Bio Final

The "template" or "parent" strand of DNA is the one that is being copied. What is the resulting strand called

"daughter" strand

Because mutations in proto-oncogenes are those that allow the cell to gain a new function, they are often referred to as

"gain of function" mutations

Macrophages

"Eat" pathogens

Gene Expression

1. DNA within the nucleus serves as a template. 2. mRNA is processed before leaving the nucleus to a ribosome within the cytoplasm. 3. tRNAs carry amino acids to the mRNA. 4. The amino acids bond together to form a growing protein chain. 5. The protein chain and mRNA molecule break off from the ribosome. 6. The protein chain is further modified and the mRNA strand is used again

Which indicated portion of the diagram is the active site

3

Understand how mutations relate to the process of evolution

A change in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule can change the sequence of amino acids in a protein and thus the properties of that protein.

Mammogram

A specific type of X-ray used to screen for and diagnose breast cancer

Citicoline

Chemical involved in brain function; known to be a stimulant of the central nervous system.

Lipids

Examples - triglycerides, cholesterol. Food source - oils, butter.

In Vivo

Gene therapy occurs inside the body.

*Sickle-cell disease results in misshapen red blood cells. What impact does this have on their ability to carry gases in the bloodstream

It reduces their ability to carry oxygen, resulting in anemia.*

Outline the criteria associated with staging cancer

Most doctors use a number system to grade cancers based on - Size of tumor. Has tumor spread to nearby tissues. Has cancer spread to nearby lymph nodes. Has cancer moved to other organs

Uncoating

Once inside the cell, some viruses provide an enzyme to remove their genetic material from the capsid.

Thimerosal

Preservative that may be present in some multi-dose vials of the vaccine.

Describe the main role of the digestive system in the body

The digestive system breaks down incoming nutrients to be transported to body cells. Mechanical digestion - processes that break food into smaller pieces. Chemical digestion - process that breaks down nutrients in foods using enzymes.

Erwin Chargaff

The percentage of adenine is equal to the percentage of thymine. The percentage of cytosine is equal to the percentage of guanine.

A modification that allows an organism to be better suited to its environment is called a(n)

adaptation

Changes that organisms accrue that make them better suited for their environment are called

adaptations

Vitamin B1

also known as thiamine; metabolism of glucose and amino acids.

*What is the correct sequence of events in viral reproduction?

attachment, penetration, biosynthesis, maturation, and release*

Gg

heterozygous, green

GG

homozygous dominant, green

This is directly associated with _________ global temperatures

increased

Most organic molecules are composed of smaller subunits called

monomers

Individuals with favorable traits survive and _________ to a greater extent than those without them

reproduce

Oxygen (O2)

the waste product of the Light reaction

Recall the number of genes involved in the expression of sickle-cell diesasee

1

The Progression of Cancer

1. A cell or small group of cells disregards its genetic programming. 2. A cell or small group of cells begins dividing uncontrollably. 3. A tumor is formed. 4. Tissues and organs are impacted from the excess cell growth

Viral Evolution

1. A virus originates in animal hosts - like pigs or birds, 2. Viruses exchange genetic material and are transmitted to humans, 3. Vaccines are created to prevent against viral infection in humans, 4. The virus mutates so the vaccine doesn't work - this newly mutated strain circulates and causes infection.

Viral Evolution

1. An influenza virus in birds mutates and is transmitted to humans. 2. Vaccinations are created to provide protection against this initial strain of influenza. 3. Spikes along the viral surface mutate, reducing the efficacy of the vaccination. 4. The newly mutated virus spreads, causing a flu outbreak among the public. 5. A new vaccination is created to provide protection against this new strain of influenza

Place the following three terms in order to describe the central dogma of biology

1. DNA, 2. RNA, 3. Protein

The formation of coal

1. during the Carboniferous Period, plants and animals died. 2. they were covered by a low-oxygen environment, preventing their decay. 3. They were covered with water and dirt and exposed to high pressure and heat. 4. Coal was formed with the remains. 5. Geologic forces pushed the Earth's crust to the surface.

Humans have ____ pair(s) of autosomal chromosomes and ____ pair(s) of sex chromosomes

22,1

Humans have ___ pairs of homologous chromosomes, including both autosomes and sex chromosomes

23

Hemoglobin molecules are found in abundance in red blood cells, with each cell containing as many as _____ hemoglobin molecules

250 million

It can bond with up to _ other elements, allowing it to be the ideal building block for many and diverse _______ molecules

4, organic

*The pedigree shown displays the occurrence of an inherited disease. For an individual in the fourth generation with two heterozygous parents, what is the likelihood that they will be impacted by the disease

75%*

Summarize the major stages of gene expression

A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for either the production of a protein, or the production of RNA molecules that regulate protein production. Gene expression is the series of events within a cell that takes the information within the DNA and produces the protein (or RNA) molecules. There are two challenges that need to be addressed before a trait may be expressed: The information in the DNA and proteins are written in different languages. DNA is written as a series of nucleotide bases (A, C, G, and T), while proteins are constructed of amino acids. The DNA and protein synthesis machinery are located in different locations within the cell. Translation interprets the genetic information, from the mRNA, into the structure of a protein. Gene expression involves both the process of transcription and translation.

