteristic is current

placer mining

Using running water, miners sift through material in riverbeds Used for gold, gems Debris washes into streams They become uninhabitable for wildlife Disturbs stream banks Causes erosion Harms plant communities

first step to recycling

collect and process used goods and materials. Materials recovery facilities (MRFs) are facilities where workers and machines separate items by weight and size using automated processes including magnetic pulleys, optical sensors, water currents, and air classifiers. The second step is for the materials to be used to manufacture new goods. The last step involves consumers and businesses buying products made from recycled materials.

intraspecific

competition takes place between members of the same species.

denitrfication

completes the nitrogen cycle Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates in soil or water to gaseous nitrogen, releasing it back into the atmosphere

nonrenewable natural resources

crude oil, natural gas, coal, minerals

what leads to uncertainty in our ability to predict how long a mineral resource will last?

development of new extraction technologies changing rates of mineral recycling changes in product technologies that use minerals

population distribution

dispersion random uniform clumped

dams increase supply

have increased supplies But most major rivers have already been dammed

macromolecules

large-sized molecules essential to life

subsurface mining

miners work underground Accesses deep pockets of a mineral through tunnels and shafts up to 2.5 miles deep Zinc, lead, nickel, tin, gold, diamonds, phosphate, salt, coal The most dangerous form of mining Dynamite blasts, collapsed tunnels Toxic fumes and coal dust Collapsed tunnels cause sinkholes

basic

pH greater than 7 contain more OH-

acidic

pH less than 7 contains more H+

environmental

relating to the living and nonliving things around us

aquatic systems

shaped by: physical environment, chemical environment, geological features, photosynthetic organisms, and heterotrophs Freshwater and saltwater show less latitudinal variation than terrestrial biomes

cells

smallest unit of life

inexhaustible renewable resources

solar energy, wind energy, wave energy, geothermal energy

atmosphere

the air surrounding the planet

waste stream

the flow of waste as it moves from its sources to its disposal destinations

bedrock

the mass of solid rock that makes up most of the Earth's crust.

data

the results information gathered

disposal

waste safely and effectively Burying waste in landfills Burning waste in incinerators

wastewater

water we use that is from drains or flushed

photic zone

zone (near surface) is high in primary production and animal populations around nutrient-rich upwellings Warm, shallow waters of continental shelves are the most productive and support the highest biodiversity Phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, jellyfish, whales Predators include larger fish, sea turtles, and sharks

biome

- A regional complex of similar communities Terrestrial biomes are classified primarily by dominant plant type and vegetation structure, which in turn is the result of climate Despite communities being in very different locations in the Earth, they often have similar structure and function. A regional complex of similar communities is called a biome. Biomes are classified primarily by dominant plant type and vegetation structure, which in turn is the result of climate.

introduced species may alter communities

- species that humans move from their native locations to new geographic regions Without their native predators, parasites, and pathogens, introduced species may spread rapidly (invasive species) Introduced species that gain a foothold in a new habitat usually disrupt their adopted community (invasive species) Introduced species are non-native arrivals to a community brought by people. Most fail to establish populations, but the ones that thrive are called invasive species. Introduced species become invasive when limiting factors that normally regulate their population growth are absent. Lack of competition, predators, or parasites.

freshwater wetlands include marshes swamps bogs and vernal pools

- the soil is saturated with shallow, standing water Wetlands are extremely valuable for wildlife Provide important ecosystem services: Slow runoff, reduce flooding, recharge aquifers, and filter pollutants People have drained wetlands, mostly for agriculture People divert and withdraw water, channelize rivers, and build dams The U.S. has lost over half of its wetlands

4 parts of natural selection

1. Overproduction, 2. Variations, 3. Adaptations, 4. Descent with Modification

public debate over gm food continues

A big part of the public debate is that every person relies on food for survival and genetic modification of rice, corn, soy, and wheat essentially forces people to consume biotech products Another concern is that a few large companies such as Monsanto, Bayer, Dow, DuPont, and BASF control GM technology These companies patent their seeds, meaning that if a farmer's crops are pollinated by a neighbor's GM crops, he may be sued for harvesting and replanting his own seeds Most biotech crops so far have been engineered for insect resistance and herbicide tolerance, primarily benefiting large-scale industrial farmers and not poor rural ones.

Soils

A complex system consisting of disintegrated rock, organic matter, water, gases, nutrients, and microorganisms Soil is derived from rock, but shaped by microorganisms 50% mineral matter, 5% organic matter, and 45% pore space. Dead and living microorganisms Decaying material Bacteria, fungi, worms, insects, burrowing animals A renewable resource that can be depleted if abused Soil influences ecosystems as much as climate, latitude, and Soil formation begins during primary succession, as water, air, and living organisms break down parent material in the lithosphere. parent material bedrock weathering Soil is renewable, but at a very slow rate.

resilience

A community changes in response to a disturbance, but later returns to its original state

resistance

A community resists change and remains stable despite the disturbance

overproduction

A condition in which production of goods exceeds the demand for them

alloy

A metal is mixed, melted, or fused with another metal or nonmetal substance Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon

introduced species

A species introduced to a community by people Introduced deliberately or accidentally Introduced species are non-native arrivals to a community brought by people. Most fail to establish populations, but the ones that thrive are called invasive species. Introduced species become invasive when limiting factors that normally regulate their population growth are absent. Lack of competition, predators, or parasites.

el nino southern oscillation

A systematic shift in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical Pacific Ocean Normally, winds blow westward "piling up" water in the western Pacific Deep, cold water rises and brings up nutrients, feeds fish and gives Peru and Ecuador rich fisheries Decreasing air pressure in the eastern Pacific triggers El Niño Suppresses upwelling on the America's Pacific coast Devastates fisheries and costs billions of dollars The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a systematic shift in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Under normal conditions, prevailing winds blow from east to west along the equator, forming a large convective loopin the atmosphere. This causes a "pile-up" of warm water to form near Indonesia, fueling storms in that region.

precipitation is changing

A warmer atmosphere speeds evaporation and holds more water vapor, and precipitation has increased worldwide by 2% over the past century. Overall, some regions are receiving above average amounts of rain and snow, while others receive less. A warmer atmosphere speeds evaporation and holds more water vapor, and precipitation has increased worldwide by 2% over the past century. Overall, some regions are receiving above average amounts of rain and snow, while others receive less. Precipitation will increase at high latitudes and decrease at low and middle latitudes Worsening water shortages in poor nations Some regions are receiving more rain and snow and other areas are receiving less In the U.S. Southwest, droughts have become more frequent and severe Harm agriculture, promote soil erosion, reduce water supplies, and trigger fires 2008 floods in Iowa and the Midwest heavy rains caused flooding Kill people, destroy homes, and inflict billions of dollars in damage

acid deposition impacts

Acid deposition has many detrimental effects on ecosystems • accelerated leaching of base cations (ions such as Ca2+, Mg2+, NA+, and K+, which counteract acid deposition) from soil • allowed sulfur and nitrogen to accumulate in soil, where excess N can encourage weeds • increased dissolved inorganic aluminum in soil, hindering plant uptake of water and nutrients • leached calcium from needles of red spruce, causing trees to die from wintertime freezing ACID DEPOSITION IN NORTHEASTERN U.S. FORESTS HAS ... • increased mortality of sugar maples due to leaching of base cations from soil and leaves • acidified hundreds of lakes and diminished their capacity to neutralize further acids • elevated aluminum levels in surface waters • reduced species diversity and abundance of aquatic life, affecting entire food webs

temperature inversion

Air generally becomes colder as altitude rises. Since warm air rises, vertical mixing results, and air pollution is carried away from its source. During temperature inversions, a layer of cool air becomes trapped beneath warm air, preventing any vertical mixing from occurring. The band of air where temperature rises with altitude is called the inversion layer, since the relationship is the inverse of normal. Temperature inversions often occur in valleys, as nearby mountains block morning sunlight, creating cooler air in their shadow. This traps pollution near the ground.

ecosystem

All organisms and nonliving entities occurring and interacting in a particular area Animals, plants, water, soil, nutrients, etc.

observation #1

All species can produce more offspring than the environment can support, and many of these offspring fail to survive and reproduce

enviornment

All the living and nonliving things around us (including people) Living (biotic) Non-living (abiotic) Physical Chemical Together

suns influence on weather and climate

An enormous amount of energy from the sun hits Earth 70% is absorbed by the atmosphere and Earth's surface heating the surfaces and evaporating water Air near Earth's surface is warm and moist

weeds

Any plant that competes with crops Industrial monocultures limit the ability of natural enemies to control pest populations, causing farmers to turn to chemical suppression.

genetic engineering

Any process where scientists directly manipulate an organism's genetic material (DNA) Laboratory manipulation of genetic material by adding, deleting, or modifying DNA Goal of genetic engineering Put genes that code for desirable traits (rapid growth, nutrition, etc.) into organisms lacking those traits refers to any process where scientists directly manipulate an organism's genetic material (DNA).

waste

Any unwanted material or substance that results from a human activity or process Can degrade water, air, soil, or health Indicates inefficiency (loss of money & resources)

growth rates

At today's 1.2% global growth rate, the population will double in 58 years Highest growth rate is in developing countries

global wind patterns

Atmospheric cells interact with Earth's rotation to produce global wind patterns As Earth rotates, equatorial regions spin faster

reservoirs

Artificial lakes created by dams Store water for human use Only a few major rivers remain undammed In remote regions (Canada, Alaska, Russia, Africa)

biodiversity loss involves pop declines

As populations shrink The species loses genetic diversity Its geographic range gets smaller

volcanoes exert environmental impacts

Ash blocks sunlight Sulfur emissions lead to sulfuric acid Block radiation and cool the atmosphere Large eruptions can decrease temperatures worldwide

Preservation Ethic (John Muir)

Believing that the environment should be protected in a pristine, unaltered state. Nature deserves protection for its own inherent value A pioneering advocate of the preservation ethic, John Muir helped establish the Sierra Club, a major environmental organization. He worked with President Teddy Roosevelt to increase protected areas, such as in the Sierra Nevada mountains.

feedlot agriculture has benefits and costs

Benefits Allow greater economic efficiency Greater production of more affordable meat Reduce grazing impacts on the land Costs 45% of the world's grain is fed to livestock Which endangers food security for the world's poor Feedlots produce huge amounts of manure and urine Can pollute surface water and groundwater Feedlot waste is rich in nitrogen and phosphorous, so it contributes to eutrophication Feedlot waste contains bacterial and viral pathogens Hormones, antibiotics, and other drugs administered to animals may also be excreted Produces more greenhouse gases (CO2, methane, nitrous oxides) than automobile emissions

biodegradable wastes

Biodegradable materials Human waste, animal manure, paper pulp, yard wastes (grass clippings, leaves) decrease dissolved oxygen in water Wastewater Humans release biodegradable wastes From toilets, showers, sinks, dishwashers, washing machines, industrial cleaning processes, storm water runoff Developed nations treat wastewater Many developing nations don't treat wastewater Human wastes, animal manure, pulp from paper mills, and yard waste are all considered biodegradable pollution. These also lower oxygen levels in water as the material is decomposed. Wastewater is water affected by human activities and includes water from toilets, sinks, dishwashers, and washing machines

biopower

Biomass sources are burned in power plants which generates heat and electricity Waste products of industries or processes Woody debris from logging, pulp mill waste, crop residues, organic materials from landfills and feedlots Bioenergy crops Fast-growing willow trees, bamboo, switchgrass

biopower benefits and drawbacks

Biopower increases efficiency and waste recycling It reduces CO2 emissions Capturing landfill gas reduces methane emissions It reduces sulfur dioxide emissions when used to replace coal But burning crops deprives the soil of nutrients The soil becomes progressively depleted

we can recycle materials from landfills

Businesses are weighing the benefits of salvaging materials in landfills that can be recycled Metals (steel, aluminum, copper, and other metals) Organic waste for compost Wastes can be incinerated in WTE facilities Harvesting methane from open dumps (Asia, Africa) But costs and regulatory requirements have made investing in landfill mining risky and expensive Rising prices and better technologies will change this Steel, aluminum, copper, and other metals are abundant enough in some landfills to make salvage operations profitable when market prices for the metals are high enough. Organic waste from landfills could be mined and composted. Older landfill waste could also be incinerated in waste-to-energy facilities to produce energy.

greenhouse gases warm the lower atmosphere

Carbon dioxide contributes most to the greenhouse effect It is less potent, but far more abundant, than other gases The major type of human-caused emissions

atmospheric blocking pattern

Changes in jet stream can cause extreme weather events Warming in the Arctic has weakened the intensity of the Northern Hemisphere's polar jet stream a high-altitude air current that blows west to east in a curving pattern that wanders north and south As the jet stream slows down, its north and south loops become longer, forming an atmospheric blocking pattern an atmospheric pattern that blocks eastward movement of weather systems This causes all weather patterns to be held in place for longer periods of time A 2012 study revealed a potential explanation for the increase in extreme weather. Warming has been greatest in the Arctic, weakening the intensity of the Northern Hemisphere's polar jet stream. The jet stream is a high-altitude air current that blows west to east in a curving pattern that wanders north and south. As the jet stream slows down, its north and south loops become longer, forming an atmospheric blocking pattern because it blocks the eastward movement of weather patterns. This causes all weather patterns to be held in place forlonger periods of time.

chesapeake bay case study - vanishing oysters

Chesapeake Bay was the world's largest oyster fishery Overharvesting, pollution, and habitat destruction ruined it The economy lost $4 billion from 1980 to 2010 Strict pollution standards and oyster restoration efforts give reason for hope The Chesapeake Bay and rivers that empty into it are an interacting system It receives agricultural runoff from 6 states containing very high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus, and it receives air pollution from 15 states in its airshed look at charts A systematic approach to restoration offers hope for the Chesapeake Bay Collaborative efforts of concerned citizens, advocacy organizations, EPA, and state governments After 25 years of failed pollution control agreements and $6 billion spent on cleanup efforts, the Chesapeake Bay Foundation (CBF) sued the EPA in January 2009 In late 2010 a "pollution budget" was developed and implemented by EPA with assistance of seven states around the Bay Reducing nutrient and sediment inputs into the bay and limiting harvests of oysters, crabs, and fish are already yielding some evident improvements to the bay's health

carbon monoxide

Colorless, odorless gas Produced primarily by incomplete combustion of fuel From vehicles and engines, industry, waste combustion, residential wood burning Prevents blood hemoglobin from binding with oxygen Poisoning causes headaches, fatigue, nausea, heart and nervous system damage, possibly death CO

communities may undergo shifts

Communities do not pass through the stages of succession evenly; ecological conditions may promote or inhibit progression. At times, communities may undergo a regime shift, meaning that the entire character of the community changes from the disturbance. Occurs from climate change, loss of a keystone species, or introduction of an invasive species. In some cases, human disturbance is causing novel communities, which are mixtures of species that have not previously occurred on the Earth.

diversity and community stability

Communities with higher diversity are More productive; they produce more biomass (the total mass of all organisms) More stable in their productivity Better able to withstand and recover from environmental stresses More resistant to invasive species

natural tests

Compare how dependent variables are expressed in naturally different contexts Search for correlations among variables Weaker evidence, but shows real-world complexity Addresses immense-scale questions (i.e., ecosystems) Long-term, large-scale processes can't be manipulated

science behind story: comparing energy sources

Comparing Energy Sources Mark Jacobson of Stanford University reviewed over 100 studies on alternative energy to calculate the impacts of various energy sources across their entire life cycle Findings: Wind power: most desirable alternative energy source Ethanol: least desirable

inorganic compounds

Compounds that do not contain carbon Lack the carbon-carbon bond

nuclear power growth has slowed

Concerns over waste disposal, safety, and costs have slowed nuclear power's growth It is expensive to build, maintain, operate, and ensure the safety of nuclear facilities Decommissioning plants is even more expensive Plants have aged faster than expected They serve less than ½ their expected lifetimes Costs to generate electricity are higher than from coal and other sources Governments must subsidize nuclear power Some people advocate more nuclear power with safer reactors

conservation

Conserving species often requires resolving conflicts between habitat needs of endangered species and human demands Most Americans support protecting endangered species Opponents feel that the ESA values endangered organisms more than the livelihood of people Protection will restrict land use and cost jobs Landowners conceal the presence of endangered species on their land.... "Shoot, shovel, and shut up" But the ESA has stopped few development projects Landowners are allowed to take actions that harm species if they improve habitat for the species in other places

hadley cells

Convective cells near the equator Surface air warms, rises, and expands As it expands and cools it releases moisture Causing heavy rainfall near the equator Giving rise to tropical rainforests Currents heading north and south are dry Giving rise to deserts at 30 degrees

primary production

Conversion of solar energy to chemical energy in sugars by autotrophs during photosynthesis

photovoltaic cells

Convert sunlight directly into electrical energy Watches and calculators contain small PV cells On roofs, PV cells are arranged in modules which comprise panels gathered into arrays

boreal forest (taiga)

Cool and dry climate Long, cold winters Short, cool summers Nutrient-poor, acidic soil Dominated by a few evergreen tree species Moose, wolves, bears, lynx, migratory birds Boreal forests, also called taiga, are also cold, but receive more precipitation than tundras. They are dominated by few species of evergreen trees. Soils are acidic and nutrient-poor. norway

traditional agriculture

Cultivating, harvesting, and distributing crops performed by human and animal muscle power, hand tools, and simple machines Plant polycultures - mixtures of different crops in small plots of land many human cultures shifted from hunter-gatherers to permanent settlements with farming. In traditional agriculture, the work of cultivating, harvesting, and distributing crops was performed by human and animal muscle power. Most farmers planted polycultures, mixtures of different crops in small plots of land.

temperate deciduous forest

Deciduous trees lose their broad leaves each fall Winters are frozen Fairly stable year-round precipitation Mid-latitude forests in Europe, east China, eastern North America Fertile soils Forests: oak, beech, maple smoky mts

ozone hole

Decreased ozone levels over Antarctica Concerns of increased skin cancer, damage to crops and phytoplankton at the base of our food webs

offshore drilling

Deep offshore drilling is boosting oil and gas production In 2008 Congress lifted a moratorium on offshore drilling and opened up most of U.S. coast for drilling The Deepwater Horizon's spill showed that offshore drilling is very dangerous - largest spill ever The Gulf of Mexico suffered many impacts Countless animals(birds, shrimp, fish, etc.) died Coastal marsh plants died, leading to erosion Fisheries were devastated, and fishermen lost jobs Tourism suffered Economic and social impacts will last for years

undernutrition pt 2

Deficiency of one or more essential nutrients Receiving fewer nutrients and calories than one's minimum dietary energy requirements insufficient carbohydrates, proteins, essential lipids, vitamins, and/or minerals Impairs growth, pregnancy, lactation, physical work, cognitive function and disease resistance and recovery Poverty, politics, conflict, and inefficiencies in distribution contribute to hunger

demographic transition a universal process?

Demographic transition has occurred in Europe, the U.S., Canada, Japan, and other nations over the past 200-300 years But it may or may not apply to developing nations The transition could fail: If the population is too large to allow the transition In cultures that place greater value on childbirth or grant women fewer freedoms For people of all nations to attain the material standard of living of North Americans, we would need the natural resources of 3 more Earths

age structure

Describes relative numbers of individuals in each age class within a population Shown by age structure diagrams (population pyramids) Helps predict population growth or decline Wide base Many young that haven't reproduced yet Population will soon increase rapidly Even age distribution: Remains stable Births deaths look at charts

ecological niche

Description of the role a species plays in a biological community, or the total of all the ways an organism uses the biotic and abiotic resources of its environment Generalists - Broad niche Specialists - Narrow niche The alteration of ecosystems creates "winners" and "losers" among the world's animals and plants. Humans have a tendency to change ecosystems so that they are more similar to each other, more open in structure, and more polluted. This favors generalists, which can adapt to the changing conditions, and harms specialists, which rely on mature, stable ecosystems.

renewable energy offers advantages

Diverse array of renewable energy sources Increased energy security Reduced price volatility Reduced reliance on imported fuels Less easily depleted Gentler on our health and our environment Creates employment opportunities green collar jobs Renewable energy sources reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions that drive global climate change

endangered species act

ESA (1973) The primary legislation for protecting biodiversity in the U.S. Forbids the government and citizens from taking actions that destroy endangered or threatened species as well as their habitats Forbids trading in products made from these species Aim is to prevent extinction, stabilize declining populations, and enable populations to recover In 2014, recovery plans were in place for 75% of the 1189 endangered and 328 threatened species in the U.S. Intensive management has saved or stabilized species 40% of declining populations have been stabilized Bald eagle, peregrine falcon, and brown pelican have been removed from the endangered list Recent successes have occurred despite problems Underfunding of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service Recent political forces have tried to weaken the ESA

solar energy

Each day, Earth receives enough energy to power human consumption for 25 years Each square meter of Earth receives 17 times the energy of a light bulb The typical home has enough roof area to meet all its power needs with rooftop panels that harness solar energy

human manipulation of earths climate

Emission of greenhouse gases warms temperatures Modifies global climate patterns Increases the frequency of extreme weather events Increased stress forces organisms to shift their geographic ranges Many species will not be able to adapt A temperature increase of 1.5-2.5°C threatens 20-30% of species with extinction

market mechanisms can be used to address climate change

Emissions trading programs Seek to harness the economic efficiency of the free market to achieve public policy control pollution Businesses have flexibility in how they meet the goals Polluters choose how to cut their emissions They are given financial incentives to reduce them

second law of thermodynamics

Energy changes from a more-ordered to a less-ordered state

energy numbers and biomass decrease at high trophic levels

Energy decreases at higher trophic levels At each trophic level, most of the energy input is either used for maintenance or lost as heat. Most energy that organisms use in cellular respiration is lost as waste heat At each trophic level, most of the energy input is either used for maintenance or lost as heat. Most energy that organisms use in cellular respiration is lost as waste heat Less and less energy is available in each successive trophic level Each trophic level contains only 10% of the energy of the trophic level below it Biomass is the collective mass of living matter in a given place and time. The pyramid pattern of energy and biomass illustrates why eating at lower trophic levels decreases your ecological footprint.

energy passes among trophic levels

Energy moves through the community Matter cycles within the community Trophic levels Producers (autotrophs) Consumers (heterotrophs) Detritivores and decomposers (heterotrophs) Species in a community are given a rank within the feeding hierarchy, called a trophic level. Producers use photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to make their own sugars. Primary consumers consume producers.

surface impoundments

Excavated depressions such as ponds, pits, or lagoons into which liquid hazardous wastes are drained and stored. Store slurries of tailings Accidents release pollutants into the environment store liquid hazardous waste shallow depressions are lined with plastic and clay water containing waste evaporates the reside of solid hazardous waste is then transported elsewhere underlying clay layer can crack and leak waste and rainstorms cause overflow contaminating nearby areas

data question

Explain how the percentage of undernourished people decreased from 2007-2009 to 2010-2012 while the absolute number of undernourished people stayed roughly the same

landscape ecology

Explains how and why ecosystems, communities, and populations are distributed across geographic regions

benthic zone

Extends along the bottom of the water body Home to many invertebrates

background extinction rate

Extinction is a natural process that occurs very slowly Background extinction rate Natural extinctions For mammal or marine species, each year 1 species out of every 1-10 million goes extinct 99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct The current extinction rate is 100 to 1,000 times greater than the background rate Due to human population growth and resource consumption

community ecology

Focuses on patterns of species diversity and interactions

biodiversity and human welfare

Food drugs and medicine tourism biophilia ecosystem services

secondary pollutants

Form when primary pollutants react with constituents of the atmosphere

photochemical smog

Forms when sunlight drives a chemical reaction between primary pollutants and atmospheric compounds Appears as a brownish haze Formed in hot, sunny cities surrounded by mountains Irritates eyes, noses, and throats Can lead to asthma, lung damage, heart problems, vulnerability to infections and cancer results when pollutants from automobile exhaust react amid exposure to light

natural selections acts on genetic variation

Genes in DNA are passed along to future generations Mutations Accidental changes in DNA that may be passed to the next generation Nonlethal mutations provide genetic variation on which natural selection acts Sexual reproduction also leads to genetic variation Producing new combinations of genes

biological evolution

Genetic change in populations over time Genetic changes often lead to modifications in appearance or behavior One of the best-supported and most illuminating concepts in science It is the foundation of modern biology "Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution" —Theodosius Dobzhansky

central case study: germany goes solar

Germany is the world's leader in production of photovoltaic (PV) solar power German industries are world leaders in "green tech" Its leaders see renewables as a great economic opportunity Federal policies offer incentives to promote solar energy Feed-in tariff system Utilities must buy power from anyone who generates it from renewable sources

graphs

Graphs help to make patterns and trends in data visually apparent and easy to understand. The following four graphs each visualize data collected in a manipulative experiment testing the effect of fertilizer on the growth rate of algae in a pond Line graphs show trends in a variable over time. Multiple lines can be used to show control and treated groups in an experiment. Bar graphs compare single measurements between groups, such as average algae surface coverage. Scatter plots reveal any correlations between two variables. Pie charts show percentage breakdowns of a measurement, such as algae species.

greenhouse effect

Greenhouse effect Certain gases (greenhouse gases) in the atmosphere tend to absorb infrared radiation given off by the Earth's surface, then re-emit it back downward The re-warming of the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface by the emitting of infrared energy by these gases is called the greenhouse effect. Atmospheric gases having three or more atoms in their molecules tend to absorb infrared radiation given off by the Earth's surface, then re-emit it back downward. These are called greenhouse gases and include water vapor (H2O), ozone (O3), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and halocarbons. The re-warming of the lower atmosphere by the emitting of infrared energy by these gases is called the greenhouse effect.

exponential growth

Growth under conditions of unlimited resources J-shaped A population increases by a fixed percent Graphed as a J-shaped curve It occurs in nature with: Small populations Low competition Ideal conditions rarely lasts in nature limiting factors carrying capacity

benthic zone

Habitats and ecosystems occurring on the ocean floor Mainly soft sediments; some areas are rock habitats occur on the ocean floor.

human disturbance

Humans have the greatest impact on biological communities worldwide Both terrestrial and marine ecosystems are subject to human disturbance Human disturbance to communities usually reduces species diversity Severely degraded systems cease to function

heat pumps make use of temperature differences

Hot water can directly heat a building OR We can take advantage of natural temperature differences between the soil and air Soil temperatures vary less than air temperatures Ground-source heat pumps (GSHPs)

household demands

Households Install low-flow faucets, showerheads, washing machines, and toilets Capture and store rain runoff from roofs Xeriscaping - replacing exotic plants with native plants adapted to local precipitation patterns Industry and municipalities Shift to processes that use less water Recycle wastewater for irrigation and industrial uses Fix leaky pipes, and retrofit homes with better plumbing Audit industries, and promote conservation Water use can be reduced in households by installing low-flow faucets, showerheads, washing machines, and toilets. Using alternative sources of water for gardening and lawn care also helps to reduce a home's footprint. Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting rainwater with a rain barrel. Graywater Xeriscaping Industry can save water by shifting to processes that use less of it. Municipalities can recycle treated municipal wastewater for irrigation or fix leaks in pipes to reduce water loss.