Generally speaking, what is an endosymbiont?

A microorganism that lives within another cell, performing specific functions for its host

Mitochondria are organelles that complete the breakdown of carbohydrates to produce energy that is used to build ___ molecules

ATP

Describe the transport process in a cell that requires energy

Active transport: energy i required, movement against/up concentration gradient. Active transport requires an energy source (usually ATP) to move molecules. Molecules are moved against their concentration gradient (from low concentration to high concentration). The sodium potassium pump is an example of active transport.

Interferon

Acts as a signal to nearby cells that a cell has been infected by a virus

Identify the mode of action of alkylating agents

Alkylating agents: chemicals that integrate into the DNA, causing it to break at specific points; general and so can cause long-term side effects including other cancers.

Which of the following helps regulate the speed at which the cell cycle progresses

All of the above - how quickly the cell moves through the checkpoints that regulate the phases of the cell cycle, proto-oncogenes that may be present and help accelerate the progression of the cell cycle, presence of growth factors that initiate transcription of proto-oncogenes

*Variations in genes are called____. Examples of these variations include eye color. There are blue eyes, green eyes, brown eyes, and several combinations of these

Alleles*

Taurine

Amino acid that assists in digestion and processing of some minerals in the body and acts as an antioxidant.

Tyrosine

Amino acid that is involved in transmitting nerve impulses.

Phenylalanine

Amino acid; no known influence on metabolism.

Benign Tumor

An abnormal growth that usually does not grow larger. Multiple layers of abnormal cells. Cells closely resemble those in surrounding tissues.

Define the term antigen

An antigen is any substance that produces a specific immune response by the body. Antigens are usually proteins or large carbohydrates that are specific to none such as bacteria and viruses. When pathogens are ingested by the macrophages and dendritic cells of the immune system, they are digested, and a small portion of the pathogen is attached to the surface of the macrophage.

Malic acid

An intermediate of the citric acid cycle produced during the breakdown of carbohydrates.

Antigenic drift

Antigenic drift occurs when there are small changes in the surface spikes of the influenza virus.

Summarize the various roles of carbohydrates in living organisms and why animals cannot digest all carbohydrates

Are hydrophilic (water-loving), easily moved within bodies and cells. Are quickly accessed as an energy source (preferred energy source). Can form long polymers that are easily broken down by digestive enzymes. Starch is a polysaccharide used for long-term energy-storage in plants, the energy-storage carbohydrate of plants. Glycogen is a polysaccharide used for short-term energy-storage in animals, the energy-storage carbohydrate of animals. Fiber is a polysaccharide used for the structural components of leaves, stems, and roots within plants. Fibers contain long chains of glucose differing from those of starch. The long chains form small fibers called microfibrils which combine to form the structural components of leave, stems, and roots. Complex carbohydrate digestion requires two steps. Only glucose molecules are absorbed at intestinal villi.

Summarize the various roles of lipids in living organisms (including individual cells)

Are used for long-term energy storage. Are hydrophobic (water fearing). Include triglycerides (fats) and oils. Triglycerides. Structure: a single glycerol unit attached to three fatty acid chains of varying length. Function: energy storage. Cholesterol. Structure: carbon arranged in a ring-like structure. Function: cell membrane function and hormone production. Phospholipids. Structure: triglyceride modified to contain a phosphate group in place of one of the fatty acid chains. Function: structure of the cell membrane.

After eating some yogurt from a container you store it overnight in the refrigerator. A day later you return and fin the surface of the yogurt is no longer smooth but has broken into several liquefied products. You correctly guess that enzymes from your salvia, via the spoon, have continued digesting the yogurt in your absence. What will happen over time?

As long as the enzyme is not denatured by environmental conditions, the reaction will continue until all of the substrate is used up

Infer the reason why cancer cells increase the rate of angiogenesis

As tumor cells grow, they require oxygen and nutrients. Angiogenesis occurs as growth factors are released and capillaries grow toward the tumor.

Cancer and Homeostasis

As tumors grow, they take up space, crowding out other organs, preventing their proper functioning. As angiogenesis occurs, blood and nutrients are rerouted from healthy organs to the tumor, causing the organs to lose function. When cancer causes organs to not function, it may change blood chemistry. As tumors impact organs, their lack of function disrupts homeostasis. As tumors grow, they may block ducts or vessels, preventing their ability to transport materials necessary for homeostasis

The Lytic Cycle stages

Attachment. Penetration. Biosynthesis. Maturation. Release.

Explain what scientific evidence reveals about the claims of energy drink manufacturers

B vitamins (except folic acid) in energy drinks interact with energy pathways and energy drinks could supplement deficiencies, however, B vitamins are water soluble and likely excreted with urine. Folic acid builds new cells but is not known to increase alertness, metabolic efficiency, or physical performance. Caffeine likely accounts for most of the physiological effects of energy drinks as it has a strong influence on the central nervous system. Taurine is an amino acid and has some benefits as an antioxidant and disease preventative. Additionally, studies show it may increase athletic performance. Glucuronic acid may help reduce fatigue. Malic acid is an intermediate of the citric acid cycle and studies show supplementation may help treat chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. Tyrosine is an amino acid involved in transmitting nerve impulses to the brain. Supplementation can treat chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia. Phenylalanine is an amino acid found in meat and milk products. It's used to manufacture proteins but has no direct interaction with metabolic pathways. Citicoline is a chemical naturally produced by the body and used to form brain tissue. It can act as a stimulant.The conclusion reached is that caffeine and B vitamins are more likely than the energy blend to contribute to an energy drink's effectiveness.

For example, ____ is a gene known to be associated with some forms of breast and ovarian cancer

BRCA1

Summarize how gene therapy is being used to treat sickle-cell disease

Because red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow, scientists have been working on methods to cure sickle-cell disease by correcting the defective gene outside of the body, and then inserting the corrected gene into the bone marrow of those with sickle-cell disease. This is a form of ex vivo gene therapy. The goal is to produce new cells that lack the sickle-cell trait and can produce normal hemoglobin.

Summarize how genome editing has been used to treat genetic diseases

Because the gene for sickle-cell disease is known, and it is the result of a single mutation, this genetic disorder is an ideal candidate for genome editing. By targeting the cells that divide to produce red blood cells (called progenitor cells), researchers have been able to use CRISPR to repair up to 40% of the progenitor cells, which in turn reduced the amount of sickled RBCs in the patients' blood. While additional work is underway to make sure there are no other impacts on the body, these results suggest that a treatment for sickle-cell disease may be just a few years away.

*Darwin was very interested in the observation that animals on distant and isolated landmasses appeared to be related to animals on the mainlands. However, despite their similar appearance, the animals were indeed not related. Which of the following types of evidence would help Darwin make sense of his observations?

Biogeographical*

Compare the results of a normal blood test with that of an individual with cancer

Blood tests called complete blood counts (CBCs) look at the presence of normal blood cells and basic blood chemistry. Cancers may elevate the number of white blood cells and tumor cells may even be present in the blood. Changes in blood calcium, enzymes, or ion concentrations may also indicate that cancer is interrupting the function of an organ. Specific proteins associated with cancer can be tested for in blood, including CA 15-3 and CA 125.

Define the term evolution

By studying and classifying the life on this planet, scientists have been able to recognize that the organization of life provides evidence of change over time. The questions has not been is evolution actually happening but rather, what is the mechanism of evolutionary change?

Outline the general characteristics of cancer cells

Cancer cells are different from typical cells as they: look different (irregular shape, larger nuclei with more genetic material). are immortal (because of telomerase enzyme that repairs telomeres). lose the ability to specialize. Masses of unspecialized cells are called tumors. They can be benign or malignant.

Stages 0 and 1

Cancer cells are restricted to very small areas. The tumor is less than 2 cm and has not spread to any lymph nodes.

Define the term cancer

Cancer is a disease that is caused by the inability of the body to control the division of cells.

Distinguish between the B cell and T cell responses to specific antigens

Cell-mediated immunity targets cells of our bodies that have become infected with pathogens and are presenting the antigen. Cell-mediated immunity makes use of T lymphocytes, which are white blood cells produced in the bone marrow. After being formed, T lymphocytes travel to the thymus where they mature, each T lymphocyte develops receptors that will allow it to recognize a single form of antigen. When the influenza virus enters into an epithelial cell on the surface of our respiratory tract, the infected cell responds by posting an antigen on its surface, attached to an MHC-1 marker. This acts as a flag for the cytotoxic T cells, which were just activated by the helper T cells. At the same time that helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells are working to target infected cells, the B lymphocytes begin the production of antibodies. This is the second form of adaptive immunity and is often referred to as antibody-mediated immunity.

Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration uses 4 stages to break the chemical bonds of organic nutrients and harvest the released energy (electrons) to build ATP molecules.

Which of the following statements best describes the occurrence and function of checkpoints during the cell cycle

Checkpoints occur during the G1, G2, and mitotic phases of the cell cycle and help regulate the rate at which the cell moves through the different phases of the cell cycle

*About 12,000 years ago, a mass extinction event occurred about 75% of the world's large mammal species were eliminated. While a small number of cheetahs managed to survive and restore the world's population of cheetahs, this event caused an extreme reduction of the cheetah's genetic diversity. Based on the principles of natural selection, which of the following is a consequence of their reduced genetic diversity?

Cheetahs have never fully adapted to the current environment.*

Define the term chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to treat disease. In the case of cancer, chemotherapy works by targeting the cell cycle to prevent cell division in rapidly dividing cells. Chemotherapy affects all cells of the body, so it can be effective in treating and preventing metastasis, but also has many negative side effects.