Can Acid Mine Drainage Reduce Fracking's Environmental Impact

Hydraulic fracturing injects water laden with drilling chemicals into layers of deep shale rock Along with natural gas, fracking wells pull up wastewater Water mixed with dissolved salts, toxic metals, radioactive radium isotopes Release of the wastewater pollutes the streams In parts of Pennsylvania, active hydraulic fracturing operations are very near streams affected by acid mine drainage Dr. Vengosh and his team developed a process to treat the wastewater using acid mine drainage Removed most pollutants Resulting water can be reused in drilling applications Topography created by tectonics shapes climate Alters patterns of rain, wind, currents, heating, cooling, which .... Affect rates of weathering and erosion and the location of biomes, which ... Affect evolution and extinction

hydrogen and fuel cells

Hydrogen fuel could store energy cleanly and efficiently By using the world's simplest and most abundant element (hydrogen) as fuel Hydrogen is an energy carrier, not an energy source Electricity produced from intermittent sources (sun, wind) would be used to produce hydrogen Fuel cells (hydrogen batteries) would use hydrogen to produce electricity to power cars, homes, computers, etc. Governments are funding research into hydrogen and fuel cell technology

peak oil will pose challenges

If demand rises as supply falls Oil prices rise dramatically Economic ripple effect Inadequate resources to develop renewable sources quickly "The long emergency" Lacking cheap oil to transport goods, our economies collapse and become localized Large cities will have to have urban agriculture Fewer petroleum-based fertilizers and pesticides would mean increase in hunger Suburbs will become the new slums, a crime-ridden landscape littered with the hulls of rusted-out SUVs More-optimistic observers Argue that as supplies dwindle, conservation and alternative energies will kick in We will develop new technologies to discover and exploit new deposits We will be saved from major disruptions

Darwin and Wallace

In 1858, both Darwin and Wallace proposed natural selection as the mechanism of evolution Darwin made two main points Species showed evidence of "descent with modification" from common ancestors "Natural selection" is the mechanism behind descent with modification Darwin's theory explained duality of unity and diversity

dust bowl

In late 1800 and early 1900, farmers and ranchers: Grew wheat, grazed cattle Removed native grasses Dust Bowl 1930s drought worsened erosion, caused "black blizzards" of soil Thousands of farmers were forced to leave their land Relied on governmental help to survive In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, farmers moving into the Western Plains of the United States began plowing up native grassland plants in favor of wheat. A severe drought in the 1930s worsened the impacts, causing the region's strong winds to erode millions of tons of topsoil. Some areas in the most affected regions of the Dust Bowl lost 10 cm (4 in.) of topsoil in just a few years. Thousands of farmers in this area were forced off their land.

is bioenergy carbon neutral

In principle, biomass energy releases no net carbon Photosynthesis removes carbon that is released when biomass is burned Burning biomass is not carbon-neutral: If forests are destroyed to plant bioenergy crops If we use fossil fuel energy (tractors, fertilizers, etc.)

pathogens and waterborne diseases

Inadequately treated sewage and animal waste from feedlots Biological pollution causes more human health problems than any other type of water pollution >1 billion people don't have safe water 2.6 billion don't have adequate sewer or sanitation facilities Solutions Disinfecting drinking water and treating wastewater Public education to encourage personal hygiene Government regulations protecting food Disease-causing organisms, such as bacteria and parasites, can enter drinking water supplies from improperly treated sewage. Biological pollution by pathogens causes more human health problems than any other type of water pollution. The U.N. estimates that 3800 children die daily of cholera, dysentery, and other waterborne diseases.

forestry

Increased CO2 may spur higher timber growth, but warming temperatures also increase the rates of invasive species, fires, pest and disease outbreaks Moderate warming may increase agricultural output in some temperate areas, but increased droughts will diminish yields for many. Increased CO2 may spur higher timber growth, but warming temperatures also increase the rates of invasive species, fires, and disease outbreaks.

rebound effect

Increased efficiency is offset by increased energy use Example: a person who buys a fuel-efficient car chooses to drive more, thereby erasing the gains made by efficiency

premises of natural selection

Individuals of a population produce more offspring than can survive (overproduction) Individuals of a population vary in their characteristics because of genes (inherited variation) and the environment Organisms struggle to survive and reproduce Some individuals are better suited to their environment and reproduce more effectively Selection acts on genetic variation Genes in DNA are passed along to future generations

thermohaline circulation

Interrupting the thermohaline circulation can trigger rapid climate change Global warming could melt Greenland's ice sheet Freshwater runoff into the North Atlantic would make surface waters less dense This could stop the NADW formation Europe would cool rapidly Some evidence shows circulation in this area is slowing Others say there will not be enough runoff to cause a shutdown this century

invasive species cause biodiversity loss

Introduction of non-native species to new areas Accidental: zebra mussels, exotic pets, weeds Intentional: food crops, exotic pets, plants Invaders lack predators, parasites, or competitors Displace native species

population ecology

Investigates population changes The distribution and abundance of individuals Why some populations increaseand others decrease

population ecology

Investigates population changes The distribution and abundance of individuals Why some populations increase and others decrease

environmental justice

Involves the fair and equitable treatment of all people with respect to environmental policy and practice, regardless of their income, race, or ethnicity. Efforts are inspired by the fact that the poor people and ethnic minorities tend to be exposed to more pollution, hazards, and environmental degradation than wealthier people.

ionic bonds

Ions of different charges bind together Example: table salt (NaCl)

control

Limit growth, spread, and impact of a population Control and eradication are difficult and expensive

some organisms play outsized roles

Keystone species A species that has an impact far greater than its abundance A species that has an impact far greater than its abundance is called a keystone species. Keystone species can include: Decomposers that recycle nutrients and replenish the soil. "Ecosystem engineers," such as beavers and prairie dogs, who physically alter ecosystems. Top predators, who control populations of lower trophic level consumers, are often keystone species.

tidal energy

Kinetic energy from the natural motion of ocean water can generate electrical power Dams cross the outlets of tidal basins Water is trapped behind gates Tidal currents turn turbines to generate electricity Tidal stations don't release emissions But they change the ecology of estuaries and tidal basins

Density-dependent factors

Limiting factors whose influence is affected by population density Environmental resistance has a stronger effect on larger populations Results in the logistic growth curve (S-shaped) Predation Disease Territoriality Competition Intrinsic (internal) factors

density independent factors

Limiting factors whose influence is not affected by population density Include temperature extremes, floods, fires, and landslides Results in the logistic growth curve (S-shaped

biodiversity hotspots

Locations around the world that are characterized by exceptional levels (a great concentration) of endemic species and critical levels of habitat loss endemic species - species found nowhere else in the world The area must have at least 1500 endemic plant species (0.5% of the world total) It must have lost 70% of its habitat as a result of humans' impact Results in many endangered and threatened species An international approach oriented around geographic regions Biodiversity hot spots are good choices for nature reserves but identifying them is not always easy designation of hot spots is often biased toward saving vertebrates and plants Hot spots can change with climate change Focusing on biodiversity hotspots protects the greatest number of species per unit effort 2.3% of the land surface contains 50% of all plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species

marine reserves protect ecosystems

Management was based on maximum sustained yield Number of fish that can be harvested without reducing future catches Despite management, stocks have plummeted It is time to rethink fisheries management Ecosystem-based management Shift the focus away from species and toward the larger ecosystem Protecting ocean areas helps species recover Protect 20-50% of the ocean as no-take areas

mangroves

Mangrove forests occur at tropical and subtropical latitudes Salt-tolerant trees with unique roots Roots curve up for oxygen and down for support Habitat for fish, shellfish, birds Protect coastlines from storms Filter pollutants, stabilize soils, protect coral reefs Produce food, medicine, tools, and wood 50% of mangroves have been destroyed for resorts or shrimp farms trees that are salt tolerant, with roots that grow upward to gather oxygen and others that grow down to support the tree like stilts. Fish, shellfish, snakes, and other organisms thrive among the roots in the water, while many birds feed and nest in the tree foliage.

recycling has grown rapidly

Many college students are getting involved in Recyclemania, "trash audits," and "landfill on the lawn" to show how many recyclable items are thrown away needlessly Programs and efforts have increased recycling rates in the US from 6.4% of the waste stream in 1960 to 25.7% in 2014 Various programs and efforts have increased recycling rates in the United States from 6.4% of the waste stream in 1960 to 25.7% in 2014. One example is "trash audits One example is "trash audits," where trashcans are emptied and recyclable materials are removed.

minerals are nonrenewable resources in limited supply

Many minerals are rare and could become unavailable Once known reserves are mined, minerals will be gone Indium, used in LCD screens, might last only 30 more years Gallium (for solar power) and platinum (fuel cells) are also scarce

Do we have ethical obligations toward other species?

Many people feel that other organisms have an inherent right to exist "If species aren't worthy of saving, then what are we all about? What is worth saving?" As more people take up biocentric or ecocentric worldviews, more have come to feel that other organisms have an intrinsic value Biodiversity conservation is justified on ethical grounds

Matter is recycled within ecosystems

Matter is recycled within ecosystems

melting ice opening up artic

Melting ice in the Arctic is opening up new shipping lanes to get to oil and gas deposits Any oil spill will pose severe pollution risks Icebergs, pack ice, storms, cold, and winter darkness will hamper response efforts Frigid water temperatures will slow the natural breakdown of the oil

a mix of causes threatens many species

Monarch butterfly populations are declining Industrial agriculture has eliminated most of milkweed plants that monarchs depend on Pesticides intended for crop pests also kill monarchs In Mexico, the forests monarchs migrate to are being illegally logged Worldwide collapse of amphibians Entire populations of frogs, toads, and salamanders are vanishing Over 40% of 7200 known species of amphibians are in decline and 30% are threatened At least 170 species studied just a few years or decades ago are extinct

temperate grasslands

More temperature difference between winter and summer Less precipitation supports grasses, not trees Also called steppe or prairie Animals include bison, prairie dogs, pronghorn, ground-nesting birds Once widespread, but has been converted to agriculture Temperature differences between winter and summer are more extreme and rainfall diminishes in temperate grasslands. These biomes are also known as prairie or steppe.

clumped

Most common in nature Arranged according to resources

how to mine metals

Most minerals must be processed after mining After the ore is mined, rock is crushed, and the metals are isolated by chemical or physical means The material is processed to purify the metal alloy smelting

agriculture demand

Most water is used in agriculture "Flood and furrow" method floods fields, but plants use only 40% of the water applied Use efficient irrigation methods Low-pressure spray irrigation sprays water downward Drip irrigation systems target individual plants Match crops to land and climate Don't grow cotton, rice, or alfalfa in arid areas Use selective breeding and genetic modification to produce crops that require less water Since agriculture makes up the majority of water demand, it is the most logical place to start conserving. Lining irrigation canals to prevent leaks. Leveling fields to minimize runoff. Moving from inefficient irrigation methods, like "flood and furrow," to more efficient ones, like drip irrigation. Eliminating water-intensive crops from arid regions. Almond trees grown in California's central valley use 10% of all water consumed by the state. Most water is used in agriculture "Flood and furrow" method floods fields, but plants use only 40% of the water applied Use efficient irrigation methods Low-pressure spray irrigation sprays water downward Drip irrigation systems target individual plants Match crops to land and climate Don't grow cotton, rice, or alfalfa in arid areas Use selective breeding and genetic modification to produce crops that require less water

ocean currents affect earths climate

Movement of ocean water affects global climate Thermohaline circulation A worldwide current system (like a global conveyor belt) Warmer, lower-salinity water moves along the surface Colder, saltier, denser water moves below the surface The thermohaline circulation is a worldwide current system in which warmer, lower-salinity water moves along the surface and colder, saltier (denser) water moves horizontally below the surface. This moves warm water in the Gulf Stream to the Atlantic Ocean near Europe, where heat is released and the cooler water sinks. The thermohaline circulation is a worldwide current system in which warmer, lower-salinity water moves along the surface and colder, saltier (denser) water moves horizontally below the surface. This moves warm water in the Gulf Stream to the Atlantic Ocean near Europe, where heat is released and the cooler water sinks.

waste categories

Municipal solid waste - non-liquid waste that comes from homes, institutions, and small businesses Industrial solid waste - includes waste from production of consumer goods, mining, agriculture, and petroleum extraction and refining Hazardous waste - solid or liquid waste that is toxic, chemically reactive, flammable, or corrosive Wastewater is water we use that is from drains or flushed

nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen is a component of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids (DNA & RNA) The main reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere (N2) N2 must be converted to NH4+ (ammonia) or NO3- (nitrate) nitrogen fixation nitrification denitirification look at charts

nitrogen fixation

Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria or lightning "fixes" nitrogen gas into ammonium Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in legumes (e.g., soybeans)

invasive species

Non-native species that spreads widely and becomes dominant in a community Growth-limiting factors are absent (no predators, disease, competitors, etc.) Cause major ecological effects

habitat use

Nonrandom patterns where organisms live

location timing and cost can be drawbacks to solar energy

Not all regions are sunny enough for solar energy Daily and seasonal variation also poses problems We need storage (e.g., batteries) and backup power Solar produces the most expensive electricity But prices have dropped and efficiency has increased

notes on natural selection

Note that individuals do not evolve; populations evolve over time Natural selection does not create new traits, but edits or selects for traits already present in the population Natural selection can only increase or decrease heritable traits that vary in a population Environmental conditions determine the pressures of natural selection which traits will be selected for or selected against in any specific population Adaptations vary with different environments

global hypoxic dead zones

Nutrient pollution from farms, cities, and industries has led to more than 400 hypoxic (oxygen-depleted) dead zones

eutrophication

Nutrient pollution promotes algal growth, smothering corals

littoral zone

Nutrient-rich edge of a water body Rooted aquatic plants grow in this shallow part a shallow zone in a freshwater habitat where light reaches the bottom and nurtures plants

tropospheric ozone

O3 ): a colorless gas A secondary pollutant created from sunlight, heat, nitrogen oxides, volatile carbon-containing chemicals A major component of photochemical smog Participates in reactions that harm tissues and cause respiratory problems Most frequently exceeds EPA standards

scientific method

Observations lead to Questions about some phenomenon Hypothesis A statement that tries to answer the question The hypothesis generates Predictions statements that can be tested (if, then statements) Scientists Test predictions by conducting experiments Scientists collect, record, and analyze Results

salt marshes

Occur along coasts at temperate latitude Tides wash over gently sloping, sandy, or silty substrates Have salt-tolerant plants Filter pollution and stabilize shorelines Provides critical habitat for birds and commercial fish and shellfish species occur where the tides wash over gently sloping sandy or silty substrates. Water from rising and falling tides flows in and out of salt marshes through channels called tidal creeks. Salt marshes provide biodiversity, filter pollutants, and stabilize shorelines.

fossil fuels are formed from ancient organic matter

Oil (crude oil) - liquid made of hydrocarbons Natural gas -methane (CH4) and other hydrocarbons Petroleum - natural gas plus oil These fossil fuels are formed from organic material (mostly dead plankton) buried by sediments millions of years ago

Fossil fuel extraction has mixed consequences for local people

Oil companies provide jobs for millions 107,000 people work in the Gulf of Mexico alone But more people work in tourism, service jobs, and fishing jobs Economic booms often prove temporary Residents are left with a polluted environment Pollution from shale gas drilling creates external costs, such as having to find drinkable water when water becomes contaminated Citizens in developing nations don't benefit much from drilling Corporations pay off the governments Few environmental or health regulations exist Many people still live in poverty, without water or electricity

nonrenewable resource

Once depleted, it cannot be renewed To replenish the fossil fuels we have depleted so far would take millions of years Includes coal, oil, natural gas We will use up Earth's nonrenewable in decades to centuries

toxins in environment

One reason toxins are harmful is that they become more concentrated in successive trophic levels Biological magnification concentrates toxins at higher trophic levels, where biomass is lower PCBs and many pesticides such as DDT are subject to biological magnification in ecosystems DDT was banned in the United States in 1971 Countries with malaria face a trade-off between using DDT to kill mosquitoes (malarial vectors) and protecting other species

hydrocarbonds

Organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen The simplest hydrocarbon is methane (natural gas) Fossil fuels consist of hydrocarbons Crude oil contains hundreds of types of hydrocarbons

climate change affects organisms and ecosystems

Organisms are adapted to their environments They are affected when those environments change In the spring, plants are leafing, insects are hatching, birds are migrating, and animals are breeding earlier. Plants and animals are shifting their ranges toward cooler areas (higher in elevation or latitude). 20-30% of species will be threatened with extinction Rare species will be pushed out of preserves Many biological phenomena that rely on temperature have been modified due to global warming. In the spring, plants are leafing, insects are hatching, birds are migrating, and animals are breeding earlier. Many animals are expanding their ranges toward cooler areas (higher in elevation or latitude). Organisms are adapted to their environments They are affected when those environments change Global warming modifies temperature-dependent phenomena (e.g., timing of migration, breeding) Species will move toward the poles or up in elevation 20-30% of species will be threatened with extinction Rare species will be pushed out of preserves More CO2 may increase plant growth, but... Droughts, fire, and disease will decrease plant growth Fewer plants means more CO2 in the atmosphere

detritivores and decomposers

Organisms that consume nonliving organic matter Detritivores Scavenge waste and dead bodies Millipedes, soil insects, lobster Decomposers Break down nonliving matter into smaller molecules Fungi, bacteria Enhance topsoil and recycle nutrients These play an especially important role in cycling nutrients back into soil for plants to use

genetically modified organisms

Organisms that have been genetically engineered using recombinant dna transgenic organisms contain recombinant DNA, meaning it has been produced from multiple organisms. Genetically modified organisms hold promise to enhance nutrition and agricultural efficiency risks are not well understood, leading to anxiety and protest by consumer advocates, small farmers, environmentalists, and critics of big business

fossil fuels

Our reliance on fossil fuels is one of the best examples of how our resource consumption amplifies our environmental impact. Fossil fuels have allowed us to power the machinery of the industrial revolution, increase crop yields, run vehicles and transportation networks, and distribute consumer goods. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable, generate pollution, and disrupt ecosystems as they are extracted and transported. Intensify the impact we exert on the environment Have powered the machinery of the industrial revolution However, we have depleted roughly half the world's conventional oil supplies Possible new fossil fuel sources Have more environmental impact while providing less fuel Examples: hydraulic fracturing, oil sands extraction, deep-water and Arctic drilling Our current choices greatly influence our lives in the future

ozone levels

Ozone Levels have risen 36% in the troposphere due to photochemical smog The Montreal Protocol has reduced halocarbons (CFCs)

pv cells generate electricity - thin film solar cells

PV materials are compressed into thin sheets Less efficient but cheaper Can be incorporated into roofing shingles, roads, etc. PV electricity can be stored in batteries Producers of PV electricity can sell their power to a utility Net metering The value of the power the consumer provides is subtracted from the monthly utility bill Feed-in tariffs pay producers more than the market price of power, so power producers turn a profit

carbon offset and carbon neutrality

Payment to another entity to reduce the greenhouse emissions that one is unable to reduce oneself The payment offsets one's own emissions Popular among utilities, businesses, universities, governments, and individuals trying to achieve... Carbon-neutrality In which no net carbon is emitted Businesses are using carbon offsets to become more sustainable But they can also directly reduce their carbon footprint Pearson Education became carbon-neutral in 2009 12% savings: energy-efficient buildings, computer servers, vehicles, reductions in business travel 47% savings: buying clean, renewable energy 41% savings: forest preservation projects around the world

emptying the oceans

People are overharvesting marine species Threatens the balance and functioning of marine and coastal ecosystems Half of the world's marine fish populations are fully exploited 28% of fish populations are overexploited and heading to extinction With current trends, populations of all ocean species we fish for will collapse by 2048

effects of human activities on waterways

People divert water from rivers and lakes to farm fields, homes, and cities for our needs People also engineer waterways Dams, levees, diversion canals Dikes and levees - long, raised mounds of earth along the banks of rivers hold water in channels For supplies, transportation, and flood control What we do in one part of the aquatic system affects other parts Water is one of our most precious resources and is renewable. People are withdrawing water at unsustainable levels and depleting many sources of surface water and groundwater. The construction of engineered waterways like dams and canals has altered an estimated 60% of the world's largest rivers. Artificial rivers called aqueducts or canals channel water from rivers and lakes to homes and farms. The Colorado River, for example, is diverted to provide water for Denver, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, San Diego, and farmland throughout the Imperial Valley.

milankovitch cycles

Periodic changes in Earth's rotation and orbit around the sun Alter the way solar radiation is distributed over Earth These cycles modify patterns of atmospheric heating Trigger climate variation Glaciation Cold temperatures and ice sheets Over thousands of years, the Earth wobbles on its axis, varies in its tilt, and experiences changes in the shape of its orbit in regular long-term cycles called Milankovitch cycles. These changes all naturally vary the Earth's climate. Natural increases in carbon dioxide concentrations have periodically warmed Earth's temperature during ice age cycles over the past million years or more. The warm episodes (interglacials) began with a small increase in sunlight due to a tiny wobble in Earth's axis of rotation or in the path of its orbit around the Sun. That little bit of extra sunlight caused a little bit of warming. As the oceans warmed, they outgassed carbon dioxide—like a can of soda going flat in the heat of a summer day. The extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere amplified the initial warming.