Directional Selection

Chloroquine is no longer effective against malaria because it has evolved resistance against it, a new flu vaccine is needed every year

Anatomy

Comparison of the physical structures of species is called comparative anatomy.

*Which kind of T cell is most important in the removal of virally-infected cells from the body?

Cytotoxic T cells*

Genes are portions of ___ that code for instructions for proteins or RNA molecules

DNA

Summarize how information is stored within the chemical structure of a DNA molecule

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a nucleic acid that stores genetic information. DNA consists of units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains: A 5-carbon deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base. Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T); guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C). It is the order of the nitrogen bases in DNA that stores the genetic information for the cell. The sum of all genetic information in a cell is called the genome. Genes are units of genetic information that provide instructions for making proteins.

Gene Expression

DNA in the nucleus serves as a template. mRNA is processed and leaves the nucleus. mRNA becomes associated with a ribosome. tRNAs with anticodons carry amino acids to the mRNA. Anticodon-codon complementary base-pairing occurs. Polypeptide synthesis occurs one amino acid at a time until complete.

Rosalind Franklin

DNA is a repeating double helix.

James Watson and Francis Crick

DNA is a twisted helix made of repeating nucleotides of sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogen base.

Oswald Avery

DNA is likely the genetic material, not protein.

The enzyme _______ links together fragments from the lagging strand, completing replication

DNA ligase

Researchers can use ______ to determine patterns of gene expression between cell types, tissues, or individuals

DNA microarrays

Diagram of virus structure

DNA or RNA, envelope, spike, capsid

The enzyme _________ synthesizes a new strand of DNA by pairing nucleotides that are complementary to the original strand

DNA polymerase

Which enzyme is responsible for adding nucleotides to the growing DNA strand during DNA replication

DNA polymerase

*What is the name of the enzyme that fits new complementary DNA nucleotides into the new strand

DNA polymerase.*

The process of ______________ can provide researchers information on the exact sequence of nucleotides in a gene of interest

DNA sequencing

Place the following materials in sequence based on the order they are encountered during gene expression

DNA, mRNA, protein

Recall that the ____ of a cell directs the production of

DNA, proteins

Describe how nutrients (carbs, fats, proteins) are processed by the body (digested). (including major enzymes involved in each)

Digestive enzymes break down carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids into small molecules that can move into the circulatory or lymphatic system. Complex carbohydrate (starch) digestion requires two steps. Only glucose molecules are absorbed at intestinal villi. Protein digestion requires two steps. Only amino acids are absorbed at intestinal villi. Fat digestion requires emulsification before digestion occurs. Then monoglycerides (glycerol bounded to one fatty acid) and free fatty acids are absorbed at intestinal villi.

*A certain species of butterfly varies in color from white to dark blue. The birds found in the same area feed on the white or lightly colored butterflies, leaving butterflies that are darkly colored. This is an example of what type of selection?

Directional selection*

NADP+

Electron Carrier needed to transport electrons (H molecules) to the Calvin Cycle

Summarize the claims of energy drink manufacturers

Energy drinks claim to - Increase energy levels. Increase mental awareness. Reduce muscle fatigue

Explain what is meant by the term energy drink. How does the Food and Drug Administration classify them?

Energy drinks do not contain carbohydrates, proteins, or fats and are considered dietary supplements, not foods. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not regulate energy drink claims.

Aluminum salts

Enhances the ability of the immune system to detect the virus. Some vaccinations are aluminum-free.

Factors other than genes that control our traits include ___________ influences

Environmental

Define the term enzyme (what kind of molecule is it? In general, what do they do?)

Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions and/or allow them to occur at body temperature.

Describe how body (cellular) conditions can affect enzyme function

Enzymes are regulated by conditions, such as temperature and pH, that change the shape of their active site and its ability to interact with its substrate. Enzymes can be regulated by a process called feedback inhibition, where the end product can turn off the enzyme. This approach ensures only the correct amount of product produced.

Describe how enzymes work (use the words 'activation energy' 'substrate' 'active site' and 'specific')

Enzymes lower the activation energy required for chemical reactions to occur. Enzymes have a region called the active site where a specific substrate molecule bind. Some enzymes break down nutrient polymers into monomers, while others build polymers from monomers.

Inheritable Traits

Eye color, Sickle-cell disease, Natural hair color and texture, Skin color, Height, Cystic fibrosis

The phenotype for all traits is controlled strictly by genetic factors

False

True or false - Scientists agree that the influenza virus can now be classified as a living organism

False

True or false - antibiotics are effective at treating viruses, including the flu virus

False

True or false - the evolution of viruses proceeds at a constant rate

False

*Which of the following statements about components of the flu vaccine and their intended function is true?

Formaldehyde is used to inactivate toxins from the virus or bacteria that may have been present during production*

Fossil Record

Fossils are the mineralized remains or traces (trails, burrows, droppings, etc.) of once-living species.

Cytoskeleton Proteins

Function - Interior network of proteins that support the plasma membrane and provide shape to the cell.

Glycoproteins

Function - Proteins with carbohydrate molecules attached that serve to identify the function of the cells to other cells and the immune system.

Proteins

Function - Variety of functions, including acting as channels through the membrane and signaling to the interior of the cell.

Cholesterol

Function - lipid that helps regulate the fluid nature of the membrane.

Tumor suppressor genes code for proteins that examine DNA before cell division to ensure it is undamaged. They work at the ____ checkpoint in the cell cycle

G1

If the codon is CCA, what is the anticodon and what amino acid will be inserted

GGU, proline

Outline the stages of gene expression from DNA to functional protein

Gene expression occurs in 2 stages: transcription and translation.

Define gene therapy

Gene therapy involves the insertion of genetic material (DNA or RNA) into human cells for the purpose of treating a genetic disorder. The goal is to provide the cells (and thus the individual) with a correct copy of a gene to be expressed by the cell. There are two different forms of gene therapy, depending on where the genetic material is actually introduced into the cells.

Ex Vivo

Gene therapy occurs outside the body.

All viruses have the following two components

Genetic material - the genetic material, which may be in the form of DNA or RNA, contains a relatively small number of genes in comparison to a cell. Capsid - a protein coat that surrounds the genetic material. The capsid may have proteins attached to it, such as tail fibers or spikes, that assist the virus in attaching to the target host cell. Some viruses, such as the influenza virus, possess an envelope that surrounds the capsid. The envelope is actually the remnants of the plasma membrane of the host cell. The envelope works as an attachment point for the virus.

Summarize the process of gene editing

Genome editing targets specific sequences in DNA for editing. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) is most commonly used. Enzyme CAS9, uses an RNA molecule to identify and bind to specific complementary sequences of DNA. PAM regulatory regions help make sure CAS9 has the correct sequence. CRISPR can remove nucleotides, inactivating the gene, or insert new nucleotides, changing the function of the gene. CRISPR has been used in cancer treatments to inactivate cell-cycle control genes that are nonfunctioning. Trials have been successful with genes for fusion proteins, oncogenes that get stuck.

This molecule is composed of four polypeptide chains called _____

Globin(s)

Each of these ______ contains a _______ associated with it

Globin(s), heme group(s)

Facilitated Diffusion

Glucose and other hydrophilic molecules cannot pass directly (diffuse) through the phospholipid (hydrophilic) bi-layer.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is the first step in cellular respiration and occurs in the cytoplasm. Glycolysis splits a glucose molecule, making 2 pyruvate molecules. Some high energy electrons are released and stored in the electron carrier NADH. 2 ATP molecules are built.

Interleukin

Glycoprotein that is involved in regulating the general immune response

Hemoglobin function II

Hb (hemoglobin) + O2 (oxygen) -> HbO2 (oxyhemoglobin). H+ (hydrogen ion) + HCO3- (bicarbonate ion) H2CO3 (carbonic acid) (carbonic anhydrase) H2O (water) + CO2 (carbon dioxide)

Immunotherapy works on the basis of

Helping the body to distinguish "self" cells from "non-self" cells and to destroy only the "nonself" cells

Describe the structure and function of hemoglobin

Hemoglobin is a complex protein that consists of four polypeptide chains, called globins. There are two forms of globins: alpha globin and beta globin.

This causes ______ proteins in red blood cells to form incorrectly, meaning they cannot transport _____

Hemoglobin, oxygen

ATP can be produced by 2 methods

High energy electrons are harvested by carrier molecules and their energy is recovered during the electron transport chain to create ATP.

Infer how cancer may disrupt organ function and body chemistry

Homeostasis is often regulated by negative feedback loops. Cancer disrupts homeostasis by interfering with the body's ability to maintain homeostasis. Tumors take up space in organs and block blood and lymphatic vessels and ducts, so organs cannot function. Tumors require oxygen and nutrients, depriving nearby tissues.

Summarize the importance of homeostasis in a living organism

Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a constant internal environment, including pH, temperature, and blood chemistry.

Embryonic

Homologous structures are also evident during the embryonic development of animals.

Which of the following genotypes would result in a nonfunctional tumor suppressor gene

Homozygous recessive (mm)

Describe the human life cycle

Humans have two copies of each chromosome (diploid, or 2n). During sexual reproduction, the organs of the reproductive system produce gametes (eggs and sperm) that contain only one copy of each chromosome (haploid or n). The process that does this is called meiosis (Figure 3.6).

Stomach

Hydrochloric acid (low pH) destroys bacteria and other pathogens

Codominance

Ia Ib - blood type AB. Ib I - blood type B. Ia I - blood type A. ii - blood type O.

Understand how mutation changes the protein for hemoglobin

If there are mutations, or changes, in the DNA, the gene expression machinery in the cell will manufacture the protein using these instructions. An example of this is sickle-cell disease (Figure 2.17). In sickle-cell disease, a mutation in the beta-globin gene causes the normal glutamine amino acid (Glu) to be replaced by a valine (Val) amino acid.