Limiting factors

Physical, chemical, and biological attributes of the environment limiting population growth density independent factors density dependent factors

positive radiative forcing

Positive radiative forcing - heating effect caused by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This figure shows the amount of radiative forcing caused by various greenhouse gases, based on the change in concentration of these gases in the Earth's atmosphere since 1750. gases differ in ability to warm troposphere and surface

chemical energy

Potential energy held in the bonds between atoms Potential energy stored in our food becomes kinetic energy when we exercise and releases carbon dioxide, water, and heat as by-products sun produces light energy - plants turn the light energy into chemical energy - plants are fossilized and compressed into fossil fuels coal and oil - fossil fuels are burned in power plants to produce electricity for our homes and our businesses

garbage patches

Predicting the Oceans' "Garbage Patches" Nikolai Maximenko at the International Pacific Research Center at the University of Hawaii at Manoa studies ocean currents In 2008, he partnered with Peter Niiler of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Combined data from the Global Drifter Program with satellite altimetry and wind currents Produced a more detailed map of surface ocean currents Simulation results revealed that oceanic debris accumulates in portions of five subtropical gyres Simulation results also predicted the fate of debris from the 2011 tsunami in northern Japan

reliance on fossil fuels

Pro Provide jobs for millions Eased constraints on travel Industrialization has increased life expectancy Industrialization has increased standard of living Con Nonrenewable / Limited Risks to environmental quality and ecosystem services Risks to human health, food and water sources Growing risk to social, political, and economic stability Risks from climate change International Energy Agency's chief economist and some scientists agree that we would be better off leaving most oil, gas, and coal in the ground!

predation

Process by which individuals of one species (predators) capture, kill, and consume individuals of another species (prey) is the process by which individuals of one species (the predators) capture, kill, and consume individuals of another (the prey). Asian carp were introduced to prey on algae and snails. Predators that are better at capturing prey will live longer and reproduce more. Natural selection will favor adaptations that enhance hunting. Prey have the risk of death as a selective pressure, causing the evolution of many types of defenses. Figure 4.4 Natural selection to avoid predation has resulted in fabulous adaptations.

mania for recycling on campus

Recyclemania is a competition that pits educational institutions against one another. Participating colleges and universities win categories such as "highest recycling rate" and "most material recycled." Recycling reduces pollution from the mining of new resources and the manufacture of new goods. Recyclemania, for example, prevented the release of nearly 2.37 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. Similar competitions have schools compete in other ways, such as savings in water use and energy use. Programs like this have made recycling the most widespread activity among campus sustainability efforts.

sulfur dioxide

SO2 Colorless gas with a strong odor Coal emissions from electricity generation, industry Can form acid deposition

also mine nonmetallic minerals and fuels

Sand and gravel provide fill and construction materials Phosphates provide fertilizer Limestone, salt, potash, etc., are also mined "Blood diamonds" substances are mined for fuel

rising sea levels may affect hundreds of millions of people

Runoff from melting glaciers and ice cause sea levels to rise As oceans warm, they expand Worldwide, average sea levels have risen 24.1 cm in the past 135 years Along the U.S. coast, sea level is rising at varying rates This leads to more beach erosion, coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion into aquifers, and a greater impact by localized rises in sea level called storm surges. Worldwide, average sea levels have risen 24.1 cm in the past 135 years. This leads to more beach erosion, coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion, and a greater impact by localized rises in sea level called storm surges. Runoff from melting glaciers and ice cause sea levels to rise As oceans warm, they expand Worldwide, average sea levels have risen 24.1 cm in the past 135 years Along the U.S. coast, sea level is rising at varying rates This leads to more beach erosion, coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion into aquifers, and a greater impact by localized rises in sea level called storm surges. Worldwide, average sea levels have risen 24.1 cm in the past 135 years. This leads to more beach erosion, coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion, and a greater impact by localized rises in sea level called storm surges. Storm surge Temporary, localized rise in sea level caused by the high tides and winds of storms Cities will be flooded 53% of people in the U.S. live in coastal areas will have to invest in costly efforts to protect against high tides and storm surges Vulnerability to storm surges will increase Rising seas eliminate marsh grasses; dams stop sediment from replenishing deltas Cities will be flooded Currently more than half of the U.S. population (53%) lives in coastal counties, and 3.7 million Americans live within 1 vertical meter of the high tide line will have to invest in costly efforts to protect against high tides and storm surges South Florida is judged to be the most at risk, with 2.4 million people, 1.3 million homes, and 1.8 million acres vulnerable. Superstorm Sandy was not caused by global warming, but it was facilitated and strengthened by it, due to the increase in ocean temperatures and sea level rise around New York City. Multiple major storms have demonstrated the potential impacts that storm surges can have on metropolitan areas in the United States. In 2012, Superstorm Sandy caused $65 billion in damage, killed 160, and left thousands homeless. In 2017, Hurricanes Harvey and Irma devastated Houston and coastal cities from Miami to Jacksonville to Charleston. Hurricane Sandy ("Superstorm") demonstrated the impact that storm surges can have on metropolitan areas Superstorm Sandy was not caused by global warming, but it was facilitated and strengthened by it, due to the increase in ocean temperatures and sea level rise around New York City. Areas that will be most affected include: Densely populated, poor regions (e.g., Bangladesh) Storm-prone regions (e.g., Florida) Coastal cities (e.g., Houston) Areas with land subsidence (e.g., U.S. Gulf Coast) Pacific islands will have to be evacuated People from small island countries like the Maldives, most of which are less than 1 m above sea level, may become climate refugees as sea level rises. In 2009, the Maldives held an "underwater cabinet meeting" to bring attention to the plight of their country.

extreme weather the new normal

Scientific data summarized by the U.S. Climate Extremes Index Confirms that the frequency of extreme weather events (droughts, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, etc.) has doubled in the United States since 1970 2012 saw a March heat wave, severe drought, and Superstorm Sandy. 2017 saw hurricanes Harvey and Irma. Insurers have recorded a doubling of losses in Europe and even higher rates across the rest of the world.

taxonomists

Scientists who name and classify organisms according to their genetic makeup and physical appearances Have developed a hierarchical system to categorize them

oil shale

Sedimentary rock filled with organic matter that can be processed to produce liquid petroleum called shale oil Not enough heat and pressure to form crude oil Extracted by strip mines or subsurface mines Can be burned directly like coal

case study: serengeti

Serengeti National Park Located in East Africa One of the last places on the planet where an ecosystem remains intact and functional 1.2 million wildebeest migrate year Part of an epic migration that has occurred for millennia Maasai Mara National Reserve Located in Kenya Connected to Serengeti Migratory animals move between both A proposed highway would slice through the middle of the wildebeest migration path Conservationists as well as most Kenyans are opposed to the highway because it would Block migration Devastate tourism Provide access to poaching Promote invasion of exotic plant species Encourage human development As of 2014, the project is still being discussed, and the new Tanzanian government continues to push for the construction of the road

freshwater marshes

Shallow water Plants (shrubs and grasses) grow above the surface

Radioisotopes

Shed subatomic particles and emit high-energy radiation Decay until they become nonradioactive stable isotopes

temperate rainforest

Significant amounts of precipitation fall during all seasons as rain or snow Coniferous trees Cedar, spruce, hemlock, fir Moisture-loving animals Banana slug Erosion and landslides affect the fertile soil Most old-growth is gone as a result of logging Temperate rainforests are rich in rainfall but still found in mid-latitudes. Mostly contain coniferous trees. Soils are fertile, but susceptible to erosion if the forests are cleared

will emission cuts hurt the economy

Since the U.S. has high resource use and per capita emissions, policymakers often assume that restrictions on emissions will harm the economy. The United States was able to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 14% from 2007-2016, while the economy continued to grow. Economic vitality does not need higher emissions Germany, England, and France cut emissions while keeping a high standard of living Industrialized nations gain from developing and marketing new technologies Renewable energy has actually been an economic boon for countries like China and Germany. The future belongs to nations willing to act now

smog

Smog is a general term for a mixture of air pollutants that can accumulate as a result of fossil fuel combustion, especially over areas with heavy automobile traffic. Cities suffer from a specific type of smog called industrial smog. Industrial smog contains carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, mercury, and sulfur from burning fossil fuels. The sulfur can react with oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid in the atmosphere. America's worst industrial smog event occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania, in 1948. Donora is located in a small valley and experienced a temperature inversion that trapped smog from a steel and wire factory for days. London had a similar "killer smog" event in 1952 that killed between 4000 and 12,000 people. Most smog in urban areas today results largely from automobile exhaust.

dust bowl response by US

Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Started in 1935 by Congress Works with farmers to develop conservation plans for farms Now named the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Employs trained experts called extension agents to assist farmers Other countries started their own conservation agencies In response, the U.S. government passed the Soil Conservation Act of 1935, which established an agency that worked with farmers to combat erosion. The agency today is known as the Natural Resources Conservation Service and employs trained experts called extension agents to assist farmers.

conserving agricultural resources

Soil degradation - deterioration in quality and productivity of soil Causes include: Soil erosion Nutrient depletion Water scarcity Salinization Waterlogging Chemical pollution Changes in soil structure and pH Loss of organic matter from soil Soil compaction

soil forms slowly

Soil formation begins during primary succession, as water, air, and living organisms break down parent material in the lithospher

several ways to manage waste

Source Reduction - minimize the amount of waste generated (minimize waste at its source) The preferred approach Recovery - recover waste materials Composting - practice of recovering organic waste by converting it to mulch or humus through natural decomposition Recycle - the process of collecting used foods and sending them to facilities that extract and reprocess raw materials that can then be used to manufacture new goods. Disposal of waste safely and effectively Burying waste in landfills Burning waste in incinerators

6 major pollutants

State and local agencies monitor and report to the EPA emissions of six major pollutants Carbon monoxide Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Volatile organic compounds Particulate matter Lead

regulating and economics each influence industrial waste generation

State and local regulation of industrial waste is less strict than federal rules regulating municipal waste Industries may not be required to have permits or install liners or leachate collection systems Or even to monitor groundwater for contamination It may be cheaper to generate waste than to avoid it Industries are awarded for economic efficiency, instead of physical efficiency, where less waste is produced per product Once government or the market makes it efficient, businesses gain incentives to reduce their waste The federal government regulates municipal solid waste. State and local governments regulate industrial solid waste, with regulation generally being less strict than for municipal solid waste. Industry bases most of its practices on economic efficiency instead of physical efficiency, where less waste is produced per product.

ecosystem ecology

Studies living and nonliving components of systems to reveal patterns

growth of organic agriculture

Sustainable agriculture keeps high crop yields, minimizes resource use, and decreases environmental impacts Organic agriculture Food-growing practices that do not include synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, hormones, or antibiotics Organic Food Production Act (1990) established national standards for organic products The USDA issued criteria by which food could be labeled organic California, Washington, Texas passed stricter guidelines for labeling One approach to sustainable agriculture is organic agriculture, which involves food-growing practices that do not include synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, hormones, or antibiotics. The Organic Food Production Act of 1990 established national standards by which foods can be labeled as organic.

Sustainable agriculture provides a roadmap for the future

Sustainable agriculture must meet the triple bottom line of social, economic, and environmental dimensions: Provide food security Be profitable to famers and ranchers Conserve resources for future agriculture Sustainable agriculture mimics natural ecosystems They operate in cycles and are internally stabilized by negative feedback loops Agricultural systems can be integrated with the surrounding ecosystems Reducing environmental impacts from food production Making agriculture sustainable is crucial for all of us

wildlife declines in african reserves

Tanzania and Kenya have some of the world's most famous parks and protected areas Biologists and park managers have censused wildlife in and around the parks and reserves Most animals are declining in number inside and outside the parks and reserves Both wet- and dry-season census data showed the same results Thomson's gazelles in Maasai Mara National Reserve Most abundant species Decreased by 59% inside reserve Decreased by 77% outside the reserve Researchers concluded that setting aside parks is not adequate to conserve wildlife and ecosystems Conservation success requires: Linking reserves with corridors of habitats that animals can use Working with local people living near protected areas Community-based conservation encourages people to be stewards Manage natural resources in the areas they live

excessive withdraws pt 2

The Aral Sea on the border of Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan in central Asia was once the world's fourth-largest lake. It is dying as a result of heavy irrigation used in industrial cotton farming near the rivers that feed the Aral Sea. The drying of the Aral Sea has led to the loss of 60,000 fishing jobs, blowing of pesticide-laden dust from the dry lake bed, and a loss of most cotton production. The effects of surface water depletion are very evident in the case of the Aral Sea on the border of Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. The drying of the Aral Sea has led to the loss of 60,000 fishing jobs, blowing of pesticide-laden dust from the dry lake bed, and a loss of most cotton production. The inland sea is dying as a result of heavy irrigation used in industrial cotton farming near the rivers that feed the Aral Sea.

bottleneck effect

The Bottleneck Effect occurs when a natural disaster forces a certain species into near extinction. The few individual species that are left are forced to mate with each other, sometimes inbreeding, thus causing almost no variation in the gene pool. This can cause a problem if a disease starts to infect and kill some of the individual species. An example of this effect would be the cheetahs. Cheetahs are now on the endangered list because their small gene pool, which is 97% identical, is inhibiting successful reproduction and adaptation.

do you want food labeled

The USDA issues labels to certify that products claiming to be organic have met the government's organic standards. Critics of genetically modified food want GM products to be labeled as well. Do you want your food labeled to indicate whether it is organic or genetically modified? Would you choose among foods based on such labeling? How might your food choices and purchasing decisions have environmental impacts (good or bad)?

bycatch

The accidental capture of non-target animals Kills millions of animals each year Driftnetting drowns dolphins, seals, sea turtles, and non-target fish Longline fishing kills turtles, sharks, and seabirds Bottom-trawling is likened to clear-cutting and strip mining (It destroys complex communities, e.g., reefs) Bycatch is the accidental capture of animals during industrial fishing. Up to 17% of all commercially harvested fish were captured unintentionally. Purse seining and driftnetting capture dolphins, sea turtles, and seals that end up drowning or dying of exposure on the deck of the ship. Longline fishing captures turtles, sharks, and albatrosses. In addition to bycatch, bottom-trawling can destroy entire benthic ecosystems.

proven recoverable reserve

The amount of a fossil fuel that is technologically and economically feasible to remove under current conditions

radiative forcing

The amount of change in thermal energy that a given factor exerts on the Earth's temperature Positive forcing warms the surface Negative forcing cools the surface When all factors are considered, the Earth is experiencing net radiative forcing of 2.3 watts/m2 Earth is experiencing radiative forcing of 2.3 watts/m2 more thermal energy than it is emitting into space

salinization

The buildup of salts in surface soil layers Salinization inhibits production of 20% of irrigated cropland, costing over $11 billion/year in lost productivity buildup of salts in surface soil layers as a result of irrigation.

undernutrition

The condition in which not enough calories are ingested to maintain health receiving fewer calories than the minimum dietary requirement. Every 5 seconds a child starves to death By 2050 we will have to feed 9 billion people 800 million people suffer from undernutrition, receiving fewer calories than the minimum dietary requirement. Most people who are undernourished live in developing countries, although 49 million people are classified as "food insecure."

independent variable

The condition that the scientist manipulates in an experiment

ecological footprint

The cumulative area of biologically productive land and water used by a person or a population to provide resources and to dispose of or recycle the waste the person or population produces Resource consumption exerts social and environmental pressures Industrialization also increased the amount of resources each person consumes. This is measured by the ecological footprint, the cumulative area of land and water needed to provide resources and waste disposal for a typical person or population. Conserving natural capital is like maintaining a bank account The Earth's natural capital, its store of resources and ecosystem services, is like a bank account. If you leave the principal intact and only spend the interest, the account remains full. If you deplete the principal, the account will be drawn down until it is exhausted. Currently, we are drawing down Earth's natural capital, a practice that is unsustainable.

acid deposition

The deposition of acid, or acid-forming pollutants from the atmosphere on the Earth's surface From automobiles, electric utilities, industrial facilities can take place by any form of precipitation (acid rain, fog, gases, or the deposition of dry particles)

extinction

The disappearance of a species from Earth Most species that once lived are now gone Species last 1-10 million years Biological diversity is now being lost at an astounding rate This loss of species is irreversible Rapid environmental changes increase extinction Natural selection can't keep up, so species can't adapt Many factors cause extinction Climate change, changing sea levels, severe weather Arrival of new species Small populations Specialized species

wave energy

The motion of waves is harnessed and converted from kinetic energy into electricity Many designs exist but need to be tested

succession

The predictable series of changes in a community after a severe disturbance eliminates all or most of the species in a community Severe disturbances may eliminate all or most of the species in a community, initiating a series of changes called succession. Succession begins with the colonization of pioneer species. Pioneer species, such as grasses and forbs, spread over long distances easily and are adapted for growing quickly. Primary succession occurs when a disturbance removes all plant or soil life. Lichens secrete acids that break down rock, beginning the process of soil formation.

global warming potential

The relative ability of a greenhouse gas molecule to contribute to warming A measure of the ability of a gas to trap thermal energy in the atmosphere over a specified time Expressed in relation to carbon dioxide (potential 1) Methane is 84 times more potent than carbon dioxide Nitrous oxide is 264 times as potent as carbon dioxide relative ability of a greenhouse gas molecule to contribute to warming. A measure of the ability of a gas to trap thermal energy in the atmosphere over a specified time Values are expressed in relation to carbon dioxide, which is assigned a value of 1. Methane, for example, is 84 times more potent than carbon dioxide.

organic fertilizers

The remains or wastes from organisms Manure, crop residues, fresh vegetation (green manure), charcoal, and compost

dependent variable

The resulting condition that depends on (is affected by) the manipulation of the independent variable in the experiment

upwelling

The rising of cold, deep water to the surface Rich in nutrients High primary productivity and lucrative fisheries

atmosphere

The thin layer of gases around Earth Provides oxygen Transports and recycles water and nutrients Shields us from meteors and hazardous solar radiation Moderates climate

residence time

The time a pollutant stays in the atmosphere Pollutants with brief residence times exert localized impacts over short time periods Particulate matter automobile exhaust Pollutants with long residence times exert regional or global impacts Greenhouse gases Ozone destroyers

type of biome depends on

The type of biome depends on: Temperature, precipitation, sunlight, soil conditions, air and ocean circulation Climate diagrams (climatographs) Depict information on temperature and precipitation Temperature and precipitation exert the greatest influence on which biome is found in a given area. Temperature and precipitation are the main factors determining where each biome occurs. Climate diagrams, also called climatographs, depict seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation and help to tell the story of a biome. Deciduous forests, for example, are found at mid-latitudes and have relatively even precipitation throughout the year. Winters are frozen, causing the trees to drop their leaves

water table

The upper limit of groundwater held in an aquifer Boundary between the two zones

biodiversity (biological diversity)

The variety of life across all levels of biological organization, including the diversity of species, their genes, their populations, and their communities. Includes Genetic diversity - Molecules (Genes) Species diversity Community diversity Ecosystem diversity

nations cooperate to solve water disputes

There are fears that the unequal access to fresh water worldwide could lead to conflict between countries. A total of 261 major rivers cross national boundaries, making disagreements common. So far, many of the nations have cooperated to resolve these disputes. India, for example, has struck agreements with Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal to co-manage transboundary rivers.

population growth amplifies our impact

There are now over 7.5 billion humans Two major phenomena triggered human population increases Agricultural revolution ~10,000 years ago began to grow crops and domesticate animals Industrial revolution mid 1700s shifted life toward an urban society powered by fossil fuels

international treaties promote conservation:

U.N. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (1973) Protects endangered species by banning international transport of their body parts Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) Seeks to conserve biodiversity Seeks to use biodiversity in a sustainable manner Seeks to ensure the fair distribution of biodiversity's benefits Goal - "to achieve, by 2010, a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss" Goal was NOT met

pollinators are beneficial bugs worth preserving

U.S. bees provide $15 billion/year in pollination services essential to over 100 crops that make up 1/3 of the U.S. diet Many beekeepers were driven to financial ruin when parasitic wasps spread and decimated their bee hives Colony collapse disorder One-third of all U.S. honeybees have died Causes are unknown but may involve: Insecticides New parasites A combination of stresses that weaken bees' immune systems and destroy social communication Today, many pollinating insects are dwindling in number due to pesticide use and habitat loss. Colony collapse disorder is a phenomenon where a majority of worker bees in a hive disappear, endangering the queen and developing larvae. Restoring bee populations will require establishing more wildflowers and flowering shrubs near farm fields and highways and decreasing the use of chemical insecticides.

aquifers

Underground reservoirs of sponge-like regions of rock, sand, gravel, or soil that hold groundwater Zone of aeration zone of saturation water table porous, spongelike formations of rock or sand. The upper border of the layer completely filled with water is the water table. Any area where water can infiltrate through the surface and reach the aquifer is a recharge zone. Confined aquifers are trapped between impermeable clay, while unconfined aquifers are not.

inherited variation

Variation in a characteristic that is a result of genetic inheritance from the parents

ocean currents

Vast, riverlike flows of water that are driven by differences in density, heating, cooling, gravity, and wind and the Coriolis effect Vast, riverlike flows of water called currents are driven by differences in density, heating, cooling, gravity, and wind.

groundwater

Water beneath the surface held in pores in soil or rock 20% of the Earth's supply of fresh water Groundwater is water beneath the surface that resides within pores in soil or rock. Any water that does not evaporate, flow into waterways, or get taken up by organisms will infiltrate into groundwater. Groundwater can remain underground for thousands of years at a time. Groundwater may occur in unconfined aquifers above impermeable layers or in confined aquifers under pressure between impermeable layers.

waterlogging

Water drowns plant roots in over irrigated soils occurs when irrigation oversaturates the soil to the point where water drowns plant roots, depriving them of gases.

effects of human activities on aquatic ecosystems

Water is a limited, but renewable, resource as long as we use it sustainably People are withdrawing water at unsustainable rates People are adding toxic substances or disease-causing organisms In addition to overwithdrawing water, people can affect aquatic ecosystems by introducing toxic substances and disease-causing microorganisms. Despite major improvements in recent decades, the World Commission on Water recently concluded that half of the world's major rivers remain "seriously depleted and polluted, degrading and poisoning the surrounding ecosystems, threatening the health and livelihood of people who depend on them."

freshwater systems

Water may seem abundant, but drinkable water is rare Fresh water - relatively pure, with few dissolved salts Most is tied up in glaciers, ice caps, and aquifers The majority (97.5%) of Earth's water resides in the oceans and is too salty to drink or use for irrigation. Only 2.5% is considered fresh water, water that is relatively pure and free from salts. lakes, rivers, streams, and inland wetlands

photic zone

Well-lit top layer that supports many autotrophs / producers

american use of mined materials

We don't notice how many mined resources we use The average American uses 37,000 lb of new minerals and fuels every year This level of consumption shows the potential for recycling and reuse A child born today is predicted to use 3 million lb of minerals over his/her life

yucca mountain nevada

Yucca Mountain, Nevada, was chosen to store waste because it's remote and unpopulated It has a deep water table and isolated aquifer It's on federal land and can be protected $13 billion was spent on its development President Obama's administration ended support for it So, waste will remain at its current locations

how productive is organic farming

World's longest-running field experiments on organic farming are in Switzerland and Pennsylvania After more than 21 years of studies, Dr. Paul Mäder's team concluded that organic plots were highly efficient and represent "a realistic alternative to conventional farming" Mäder's team found that soil in organic plots had Better structure Better supply of some nutrients Much more microbial activity Much more invertebrate biodiversity Organic crops Equaled conventional crops in yield Produced more profit Required less energy input Released fewer greenhouse gas emissions

positive feedback loop

a feedback loop in which change in a system is amplified changes reinforce each other so that an increase in a leads to an increase in b Drives a system further toward an extreme instead of stabilizing it Runaway cycles of positive feedback are rare in nature but are common in natural systems altered by humans ex: in cool climate sunlight reflects off white surfaces as climate warms sunlight in absorbed where dark surfaces are exposed light absorption speeds warming exposing more dark surfaces

sustainability

a guiding principle of modern environmental science and a concept you will encounter throughout this course Living within our planet's means Leaving future generations with a rich, full world by: Conserving resources so that our descendants may use them Maintaining fully functioning ecological systems so that these systems can provide ecosystem services to future generations Developing solutions that work in the long term

pool/ reservoir

a location where nutrients remain for varying amounts of time (residence time)

mineral

a naturally occurring substance, representable by a chemical formula, that is usually solid and inorganic, and has a crystal structure

symbiosis

a relationship where two or more species live in direct and intimate contact with one another Parasitism Commensalism Mutualism

sink

a reservoir that accepts more than it releases

estuaries

a transition area between river and sea/ocean where rivers flow into the sea/ocean Salinity fluctuates daily due to the rise and fall of the tides Mixing fresh water with saltwater ' Shallow water nurtures plants that provide critical habitat for shorebirds and shellfish Estuaries create salt marshes at temperate latitudes and mangrove forests at more tropical latitudes 67% of all people live <100 miles of the ocean Estuaries are affected by development, pollution, habitat alteration, and overfishing bodies of water where rivers flow into the ocean, mixing saltwater with fresh water. Salinity fluctuates daily due to the tides and changes in river flow. Estuaries are sheltered from the heavy waves of the ocean and provide habitat for many plants, which provide food for shellfish, birds, and fish.

health

a warmer climate exposes us to many potential health hazards: More frequent heat waves. Respiratory ailments due to more photochemical smog. Expansion of tropical diseases, such as malaria and Zika virus into temperate latitudes. Disease and sanitation problems from flooding of sewage treatment plants. Injuries and drowning from worsened storms.

immigration

arrival of individuals from outside the population

ecosystem engineers or foundation species

cause physical changes in the environment that affect community structure Biodiversity increases the resilience of an ecosystem—its ability to withstand disturbance, recover from stress, or adapt to change. If a keystone species like a top predator is lost, consequences will cascade down the entire food chain. If an ecosystem engineer is lost, the entire structure of an ecosystem can change. The removal of elephants from some of Africa's savannas has caused scrubby vegetation to overgrow, turning them into scrub forests.

marine benthic zone

consists of the seafloor Organisms in the very deep are adapted to continuous cold and extremely high water pressure Mainly soft sediments; some areas are rock Deep-sea hydrothermal vents of volcanic origin on mid-oceanic ridges have abundant life Overfishing and dumping of waste have depleted fish populations

heterotrophs

consumers Animals, fungi, microbes Organisms that gain energy by feeding on others

bottle bills

consumers pay a 5-10 cent deposit on recyclable containers and receive a refund for returning used bottles and cans to stores These bills are effective and popular Container litter is reduced 69-84% Total litter is reduced by 30-64% States with bottle bills have recycling rates about 3.5 times higher than states without them laws that have consumers pay a 5-10 cent deposit on recyclable containers that is refunded when the containers are returned to the store. States with bottle bills have recycling rates about 3.5 times higher than states without them.

evaporation

conversion of liquid to gaseous water

industrial solid waste

includes waste from production of consumer goods, mining, agriculture, and petroleum extraction and refining Is not municipal or hazardous waste Waste from factories, mining activities, agriculture, petroleum extraction, etc. U.S. industries generate 7.6 billion tons of waste per year 97% is wastewater so ~230 million tons is solid waste Industrial solid waste includes waste from factories, mining activities, agriculture, petroleum extraction, and more. Methods and strategies of industrial waste disposal are similar to those for municipal waste disposal.

intertidal zones

intertidal littoral zone tides Intertidal ecosystems spread between the uppermost reach of the high tide and lowest limit of the low tide. Tides are the periodic rising and falling of the ocean's height at a given location due to the gravitational pull of the sun and moon. Intertidal organisms are exposed to sun part of the day, and covered in water the rest of the day. Rocky intertidal zones are highly diverse because environmental conditions such as temperature, salinity, and moisture change dramatically from the high to low reaches.

oligotrophic lakes and ponds

low-nutrient and high-oxygen conditions lakes and ponds are low in nutrients and high in oxygen. Over time, the addition of nutrients can transition the lake or pond to

municipal solid waste

non-liquid waste that comes from homes, institutions, and small businesses Waste produced by households and businesses Municipal solid waste is commonly referred to as "trash" or "garbage." This includes many different materials, from yard debris, food scraps to paper, plastic, and glass. Most comes from packaging and nondurable goods (discarded after a short time of use) Durable goods and outdated equipment are also discarded as new products are purchased

Struggle to Survive (Natural Selection)

only some organisms will survive - some with get caught with predators or get a disease

mass extinction events

ordovician - 444 million 85% extinct devonian - 370 million 83% extinct permian - 250 million 95% extinct triassic - 210 million 80% extinct cretaceous - 65 million 76% extinct quaternary - present 33-66%

scrubbers

remove hazardous chemicals and neutralize acidic gases

pay as you throw

residents are charged according to how much trash they throw away The less waste, the less a person has to pay

industrial smog

results from fossil fuel combustion

competitive exclusion principle

states that two species competing for the same limiting resources cannot coexist in the same place can lead to competitive exclusion - local elimination of a competing species Ecologically similar species can coexist in a community only if there are one or more significant differences in their niches Over many generations, natural selection may favor resource partitioning, where individuals use shared resources in different ways. No two species can occupy the same niche indefinitely when resources are limiting One will either migrate, become extinct, or partition the resource and utilize a sub-set of the same resource

carbon pricing

strategies are designed to compensate the public for the external costs we all suffer from climate change resulting from greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon pricing removes the burden of paying for these impacts from the public and shifts it to the entities responsible for emissions. In theory, if producers are charged a price for emissions, they will have a strong economic incentive to devise ways to reduce emissions.

regional differences in soil traits affect agriculture

swidden agriculture - Used in tropical areas after cultivation A plot is left to regrow into forest temperate prairies - Have lower rainfall and less nutrient leaching, resulting in higher fertility

homeostasis

tendency of a system to maintain relatively constant or stable internal conditions

population changes

the number of organisms of a species that can change due to competitors, predators, death, birth. results from birth, death, immigration, and emigration Rates of birth, death, and migration determine whether a population grows, shrinks, or remains stable Birth and immigration add individuals Death and emigration remove individuals Technological advances decrease death rates The increased gap between birth and death rates resulted in population expansion Decrease in infant mortality Due to better nutrition, prenatal care, and presence of medically trained practitioners during birth

phase (regime) shift

the overall character of the community fundamentally changes the overall character of the community fundamentally changes Some crucial threshold is passed, a keystone species is lost, or an exotic species invades Example: overfishing and depletion of fish and turtles has allowed algae to dominate coral reef communities

flux

the rate at which materials move between reservoirs; can change over time

greywater

the used water from showers and sinks and can be used in some places for watering.

group of cells

tissues, organs, and organ systems

OPEC

The OPEC oil embargo of 1973 caused increased fuel conservation, but it didn't last Without high prices and shortages, there was no incentive to conserve Government research into alternative energy decreased Speed limits increased Low fuel taxes reduce incentives to conserve

nuclear power

It is free of air pollution produced by fossil fuels Yet its promise has been clouded by weaponry, waste disposal, and accidents Public safety concerns have led to limited development The U.S. generates the most electricity from nuclear power But only 20% of U.S. electricity comes from nuclear power France gets 75% of its electricity from nuclear power

refining produces a diversity of fuels

Once extracted, fossil fuels are processed and refined Hydrocarbons are sorted for different uses

automobiles fuel efficiency key to conservation

Policymakers must raise the corporate average fuel efficiency (CAFE) standards CAFE standards mandate higher fuel efficiency in cars In 2007 Congress mandated that cars must get 35 mpg by 2020

secondary extraction

Solvents, water, or steam is used to remove additional oil "Fracturing" breaks rocks to release gas Hydraulic fracturing is helping to obtain less-accessible deposits We lack the technology to remove every bit of oil

nuclear energy

The energy that holds protons and neutrons together within the nucleus of an atom comes from processed/enriched uranium Uranium ore is uncommon and finite (nonrenewable) Uranium's atoms are radioactive and emit high-energy radiation as they decay Over 99% of uranium occurs as uranium-238 (238U) It must be enriched into 235U and put into fuel rods After years in a reactor, depleted uranium is replaced Spent fuel can be reprocessed, but it is expensive, so it is disposed of as radioactive waste There are 436 operating nuclear plants in 31 nations Nuclear power helps us avoid emitting 2.5 billion metric tons (7%) of carbon dioxide per year Power plants pose fewer health risks from pollution They are safer for workers than coal-fired plants Less uranium needs to be mined, damaging less land But disposal of radioactive waste is challenging If an accident or sabotage occurs, the consequences can be catastrophic Despite safer designs, accidents and human errors will occur Older plants need more care and become less safe Radioactive materials can be stolen and used by terrorists Especially in poor nations of the former Soviet Union Hundreds of former nuclear sites have gone without adequate security for years The U.S. stores nuclear waste at more than 120 sites in 39 states

financial incentives help address waste

"Pay-as-you-throw" approach residents are charged according to how much trash they throw away The less waste, the less a person has to pay Bottle bills consumers pay a 5-10 cent deposit on recyclable containers and receive a refund for returning used bottles and cans to stores These bills are effective and popular Container litter is reduced 69-84% Total litter is reduced by 30-64% States with bottle bills have recycling rates about 3.5 times higher than states without them

locally supported agriculture is growing

"Think global, eat local" Sustainable agriculture reduces fossil fuel use from long-distance transport of products The average food product sold in a U.S. supermarket travels at least 1600 km (1000 mi) from the farm Farmers' markets consumers buy meats and produce from local producers Provide fresh, locally grown food Provide organic items and unique local varieties Community-supported agriculture (CSA) Consumers pay farmers in advance for a share and then receive weekly deliveries of produce Consumers get fresh food and farmers get a guaranteed income

unity in the diversity of life

A striking unity underlies the diversity of life DNA is the universal genetic language common to all organisms Living things are all made up of cells Unity is evident in many features of cell structure Unity is evident in that the forelimb of the human, cat, horse, whale flipper, and bat wing all share a common skeletal architecture

policy and investment can accelerate our transition

Although prices are falling, most renewable energy remains more expensive than fossil fuel Conventional sources get more government subsidies and tax breaks Policies keep fossil fuels cheap Which hurts renewables For America to remain a global leader: Political and financial support will need to be redirected toward renewable energy by creating financial incentives for businesses and individuals Feed-in tariffs like Germany's Set mandates for renewable energy use Invest in research and technology development Lend money to business start up Offer tax credits and tax rebates to companies and individuals who produce or by renewable energy

artificial selection

The process of selection conducted under human direction

community

An assemblage of populations of organisms living in the same area at the same time interacting with each other Interactions determine the structure, function, and species composition of the community Community ecologists study which species coexist, how they interact, how communities change over time, and why these patterns occur. Some of the most important interactions among community members involve who eats whom. Species in a community are given a rank within the feeding hierarchy, called a trophic level. Producers use photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to make their own sugars. Primary consumers consume producers.

control

An unmanipulated point of comparison

demography

Applying principles of population ecology to the study of change in human populations

nitrification

Bacteria then convert ammonium ions first into nitrite ions then into nitrate ions that plants can take up

aquacultures benefits and disadvantages

Benefits Reduces pressure on plummeting populations of overharvested wild fish increases food supplies and protein sources, increasing overall food security Uses fewer fossil fuels, is safer, and produces more fish than commercial fishing Drawbacks Lots of waste produced Uses grain, which affects food supplies for people Fish meal is made from wild ocean fish Escaped fish introduce disease or outcompete wild fish Degradation of coastal ecosystems Due to plummeting wild fish populations and increasing demand for seafood, aquaculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms in controlled environments, may be the answer. Aquaculture increases food supplies and protein sources, increasing overall food security. Also helps to reduce overfishing of wild fish and the unintended catch of other organisms called bycatch. Negative consequences include antibiotic overuse, degradation of coastal ecosystems, and spreading disease or invasive species into nearby ecosystems.

recycling has grown for many reasons

But market forces do not take into account the external costs (health and environmental effects) of not recycling The U.S. recycles 26% of its waste stream (34.5 % if composting is included) Saves Energy - each year in the U.S. recycling and composting saves energy equal to 10 million U.S. households in a year Prevent CO2 emissions equal to 33 million cars Reduce Mining - recycling aluminum cans saves 95% of the energy required to make the same amount of aluminum from mining U.S. recycling rates vary greatly depending on the material and state The U.S. recycles 26% of its waste stream (34.5 % if composting is included) Recycling rates vary greatly from one material to another. Low commodity prices can make municipal recycling programs unprofitable. These market prices do not reflect external costs of not recycling, such as increased greenhouse gas emissions.

chaparral

Densely thicketed, evergreen shrubs Highly seasonal biome Mild, wet winters Warm, dry summers densely thicketed shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs many plants adapted to and resistant to fire and drought Chaparral is only found in a few small patches throughout the world. Covered by a dense thicket of evergreen shrubs. Mild, wet winters and warm, dry summers. Fires are frequent. Climate is induced by nearby oceans. hollywodd/ca

ocean stores thermal energy

Each day, tropical oceans absorb solar radiation equal to the heat content of 250 billion barrels of oil 20,000 time the electricity used in the US each day ocean thermal energy conversion

municipal sewer systems

In populated areas, municipal sewer systems carry wastewater to wastewater treatment plants Primary treatment Removes suspended solids Secondary treatment Water is stirred and aerated Aerobic bacteria degrade organic pollutants Further treatment may remove particular pollutants Clarified water is treated with chlorine (or ultraviolet light) Effluent: treated wastewater Is piped into rivers or the ocean May be used for lawns, irrigation, or industry In rural areas, septic systems separate solids and oils from water in a septic tank, then the water travels downhill through gravel-filled trenches where it can be naturally decomposed. In urban areas, treatment facilities will perform primary treatment and physically remove contaminants in settling tanks or clarifiers. Secondary treatment stirs and aerates wastewater so bacteria can naturally decompose the wastes in it. The effluent is treated to kill bacteria and returned back to rivers, lakes, or the ocean. The remaining biosolids can be used as fertilizer.

longline fishing

Longline fishing involves setting out extremely long lines (up to 80 km long) with hundreds or thousands of baited hooks spaced between their lengths.

leaching

Minerals dissolved or suspended in water can be transported downward in a process called leaching

tailings

Ore that is left over after metals have been extracted Pollute soil and water Contain heavy metals or chemicals (cyanide, sulfuric acid)

intercropping

Planting alternating bands of different crops Decreases pests and disease Replenishes soil involves planting alternating bands of different crops. Cover crops can be used to reduce wind erosion, and legumes can be used to restore nitrogen.

reducing demand

Reducing demand is harder politically It involves changing behaviors But offers better economic returns and causes less ecological and social damage Reducing demand is already paying off From 1980 to 2005, the U.S. population grew 31%, but water consumption decreased 5%

pesticides

Synthetic chemicals that kill pests Insecticides kill insects Herbicides kill plants Fungicides kill fungi can cause health problems for humans and kill non-target organisms such as pollinators and natural predators of pests Pesticides include synthetic chemicals that kill insects (insecticides), plants (herbicides), and fungi (fungicides). Nearly 400 million kg of ingredients from pesticides are applied in the United States each year. Pesticides also kill nontarget organisms, including predators and parasites of pests and pollinators.

coevolution

These populations adapt and counter-adapt to each other through a process called coevolution. The duel of escalating adaptations between predaror and prey, parasite and host, herbivore and plant is known as an evolutionary arms race. Predator and prey Herbivore and plant Parasite and host Mutualists become locked in a duel of escalating adaptations (evolutionary arms race) Each evolves new responses to the other

bioentrism

ascribes inherent value to both human and nonhuman life. living things have value All life (human and nonhuman) has ethical standing

biological community

an assemblage of populations of different species that live in the same area and interact with each other Interspecific interactions are interactions between different species Community interactions are classified by whether they help, harm, or have no effect on the survival and reproduction of species involved

respond to invasive species with

eradication control prevention Eradication of an invasive species is extremely difficult, so managers aim to control populations. Since the 1990s, federal funding has been provided for control measures: Netting juvenile fish, contracting fishermen to catch adults, bubbling carbon dioxide into the water, and broadcasting noise into the water Control and eradication have been very expensive, so now attention is given to preventing future invasions.

resource partitioning

is partitioning the ecological resource and utilizing a sub-set of the same resource, enabling similar species to coexist in a community Apparent competitors may actually have slightly different niches Species may use resources in a different way or time Minimizes competition and allows coexistence Competing species coexist by specializing

half life

length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay The amount of time it takes for one-half of the atoms in a radioisotope to give off radiation and decay

source reduction

minimize the amount of waste generated (minimize waste at its source) The preferred approach Minimizing waste at its source (preventing waste) the best way of dealing with the waste stream Avoids costs of disposal and recycling Helps conserve resources and minimizes pollution Can save consumers and businesses money

wind power has many benefits

no emissions once installed Prevents the release of CO2, SO2, NOx, mercury It is more efficient than conventional power sources Turbines produce 20 times more energy than they consume (EROI 20:1) Turbines use less water than conventional power plants Local areas can become more self-sufficient Farmers and ranchers can lease their land Allows them to receive extra revenue while still using the land ($2000-$4500 on ¼ acre) Jobs in renewable energy

parasitism

one organism, the parasite, derives nourishment from another organism, its host, which is harmed in the process unlike predation, usually does not result in an organism's death Endoparasites Ectoparasites relationship where one organism depends on the other for nourishment. Parasitism, unlike predation, usually does not result in an organism's death. Parasites live with their hosts in many ways: Inside the host, such as tapeworms. On the host's exterior, such as sea lampreys. Free-living, such as cuckoos, who lay their eggs in the nests of other species. Parasites and hosts adapt and counter-adapt to each other through a process called coevolution. The duel of escalating adaptations between parasites and hosts is known as an evolutionary arms race. Some parasites contact hosts infrequently, are free living and not symbiotic Cuckoos Cowbirds Goldeneye ducks

interspecific interactions have evolutionary ramifications

predators better hunters Predators that are better at capturing prey will live longer, healthier lives; reproduce more, and take better care of offspring Natural selection leads to evolution of adaptations that make prey better at not being eaten/surviving They are at risk of immediate death They develop elaborate defenses against being eaten

recovery

recover waste materials Composting - practice of recovering organic waste by converting it to mulch or humus through natural decomposition Recycle - the process of collecting used foods and sending them to facilities that extract and reprocess raw materials that can then be used to manufacture new goods.

carrying capacity

the maximum population size of a species that a specific environment can sustain

facultative

where both species can survive alone

bogs

Ponds covered in thick floating mats of vegetation

kyoto protocol

(1997) mandated signatory nations to reduce emissions of six greenhouse gases to levels below those of 1990 (by 2008-2012) This treaty took effect in 2005 The United States was the only nation not to ratify it. In 1992, many nations signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which used a voluntary approach to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This failed, and emissions kept rising. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol mandated signatory nations, by the period 2008-2012, to reduce emissions of six greenhouse gases to levels below those of 1990. The United States was the only nation not to ratify it. The United States did not ratify the Kyoto Protocol Treaty required industrialized nations to reduce emissions But it did not require industrializing nations (China and India) to reduce theirs Signatory nations have increased emissions 3.2% As of 2015, nations that signed the Kyoto Protocol had decreased their emissions by 12.0% from 1990. Factoring out economic conditions in some nations, only a 0.7% decrease was achieved.

desalination

(desalinization) Removal of salt from seawater Drawbacks Expensive Requires large inputs of fossil fuel energy Kills aquatic life at water intakes Generates concentrated salty waste Mostly found in wealthy oil-rich nations where water is extremely scarce Desalination or desalinization is the removal of salt from seawater or other water. Salt can be removed by heating and evaporating ocean water (distillation) or by filtering through membranes with tiny pores that trap the salt (reverse osmosis). Desalination is expensive, uses a lot of energy, and generates concentrated salty waste. Saudi Arabia gets most of its drinking water from desalination.

feedlots

(factory farms) Also called concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) Huge warehouses or pens deliver food to animals living at extremely high densities Produce over half of the world's pork and most of its poultry are huge pens designed to provide high-energy feed to animals living in high densities. These are also known as factory farms or confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs). Feedlots have the benefit of being more economically efficient and reducing grazing impacts by the animals.

methane hydrate

(methane ice or methane clathrate) Molecules of methane in a crystal lattice of water molecules Occurs in Arctic locations and continental shelves Immense amounts could be present Twice as much as oil, gas, coal combined We do not know how to extract it safely Extraction could release large amounts of methane (a greenhouse gas) and cause landslides and tsunamis

shelterbelts

(windbreaks) Rows of trees and shrubs planted along edges of fields Slows the wind Can be combined with intercropping are rows of trees or shrubs that serve as windbreaks. The trees can also provide habitats and fruit.

soil erosion

- removal of material from one place to another by wind or water Deposition - arrival of eroded material at a new place These are natural processes, but are occurring at accelerated rates due to several widespread practices A problem when it happens faster than soil formation A problem because if removes topsoil at faster rates, quickly depleting soil of nutrients and organic matter. Areas that are windy, are sloped, have intense precipitation, or have sparse vegetative cover are the most at risk of erosion Industrial agriculture Overcultivating fields: poor planning, excessive tilling Overgrazing rangeland with too many animals Clearing forests or vegetation on steep slopes or with large clear-cuts the removal of material from one place and its transport to another by wind or water. When eroded material is left at a new location, it is called deposition. Erosion and deposition are natural processes, but are occurring at accelerated rates due to agriculture. This removes topsoil at faster rates, quickly depleting soil of nutrients and organic matter. Areas that are windy, are sloped, have intense precipitation, or have sparse vegetative cover are the most at risk of erosion. A problem when it happens faster than soil formation People make land more vulnerable to erosion with several widespread agricultural practices: Overcultivating fields through poor planning or excessive tilling (plowing). Grazing rangeland with more livestock than it can support. Clearing forests on steep slopes. One study determined that U.S. croplands lose about2.5 cm (1 in.) of topsoil every 15-30 years.

pests

Any organism that damages crops / livestock Industrial monocultures limit the ability of natural enemies to control pest populations, causing farmers to turn to chemical suppression.

govt and environment

2007 - EPA could regulate CO2 as a pollutant 2009 - House of Representatives' cap-and-trade system did not pass the Senate 2013 - Climate Action Plan, which would: Jumpstart renewable energy development Modernize the electrical grid Finance clean coal and carbon storage efforts Improve automotive fuel economy Protect and restore forests Encourage energy efficiency Increase EPA regulation of power plants 2017 - Climate Action Plan was reversed by President Trump In 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that carbon dioxide was a pollutant that the EPA could regulate under the Clean Air Act. In 2009, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a cap-and-trade bill, but it did not pass the Senate. In 2013, President Obama used executive authority to start the Climate Action Plan, which would: Jumpstart renewable energy development Modernize the electrical grid Finance clean coal and carbon storage efforts Improve automotive fuel economy Protect and restore forests Encourage energy efficiency Increase EPA regulation of power plants This executive action was reversed by President Donald Trump in 2017. Many people disagree on what role the government should play. Should it mandate change through laws and regulations? Should no policies be implemented and private enterprise be allowed to develop its own solutions? Impose no policies and hope for solutions? Give private entities incentives to reduce emissions? Many businesses and politicians have opposed all government action They fear it will cost industry and consumers

water supplies houses industry and agriculture

70% of our water use is for agriculture Crop irrigation, watering of livestock 20% goes to industry, 10% for residential use Consumptive use Water is removed from ground or surface water and is not returned (e.g., irrigation) Nonconsumptive use Only temporarily removes, water (Electricity generation at hydroelectric dams) The majority of our freshwater use (about 70%) is for agriculture. Industry accounts for about 20%. Residential use accounts for about 10%. The increased demand for irrigation has led to consumptive use of aquifers and surface waters, where we remove water but do not return it. Nonconsumptive use, such as with hydroelectric dams, either does not remove or only temporarily removes water from a source.

fisheries

A 2003 study showed that oceans today contain about one-tenth the large fish and sharks they once did. Many fisheries have collapsed, including Atlantic cod and red snapper. Of all the human impacts on the ocean, overfishing may be the most pressing, as many fish stocks have been severely depleted. More than half of all marine fish populations are fully exploited, meaning any further harvesting would be unsustainable. Despite increased fishing efforts, global harvests leveled off after 1998. If current trends continue, the collapse seen in the cod industry in eastern Canada and New England may repeat for all the world's fisheries. Humans have overharvested the oceans since the 18th century, when Steller's sea cow went extinct due to overhunting. Technology advances in the 20th century along with massive ships brought commercial fishing to unimagined levels of harvesting and initiated the fishery collapses we have observed today. A 2003 study showed that oceans today contain about one-tenth the large fish and sharks they once did. Many fisheries have collapsed, including Atlantic cod and red snapper. Fishing fleets have been "fishing down the food chain," or shifting to smaller, less desirable species.

incineration combustion

A controlled process that burns garbage at very high temperatures Metals are removed, and the rest is burned in a furnace Incineration reduces the weight and volume of waste Incineration reduces the weight of waste up to 85%, and its volume up to 95% Emission from incinerators must be passed through scrubbers that spray liquid that neutralizes acidic gases and a system of filters called a baghouse that physically filters fly ash. hazardous emissions are created and released Emissions must be passed through scrubbers that spray liquid that neutralizes acidic gases and a system of filters called a baghouse that physically filters fly ash. Scrubbers - remove hazardous chemicals and neutralize acidic gases Baghouse - huge filters that physically remove fly ash Fly ash - particulate matter that can be very toxic The remaining ash is toxic and must be disposed of in a hazardous waste landfill

secondary succession

A disturbance has removed much, but not all, of the biotic community Fires, hurricanes, logging, farming, overgrazing

primary succession

A disturbance removes all plant or soil life Glaciers, drying lakes, volcanic lava covering the land begins with the colonization of pioneer species Pioneer species - The first species to arrive in a primary succession area Lichens: fungi algae Severe disturbances may eliminate all or most of the species in a community, initiating a series of changes called succession. Succession begins with the colonization of pioneer species. Pioneer species, such as grasses and forbs, spread over long distances easily and are adapted for growing quickly. Over time, pioneers are overtaken by longer-living climax community species, such as hardwood trees.

paradigm

A dominant view (with more data, scientific interpretations can change)

negative feedback loop

A feedback loop in which a system responds to a change by returning to its original state, or by decreasing the rate at which the change is occurring. occurs when a change in a leads to a change in b which reverses the change in a so an increase in a leads to an increase in b but that leads to a decrease in a Stabilizes a system: output that results when the system moves in one direction acts as an input that moves the system in the other direction When balanced, the system is in dynamic equilibrium Most systems in nature involve negative feedback loops that allow them to maintain homeostasis Example: If we get hot, we sweat; sweating cools down the body

food web

A food web is a branching food chain with complex trophic interactions Incorporate all of the interlinking food chains within an entire community, showing the map of energy flow. The flow of energy and feeding relationships from lower to higher trophic levels is depicted in a food chain. Food webs incorporate all of the interlinking food chains within an entire community, showing the map of energy flow. Asian carp are predicted to affect the Lake Erie food web by decreasing the biomass of plankton-eating fish and their predators, while increasing the biomass of fish that can use juvenile carp for prey.

coral reefs

A mass of calcium carbonate composed of the skeletons of millions of tiny, invertebrate corals shallow corals live in the warm, clear water deep sea corals live at depths of 200-1,500 m Protect shorelines by absorbing waves Treasure troves of biodiversity Coral reefs are valuable ecotourism destinations A coral reef is a mass of calcium carbonate composed of the shells of tiny animals called corals. Coral reefs may be found in three areas: Extensions of a shoreline. A barrier island paralleling a shoreline. A ring around a submerged island called an atoll. Coral are related to jellyfish and can capture passing food with their tentacles. They also form symbiotic relationships with algae called zooxanthellae, which produce food through photosynthesis. Most corals are colonial and the surface of a reef will contain millions of densely packed individuals. Coral reefs host tremendous biodiversity because they provide shelter from waves and their complex physical structure produces many habitats.

demographic transition

A model of economic and cultural change As nations industrialize, they move from a stable pre-industrial state of high birth and death rates To a stable post-industrial state of low birth and death rates Industrialization decreases mortality rates So there is less need for large families Parents invest in quality of life, not quantity of kids Death rates fall before birth rates Resulting in temporary population growth

Empowering women reduces fertility rates

A nation's fertility rates drop when women gain access to: Contraceptives Family-planning programs Educational opportunities Educating women reduces fertility rates, delays childbirth, and gives them a voice in reproductive decisions Exposing women to strong empowered women helps improve women's rights Relatives, social workers, politicians, women on television

rock

A naturally occurring solid mixture of one or more minerals or organic matter A solid, aggregate of minerals or non-minerals does not have a specific chemical composition

system

A network of relationships among parts, elements, or components that interact with and influence one another Exchange of energy, matter, or information Receives inputs of energy, matter, or information; processes these inputs; and produces outputs natural, economic, political, and social systems Structural spheres of Earth's systems Lithosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Biosphere

flooding

A normal, natural process in which water spills over a river's banks In the long term, floods are ecologically beneficial and spread nutrient-rich sediment over large areas. In the short term, floods are damaging to the property of people who live in floodplains. Dikes and levees can make floods worse by forcing water to stay in channels, which then overflow a process that occurs when snowmelt or heavy water swells the volume of a river so it spills out over the river's banks. In the long term, floods are ecologically beneficial and spread nutrient-rich sediment over large areas. In the short term, floods are damaging to the property of people who live in floodplains. To protect against floods, levees are built along banks of waters to hold water in main channels.