CT Scan (Computerized Tomography)

Imaging scan that gives a multi-dimension view of organs and can be useful in detecting if cancer is spreading to other organs

List the reasons why sickle-cell disease is a good candidate to study genetic diseases

In sickle-cell disease, also referred to as sickle-cell anemia, a single change in a gene causes the hemoglobin protein in red blood cells to form incorrectly. Thus, prevents it from transporting oxygen to the tissues of the body. The mutated hemoglobin protein causes the red blood cells to form a characteristic sickle-shape, which in turn causes additional complications for individuals with the disease.

The Lysogenic Cycle

In the lysogenic cycle, following penetration into the cell, the viral DNA integrates into the host cell's DNA. Unlike the lytic cycle, the virus remains inactive (or latent). As the host cell divides, the viral DNA is replicated along with the host cell DNA, thus creating new cells that contain the virus. The virus remains latent until some environmental factor signals it to reenter the lytic cycle and begin the process of biosynthesis and maturation. HIV is an example of a virus in humans that used the lysogenic cycle. Scientists have estimated that almost 8% of the human genome is actually viral in nature, and thus evidence of how active the lysogenic cycle has been in our evolutionary history.

Formaldehyde

Inactivates any toxins from the viruses or bacteria that may have been present during production.

Histamine

Increases the permeability of the capillaries and causes fluid to be released into the area of a wound

Genes rarely act _______ but instead act ______ to control these traits

Individually, In groups

Describe the process of natural selection

Individuals vary in their traits. Variation exists in a population for heritable traits. This does not just include physical characteristics based on genetics, such as beak shape, physiology, and color; but also learned behaviors or skills.

Summarize how the influenza virus disrupts the function of the respiratory system

Influenza viruses enter the respiratory system through either the mouth or nose. Often, viruses are picked up on the hands and introduced to the body when we touch our faces or mouth, or handle food. From here, they quickly enter into the respiratory system and travel down the pharynx into the trachea and lungs.

The cell cycle consists of

Interphase (orange) - The majority of the cell's time; normal functions occur - Consists of G1 (growth), S (synthesis), and G2 (growth) phases. M phase (blue) - the portion where cell division occurs; consists of mitosis and cytokinesis.

Summarize how caffeine influences metabolic rate

Is water-soluble, meaning it's rapidly absorbed by the bloodstream. Is fat-soluble, meaning it's able to cross the plasma membrane of cells. Is psychoactive, meaning it can cross into the brain. Blocks adenosine receptors in the brain, reducing drowsiness. Increases metabolic rate, causing more efficiency of energy conversion by cellular respiration pathways. Causes the brain to produce hormones that release fatty acids. Blocks metabolic pathways, causing an increase in blood glucose levels

Summarize the principles by which flu viruses are named

It is important to recognize that there are several different forms of influenza: influenza A, B, C, and D. Of these, influenza A and B are the two most prevalent forms of the virus that infect humans. Influenza viruses are typically named by the World Health Organization (WHO) according to their host (in case it is not human), type (A or B), strain, and year of isolation. If the virus is influenza A, this is followed by a nomenclature on the types of spikes found on the surface of the virus. Influenza B viruses have a lineage designation (either B/Yamagata or B/Victoria) that help identify the history of the virus.

Characteristics of cancer cells

Lack specialization. Become immortal. Appear irregular in shape. Loses function compared to surrounding tissue. Have large dark nuclei.

Plasma

Liquid portion of blood that contains water and dissolved nutrients

Interpret a human pedigree

Males are designated by squares and females by circles. Shaded circles and squares represent individuals expressing the genetic trait of interest. A line between a square and a circle represents a union (such as a marriage), and vertical lines represent the children of that union. Specific individuals in a pedigree may be identified by generation (numbered down the left side).

Release

Many viruses provide an enzyme that interacts with specific molecules in the host cell's membrane to allow the newly formed viruses to escape the host cell.

Summarize the purpose of meiosis in humans

Meiosis is a form of cell division that reduces the chromosome number of the daughter cells from haploid to diploid and introduces variation into the daughter cells. Meiosis consists of two rounds of cell division, and results in the formation of four haploid cells (Figure 3.7). In humans and other animals, these haploid cells will become the egg and sperm cells.

State Mendel's two laws of inheritance

Mendel developed his law of segregation, which states that: Each individual has two factors for each trait and these factors separate (segregate) during the formation of the gametes (meiosis). Each individual has two factors for each trait (meaning it is diploid), but it produces gametes that have only one factor for each trait (haploid). Fertilization produces a new individual with two factors for each trait (diploid).

Genes also control ________ traits, including how the cells in our body should function

Metabolic

Which of the following is true concerning the checkpoints in the cell cycle

Mitosis stops if chromosomes are not properly aligned

Proteins

Monomers - amino acids. Polymers - polypeptides, proteins. Examples - peptides, polypeptides. Food source - beans, meat, milk.

Fats

Monomers - glycerol, fatty acids. Polymers - triglycerides - triglycerides do not form long polymers.

Carbohydrates

Monomers - monosaccharides. Polymers - polysaccharides. Examples - sugars, polysaccharides. Food source - bread, pasta, cereals.