coral bleaching

A process that occurs when zooxanthellae (symbiotic algae that produce food to help feed the corals) lose color and die, depriving the coral of nutrition Results from warmer water from climate change, pollution, and/or eutrophication Many coral reefs have fallen victim to "coral bleaching," a process that occurs when zooxanthellae lose color and die, depriving the coral of nutrition. Occurs when coral are stressed by increased water temperatures and elevated pollution levels. Elevated carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere can pollute ocean water and change its chemical properties. The oceans soaked up about a third of the excess carbon dioxide.

keystone species

A species that influences the survival of many other species in an ecosystem can include: Decomposers that recycle nutrients and replenish the soil. "Ecosystem engineers," such as beavers and prairie dogs, who physically alter ecosystems. Top predators, who control populations of lower trophic level consumers, are often keystone species A species that has an impact far greater than its abundance exert strong control on a community by their ecological roles, or niches Have effects even when not in large abundance Removing a keystone species has substantial ripple effects and alters the community

deep well injection

A well is drilled deep beneath the water table Waste is injected into it A long-term disposal method The well is isolated from groundwater and humans But the wells can corrode and leak waste into soil, contaminating aquifers, and may induce earthquakes injections drill deep beneath the water table into porous rock, and wastes are injected into it. Wells pose risks; they can corrode and can leak wastes into soil, contaminating aquifers, and deep-well injection may induce earthquakes.

theory

A well-tested and widely accepted explanation Extensively validated by great amounts of research Consolidates widely accepted, related hypotheses It is not "just a theory" (speculation) Examples: Gravitational theory Cell theory Theory of relativity Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection Plate tectonics Atomic theory

climate change debate

A wide diversity of impacts on the physical properties of our planet, its organisms and ecosystems, and human well-being have been observed. Scientists agree that increased greenhouse gases are causing global warming Increase in greenhouse gases due to the burning of fossil fuels Loss of carbon-absorbing vegetation due to deforestation Despite overwhelming evidence for climate change: Many in the U.S. deny what is happening People debate whether it is real and whether humans are to blame Think tanks and a few scientists question it The news media present both sides, despite the evidence of climate change Public debates over climate change are primarily the result of corporate interests, political think tanks, and a handful of scientists funded by fossil fuel industries. Scientists agree that today's global warming is a result of the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations in our atmosphere due to: Increase in greenhouse gases due to the burning of fossil fuels Loss of carbon-absorbing vegetation due to deforestation and other changes in land use. Despite overwhelming evidence for climate change: People debate whether it is real and whether humans are to blame Debates are primarily the result of corporate interests, political think tanks, and a handful of scientists funded by fossil fuel industries. The news media present both sides, despite the evidence of climate change "Climate skeptics" or "climate change deniers" generally only express doubt that humans are the cause. This side has been amplified by the media, which seeks to present two sides to every issue. The rise of Donald Trump to the U.S. presidency brought opposition to addressing climate change.

transgenic organism

An organism that contains DNA from another species Transgenes - genes that have moved between organisms An organism that contains DNA from another species is called a transgenic organism. The genes that move between them are called transgenes. To create recombinant DNA, scientists follow several steps.

data info gathered

Analyze & interpret results Statistical tests May disprove or fail to disprove a hypothesis, but it never proves it to be true Repetition is necessary If enough evidence accumulates to support the hypothesis, the scientist may eventually conclude that it is well-supported

groundwater can be depleted

Aquifers recharge slowly As aquifers are mined Water tables drop Freshwater wetlands dry up Water becomes harder and more expensive to get Saltwater intrudes into coastal aquifers Compacted soil loses porosity, making recharge harder Water mining, the withdrawal of water faster than it can be replenished, is taking place in many regions. Groundwater is depleted more easily than surface water because it is recharged so slowly. As aquifers are mined, water tables drop. The Ogallala Aquifer in the Great Plains has been drawn down by more than 320 million liters. When groundwater is overextracted in coastal areas, saltwater from the ocean can intrude into inland aquifers. This does not happen normally, because it is being "pushed back" by fresh groundwater flowing toward the sea. Coastal regions in California, Florida, India, and the Middle East now have coastal wells drawing up saline water instead of fresh water.

desertfication reduces productivity of arid lands

Arid and semi-arid environments that cover about 40% of Earth's land surface Prone to desertification Loss of more than 10% productivity due to erosion, soil compaction, deforestation, overgrazing, drought, salinization, water depletion, climate change Endangers the food supply of 1 billion people in over 100 countries Costing tens of billions of dollars each year Much of the world's population lives in drylands, arid and semi-arid environments that cover about 40% of the Earth's land surface. Drylands are prone to desertification, a land degradation where more than 10% of productivity is lost. Wind and water erosion are the biggest causes.

total fertility rate

Average number of children born to each female during her lifetime influences pop growth Rate of natural increase (natural rate of population change) Change due to birth and death rates alone (excluding migration) Europe's rate: 0.0-0.1% 18 of 45 European nations have declining populations Worldwide by 2013 TFR of 77 countriesbelow replacementfertility of 2.1

consumption leads to waste

As we consume/buy/use more goods, we generate more waste Waste generation has nearly tripled in the US since 1960, due to the increase in excess packaging and nondurable goods U.S. citizens generate ~7.1 lb/person each day Critics label the U.S. the "throwaway society" - describes a critical view of overconsumption and excessive production of short-lived or disposable items. Consumption is greatly increasing -- Waste production is also greatly increasing Waste generation has nearly tripled in the United States since 1960, reflective of the increase in excess packaging and nondurable goods. This trend ended around 2005, with source reduction and reuse practices leaving total waste generation flat. As we consume/buy/use more goods, we generate more waste Waste generation has nearly tripled in the US since 1960, reflective of the increase in excess packaging and nondurable goods. U.S. citizens generate ~7.1 lb/person each day Critics label the U.S. the "throwaway society" - describes a critical view of overconsumption and excessive production of short-lived or disposable items. U.S. waste decreased slightly from 2005 to 2012 As developing nations become more affluent, waste production and consumption both tend to increase. Rising standard of living, more packaging, poor-quality goods Wealthy consumers discard items that can still be used Affluent consumers discard so much usable material that some people in developing nations support themselves by scavenging and selling items from dumps

asian carp

Asian carp became invasive, outcompeting native fish for zooplankton and stirring up sediment as they consume native plants and mollusks. Eradication of an invasive species is extremely difficult, so managers aim to control populations. Since the 1990s, federal funding has been provided for control measures: Netting juvenile fish, contracting fishermen to catch adults, bubbling carbon dioxide into the water, and broadcasting noise into the water Control and eradication have been very expensive, so now attention is given to preventing future invasions.

rising seas threaten southern florida

At least six times a year, saltwater intrusion will bubble up from the ground and flood the streets, sidewalks, and lawns of Miami, with Miami Beach being the most affected. The floods are a relatively new phenomenon, the result of rising sea levels caused by global climate change. The world's oceans rose 20 cm in the 20th century as warming temperatures expanded seawater and caused glaciers and ice sheets to melt. All coastal cities are facing challenges from flooding and increased storms that arise from the sea level increase. Southern Florida lies on flat, porous limestone, making it especially vulnerable to flooding from the ocean. Miami alone has more than $400 billion in assets located just meters from the ocean. Despite these challenges, Miami Beach is currently undergoing a building boom, and its state-level leaders are largely in denial about climate change. Local leaders, including county commissioners and mayors, have worked to build up dunes, raise building foundations, shift development inland, and stop subsidizing insurance for low-lying coastal areas. Miami itself has raised some roadways 3 feet and is spending $400 million to install a system of pumps to remove floodwater. Coastal areas around the world will face challenges from rising sea levels Superstorm Sandy in 2012 was a wake-up call Affected New York, New Jersey, and other states Tourists think the Maldives Islands are a paradise Rising seas due to global climate change could submerge them Flood areas, erode beaches Damage coral reefs Residents have evacuated the lowest-lying islands Small nations do not cause climate change Yet they suffer

paris accord

At the 2015 conference in Paris, nations made many strong commitments: The U.S. planned to issue new regulations on coal-fired power plants and switch to natural gas. China pledged to cut back on coal power and establish a cap-and-trade program. Brazil promised to halt deforestation. India agreed to slow its emissions growth, reforest its land, and develop alternative energy. 2009 - Copenhagen conference ended in discord 2010 - Cancun's meeting was more productive Developed nations agreed to transfer clean energy technology to developing nations Agreed help tropical nations reduce forest loss China and India will reduce emissions (in principle) Most of these plans and promises have not come to pass 2011, 2012 & 2013 meetings failed to design a new treaty agreed to a "road map" toward a deal in 2015 but will not come into force until 2020 Most scientists were disappointed that waiting until 2020 would mean a "lost decade" while climate changes intensify The Paris conference was successful, in part, because each nation brought its own set of solutions to the negotiation table. The pledges made at Paris, if upheld, would bring the world only partway to a goal of limiting global warming to 2°C. President Trump plans to withdraw from the accord by 2020.

greenhouse gases

Atmospheric gases with 3 or more atoms in their molecules tend to absorb infrared radiation given off by the Earth's surface, then re-emit it back downward. These are called greenhouse gases and include Water vapor (H2O) Ozone (O3) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Nitrous oxide (N2O) Methane (CH4), h Halocarbons (including CFCs

biophilia

Biodiversity's benefits go beyond economics Humans love nature and have an emotional bond with other living things Our affinity for parks and wildlife, our love for pets High value of real estate with views of natural lands Our interest in hiking, bird-watching, fishing, hunting, backpacking Nature deficit disorder" (Richard Louv, 2005 book) Alienation from biodiversity and nature damages childhood development May lie behind many emotional and psychological challenges young people in developed nations face today

hydrogen and fuel cells have costs and benefits

Costs Needs massive and costly development of infrastructure Leakage of hydrogen can deplete stratospheric ozone Benefits We will never run out of hydrogen It can be clean and nontoxic to use It may produce few greenhouse gases and pollutants If kept under pressure, it is no more dangerous than gasoline in tanks Hydrogen fuel cells are up to 90% energy-efficient Hydrogen fuel cells are silent and nonpolluting, and they don't need recharging

ocean acidification

Caused by increased CO2 Organisms can't build their exoskeletons As carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere rise, the oceans absorb more CO2. This makes seawater more acidic, a phenomenon referred to as ocean acidification. As seawater becomes more acidic, carbonate ions become less available and calcium carbonate dissolves, jeopardizing marine animals that produce shells. Globally, ocean chemistry has already decreased by 0.1 pH unit (a 26% increase in acidity). As carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere rise, the oceans absorb more CO2. This makes seawater more acidic, a phenomenon referred to as ocean acidification. As seawater becomes more acidic, carbonate ions become less available and calcium carbonate dissolves, jeopardizing marine animals that produce shells. Globally, ocean chemistry has already decreased by 0.1 pH unit (a 26% increase in acidity). Oceans have already decreased by 0.1 pH unit They will decrease 0.15 to 0.35 more units - enough to kill most coral reefs, which will be catastrophic Coral reefs are habitat for marine species, are tourism destinations, and protect coastlines Coral reefs face two additional risks from global warming Warmer waters are contributing to the phenomenon of coral bleaching. Stronger storms physically damage reefs.

pests evolve resistance to pesticides

Chemical pesticides tend to become less effective over time as pests evolve resistance to them. Most pests occur in huge numbers, so it is likely that a few have genes that detoxify or metabolize a given pesticide Individuals that can metabolize and detoxify a pesticide survive and pass these genes to their offspring. As the population of pests with those genes increases, fewer pests are affected by the pesticide Pesticides lose effectiveness as pests evolve resistance "Pesticide treadmill" Chemists increase the toxicity of pesticides to compete with resistant pests Over 586 species are resistant to 330 insecticides Hundreds of weeds and plant diseases have evolved resistance to herbicides and pesticides Many species have evolved resistance to multiple chemicals Green peach aphid, Colorado potato beetle, diamondback moth Individuals with the gene will survive and reproduce at greater rates, creating a new generation with a much higher rate of carrying the gene. Eventually the pesticide becomes ineffective and must be replaced by a new one. This is called the "pesticide treadmill pests attack crop; pesticide is applied; most pests are killed a few with innate resistance survive; survivors breed and produce a pesticide resistant pop; pesticide applied again; pesticide has little effect now more toxic pesticides are developed

economics

Climate change is expected to widen the gap between the rich and poor People with less wealth and technology will suffer most people with less wealth rely more heavily on resources likely to be disrupted It will cost 1-5% GDP on average globally Poor nations will lose more than rich ones social cost of carbon is estimated to be somewhere between $10 and $350 per ton The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change predicts it will cost 5-20% of GDP by 2200 Investing 1% of GDP starting now could help to avoid many of these costs

climate change

Climate change is the fastest-developing area of environmental science Climate influences virtually everything around us Ecosystems Everyday weather Storms (intensity, frequency, location) Crop success Human health National security Economies Etc.

landfills have drawbacks

Collection systems must be maintained for 30 years after a landfill is closed Leachate - liquid from trash dissolved by rainwater (hazardous) collected and treated in landfills....but won't be kept up Despite improved technology, liners can be punctured It takes decades for waste to decay

circulation systems

Convective air currents contribute to broad climate patterns. Near the equator, solar radiation sets in motion a pair of convective cells called Hadley cells. The rapid rising and expansion of air due to intense sunlight gives rise to tropical rainforests. The now-dry air diverges and moves north and south, before cooling and descending at around 30 degrees latitude, producing subtropical deserts. Ferrel cells and polar cells lift air and create precipitation around 60 degrees latitude north and south, causing air to descend at 30 degrees latitude and at the poles. This creates another band of moist ecosystems around the 60 degree latitude. The Hadley, Ferrel, and polar cells interact with Earth's rotation to produce bands of wind patterns that alternate directions. The Coriolis effect deflects objects to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and the left in the Southern, resulting in curving wind patterns.

economically valuable metals from ore include

Copper Iron Lead Gold Aluminum Tantalum Used to manufacture electronics

green revolution and population growth

Do you think the Green Revolution has solved problems, deferred problems, or created new ones? Which aspects of the Green Revolution do you think help in the quest for sustainability, which do not, and why? Have the benefits of the Green Revolution outweighed its costs?

carbon tax

Critics say cap-and-trade systems are not effective Carbon tax Governments charge polluters a fee for each unit of greenhouse gases they emit Polluters have a financial incentive to reduce emissions European nations, British Columbia, and Boulder, Colorado, have carbon taxes However, polluters pass costs on to consumers Fee-and-dividend Funds from the carbon tax (fee) are passed to taxpayers as tax refunds (dividends) a type of green tax on the emission of carbon dioxide or the carbon content of fossil fuels. A downside is that these fees, when applied to producers, often get directly passed along to the customers. An alternative is the fee-and-dividend approach, where the government transfers the carbon tax, or "fee," into a tax refund, or "dividend," given to taxpayers. The fee-and-dividend approach is a type of revenue-neutral carbon tax, because there is no net transfer of revenue from taxpayers to the government. cap-and-trade system is where industries and utilities compete to reduce emissions for financial gain. Over time, this cap is lowered to ensure that total emissions decrease.

wind turbines

Devices that convert wind's kinetic energy into electric energy Wind blowing into a turbine turns the blades The nacelle contains the generator Towers average 260 ft tall (80m) Wind farms may contain hundreds of turbines

directional drilling reaches more fuel with less impact

Drilling requires land, roads, infrastructure Pollutes soil and water, fragments habitats Toxic sludge is stored in ponds Wells are drilled away from a drilling pad, requiring fewer pads

our food choices are also energy choices

Eating meat is far less energy-efficient than eating crops 90% of energy is lost from one trophic level to the next Some animals convert grain into meat (or eggs or milk) more efficiently than others Eating lower on the food chain (a more vegetarian diet) is more energy-efficient and reduces our ecological footprint. Every time that one organism consumes another, only about 10% of the energy moves to the next trophic level. Feeding grain to a cow and eating beef from the cow result in loss of most of the grain's energy to the cow's metabolism. Eating lower on the food chain (a more vegetarian diet) is more energy-efficient and reduces our ecological footprint.

Biodiversity provides ecosystem services

Ecosystem services - all the processes through which natural ecosystems and their species help sustain human life Biodiversity Captures solar energy Provides food, fuel, fiber, and shelter Purifies air and water Detoxifies and decomposes wastes Cycles nutrients, forms soil, renews soil fertility Pollinates plants Controls pests and disease Stabilizes climate Moderates floods, droughts, temperature Maintains genetic resources Allows life (us) to adapt to change Provides cultural and aesthetic benefits all the processes through which natural ecosystems and their species help sustain human life all these services depend on biodiversity Can a system function without all its integral parts? If we lose biodiversity are we risking or losing these vital services that sustain human life? ~$33 trillion global value/year

biodiversity boots economies through tourism and recreation

Ecotourism is a vital source of income for many nations Costa Rica: rainforests Australia: Great Barrier Reef Belize: reefs, caves, and rainforests U.S.: national parks Kenya and Tanzania: savanna wildlife A powerful incentive to preserve natural areas and reduce impacts on wildlife and landscapes Americans spend ~$104 billion annually on wildlife-related recreation But too many visitors can damage natural assets

no till farming

Eliminates tilling altogether Ultimate form of conservation tillage Farmers leave crop residues behind, keeping the soil covered with plant material year-round Residues of previous crops are left in field to prevent erosion Soil soaks up more water cover crops can be planted during times when the main crop is not growing eliminates tilling altogether. Farmers leave crop residues behind, keeping the soil covered with plant material year-round. Temporary cover crops can be planted during times when the main crop is not growing. Critics of no-till farming in U.S. Argue that it requires more use of chemical herbicides Proponents Point out that many farmers rely more heavily on green manures to fertilize and cover crops to choke out weeds Can improve soil quality and store carbon in soils (combating global climate change)

biomass energy

Energy obtained from biomass (organic material from living or recently living organisms) Chemical energy that originated with sunlight & photosynthesis Includes wood, charcoal, agricultural crops, manure Over 1 billion people use wood as their principle energy source Is used for heating, generating electricity, and creating liquid fuels for transportation Biomass sources are only sustainable if the are not overharvested

Environmental science is not the same as Environmentalism

Environmental science The scientific study of the environment and our interactions with it Scientists try to remain objective and free from bias, personal values, preconceptions Environmentalism A social movement dedicated to protecting the natural world from undesirable changes brought on by human actions

Using ethanol for fuel may not be sustainable

Environmental scientists don't like corn-based ethanol Growing corn impacts ecosystems Pesticides, fertilizers, irrigation Takes up precious land Using the corn crop to produce ethanol drives up food prices Growing corn requires energy for equipment, pesticides, fertilizers, transportation to processing plants Its EROI ratio is about 1.3:1, so it is inefficient To produce all automotive fuel used in the U.S. with ethanol from U.S. corn, the nation would need to expand its already immense corn acreage by more than four times

ecosystem services

Essential services on which we depend that the earth's natural systems provide....when systems are functioning normally Essential - we can't survive without them Services provided by nature / natural systems / ecological systems Purify air and water, cycle nutrients, regulate climate, pollinate plants, recycle waste Services provided by nature to human kind that have immense value Degradation of ecosystem services Occurs when we exhaust resources, destroy habitat, generate pollution Intensified by human affluence and population growth Degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystems = reduced availability of natural resources and ecosystem services What are some human activities that damage and degrade ecosystems? What are some critical consequences of damaging or degrading our environment?

U.S. policies to reduce dependence on foreign oil

Established a 1-month emergency stockpile of oil Capped the price domestic producers could charge Funded research into renewable energy sources Enacted conservation measures Urged secondary extraction at old oil wells Called for development of more domestic sources Import more oil from non-Middle Eastern countries

factors influencing nonrenewable resource availability

Estimating how long a reserve will last is hard New discoveries, technologies, consumption patterns, and recycling affect mineral supplies As minerals become scarcer, prices rise Discovery of new resources New extraction technologies Changing social and technological dynamics Changing consumption patterns Recycling

Environmental ethics

Ethics The set of moral principles or values held by a person or society that tell us how we ought to behave Ethical standards Criteria that help differentiate right from wrong Example: categorical imperative: the "Golden Rule," which tells us to treat others as we want to be treated Example: principle of utility: the utilitarian principle holds that something is right when it produces the greatest practical benefit for the most people Relativists: ethics varies with social context Universalists: notions of right or wrong remain the same across cultures and situations

conservation reserve program

Every 5-6 years, the U.S. Congress passes legislation called the Farm Bill that guides agricultural policy Conservation Reserve Program (1985) pays farmers to convert damaged or poorly suited cropland to conservation reserves. Trees and grasses are planted instead of crops Each dollar spent saves 1 ton of topsoil Generates income for farmers Improves water quality Provides habitat for wildlife $1.8 billion/year protects 27 million acres The 2014 Farm Bill limits protection to 24 million acre International programs led by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Every 5-6 years, the U.S. Congress passes legislation called the Farm Bill that guides agricultural policy. The Conservation Reserve Program, first established in the 1985 Farm Bill, pays farmers to convert damaged cropland to conservation reserves.

carbon footprint

Everyone has a carbon footprint that expresses the amount of carbon we are responsible for emitting. This can be reduced by: Choosing energy-efficient products. Eating less meat. Living near your work to reduce commuting times. Cutting back on waste. Getting engaged politically. The amount of carbon we are responsible for emitting People may take many steps to decrease their footprint

proxy indactors

Evidence about climate in the ancient past is vital for providing a baseline against which we can measure changes to the climate today Proxy indicators Types of indirect measurements that serve as substitutes for direct measurement of past climate Ice caps, ice sheets, and glaciers hold clues to Earth's climate history Trapped bubbles in ice cores provide a timescale of: Atmospheric composition, greenhouse gas concentrations, temperature, snowfall, solar activity Frequency of fires and volcanic eruptions Other indicators include: Pollen preserved in sediment, tree rings, pack-rat middens, coral reefs Climate scientists drill into ice caps, ice sheets, and glaciers to analyze the tiny bubbles of atmosphere that collected as the ice formed. Glaciers in Antarctica have provided information dating back 800,000 years. Based on air bubbles trapped in mile-thick ice cores (and other paleoclimate evidence), we know that during the ice age cycles of the past million years or so, carbon dioxide never exceeded 300 ppm. Before the Industrial Revolution started in the mid-1700s, the global average amount of carbon dioxide was about 280 ppm.  Other proxy measurements include sediment cores drilled below bodies of water, tree rings, packrat middens in arid regions, and the isotope concentration of samples from coral reefs. Data from the EPICA (European Project for Ice Core in Antarctica) ice core reveals changes across 800,000 years Climate scientists drill into ice caps, ice sheets, and glaciers to analyze the tiny bubbles of atmosphere that collected as the ice formed. Glaciers in Antarctica have provided information dating back 800,000 years. Based on air bubbles trapped in mile-thick ice cores (and other paleoclimate evidence), we know that during the ice age cycles of the past million years or so, carbon dioxide never exceeded 300 ppm. Before the Industrial Revolution started in the mid-1700s, the global average amount of carbon dioxide was about 280 ppm.  Other proxy measurements include sediment cores drilled below bodies of water, tree rings, packrat middens in arid regions, and the isotope concentration of samples from coral reefs.

current and future trends and impacts

Evidence that climate has changed (been disrupted) is everywhere We cannot blame any single weather event on climate change but extreme weather is part of a pattern backed by an immense volume of scientific data Climate change has already had numerous impacts on the physical properties of our planet, on organisms and ecosystems, and on human well-being Flooding in the Miami area Multiyear droughts in Texas and California Unprecedented heat waves and cold snaps Climate change has already had numerous impacts on the physical properties of our planet, on organisms and ecosystems, and on human well-being. Flooding in the Miami area Multiyear droughts in Texas and California Unprecedented heat waves and cold snaps

understanding evolution

Evolutionary processes influence agriculture, pesticide resistance, medicine, health, etc. Understanding and application of evolutionary processes play a key role in our everyday lives Food we eat Clothes we wear Many medical advances Preventing antibiotic resistance Pesticide resistance in crop-eating insects Even technology and engineering solutions have developed as a result of our understanding of evolution

life cycle analysis

Examines the life cycle of a product and looks for ways to make any part of generating a product more efficient, including its origins in raw materials, manufacturing, use, and disposal. Examines how waste products can be used as raw materials Eliminates harmful products and materials Creates durable, recyclable, or reusable products looks for ways to make any part of generating a product more efficient, including its origins in raw materials, manufacturing, use, and disposal. Waste products from one process are incorporated into other processes. Environmentally harmful products are eliminated from industrial processes. Design changes are made to increase durability, recyclability, and reusability.

concerns over gm foods

Expensive Little incentive to develop crops for small-scale farmers Most biotech crops so far have been engineered for insect resistance and herbicide tolerance, primarily benefiting large-scale industrial farmers and not poor rural ones a few large companies control GM technology Monsanto, Bayer, Dow, DuPont, and BASF These companies patent their seeds, meaning that if a farmer's crops are pollinated by a neighbor's GM crops, he may be sued for harvesting and replanting his own seeds Many experts think we should follow the precautionary principle and proceed with caution on GM foods Many people think that "tinkering" with food supply is dangerous or morally wrong Others fear that global food supply is dominated by large corporations that develop GM technologies Agrobiotech corporations have taken out patents on transgenes Ecological impacts of GM foods pose the greatest threat Ecologically, scientists are concerned that GMOs will interbreed with their wild relatives transferring new genes into the wild population Some feel we should adopt the precautionary principle and not proceed further until the effects of GM crops are fully understood GM oilseed rape was found hybridizing with wild mustard Creeping bentgrass engineered for golf courses has pollinated wild grass up to 21 km away

alternatives to fossil fuels

Fossil fuels drove the industrial revolution Our global economy is still powered by fossil fuels Supply 4/5 of the world's energy Supply 2/3 of the world's electricity Nations are looking for ways to move away from fossil fuels while ensuring a reliable energy supply Nuclear energy (the main nonrenewable alternative) Renewable alternatives

methane

Fossil fuels, livestock, landfills Levels have increased 2.6 times since 1750

restoration ecologists return degraded ecosystems to a more natural state

Given enough time, biological communities can recover from many types of disturbances Ecological restoration seeks to initiate or speed up the recovery of degraded ecosystems The long-term objective of restoration is to return an ecosystem as much as possible to its pre-disturbance state Scientists who study restoration ecology devise ways to restore altered areas to their condition before industrialized civilization. Ecological restoration can have two aims: Restore the functionality of an ecosystem Return a community to its "pre-settlement" condition A good example is the U.S. tallgrass prairie, much of which had been removed for farmland. A 1000-acre area near Chicago has been restored with native vegetation.

climate change

Global climate change now threatens conservation biology efforts Change in temperatures alters many aspects of the environment The protected areas may become unsuitable for the species being protected Scientists and managers need to come up with new ways to help save declining populations

soil erosion is a global problem

Humans are the primary cause of erosion It is occurring at unnaturally high rates Human activities move over 10 times more soil than all other natural process World's croplands - over 47 billion acres affected by erosion/soil degradation United States loses 5 metric tons of soil for every ton of grain harvested One study determined that U.S. croplands lose about2.5 cm (1 in.) of topsoil every 15-30 years.

bottled water

Groundwater is being withdrawn for bottled water An average American drinks 30 gallons/year People drink bottled water for portability, convenience They think it tastes better or is healthier but it is no better than tap water Energy costs are 1000 to 2000 times more than those of tap water Manufacturing the bottle Transporting the product 1.5 million tons of plastic waste generated annually 75% of bottles (30-40 billion/yr) are thrown away and not recycled Bottled water has become a booming business, with $160 billion in annual sales. People buy bottled water for convenience and taste, even though blind taste tests have shown no preference. Bottled water has major ecological impacts, with energy costs 1000-2000 times greater than tap water and 1.5 million tons of plastic waste generated annually.

crop rotation

Growing different crops from one season to the next Returns nutrients to soil Prevents erosion, reduces pests Wheat or corn and soybeans Alternating with legumes can boost soil nitrogen, and crop rotation also break pest and disease cycles associated seen with continuous planting A number of approaches have been implemented since the Dust Bowl to alleviate soil degradation. Crop rotation is the process of farmers alternating the type of crop grown from one season to the next. Alternating with legumes can boost soil nitrogen, and crop rotation also breaks pest and disease cycles seen with continuous planting.

logistic growth

Growth when resources are limiting S-shaped S-shaped curve the shows how limiting factors slow and stop exponential growth

three disposal methods for hazardous waste

Hazardous waste landfills do not lessen the hazards of the substances but help keep the substances isolated from people, wildlife, and ecosystems design and construction standards are stricter than those for ordinary sanitary landfills must have several impervious liners and leachate removal systems must be located far from aquifers Surface impoundments Store liquid hazardous waste Shallow depressions are lined with an impervious material (plastic, clay, etc) The liquid or slurry evaporates This storage method is only temporary The residue of solid hazardous waste is transported elsewhere for permanent disposal The clay layer can crack and leak waste Rainstorms cause overflow, contaminating nearby areas deep well injection A well is drilled deep beneath the water table Waste is injected into it A long-term disposal method The well is isolated from groundwater and humans But the wells can corrode and leak waste into soil, contaminating aquifers, and may induce earthquakes

fossil fuels

Highly combustible substances from the remains of organisms from past geologic ages Coal (solid), oil (liquid), and natural gas (gas) Provide most of our energy for: Transportation, heating, cooking, and electricity generation Annual global consumption of fossil fuels is at its highest level ever Across the world today, over 80% of our energy and two-thirds of our electricity come from coal, oil, and natural gas Fossil fuels were formed from organisms that lived 100-500 million years ago

population density and distribution

Humans are unevenly distributed around the globe Most populated areas Regions with temperate, subtropical, and tropical climates Seacoasts and rivers Many unpopulated areas (e.g., deserts, arid grasslands) are environmentally sensitive High S value in the modified IPAT equation Vulnerable to humans (agriculture, ranching, etc.)

how climate models work

How Do Climate Models Work? Models are increasingly vital for society Help predict what conditions will confront us in the future How do scientists create a climate model? A long series of mathematical equations are added to the model The equations are integrated with data on Earth's landforms, hydrology, vegetation, and atmosphere Earth's surface is divided into layered grid Models that incorporate both natural and anthropogenic factors predict observed climate trends best

how big is a billion

How big is a billion? Analogy: How long would it take a banker to count out $1 million at a rate of a dollar a second for 8 hours a day, 7 days a week?How long would it take to count $1 billion at the same rate? $1 million - 35 days / $1 billion - 95 years

why louisiana wetlands are disappearing

Human activities promote wetland losses Withdrawal compacts land and lowers soil levels dams prevent sediments from reaching the delta; they are instead deposited in reservoirs. levees prevent normal flooding, instead directing water directly out to the Gulf, where the sediments are deposited instead. Canals fragment wetlands and increase erosion Oil spills destroy vegetation The salt marshes in the delta normally compact over time, but this is offset by inputs of sediments from the river. The dams prevent sediments from reaching the delta; they are instead deposited in reservoirs. The levees prevent normal flooding, instead directing water directly out to the Gulf, where the sediments are deposited instead. Diverting the Mississippi River Can restore the wetlands Will cost millions

conservation biodiversity

Human development, resource extraction, and population pressures are speeding up the rate of environmental change Committed people are taking action to: Safeguard biodiversity Restore Earth's ecological and evolutionary processes

carrying capacity and human pop growth

Human populations are subject to the same types of limiting factors as other organisms; however, we are adept at modifying our habitat to suit our needs. Because humans have become increasingly efficient in fulfilling needs, carrying capacities for humans have increased as the limiting factors have been modified. Increasingly sophisticated technologies will keep increasing the carrying capacity for humans as advances are made in agriculture and medicine, for example. However, technological progress relies on natural resources, which are becoming increasingly scarce. Natural resource exploitation, in some cases, degrades the environment to such a degree that an area is rendered unsafe for human habitation at the existing and possibly future technology levels. If this trend continues, the human carrying capacity may indeed be lowered. Humans lower environmental resistance for ourselves Increasing our carrying capacity Technologies have overcome limiting factors We have appropriated immense amounts of resources Environments are complex and ever-changing The carrying capacity can change But by increasing the carrying capacity for humans: We have reduced the carrying capacity for countless other organisms Calling into question our own long-term survival

halocarbons

Human-made compounds made from hydrocarbons with added chlorine, bromine, or fluorine In 1970's, industry produced >1 mil tons/yr of CFCs

the 6th mass extinction is upon us

Humans are causing the sixth mass extinction event Population growth, development, resource depletion Altering and destroying natural habitats Overhunting and overharvesting populations Polluting air, water, and soil Introducing invasive non-native species Biodiversity loss affects humans We need organisms for food, fiber, medicine, services

hydroelectric power hydropower

Hydropower - uses the kinetic energy of moving river water to turn turbines to generate electricity Hydropower uses three approaches Storage technique Water stored in reservoirs behind dams passes through the dam and turns turbines Run-of-river approach Generates electricity without disrupting the river's flow Water flows through a pipe then returns to the river Useful in remote areas away from electric grids Minimizes impacts Pumped-storage technique Water is pumped to a high reservoir and flows downward through a turbine

hydropower is clean and renewable yet has impacts

Hydropower has three clear advantages over fossil fuels for producing electricity It is renewable: as long as precipitation fills rivers we can use water to turn turbines It is clean: no carbon dioxide is emitted It is efficient: an EROI of 100:1 or more Higher than any other modern-day energy source Damming rivers destroys wildlife habitats Upstream areas are submerged Downstream areas are starved of water blocks passage of fish, fragmenting the river and reducing biodiversity Thermal pollution (water temp changes), eliminating fish species Natural flooding cycles or rivers are disrupted Downstream floodplains don't get nutrients

IPAT model

I P A T Our total impact (I) on the environment results from: Population (P): individuals need space and resources Affluence (A): per capita resource use Technology (T): increases use of, or protects, resources Sensitivity (S): a fourth factor showing how sensitive an area is to human pressure Elements of the IPAT equation can combine Causing tremendous impact in a very short time Modern China's rapid development is causing unprecedented environmental challenges Intensive agriculture is eroding farmland Overuse has dried up the mighty Yellow River Increasing vehicles are causing urban air pollution and massive traffic jams China shows us what the rest of the world can become

case study - china 1 kid policy

In 1970, China's 790 million people faced starvation The government instituted a one-child policy The growth rate plummeted The policy is now less strict but has unwanted consequences: Killing of female infants Black-market trade in teenaged girls One-child policy has led to a shrinking workforce Some benefits of a reproductive policy such as China's might include a greater ability to provide food, health care, housing, and education, as well as reduced environmental pressure. Some problems include social and legal punishment for people who do not follow the policy; reduction in personal choice about family decisions; the elimination of unwanted fetuses and children; and pressure on industry, government finances, health care, families, and military forces because fewer working-age people are available to support these systems. Alternative ways of dealing with the resource demands of a quickly growing population include finding new resources to replace depleted resources, both within the country and abroad (which may greatly increase environmental pressure as resources become increasingly scarce); using rewards for smaller families while refraining from punishments; and using more efficient technologies to reduce resource-intensive processes and to reduce pollution. Describe what benefits may come from a reproductive policy such as China's. Now describe several problems that may result. Do you think a government should be able to enforce strict penalties for citizens who fail to abide by such a policy? Why or why not? What alternatives to China's policy can you suggest for dealing with the resource demands of a rapidly growing population?

montreal protocol

In 1987, an international treaty called the Montreal Protocol was signed. Countries agreed to cut CFC production in half by 1998. Additional agreements were passed, adding more halocarbons to the restricted list. Phasing out and replacing these chemicals has stabilized the ozone hole. The ozone layer is expected to recover fully sometime after the year 2060. The Montreal Protocol is now considered to be a model for solving global environmental problems. Phasing out and replacing these chemicals has stabilized the ozone hole. The ozone layer is expected to recover fully sometime after the year 2060. The Montreal Protocol is now considered to be a model for solving global environmental problems.

central case study: mania for recycling on campus

In 2001, Ohio University and Miami University of Ohio competed in a 10-week recycling event The first Recyclemania Recyclemania, prevented the release of nearly 2.37 million metric tons of carbon dioxide Recyclemania is the biggest of a growing number of campus competitions in the name of sustainability Recycling reduces pollution from the mining of new resources and the manufacture of new goods. Recyclemania, for example, prevented the release of nearly 2.37 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. Similar competitions have schools compete in other ways, such as savings in water use and energy use. Programs like this have made recycling the most widespread activity among campus sustainability efforts. The Campus Conservation Nationals Students on campuses across the country compete to see who can save the most water and energy 109 colleges participated Campus sustainability is thriving Students, faculty, staff, and administrators are doing the right things Competing in these competitions adds to the fun

should we regulate greenhouse gases as air pollutants?

In 2007, the Supreme Court ruled that the EPA has the legal authority to regulate carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases as air pollution. In 2011, the EPA introduced carbon emission standards for cars and light trucks. In 2015, the EPA launched the Clean Power Plan, where states were given options to reduce emissions of coal plants. This plan is in the process of dismantling as of 2017, due to an executive order from President Trump.

inbreeding depression

In small or isolated populations with low genetic diversity, genetically similar parents mate and produce weak, defective, or inferior offspring American bison, elephant seals, and cheetahs are examples Domestic dog breeds, past royal families, past amish societies ex: northern elephant seal population fell to about 30 in the 1890s. American bison before 1492 was ~60 million, in 1890 was 750, in 2000 350,000 Before Europeans arrived in North America, prairies served as habitats to greater prairie chickens. In Illinois alone their numbers plummeted from over 100 million in 1900 to about 50 in 1990. These declines in population were the result of hunting and habitat destruction, but the random consequences have been a great loss in species diversity. DNA analysis comparing the birds from 1990 and mid-century shows a steep genetic decline in recent decades. The greater prairie chicken is currently experiencing low reproductive success.[11]

case study: asian carp

In the 1960s and 1970s, managers of catfish farms and wastewater treatment plants began importing carp from Asia to clean up infestations of algae and snails. Some of these individuals escaped into nearby streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes, The Asian carp have been very successful, growing too large for predators to capture and spreading throughout the Mississippi River Valley. As these carp advanced up the Illinois River, people have become concerned that the carp would invade the Great Lakes. An electric barrier is now in place to try to stop Asian carp from reaching the Great Lakes. The Great Lakes have already become host to 180 non-native species, such as zebra mussels. Zebra mussels, introduced through the ballast water of ships, cause hundreds of millions of dollars in damage annually by clogging pipes, covering boat propellers, outcompeting native mussels, and transforming fisheries. What further impacts could the Asian carp have on the Great Lakes? Answering this question requires a knowledge of how each of the populations in the Great Lakes interact with each other.

indoor air pollution in developed world

In workplaces, schools, and homes Causes greater health effects than outdoor pollution The poor in developing nations burn wood, charcoal, dung, and crop wastes in buildings with little to no ventilation Increased pneumonia, bronchitis, lung cancer, allergies, sinus infections, cataracts, asthma, emphysema and heart disease In developed nations, cigarette smoke and radon are the primary indoor health risks Cigarette smoke Causes eye, nose, and throat irritation Lung cancer kills 160,000 people per year in the U.S. Radon A radioactive gas resulting from natural decay of rock, soil, or water that can seep into buildings the second-leading cause of lung cancer New homes are being built to be radon resistant

interspecific interactions drive population dynamics

Increased prey populations increase food for predators Predators survive better and reproduce more Increased predator populations decrease prey Predators starve and their populations decrease Decreased predator populations increase prey populations

what are the potenital disadvantages of gm foods

Insecticide use declined, but herbicide use increased Although insecticide use is decreasing, herbicide use is growing because many weeds are developing resistance to herbicides, spurring farmers to apply even more.

our food choices are also energy choices

Land and water are needed to raise food for livestock Eggs and chicken meat require the least Producing beef requires the most When we choose what to eat, we choose how we use resources such as land and water Based on these difference in energy conversion efficiencies, a footprint of land area, water weight, and CO2 equivalents has been calculated for producing 1 kg of edible protein for each animal. Animal agriculture accounts for 14.5% of our greenhouse gas emissions—more than driving. As wealth and commerce increase, so does consumption of meat, milk, eggs and other animal products Since 1950, global meat production has increased more than fivefold, and per capita meat consumption has doubled Meat consumption is expected to double again by 2050 as more nations go through the demographic transition and become wealthier As global wealth and commerce have increased, so have the production and consumption of meat, milk, eggs, and other animal products. Meat production has grown more than fivefold since 1950, and per capita meat consumption has doubled.

agriculture consequences

Moderate warming may increase agricultural output in some temperate areas, but increased droughts will diminish yields for many. Hunger is increasing in many developing nations Moderate warming may increase agricultural output in some temperate areas, but increased droughts will diminish yields for many. Increased CO2 may spur higher timber growth, but warming temperatures also increase the rates of invasive species, fires, and disease outbreaks.

agriculture subsides affect soil degradation

Many nations spend billions to subsidize agriculture 20% of a U.S. farmer's income comes from subsidies Pros of subsidies help to stabilize and secure the income of farmers Cons of subsidies Encourages farming of vulnerable or incompatible land Artificially increases food production, driving prices down Lead to land being cultivated that otherwise would not be Critics propose that instead of relying on subsidies, farmers should buy insurance against losses Many nations spend billions in subsidies to promote unsustainable practices, such as growing water-thirsty crops in desert regions. In the United States, one-fifth of an average farmer's income comes from subsidies. Subsidies help to stabilize and secure the income of farmers, but they also lead to land being cultivated that otherwise would not be. This artificially increases food production, lowering prices for other farmers.

gulf oil spill

Many researchers have helped and continue to help assess and monitor the impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill 62,000 barrels of oil leaked per day Using underwater imaging, aerial surveys and shipboard water samples, researchers tracked the movement of oil Researchers continue to conduct a wide range of scientific studies to determine long-term impacts

sustainable solutions

Many workable solutions exist Renewable energy sources are replacing fossil fuels. Soil conservation, high-efficiency irrigation, and organic agriculture are making food production more sustainable. Our technology is becoming more energy efficient. Laws and technologies have reduced air and water pollution. We are identifying endangered habitats and species that need to be protected. Better waste management is helping us conserve resources. Local level Every individual person can help create sustainable solutions in his/her community

fukusima daiichi

March 11, 2011, a 9.0 earthquake struck Japan, causing a tsunami Killed 23,000 people Flooded the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant Without electricity and use of the control rods, the uranium fuel overheated Seawater was used to flood the reactors but 3 reactors had full meltdowns Radiation was released at levels equal to Chernobyl's Trace amounts were detected around the world Thousands were evacuated Restrictions were placed on the area's food and water Radioactivity is still being released The long-term health effects are not known The disaster could have been prevented Generators should not be put in basements

marine reserves pt 2

Marine protected areas (MPAs) Established along the coastlines of developed countries Still allow fishing or other extractive activities Marine reserves Areas where fishing is prohibited Leave ecosystems intact, without human interference Improve fisheries: young fish disperse into surrounding areas Many commercial and recreation fishers do not support reserves Reserves work: species density, biomass, size, and diversity all increased 1-2 years after establishment Fisheries managers use surveys and fish population studies and monitor catches to regulate the timing, scale, and techniques used in harvests. The goal is to establish a maximum sustainable yield for each fish stock and to not exceed that level. Despite these efforts, fish stocks have continued to crash. This suggests that an ecosystem-based management system is needed. Marine protected areas (MPAs) restrict some human activities (like oil drilling), but allow fishing and other extractive activities. About 3% of the ocean waters have this designation. Marine reserves are areas of the ocean where fishing is prohibited. Commercial and recreational fishers dislike these areas, but scientists argue that they can serve as production factories for fish for surrounding areas. A 2001 data review revealed that marine reserves, on average, provided the following benefits: 23% increase in species density 91% increase in organism density within the reserve 192% increase in total biomass 31% increase in average organism size Mortality and habitat damage are also reduced, and larvae of species inside the reserve "seed the seas" when they spread to areas outside the reserve.

sustainable approaches to irrigation maximize efficiency

Match crops and climate Don't plant crops that require large amounts of water in arid climates Plant beans or wheat, not rice, almonds, pistachios, alfalfa New technologies improve water use efficiency Instead of flood-and-furrow irrigation, drip irrigation can increase efficiencies to over 90% One effective way to reduce water use is to better match crops and climate. Government subsidies in some arid areas have made water artificially inexpensive. Plants only use about 40% of the water applied by irrigation on average. Switching to drip irrigation can also reduce water use.

natural resources

Materials or substances such as minerals, forests, water, and fertile land that occur in nature and can be used for economic gain are the substances and energy sources that we take from the environment and rely upon to survive.

law of conservation of matter

Matter can be transformed, but it cannot be destroyed or created Because the amount of matter stays constant, It is recycled in nutrient cycles and ecosystems We cannot simply wish away pollution and waste

wetlands can aid wastewater treatment

Microbes "polish" treated wastewater Remove plant nutrients Cleansed water is released into waterways Or percolates underground The U.S. has over 500 artificial or restored wetlands Releasing wastewater effluent can help restore marshes Nutrients increase marsh grass growth Increased organic matter offsets natural soil compaction

aerosols/particulate matter warm or cool surface

Microscopic droplets and particles They may have either a warming or a cooling effect Soot particles ("black carbon aerosols") cause warming by absorbing solar energy. Most other aerosols (such as sulfur) reflect solar energy and have a cooling effect. may have either a warming or a cooling effect Soot (black carbon aerosols) causes warming by absorbing solar energy Sulfate aerosols from volcanic eruptions reduce sunlight reaching Earth's surface and cool the Earth Sulfate aerosols from fossil fuel combustion may slow global warming, at least in the short term

mountaintop removal reshapes ridges and can fill valleys

Mine blasting cracks foundations and walls Floods and rockslides affect properties Coal dust and contaminated water cause illness Lung cancer, heart and kidney disease, pulmonary disorders, hypertension, death The poor people of Appalachia suffer while we benefit from coal-produced electricity Critics argue that valley filling violates the Clean Water Act In 2010, the EPA introduced rules to limit damage

desert

Minimal precipitation Temperatures vary widely Day vs. night, seasonally Soils (lithosols) High mineral content, low organic matter Residents have adaptations for water conservation and resistance to heat Animals - Nocturnal, nomadic Plants - Thick skins, spines Deserts are the driest biome, receiving less than 25 cm of rain per year. Soils have high mineral and low organic matter content. Animals and plants must adapt to minimize water loss. arizona

tundra

Minimal rain, very cold harsh winters, cool summers Permafrost Permanently frozen soil Residents Polar bears, musk oxen, migratory birds, caribou Lichens, low vegetation, no trees Alpine tundra On mountaintops Tundras are also very dry, but are consistently cold all year. Underground soil is permanently frozen, called permafrost. Tundras are unoccupied by humans, but are the most directly impacted by air pollution and climate change. alaska

3 main components of waste management

Minimizing the amount of waste we generate Recovering discarded materials and finding ways to recycle them Disposing of waste safely and effectively The waste stream is flow of waste as it moves from its sources toward disposal destinations.

genetic diversity qs

Populations with higher genetic diversity Survive better and can better cope with environmental change or disease Populations with low genetic diversity Are vulnerable to environmental change or disease

reducing waste is best option

Most waste is from materials used to package goods To reduce waste, use minimal packaging Buy unwrapped or buy in bulk (fruit and vegetables, soap) Choose products that motivate producers to create longer-lasting goods Packaging is a major source of waste that can be easily reduced. Consumers can buy unwrapped produce or buy food in bulk. Manufacturers can switch to packaging that is recyclable or reduce the size and weight of their containers. Some governments are trying to reduce plastic bags Grocery bags can take centuries to decompose They choke and entangle wildlife and cause litter 100 billion of them are discarded each year in the U.S. Many governments have banned nonbiodegradable bags Tax on bags gives financial incentives to use other bags Consumers bring their own Some governments are beginning to tax and restrict the use of plastic shopping bags, because they persist for so long and are often littered.

nitrogen oxides

NOx Formed when nitrogen and oxygen react at high temperatures in engines Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) - Foul-smelling red-brown gas Vehicles, electrical utilities, industrial combustion Contributes to smog, acid deposition, stratospheric ozone depletion

pollution from natural sources

Natural processes, some worsened by human activity, can also pollute the air. Fires occur naturally, but are worsened by human encroachment into fire-prone ecosystems and the suppression of fires in areas where they are part of the natural ecology. Volcanic eruptions release particulate matter and sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere. Short-term effects of these include grounding planes, damaging car engines, and causing respiratory illnesses. Long-term effects such as global cooling can occur if sulfur dioxide reacts with water and oxygen to form aerosols that block sunlight in the stratosphere. Winds sweeping over arid terrain can send huge amounts of dust aloft. This is worsened by unsustainable farming and grazing practices that strip vegetation from the soil, as well as desertification.

pollination

Not all insects are pests; some are absolutely vital Over 800 cultivated plants rely on pollinators Pollination - Male plant sex cells fertilize female sex cells Flowers are evolutionary adaptations to attract pollinators Nectar, pollen, sweet smells, bright colors When trying to control "bad" bugs, we must be very careful not to kill the "good" insects that aid us in agriculture and are an essential link in the food web of many organisms process by which male plant sex cells (pollen) fertilize female plant sex cells (ova, or egg cells). Grasses and conifer trees are pollinated by wind. Plants with bright flowers attract animals (pollinators), which transfer pollen as they move from flower to flower.

aphotic zone

Not enough light penetrates this deep to support photosynthetic autotrophs Organisms in the very deep are adapted to continuous cold, dark, and extremely high water pressure Deep-sea hydrothermal vents of volcanic origin on mid-oceanic ridges have abundant life Tubeworms and others get energy from chemicals emitted from hydrothermal vents Most organisms scavenge carcasses or detritus, are predators, or get food from mutualistic bacteria

nutrient pollution

Nutrient pollution from fertilizers, farms, sewage, lawns, golf courses leads to eutrophication and hypoxia Excess nitrogen and phosphorus in water boosts algal and aquatic plant growth Spreading algae cover the surface, decreasing sunlight Bacteria eat dead plants, reducing dissolved oxygen Fish and shellfish die Solutions include treating wastewater, reducing fertilizer application, and using phosphate-free detergents Planting vegetation decreases nutrient flow into water Nutrient pollution from fertilizers and other sources causes eutrophication and hypoxia in surface waters. Algae is fertilized, causing it to overgrow and block out sunlight needed by underwater plants. As algae die off, bacteria decompose them and deplete oxygen levels. Eutrophication is a natural process, but human inputs from farms, golf courses, lawns, and sewage can dramatically increase its rate. A "dead zone" of very-low-oxygen waters has formed in the Gulf of Mexico due to nutrient flow from the Mississippi and Atchafalaya rivers. Excessive nutrient concentrations can lead to harmful algae blooms, which are population explosions of algae that produce powerful toxins. If the algae produce a red pigment that discolors the water, it is called a red tide. Human wastes, animal manure, pulp from paper mills, and yard waste are all considered biodegradable pollution. These also lower oxygen levels in water as the material is decomposed. Human activities dramatically increase the rate at which eutrophication occurs Harmful algal blooms (red tides) Excessive nutrients increase marine algae, which release powerful toxins Kill organisms and people, decreases tourism, fishing Nutrient pollution from fertilizers and other sources causes eutrophication and hypoxia in surface waters. Algae is fertilized, causing it to overgrow and block out sunlight needed by underwater plants. As algae die off, bacteria decompose them and deplete oxygen levels. Eutrophication is a natural process, but human inputs from farms, golf courses, lawns, and sewage can dramatically increase its rate. A "dead zone" of very-low-oxygen waters has formed in the Gulf of Mexico due to nutrient flow from the Mississippi and Atchafalaya rivers. Excessive nutrient concentrations can lead to harmful algae blooms, which are population explosions of algae that produce powerful toxins. If the algae produce a red pigment that discolors the water, it is called a red tide. Human wastes, animal manure, pulp from paper mills, and yard waste are all considered biodegradable pollution. These also lower oxygen levels in water as the material is decomposed.