Nucleic acids

Monomers - nucleotides. Polymers - DNA, RNA.

Distinguish between dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions

Monomers are joined into polymers through dehydration synthesis reactions. Polymers are broken down into monomers through hydrolysis reactions. Dehydration synthesis reactions combine monomers to form polymers. The reverse reaction use hydrolysis to break bonds in a polymer, forming monomers. Peptide bonds link amino acids together to form polypeptides.

The Electron Transport Chain

Most ATP is generated in a series of proteins called the ETC. Some of these proteins take high energy electrons from NADH and use them to build a concentration gradient of proteins. As protons move down the concentration gradient trough another proteins, the flow of energy is used to build ATP molecules. Oxygen is the final electron (and proton) acceptor in the chain, which results in the formation of a water molecule H2O.

Respiratory tract

Mucous membranes trap microbes; they contain chemicals that protect against pathogens; cilia

Infer how mutations change the information content of a DNA molecule

Mutations are any changes to the nucleotide sequence of DNA. Mutations can be caused by chemicals (called carcinogens), radiation exposure, or viruses. Mutations may or may not impact protein structure.

Cancer Progression

New mutations arise. A single cell has the ability to start a tumor. Cancer in situ. The tumor is at its place of origin. One cell in the tumor mutates further. Cancer cells now have the ability to invade both lymphatic vessels and blood vessels, allowing them to travel throughout the body. New metastatic tumors are found some distance from the primary tumor

Skin

Normal bacteria (flora) on the surface, along with chemicals released by oil and sweat glands, inhibit bacterial growth

Recognize the relationship between genes and traits

Now most geneticists describe a gene as containing information that produces a product which may include proteins or RNA. In order to be inheritable, a trait must be encoded in the genes of our DNA, and a copy of these genes must be able to be passed onto the next generation of individuals. In humans, this is accomplished by sexual reproduction and the production of gametes: the eggs cells of females and the sperm cells of males.

When proto-oncogenes mutate, they may become ____, which produce proteins that cause unrestricted cell division

Oncogenes

Distinguish between monomers and polymers of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins

Organic nutrients are long chains of smaller molecules. The long chains are called polymers and the smaller components they are built from are called monomers.

Osmosis

Osmosis is the facilitated diffusion of water across a cell membrane towards the side of the membrane towards the side of the membrane that has a higher solute (sugar, salts, dissolved molecules) concentration. (Water always moves to the side of cell membrane where there is more stuff to dissolve (solute)).

Sickle-Cell Disease and The Body

Oxygen concentrations drop because of the reduced ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen. Red blood cells form a sickle shape. Red blood cells block capillaries in alveoli, causing acute chest syndrome. Red blood cells block capiliaries in kidneys, preventing them from filtering the blood properly. Red blood cells clump up and restrict blood flow

The process of _____ uses an automated machine to allow researchers to make multiple copies of genes quickly

PCR

Which molecular tool can be used to make multiple copies of a gene of interest for further study

PCR

Summarize the three (3) methods by which cells move material across the cell membrane without expending energy. What types of molecules are transported by each method?

Passive transport: energy is not required (diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis), moves with/down a concentrated gradient.

Genes control our _______ traits, including eye color, hair color, and finger length

Physical

Malignant Tumor

Possesses the ability to spread. Unspecialized and do not resemble other cells of the tissue. Multiple layers of abnormal cells.

Antibiotics

Prevents bacterial growth during preparation and storage of the vaccine.

Glucuronic acid

Produced as a by-product of the breakdown of glucose in the liver.

Hemoglobin is a _____ molecule that is found in the red blood cells of the circulatory system

Protein

Summarize the main function of proteins in living organisms

Proteins are composed of amino acids. Amino acids consist of a central carbon linked to an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable R group. Proteins are built through dehydration synthesis reactions between amino acids. Peptide bonds link amino acids together to form polypeptides. Peptide bonds are strong, so take more time to digest and are slower to release energy.

Identify how mutations in proto-oncogenes may lead to cancer

Proto-oncogenes speed up the cell cycle. Associated with signaling pathways: growth hormones interact with target cell receptors, proto-oncogenes are activated, cell division is promoted. Proto-oncogenes become oncogenes when mutations caused them to be "stuck" on. Only a single mutation is required for this. Examples associated with breast cancer include ERBB2.

Recall the type of genetic material found in the influenza virus

RNA

Select all of the ways that RNA differs from DNA

RNA is single-stranded, RNA contains uracil, RNA contains ribose sugar

Select all of the following that are shared by all living organisms

RNA, proteins, DNA

Incomplete Dominance

RR - Red, homozygous. RW - Pink, heterozygous. WW - White, homozygous

Which of the following statements best describes the benefits of radiation therapy?

Radiation damages the DNA within cancer cells, either slowing down cell division or stopping it altogether.Radiation therapy can be directed against specific cells and tissues within the body. Radiation therapy may shrink tumors, making them easier to remove surgically. Radiation therapy can be combined with other therapies, including chemotherapy.