energy efficiency

Obtain a certain output while using less energy input Results from technological improvements

cellular respiration

Occurs in all living things (plants, animals, etc.) Organisms use chemical energy created by photosynthesis Oxygen breaks the high-energy chemical glucose bonds Energy is used to make other chemical bonds or tasks C6H12O6 (sugar) 6O2 6CO2 6H2O energy

convergent evolution

Occurs when organisms that are not closely related but that live in similar environments in separate locations independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches. the evolution of similar, or analogous, features in distantly related groups Analogous traits arise when groups independently adapt to similar environments in similar ways Convergent evolution does not provide information about ancestry

ocean acidification

Oceans absorb excess CO2 Lowers the pH of seawater Reduces carbonate ions and dissolves calcium carbonate in coral shells/skeletons occurs as the ocean becomes more acidic from absorbing carbon dioxide, making it difficult for shell-forming animals to use carbonate (CO32−) ions to produce shells. Shells also start to erode faster than they are made once the concentration hits a certain level.

modern fishing

Oceans contain only one-tenth of the large-bodied animals they once held Overfishing has caused many fisheries to collapse, destroying fishing economies Groundfish (e.g., cod, haddock, halibut, flounder) stocks collapsed Bans in the 1990s by the U.S. and Canada have helped restore fisheries A slow path to recovery Red snapper stocks have been overfished and depleted in the Gulf of Mexico Current populations are only 3% of historic levels

ocean absorption

Oceans hold 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere Oceans are absorbing less CO2 than we are adding to the atmosphere. Slows global warming but does not prevent it As oceans warm, gases like CO2 are less soluble, creating a positive feedback loop that accelerates warming The oceans hold 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere, but are absorbing less CO2 than we are adding to the atmosphere. As oceans warm, gases like CO2 are less soluble, creating a positive feedback loop that accelerates warming.

superfund site

Once a Superfund site is identified, EPA scientists note: How close the site is to human habitation Whether wastes are currently confined or likely to spread Whether the site threatens drinking water supplies Harmful sites are placed on the National Priority List Ranked by their level of risk to human health Cleanup occurs as funds are available The EPA must hold public hearings to inform area residents of its findings and to receive feedback CERCLA operates under the polluter-pays principle: charge polluting parties for cleanup However, the responsible parties often can't be found A trust fund was established by a federal tax on the petroleum and chemical industries The fund is bankrupt, and Congress has not restored it; taxpayers now pay all costs of cleanup Fewer cleanups are being completed 1336 sites remain, and only 393 have been cleaned up Each cleanup costs $25 million and takes 15 years

fuel cells can produce electricity

Once isolated, hydrogen gas can be used as a fuel to produce electricity within fuel cells The chemical reaction is the reverse of electrolysis: 2H2 + O2 2H2O

north atlantic deep water

One part of the thermohaline circulation is the NADW North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) Warm water from the Gulf Stream flows across the Atlantic Ocean, warming Europe Water cools, becomes saltier, and sinks Creating a region of downwelling The region of downwelling near Western Europe is called the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). Scientists are concerned that an influx in fresh water from melting glaciers in Greenland could disrupt this flow.

specialist

Organisms that have a specific niche Live in only one type of habitat Eat only one or a few types of food Tolerate only a narrow range of environmental conditions

novel biofuels are being developed

Other crops can be used as biofuels Wheat, sorghum, sugar beets, hemp, grasses Algae Produce lipids that can be converted to biodiesel Their carbohydrates can be fermented to make ethanol Can be grown in ponds or tanks Can grow in seawater or sewage water Carbon capture Grow fast and can be harvested every few days Currently expensive cellulosic ethanol

weathering pt 2

Parent material is broken down into smaller particles by weathering. Physical weathering results from wind, rain, freezing, and thawing. Chemical weathering occurs as water or gases chemically alter rock. Biological weathering involves living things, such as lichens producing acid or tree roots rubbing against rock. Further biological activity deposits organic matter in the form of decomposed organisms or waste. Partially decomposed organic matter is called humus and is very productive for plant life. Weathering and the accumulation of organic matter are influenced by: Climate: Warm, moist climates accelerate most weathering processes. Organisms: Plants and decomposers add organic material. Topography: Hills and valleys affect exposure to sun, wind, and water, and influence soil movement. Parent material: Its composition influences soil formation. Time: Soil formation can take centuries, decades, or millennia. Soil is renewable, but at a very slow rate.

weathering

Parent material is broken down into smaller particles by weathering. Physical weathering results from wind, rain, freezing, and thawing. Chemical weathering occurs as water or gases chemically alter rock. Biological weathering involves living things, such as lichens producing acid or tree roots rubbing against rock. Weathering and the accumulation of organic matter are influenced by: Climate: Warm, moist climates accelerate most weathering processes. Organisms: Plants and decomposers add organic material. Topography: Hills and valleys affect exposure to sun, wind, and water, and influence soil movement. Parent material: Its composition influences soil formation. Time: Soil formation can take centuries, decades, or millennia.

different views on pop growth

Paul Ehrlich's The Population Bomb (1968) predicted that population growth would lead to famine and conflict But intensified food production fed more people Many economists think depleted resources will be replaced or new resources created But many resources (e.g., species) cannot be replaced Quality of life will suffer with unchecked growth Less space, food, wealth per person Population growth is a problem if it depletes resources, stresses social systems, and degrades the environment

tides

Periodic rising and falling of the ocean's height due to the gravitational pull of the moon and sun

ozone layer depletion has stopped growing

Phasing out ozone-depleting substances in 1987 worked—the Antarctic ozone hole stopped growing

we can use minerals and metals sustainably

Recycling minerals addresses Finite supplies Environmental damage 35% of metals are currently recycled from U.S. solid waste 33% of our copper comes from recycled sources Recycling decreases energy use It also lowers greenhouse gas emissions Recycling keeps hazardous wastes out of landfills while conserving mineral resources Recycling reduces demand for virgin ores and reduces pressure on ecosystems

contour farming

Plowing perpendicularly across a hill Furrows slow runoff and capture soil Water has the most erosive power when it moves downhill, so farmers may use contour plowing and plow sideways across a hillside. Each furrow runs perpendicular to the hill's slope, serving as a small dam that stops water flow.

point sources and non point sources

Point sources Discrete locations of water pollution Factories, sewer pipes, oil tanker Non-point sources Multiple inputs of pollution over large areas Farms, city streets, neighborhoods

air pollution worse in industrializing nations

Polluting factories and power plants Increasing numbers of cars Nations emphasize economic growth, not pollution control People burn traditional fuels (wood and charcoal) Coal burning, more cars, power plants, factories India has 12 of the 25 most polluted cities on Earth Causes over 1.2 million premature deaths/year in China Beijing, China, 2013 "airpocalypse" China is reducing pollution (closing factories, using cleaner fuels, raising efficiency standards, etc.)

pollution

Pollution harms organisms in many ways Air pollution degrades forest ecosystems Pollution harms organisms in many ways Noise and light interfere with behavior and habitat use of animals Pollution harms organisms in many ways Water pollution impairs fish and amphibians Agricultural runoff (fertilizers, pesticides, sediments) harms terrestrial and aquatic species Pharmaceutical drugs enter freshwater ecosystems through human sewage and agricultural runoff Estrogen used in birth control pills can cause feminization of males in some species of fish Pollution harms organisms in many ways Toxins, garbage, oil, and chemicals impact organisms

subspecies

Populations of species that occur in different areas and differ slightly from each other

greater prarie chicken and the extinction vortex

Populations of the greater prairie chicken were fragmented by agriculture and later found to exhibit decreased fertility To test the extinction vortex hypothesis, scientists imported genetic variation by transplanting birds from larger populations The declining population rebounded, confirming that low genetic variation had been causing an extinction vortex

examples of restoration efforts

Prairie restoration Replanting native vegetation, controlling invasive species, using controlled fire to mimic natural fires The world's largest project: Florida Everglades Flood control and irrigation removed its water Populations of wading birds dropped 90-95% It will take 30 years and billions of dollars to restore natural water flow In Florida, dams, canals, and levees are being undone to restore the natural water flow Prairie restoration Replanting native vegetation, controlling invasive species, using controlled fire to mimic natural fires The world's largest project: Florida Everglades Flood control and irrigation removed its water Populations of wading birds dropped 90-95% It will take 30 years and billions of dollars to restore natural water flow In Florida, dams, canals, and levees are being undone to restore the natural water flow Prairie restoration Replanting native vegetation, controlling invasive species, using controlled fire to mimic natural fires The world's largest project: Florida Everglades Flood control and irrigation removed its water Populations of wading birds dropped 90-95% It will take 30 years and billions of dollars to restore natural water flow In Florida, dams, canals, and levees are being undone to restore the natural water flow How good are we at restoration? Compare undisturbed biodiversity and ecological complexity to restoration efforts The alteration of ecosystems creates "winners" and "losers" among the world's animals and plants. Humans have a tendency to change ecosystems so that they are more similar to each other, more open in structure, and more polluted. This favors generalists, which can adapt to the changing conditions, and harms specialists, which rely on mature, stable ecosystems.

trophic cascade

Predators at high trophic levels indirectly promote populations at low trophic levels by keeping species at intermediate trophic levels in check If top predators are lost, primary consumers will overconsume producers and alter the entire ecosystem. If top predators are lost, primary consumers will overconsume producers and alter the entire ecosystem. This is called a trophic cascade. This is one example of an ecological disturbance. Biodiversity increases the resilience of an ecosystem—its ability to withstand disturbance, recover from stress, or adapt to change. If a keystone species like a top predator is lost, consequences will cascade down the entire food chain. If an ecosystem engineer is lost, the entire structure of an ecosystem can change. The removal of elephants from some of Africa's savannas has caused scrubby vegetation to overgrow, turning them into scrub forests.

reserves to production ratio R/P ratio

Predicts the total remaining reserves The total remaining reserves divided by the annual rate of production (extraction and processing) At current levels of production (31 billion barrels/year), we have about 53 years of oil left we have about 55 years of natural gas left we have about 113 years of coal left less if demand and production continue to increase more if we reduce demand and increase efficiency more if technology improves and market prices rise

convergent evolution

Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments is the process whereby organisms not closely related, independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches.

industrial ecology

Redesigning industrial systems to make the process more ecologically efficient, to reduce resource inputs while maximizing physical and economic efficiency The goal is to make industrial systems function more like ecological systems, with little waste Businesses are saving money while reducing waste integrates principles from engineering, chemistry, ecology, and economics to maximize both physical and economic efficiency. The goal is to function more like ecological systems, in which organisms use almost everything that is produced. This involves making several changes to industrial processes.

tackling nutrient enrichment requires diverse approaches

Reduce fertilizer use on farms and lawns and change timing of fertilizer applications to minimize rainy-season runoff Manage manure applications to farmland Plant vegetation "buffers" around streams to trap nutrient/sediment runoff Restore old and construct new wetlands to filter storm water and runoff Improve sewage-treatment technologies and upgrade storm water system Reduce fossil fuel combustion

reducing smog

Reducing smog requires many steps at the state and federal level, since air pollution spreads so easily. Steps taken in California include: Restrictions on emissions from power plants, oil refineries, and other factories. Regular vehicle inspections for emissions levels. Improved technology on cars that reduce their emissions. Even though L.A. drivers now burn 2.7 times more gasoline, smog levels have decreased substantially since 1980. Ozone levels are still in excess of EPA standards. Since the passage of the 1970 Clean Air Act amendments, emissions of the six monitored pollutants have been reduced dramatically. This has occurred despite increases in population, energy consumption, miles traveled by vehicle, and gross domestic product. Technologies such as baghouse filters, electrostatic precipitators, and scrubbers physically remove airborne pollutants from smokestacks. Catalytic converters contain metals that react with hydrocarbons, CO, and NOx in vehicle exhaust and convert them to carbon dioxide, water vapor, and nitrogen gas. Leaded gasoline was also phased out, dramatically reducing its level in the atmosphere. The EPA estimates that between 1970 and 1990, clean air regulations and technological advances in pollution control saved 200,000 American lives. Even though L.A. drivers now burn 2.7 times more gasoline, smog levels have decreased substantially since 1980. Ozone levels are still in excess of EPA standards. Reducing smog requires many steps at the state and federal level, since air pollution spreads so easily. Steps taken in California include: Restrictions on emissions from power plants, oil refineries, and other factories. Regular vehicle inspections for emissions levels. Improved technology on cars that reduce their emissions. Overall, concentrations of criteria pollutants in ambient air across the United States have steadily fallen since 1980. While the air in most urban areas still violates at least one ambient air quality standard, air quality has shown great improvement since 1985.

lakes

Size varies from small ponds to very large lakes Oxygen rich or poor Nutrient rich or poor Deep or shallow oligotrophic eutrophic

scientists are motivated to

Scientifically study the environment and our interactions with it Research and develop solutions to environmental problems The solutions are applications of environmental science The study of these applications is also part of environmental science

air quality has improved

Scientists, policymakers, industrial leaders, and everyday citizens have modified their actions to help reduce criteria pollutants The reduction in outdoor air pollution since 1970 is one of our greatest accomplishments

sediment pollution

Sediment in rivers can impair aquatic ecosystems Clear-cutting, mining, clearing land for housing, and cultivating farm fields expose soil to erosion It dramatically changes aquatic habitats Impairs organism respiration Fish may not survive Cloudy water blocks sun, killing rooted plants Solutions Adopt sustainable soil practices Avoid large-scale disturbance of vegetation Maintain riparian vegetation to trap sediments Sediments are eroded soils carried to rivers by runoff and transported long distances. Clear-cutting, mining, and clearing land for development have all increased rates of erosion, creating sediment pollution.

placer mining

Sifting through sand and silt in riverbeds for minerals using a sluice with running water

particulate matter

Solid or liquid particles small enough to be suspended in the air is classified by size Damages respiratory tissue when inhaled Can be a primary pollutant (dust and soot) or secondary pollutant (sulfates and nitrates

can extinct species be resurrected

Species recovery may be possible through cloning technology if frozen tissue is available Current research is underway to determine if ancient extinct species frozen in Arctic ice can be successfully cloned In cloning, DNA from an endangered species is inserted into an egg without a nucleus The egg is inserted into a closely related species Several mammal species have been cloned But these efforts are not enough to recreate lost biodiversity Without ample habitat and protection in the wild, having cloned animals in a zoo does little good Resurrection of extinct species raises ethical questions ....should we??? ex: The last natural Pyrenean ibex, a female named Celia, was found dead on January 6, 2000. Although her cause of death is known (she was killed by a fallen tree), the reason for the extinction of the subspecies as a whole is a mystery. Some hypotheses include the inability to compete with other species for food, infections and diseases, and poaching. The Pyrenean ibex became the first taxon ever to become "unextinct", for a period of seven minutes in January 2009, when a cloned female ibex was born alive and survived a short time, before dying from lung defects.[8][9]

ecology

Study of interactions among organisms and their environment Ecology and evolution are tightly intertwined

ecologists

Study relationships/interactions among organisms and their environment at many levels

coal mining

Subsurface mining For deposits deep underground Strip mining For deposits near the surface Mountaintop removal Entire mountaintops are cut off

sustainable agriculture

Suitable farmland is disappearing We must improve the efficiency of production We need to raise animals and crops that pollute less, require less fuels, and have less impact on natural systems Agriculture that maintains healthy soil, clean water, pollinators, genetic diversity, and other vital resources Tries to mimic how natural ecosystems function maintains healthy soil, clean water, pollinators, and other vital resources. The overall approach is to mimic the way natural ecosystems function. Achieving sustainable agriculture requires an understanding of the soil, water, nutrients, and pollinators that underpin agriculture. Farming methods that preserve long-term productivity of land and minimize pollution, typically by rotating soil- restoring crops with cash crops and reducing in-puts of fertilizer and pesticides.

sustainable fertilizer use involves monitoring and targeting nutrients

Sustainable approaches delivers nutrients directly to plant roots and avoids over application Add fertilizers to drip irrigation water No-till or low-till systems inject fertilizers with seeds Strips of vegetation along field edges and streams capture nutrient runoff precision agriculture Organic fertilizers add nutrients and organic matter Improving soil structure, nutrient and water retention Preferred approach is to integrate inorganic and organic fertilizer systems Farmers who use drip irrigation can add fertilizer directly to the water, thereby releasing it only at the plant roots. Organic fertilizer use is embraced, because it provides additional benefits, such as improving soil structure, nutrient retention, and water-retaining capacity.

organic compounds and heavy metals pose hazards

Synthetic organic compounds such as: plastics, tires, pesticides, solvents, wood preservatives Many are toxic because they are readily absorbed through the skin They can act as mutagens, carcinogens, teratogens, or endocrine disruptors Resistance to decay makes them persistent pollutants resist bacterial, fungal, and insect activity Keep buildings from decaying, kill pests, and keep stored goods intact Many synthetic organic compounds are toxic because they are readily absorbed through the skin and can act as mutagens, carcinogens, teratogens, and endocrine disruptors. They are also persistent, meaning they do not break down easily. Heavy metals that are fat soluble and break down slowly can bioaccumulate and biomagnify Lead, chromium, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, tin, and copper Used widely in industry for wiring, electronics, metal plating and fabrication, pigments, and dyes Enter the environment when they are disposed of improperly

industrialized fishing facilitites overharvesting

Technology advances in the 20th century along with massive ships brought commercial fishing to unimagined levels of harvesting and initiated the fishery collapses we have observed today. Technology advances in the 20th century along with massive ships brought commercial fishing to unimagined levels of harvesting and initiated the fishery collapses we have observed today.

addressing acid deposition

The Clear Air Act (1990) established the Acid Rain Program to fight acid deposition an emissions trading program for sulfur dioxide Benefits outweighed costs 40:1 New technologies such as scrubbers have helped Policies and regulations have lowered U.S. emissions of sulfur dioxides 67% since 1989 Precipitation has become less acidic as air quality has improved under the Clean Air Act

case study: kennesaw state university

The Commons at Kennesaw Sate University Leaders with "closed-loop" culinary sustainability programs Committed to sustainability runs three farms, producing much of the produce consumed by the students Uneaten food waste is composted and returned to the soil as fertilizer Minimized energy use Minimized water consumption Minimized waste generation Provides biodiesel for vehicles Campus dining services, such as at Kennesaw State University, are becoming leaders with "closed-loop" culinary sustainability programs. KSU runs three farms, producing much of the produce consumed by the students. Uneaten food waste is composted and returned to the soil as fertilizer. The KSU dining commons was designed with sustainability in mind. Floor-to-ceiling windows provide daytime lighting. Food is prepared to order or in small batches, minimizing waste. Dishwashing systems have high water and energy efficiency. Water bottle refilling stations reduce plastic waste. Recycling and composting programs divert over 44,000 pounds of waste per month from the landfill. Biodiesel is generated from used cooking oil. The farms are also designed to maximize sustainability. Chemical pesticide and synthetic fertilizer use is minimized. Hydroponic stations supplied by rainwater produce herbs, lettuce, and shiitake mushrooms. Off-campus food sources are kept local whenever possible. This and other university operations help to serve as models for nationwide agriculture reforms that could change how food is produced and delivered.

weighing the issue

The Footprints of Our Diets The pyramid pattern of energy and biomass illustrates why eating at lower trophic levels decreases your ecological footprint What proportion of your diet would you estimate consists of meat, milk, eggs, or other animal products? Would you choose to decrease this proportion in order to reduce your ecological footprint? Describe other ways in which you could reduce your footprint through your food choices.

Abstain from International Family Planning

The U.S. and 180 other nations have provided millions of dollars to the United Nations Populations Fund (UNFPA), which advises governments on family planning, sustainable development, poverty reduction, reproductive health, and AIDS prevention. Should the United States fund family-planning efforts in other nations? What conditions, if any, should it place on the use of such funds?

biotechnology

The application of biological science to create products derived from organisms It has helped to develop medicines, clean up pollution, aid cancer research, dissolve blood clots, make better food ex: production of human insulin from non human resources production of hormones like interferons cytokinins steroids and hgh gene therapy for prevention and control of diseases like hemophilia and cystic fibrosis development of vaccines and antibodies for rabies hiv etc

extirpation local extinction

The disappearance of a population from a given area, but not the entire species globally Over time, it can lead to extinction

human impact

The environmental impact of humans has grown due to a combination of human population growth and the excessive consumption of resources. About 200,000 people are added to the planet daily. The 20 wealthiest nations have over 55 times the per capita income of the 20 poorest. The ecological footprints of countries vary greatly The U.S. footprint is much greater than those of developing countries

hydrologic cycle - water

The flow of liquid/gaseous/solid water through environment More than 97% of water is in oceans Less than 1% is readily available fresh water Evaporation - conversion of liquid to gaseous water Transpiration - release of water vapor by plants Precipitation - return of water to Earth's surface in the form of rain/snow Infiltration - Water soaks down through rock and soil to recharge aquifers Aquifers - Underground reservoirs of sponge-like regions of rock and soil that hold groundwater Water table - The uppermost level of groundwater held in an aquifer look at charts

aging populations

The global mean age is now 28—in 2050... 38 China's age structure is changing In 1970, the median age was 20 By 2050, it will be 45 Although fewer people will be working to support social programs, retirees can contribute time and experience toward productive volunteer efforts

greenhouse gas concentrations are rising

The greenhouse effect is natural Greenhouse gases have always been in the atmosphere Greenhouse effect has kept the planet warm enough to support life We are concerned with the anthropogenic (human-generated) intensification of the greenhouse effect We have increased the concentration of these gases in the last 250 years beyond what we have ever experienced The greenhouse effect has been present throughout Earth's history and has kept the planet warm enough to support life. An anthropogenic (human-generated) intensification of the greenhouse effect has taken place over the past 250 years.

high level waste disposal

The high-level waste will be radioactive for thousands of years The U.S. stores 70,000 metric tons of waste in temporary sites More than 120 sites in 39 states Over half of U.S. citizens live within 75 mi of temporarily stored waste These sites are vulnerable to terrorist attacks Nuclear waste managers want one storage site for all waste, so that it can be heavily guarded Transportation of waste is subject to accidents or sabotage

approaches to waste management

The linear movement of products from their manufacture to their disposal is often described as "cradle-to-grave." The new "cradle-to-cradle" approach requires that materials from products are recovered and reused to create new products.

VOCs pollute indoor air

The most diverse group of indoor air pollutants Fumes from plastics and oils to perfumes, paints, cleaners, adhesives, and pesticides; "new car smell" Health implications are unclear for low concentrations Formaldehyde leaking from pressed wood and insulation

stream and river

The most prominent physical characteristic is current The area of land drained by a river system and all of its tributaries makes up that river's drainage basin or watershed. Over thousands or millions of years, the shifting course of a meandering river can carve out a flat valley. Areas near a river's course that are flooded periodically are within the river's floodplain. Frequent flooding and deposition of soil makes floodplain soils especially fertile. Agriculture thrives in flood plains, and riparian forests near riversides are especially rich in species. water flowing on the surface in a watercourse, where the water table is above the surface and that is in part supplied by groundwater

a soil profile consists of layers known as horizons

The movement and sorting of soil particles creates distinct layers called soil horizons. The entire cross-section of soil is the soil profile. Generally, the degree of weathering and concentration of organic matter decrease as one moves downward in a soil profile. leaching The soils of the Amazon rainforest are much less agriculturally productive than those in Iowa or Kansas. The higher amount of precipitation quickly leaches nutrients out of the topsoil and E horizon.

not in my backyard syndrome

The not-in-my-backyard (NIMBY) syndrome: residents don't want landfills in their areas Wealthy, educated people have the political clout to prevent landfills from being sited in their neighborhoods Landfills are disproportionately sited in poor and minority communities

ecosystem diversity

The number and variety of ecosystems Some biologists also refer to community or habitat diversity It may include habitats, communities, or ecosystems at the landscape level Sizes, shapes, and connections among patches matter Areas with a variety of vegetation hold more biodiversity than areas the same size with one plant type Example: Serengeti's open plains are vast, but the region has a diversity of habitats Savanna, grasslands, hilly woodlands, seasonal wetlands, and rocky outcroppings

population density

The number of individuals in a population per unit area High densities make it easier to find mates But increase competition and vulnerability to predation Also increase transmission of diseases Low densities make it harder to find mates But individuals enjoy more space and resources Large organisms usually have low densities They need many resources and a large area to survive

population size

The number of individuals present at a given time May increase, decrease, cycle, or remain the same The UN predicts 9.3 billion humans by 2050

species diversity

The number or variety of species in a particular region Richness: the number of species Species Richness (numbers of species) speciation extinction Speciation generates new species Extinction reduces species richness Evenness (relative abundance): the extent to which species differ in number of individuals

ozone and ozone holes

The primary ozone-depleting substances are halocarbons—synthetic compounds derived from hydrocarbons where hydrogen atoms are replaced by atoms of chlorine, fluorine, or bromine. One specific class of halocarbon, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), was produced in the 1970s for use in refrigerators, fire extinguishers, propellants for spray cans, and cleaners for electronics. CFCs are very nonreactive and were assumed to be safe for the environment. In the stratosphere, CFCs are broken down by UV radiation into chlorine and carbon atoms, which then split many ozone molecules. In 1985, researchers detected that an area of thinned ozone concentration, called the ozone hole, was forming every spring over Antarctica. High-altitude polar stratospheric clouds containing nitric acid were breaking down CFCs into chlorine, which was then being released in the spring when the sun broke up the clouds. Scientists were concerned that elevated UV levels could promote skin cancer and damage plant life. In 1985, researchers detected that an area of thinned ozone concentration, called the ozone hole, was forming every spring over Antarctica. High-altitude polar stratospheric clouds containing nitric acid were breaking down CFCs into chlorine, which was then being released in the spring when the sun broke up the clouds. Scientists were concerned that elevated UV levels could promote skin cancer and damage plant life.

ecosystem services

The process by which natural environments provide life-supporting resources are the essential services on which we depend that the earth's natural systems provide

eutrophication in chesapeake bay

The process of nutrient over enrichment; characterized by blooms of algae, increased production of organic matter, and ecosystem degradation case study in book

natural selection

The process where inherited characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on more frequently to future generations than those that do not A primary mechanism of evolution and biological diversity

During the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo), how did the exploitation of coltan and the coltan miners harm both the environment and the people that lived there?

The products of mining were seized from the miners. Endangered species were hunted for food. Erosion exacerbated the release of toxic metals such as mercury.

recycling pros and cons

The public takes satisfaction in recycling Municipalities want to reduce waste Recycling can offer enormous savings in energy and materials Recycling may not be profitable To collect, sort, and process materials is expensive The more material that is recycled, the lower the price Low commodity prices can make recycling programs unprofitable Transportation costs to recycling facilities may be high

pollution and water pollution

The release of matter or energy that causes undesirable impacts on health and well-being of humans or other organisms Water pollution has many forms and can impact aquatic ecosystems and human health Chemical indicators pH, nutrient concentrations, dissolved oxygen concentration Physical indicators Temperature, turbidity (density of suspended particles in water) Biological indicators Presence of harmful microorganisms, species Water pollution includes any changes in the chemical, physical, or biological properties of water due to human activities. Many impacts of water pollution are not visible, such as pH, nutrient concentration, and dissolved oxygen, so they must be chemically monitored.

physical makeup of the ocean is complex

The seafloor topography can be rugged and complex Underwater volcanoes Steep canyons and deep trenches The planet's longest mountain range is under water

downwelling

The sinking of warm, oxygen-rich water Provides oxygen for deep-water life

small population approach

The small-population approach studies processes that can make small populations become extinct inbreeding and genetic drift, draw a small population down an extinction vortex

amazon rainforest

The soils of the Amazon rainforest are much less agriculturally productive than those in Iowa or Kansas. The higher amount of precipitation quickly leaches nutrients out of the topsoil and E horizon. Tropical farmers may practice swidden agriculture, where they cultivate a plot for a few years and then move on to another. If enough time is allowed, the soil and forest can recover. Plots are often burned first, a practice called slash-and-burn agriculture.

solar output

The sun varies in the amount of radiation it emits Scientists believe this has not had a significant effect on the Earth's average surface temperature, assigning it a value of only 0.05 watts/m2 of radiative forcing, which is less than any human-made causes

aquatic systems

The water cycle creates a web of interconnected aquatic systems What happens in one system affects other systems Precipitation forms rivers, which carry water to oceans and lakes Rivers interact with ponds, wetlands, and coastal systems Groundwater exchanges water with rivers, oceans, and lakes Exchanges water, organisms, sediment, pollutants

divert surface water for our needs

The world's largest diversion project is in China Goal is to move water from water-rich northern China to drier farms and cities in southern China 3 sets of massive aqueducts (1550 miles long) are being built Critics say not enough water can be moved The project will cause huge environmental damage It will displace hundreds of thousands of people World's largest dam On the Yangtze River Provides flood control, passage for boats, electricity $39 billion to build Flooded 22 cities Displaced 1.24 million people Submerged farmland, wildlife habitat, 10,000-year-old archaeological sites Eroding tidal marshes

geothermal energy

Thermal energy from beneath Earth's surface Radioactive decay of elements under high pressures deep inside the planet generates heat Heat rises through magma, fissures, and cracks Heated groundwater erupts as geysers or hydrothermal vents

substances are mined for fuel

Uranium is used in nuclear power Coal, petroleum, natural gas, oil sands, oil shale, methane hydrate are not minerals (they are organic)

sustainable development

Use of resources for economic advancement in a manner that satisfies our current needs but leaves enough resources for the future Challenge: How do we limit our environmental impact while promoting economic development and social justice? Must satisfy the triple bottom line - environmental, economic, and social goals must all be met Protect/restore the environment that supports us Enhance quality of life Be fair and equitable to all people Apply science to solve problems

natural gas

Used to generate electricity in power plants, heat and cook in homes It is versatile and cleaner-burning Emits ½ as much CO2 as coal, ⅔ as much as oil Viewed as a more climate friendly "bridge fuel" to clean renewable energy economy Extraction causes water pollution and leaks methane Liquefied natural gas (LNG) Gas converted to liquid Can be shipped in refrigerated tankers

biological control - biocontrol

Uses a pest's predators, parasites or diseases to control the pest Parasitoid wasps are natural enemies of many caterpillars. Introduction of cactus moth from Argentina to Australia Risks of biocontrol Organisms can't easily be controlled Organisms can harm non-target organisms Example: cactus moths introduced to Caribbean islands spread to Florida and are eating native cacti in southeastern U.S. Biocontrol must be carefully planned and regulated The most obvious alternative to chemical pesticides is biological control or biocontrol, where natural predators or parasites are introduced to eliminate the pest. Parasitoid wasps, for example, are natural enemies of many caterpillars. A modern example of biological control is the use of the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) soil bacterium, which produces a protein that kills many caterpillars and some fly and beetle larvae. Bt spores can be sprayed directly on plants. The gene responsible for producing the protein has been genetically engineered into crop plants, allowing them to produce the poison. Biocontrol organisms have, in some cases, become invasive and harmed nontarget organisms. The cactus moth, a natural predator employed in Australia to fight prickly pear cactus, was also used in Caribbean countries, but has spread into the United States and is now consuming native cacti.

case study: clearing air in LA and mexico city

Vehicles caused smog in Los Angeles from 1970s to 1990s Policies and technologies improved its air qualities Still has the nation's worst smog Mexico City is very polluted Traffic generates most pollution Topography, population increases make things worse Los Angeles and Mexico City have both dealt with severe smog pollution due to the vast amount of vehicle exhaust produced and their geographic location—inside wind-sheltered valleys. Mexico City is at a higher elevation, meaning it experiences more intense solar radiation, which worsens smog even further. Both cities have made significant improvements over the past two decades, helping to clear their air Changes made in Mexico City included: Shutting down an oil refinery. Pushing power plants to switch to natural gas. Removing lead from gasoline. Reducing the sulfur content of diesel fuel. These measures helped, but pollution continued to grow as the city's population and number of cars on the road grew. Catalytic converters were phased in for new vehicles, and regular emissions inspections were implemented. Alternatives to cars, including public transportation, ride-sharing, and bicycling, were also promoted. By 2010-2015, most pollutants had been reduced by more than 75%. Challenges still remain for both cities. Urban sprawl has increased the number of cars on the road. Average drivers spend three hours a day stuck in traffic, only traveling at average speeds of 13 mph. In 2016, a month of hot, windless weather in Mexico City brought back air conditions similar to those before reforms had taken place.

electronic waste - e waste

Waste involving electronic devices Obsolete computers, printers, cell phones, TVs, MP3 players, and other electronic devices Americans discard >300 million devices per year ~3.5 million tons 3/4 still work Electronic devices contain rare and valuable trace metals that can be extracted and sold A typical cell phone, for example, contains about a dollar's worth of precious metals includes obsolete computers, MP3 players, cell phones, and other electronic devices. This source of waste has grown substantially due to the short lifespan of these products. Most electronic items have ended up in landfills or incinerators. Due to the heavy metals and flame retardants in e-waste, the EPA and many states are beginning to treat it as hazardous waste. A combination of devices becoming smaller and an increase in recycling rates has decreased the amount of e-waste ending up in the waste stream. Electronic devices contain rare and valuable trace metals that can be extracted and sold. A typical cell phone, for example, contains about a dollar's worth of precious metals. As a demonstration of this, the 2010 Winter Olympics Games produced their medals partially from materials recycled from electronic waste. Waste involving electronic devices A combination of devices becoming smaller and an increase in recycling rates has decreased the amount of e-waste ending up in the waste stream

effects of human activities on aquatic systems

Water is a limited, but renewable, resource as long as we use it sustainably People are withdrawing water at unsustainable rates Surface and groundwater are being depleted One-third of the world's people are affected by shortages The distribution of the human population does not match the distribution of water, creating areas that do not have adequate local water supply. Water is one of our most precious resources and is renewable. People are withdrawing water at unsustainable levels and depleting many sources of surface water and groundwater. The construction of engineered waterways like dams and canals has altered an estimated 60% of the world's largest rivers. Climate change will worsen water conditions Changed precipitation patterns Melting glaciers Droughts In addition to overwithdrawing water, people can affect aquatic ecosystems by introducing toxic substances and disease-causing microorganisms. Despite major improvements in recent decades, the World Commission on Water recently concluded that half of the world's major rivers remain "seriously depleted and polluted, degrading and poisoning the surrounding ecosystems, threatening the health and livelihood of people who depend on them."

thermal pollution

Water that is too warm causes problems Warmer water holds less oxygen Cooling an industrial facility with water heats water, which heats a river when it is released Removing streamside cover raises water temperature Water that is too cold also causes problems Water at the bottom of reservoirs behind dams is colder When water is released, downstream water temperatures drop suddenly, killing aquatic organisms

we make worse or lessen impacts of natural hazards

We also face other natural hazards Floods, coastal erosion, wildfire, tornadoes, hurricanes Overpopulation People must live in susceptible areas We choose to live in attractive but vulnerable areas Coastlines, mountains, flood zones, fire zones Engineered landscapes increase frequency or severity of hazards Damming rivers, suppressing fire, clear-cutting, mining Changing climate through greenhouse gases changes rainfall patterns increases drought, fire, flooding, storms We can decrease impacts of hazards through technology, engineering, and policy (informed by geology and ecology) Building earthquake-resistant structures Designing early warning systems (tsunamis, volcanoes) Preserving reefs and shorelines (tsunamis, erosion) Better forestry, agriculture, mining (landslides) Regulations, building codes, insurance incentives discourage development in vulnerable areas Mitigating climate change may reduce natural hazards

polluting indoor air

We are exposed to many indoor pollutants, but the most diverse are VOCs that are released by: plastics, oils, perfumes, paints, adhesives, cleaning fluids, new furnishing, new carpeting, laser printers, and fax machines. The health effects of chronic VOC exposure are mostly unknown, because they exist in low concentrations and individuals are exposed to mixtures of many different types. Living organisms can also cause indoor air pollution. Tiny dust mites can worsen asthma and cause allergies. Fungi, mold, and mildew spores can cause allergies, asthma, and other respiratory ailments. Airborne bacteria can cause diseases. Any building-related illness caused by an unknown microbe is referred to as sick building syndrome. Living organisms can also cause indoor air pollution. Tiny dust mites can worsen asthma and cause allergies. Fungi, mold, and mildew spores can cause allergies, asthma, and other respiratory ailments. Airborne bacteria can cause diseases. Any building-related illness caused by an unknown microbe is referred to as sick building syndrome.

6th mass extinction event

We are setting the sixth mass extinction in motion Red List by the Union for Conservation of Nature Species facing high risks of extinction 2014 Red List reported Mammal species (22%) Bird species (13%), Amphibian species (31%) Fish species (20%) In the last 500 years, 236 animal and 30 plant species have gone extinct in the United States Actual numbers are undoubtedly higher Humans have driven hundreds of species to extinction in the past few centuries North American birds that are now extinct: Carolina parakeet Great auk Labrador duck Passenger pigeon Bachman's warbler Eskimo curlew Possibly the ivory-billed woodpecker Species that teeter on the brink of extinction: Whooping crane, Kirtland's warbler, California condor

excessive water withdraws can drain rivers and lakes

We are withdrawing surface water at unsustainable rates Many major world rivers run dry before reaching the sea Colorado River in the southwestern United States, the Rio Grande along the U.S.-Mexico border, and China's Yellow River Reduced flow has consequences Drastically changes the ecology of the river and delta changes plant community and destroys fish and invertebrates The excessive withdrawal of surface water has led to many world rivers running dry before reaching the sea. Colorado River in the southwestern United States, the Rio Grande along the U.S.-Mexico border, and China's Yellow River This drastically alters the ecology of the river and delta. Artificial rivers called aqueducts or canals channel water from rivers and lakes to homes and farms. The Colorado River, for example, is diverted to provide water for Denver, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, San Diego, and farmland throughout the Imperial Valley.

direct measurements tell us about the present

We document daily fluctuations in weather Temperature, rainfall, wind speed, air pressure Ocean and atmospheric chemistry were first measured in 1958 Hourly air samples from Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii show that atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased from 315 ppm to over 400 ppm since 1958 By the time direct continuous observations began at Mauna Loa Volcanic Observatory in 1958, global atmospheric carbon dioxide was already 315 ppm. May 9, 2013, the daily average carbon dioxide measured at Mauna Loa surpassed 400 ppm for the first time on record. If global energy demand continues to grow and to be met mostly with fossil fuels, atmospheric carbon dioxide will likely exceed 900 ppm by the end of this century. In 1958, Charles Keeling began analyzing hourly air samples from a monitoring station at Hawaii's Mauna Loa Observatory. CO2 concentrations have increased from 315 ppm in 1958 to over 400 ppm today. By the time continuous observations began at Mauna Loa Volcanic Observatory in 1958, global atmospheric carbon dioxide was already 315 ppm. On May 9, 2013, the daily average carbon dioxide measured at Mauna Loa surpassed 400 ppm for the first time on record. Less than two years later, in 2015, the global amount went over 400 ppm for the first time. Monthly carbon dioxide in the global atmosphere (dark red line) from 1980-2017 showing the long-term increase along with the smaller ups and downs due to seasonal plant growth and decay. The light red line is the annual growth rate, or the amount by which carbon dioxide increased each year. NOAA Climate.gov graphic adapted from Figure 2.45a in State of the Climate in 2017. The graphs are overlaid on a photo of Dave Johnson Power Plant in Wyoming by Greg Goebel, used under a Creative Commons license. If global energy demand continues to grow and to be met mostly with fossil fuels, atmospheric carbon dioxide will likely exceed 900 ppm by the end of this century.

peak oil

We will face a crisis not when we run out of oil, but when we hit peak oil: production peaks then declines Production declines once reserves are 50% depleted

saltwater intrusion

When groundwater is over-extracted in coastal areas, saltwater from the ocean can intrude into inland aquifers. This does not happen normally, because it is being "pushed back" by fresh groundwater flowing toward the sea. Coastal regions in California, Florida, India, and the Middle East now have coastal wells drawing up saline water instead of fresh water.

aquifer

When groundwater is overextracted in coastal areas, saltwater from the ocean can intrude into inland aquifers. This does not happen normally, because it is being "pushed back" by fresh groundwater flowing toward the sea. Coastal regions in California, Florida, India, and the Middle East now have coastal wells drawing up saline water instead of fresh water.

competition

When species compete for a resource in short supply Multiple organisms seek the same limited resource Food, water, space, shelter, mates, sunlight, etc. Negative - negative interaction each participant negatively affects the other by taking resources Becomes more intense when populations are more dense Organisms that seek the same resource have a relationship called competition. Intraspecific Interspecific Competition becomes more intense when populations are more dense. In competitive interactions, each participant negatively affects the other by taking resources.

impacts vary by region

Where we live will determine how we experience the impacts of climate change The Arctic has borne the brunt of climate change In the U.S. Global Change Research Program's2014 National Climate Assessment, scientists reported and predicted: Temperature increases (1.7-5.6C higher) Worse droughts and flooding Decreased crop yields Water shortages Health problems and diseases Higher sea levels, beach erosion, destroyed wetlands Changes to forests as a result of drought, fire, and pests More grasslands and deserts, fewer forests Undermining of Alaskan buildings and roads Predictions from two climate models Temperature increases will be much smaller if emissions are lowered

offshore sites hold promise

Wind speeds are stronger and have less air turbulence over water than over land Costs are higher to erect and maintain turbines in water but more power is produced and is more profitable Currently, turbines are limited to shallow water U.S. offshore wind farms are planned for the Northeast coast, Texas coast, and Lake Erie

wetlands

a habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil systems where the soil is saturated with water, often containing standing shallow water. Freshwater marshes consist of cattails and bulrushes that grow above the water's surface. Swamps also contain standing water but are in forested areas. Bogs are ponds covered in thick floating mats of vegetation. Wetlands can be seasonal, such as vernal pools that form in the snowmelt of early spring and dry up later in the summer. Wetlands provide many water-related ecosystem services including slowing runoff, reducing flooding, recharging aquifers, and filtering pollutants. Wetlands have been heavily impacted by human activities, including draining and filling for agriculture, withdrawing water for irrigation, and construction of dams.

geoengineering

a risky idea that involves taking steps to directly alter the Earth's climate. Fertilize phytoplankton to draw carbon dioxide out of the air through photosynthesis. Design "artificial trees" that filter out carbon dioxide. Block sunlight before it reaches the Earth by injecting aerosols into the upper atmosphere or deploying mirrors.

ore

a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine A mineral or grouping of minerals from which we extract metals

estuaries

a transition area between river and sea Salinity varies with the rise and fall of the tides

mitigation

aims to alleviate or reduce the severity of climate change by: reduce greenhouse gas emissions to lessen the severity of climate change Improving energy efficiency. Switching to clean and renewable energy sources. Preserving forests. Recovering landfill gases. Protecting soil quality. Pursue actions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions to lessen the severity of climate change Includes energy efficiency, renewable energy, protecting soil, preventing deforestation Both adaptation and mitigation are needed to deal with climate change, because even if we halted all emissions now, pollution already in the atmosphere would continue driving global warming until equilibrium was reached.

metal

an element that is shiny and that conducts heat and electricity well An element that is lustrous, opaque, and malleable and can conduct heat and electricity

mutualism

an interspecific interaction that benefits both species A mutualism can be... Obligate facultative is a relationship where two or more species benefit each other. Many mutualistic relationships occur between species as part of symbiosis - a close physical association between species. Other relationships, such as in pollination, only require free-living organisms to encounter each other once. Birds or insects transfer pollen from flower to flower, causing fertilization. Each provides a service the other needs (food, protection, housing, etc.) Microbes within digestive tracts Mycorrhizae: plant roots and fungi Coral and algae (zooxanthellae) Pollination Bees, bats, birds, and others transfer pollen from one flower to another, fertilizing its eggs

disturbance

any event that has rapid and drastic effects on the community and ecosystem Disturbances can be small and localized, such as a tree falling and creating a gap in the forest canopy. Disturbances can be large, like hurricanes. Disturbances may also recur regularly, such as prairie fires or insect outbreaks.

sanitary landfills pt 2

are engineered to prevent waste from contaminating soil and groundwater Soil layers reduce odor, speed decomposition, reduce infestation by pests partly decomposed by bacteria compresses under its own weight to make more space Must be located away from wetlands Must be ≳6 meters above water table of aquifers Must be located away from earthquake-prone faults Must be lined with plastic and impermeable clay Closed landfills must be capped and maintained

sanitary landfills are our main disposal method

bury waste in the ground or piled in large mounds engineered to prevent waste from contaminating the environment or threatening health Must meet EPA's national standards under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 Waste placed into landfills is partially decomposed by bacteria and compresses under its own weight to take up less space. Soil is layered with the waste to speed decomposition and reduce odor and pests. Soil layers reduce odor, speed decomposition, reduce infestation by pests partly decomposed by bacteria compresses under its own weight to make more space Liners and collection systems prevent liquid leachate from escaping into the nearby groundwater. Landfills must be located away from wetlands and earthquake-prone faults, and at least 6 meters above the water table.

living organisms pollute indoor air

can cause allergies, asthma, and other respiratory ailments Tiny dust mites Fungi, mold, and mildew spores Airborne bacteria

impacts of uncontrolled grazing

can result in overgrazing if stocking densities are too high grazing duration is too long and or grazing frequency is too often favors undesirable plant species can be destructive to the environment erosion deforestation desertification etc

el nino and la nina

el nino Usually warm ocean temperatures in Eastern Pacific Usually more intense effect than La Nina Summers in Ohio tend to be wetter and cooler Causes drier weather on West Pacific seaboards and wetter, humid weather in East Pacific La Niña Usually cold ocean temperatures in Eastern Pacific Usually follows El Nino but not always Summers in Ohio tend to be drier and warmer Causes wetter weather on the West Pacific seaboards and drier weather in East Pacific The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a systematic shift in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Under normal conditions, prevailing winds blow from east to west along the equator, forming a large convective loopin the atmosphere. This causes a "pile-up" of warm water to form near Indonesia, fueling storms in that region. El Niño conditions are triggered when air pressure decreases in the eastern Pacific and increases in the western Pacific, weakening the equatorial winds, allowing warm water to flow eastward, and suppressing upwelling along the Pacific coast of the Americas. This can create storm activity in normally arid regions like California and drier conditions in Indonesia. La Niña events are the opposite of El Niño events; unusually cold waters rise to the surface and extend westward, causing winds blowing to the west to strengthen. ENSO cycles occur every 2-8 years. Scientists are studying whether changes in air and sea temperatures are increasing the frequency and strength of these cycles.

predation

interaction in which one species, the predator, kills and eats the other, the prey Some feeding adaptations of predators are claws, fangs, and poison Prey defensive adaptations may include Behavioral defenses (hiding, fleeing, forming herds or schools, self-defense, and alarm calls) Morphological and physiological defense adaptations (claws, fangs, and poison) Mechanical and chemical defenses (porcupines and skunks) Prey have a variety of adaptations to avoid predation Mechanical defenses Chemical defenses Cryptic coloration Aposematic coloration Mimicry (Batesian and Mullerian) look at 54.5 figure on ppt

community based conservation

is growing Developing nations often do not support conservationists from developed nations trying to preserve areas Biologists partner with local people to protect land and wildlife It offers education, health care, and development aid People are retrained to protect species Local resources can be sustainably managed

composting

is the conversion of organic waste (food scraps, yard debris, etc.) into mulch or humus through the action of bacteria, earthworms, and other detritivores and decomposers. This compost is used to enrich soil, mimicking natural cycles of matter and preventing waste from reaching a landfill or incinerator. Conversion of organic waste (food scraps, yard debris, etc.) into mulch or humus through the action of bacteria, earthworms, and other detritivores and decomposers (natural decomposition) used to enrich soil, mimicking natural cycles of matter reduces the need for fertilizers prevents waste from reaching a landfill or incinerator Place waste into composting piles, underground pits, or specially constructed containers

food security

is the guarantee of an adequate, safe, nutritious, and reliable food supply. Guarantee of an adequate, safe, nutritious, and reliable food supply When all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (Committee on World Food Security, 2009) Providing food security to everyone will be one of our greatest challenges Physical, social, and economic access at all times to safe and nutritious food sufficient to meet dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

autotrophs (primary producers)

organisms that can capture energy from sunlight or chemicals and use that energy to produce food Plants, algae, cyanobacteria Organisms that use the sun's energy to produce their own food photosynthesis

parasitoids

organisms that lay eggs inside other organisms parasitize other organisms and kill the host Example: parasitic wasp Wasp larvae burrow into, and kill, caterpillars

grazing practices can contribute to soil degradation

overgrazing If livestock populations do not exceed the carrying capacity, rangelands can still be functional ecosystems. Without adequate regeneration of plant biomass, the result is overgrazing. Overgrazing exposes soil and makes it vulnerable to erosion. In a positive feedback loop, soil erosion makes it more difficult for native plants to grow, perpetuating the problem.

adaptation

pursues strategies to cushion ourselves from the impacts of climate change. Includes seawalls, coping with drought and less water, etc. The pump systems installed at Miami Beach are an example of an adaptation strategy. Pursue strategies to minimize its impacts on us Includes seawalls, coping with drought and less water, etc. Both adaptation and mitigation are needed to deal with climate change, because even if we halted all emissions now, pollution already in the atmosphere would continue driving global warming until equilibrium was reached.

conservation tillage

reduces the amount of plowing that would leave soil surfaces bare and exposed to wind reduces the amount of plowing, since it leaves soil surfaces bare and exposed to wind.

mining

the act of extracting ores or coal etc from the earth In the broad sense, it is the extraction of any nonrenewable resource Fossil fuels, groundwater, and minerals In relation to minerals, it is the systematic removal of rock, soil, or other material To remove the minerals of economic interest Because minerals occur in low concentrations, concentrated sources must be found before mining is begun

nutrient (biogeochemical) cycles

the movement of nutrients through ecosystems Involves two main types of pools (reservoirs) Source Sink

habitat

the natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or other organism. includes living and nonliving elements