Explain the role of hemoglobin in the red blood cell

Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes, are responsible for the exchange of gases in our bodies. Within each red blood cell are up to 250 million hemoglobin molecules. Red blood cells are a unique form of cell in the body in that the mature RBC does not contain a nucleus. The lack of a nucleus, and the presence of so many hemoglobin molecules, give the RBC its characteristic donut shape. When you breathe, air enters the bronchioles of the lungs. These tubes divide into smaller and smaller passageways until they end in a collection of thin-walled sacs called alveoli. It is at the alveoli that the respiratory system exchanges gases with the circulatory system. Blood returning from the tissues of the body is delivered to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries and arterioles. This blood has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide and a lower concentration of oxygen than the air within the alveoli. Due to these concentration differences, the oxygen within the alveoli can diffuse into the red blood cells, and the carbon dioxide within the RBCs can diffuse into the alveoli to be exhaled.

*Which of the following most accurately describes how sickle-cell disease impacts the body

Red blood cells clump up, blocking capillaries within the alveoli, resulting in acute chest syndrome, marked by pain, fever, and shortness of breath*

Checkpoints function to

Regulate the speed at which the cell moves through the cell cycle. Ensure the cell is ready for cell division. If a cell is not ready for cell division, it will be put into G0 phase to attempt to repair its DNA. If that is not possible, the cell may undergo apoptosis.

Egg protein

Remnants from the production of the vaccine. Newer vaccines that do not use eggs during production will not have these proteins present.

Genetics of sickle-cell disease

Results from a single mutation to a gene. Controlled by a single gene. Follows a pattern of recessive inheritance

Stabilizing selection

Selection favors the most common form of variant for the trait, and selects against the extreme variants. In this case, the average individual is most adapted to the environment.

Select all of the following diseases and maladies that are able to be treated with gene therapy

Sickle-cell disease, serve combined immunodeficiency (SCID) and cystic fibrosis

Biogeography

Similarities between species, both alive today and fossil evidence, illustrate how Earth has changed over time. As continents shift some species become isolated on islands with highly specific resources resulting in species with specific adaptions and limited ranges of tolerance. The continents move and shift on tectonic plates over millions of years. Species change as environmental conditions change and become separated as land masses move.

*Duplicated chromosomes result in two sister chromatids that are held together by a centromere. Which of the following statements best describes the location of genes along these sister chromatids

Sister chromatids have identical genes, but different alleles. These are located in the same location on each sister chromatid*

Gelatin, sorbitol, or monosodium glutamate (MSG)

Stabilize the vaccine and protect it from temperature variations during storage.

Stages of Cancer (Breast Cancer)

Stages 0-1 cancer - Tumor is limited to a very small area and only nearby lymph nodes, if any, are involved. Stage 2 - Tumor has become invasive and has grown, but is still located entirely within the breast, lymph nodes may be involved. Stage 3 - Tumor has moved out of the breast tissue, but has not spread to distant organs, lymph nodes are involved. Stage 4 - Cancer has fully metastasized and spread to organs outside the breast, the cancer is incurable.

Analogous structures

Structures that serve the same function, and often may appear the same, but that evolved independently as adaptions to a specific environment. Wings of birds, bats, and insects are examples of analogous structures.

Select all of the following antivirals that are used to combat the flu

Tamiflu, Relenza, Rapivab

Topoisomerase Inhibitors

Target cells during the S phase, disable the topoisomerase enzyme, preventing DNA replication, prevent cell division, either directly or indirectly

Summarize the process of genome editing

The CRISPR system is based on an enzyme called Cas9, which is capable of identifying specific sequences of nucleotides in the virus's DNA, breaking both of the DNA strands, and thus inactivating the virus. Cas9 identifies the specific nucleotides to be cut using a guide RNA molecule that complementary base-pairs to the target DNA sequence (Figure 4.8). To protect the bacteria from Cas9 attacking its own DNA, a sequence of nucleotides called PAM (which is not found in bacterial cells but is found in viruses) needs to be adjacent to the target DNA sequence.

*Once in the respiratory tract, the flu virus targets cells based on specific glycoproteins on their surfaces. How does the virus gain entry into the target cell?

The N spikes of the influenza virus help break down the plasma membrane of a cell, allowing entry of the virus into the cell*

Summarize how the immune system remembers previous pathogens

The adaptive immune response also has the ability to remember past exposures to pathogens. This characteristic is called memory. Some of the activated B cells are held in reserve and not used in the first response to the antigen. Instead, they wait for a future exposure. This is useful because if you are exposed to the same pathogen again - for example, the same influenza virus - the adaptive response can be much faster and more efficient. Memory T cells are also produced by the cell-mediated immunity pathway.

Summarize the series of events in the cell cycle and the location of the major checkpoints

The cell cycle describes the organized series of events required for cell division.

PCR (polymerase chain reaction)

The cellular DNA, usually from a patient's blood sample, is sequenced many times to look for mutations in known cancer-related genes. A genetic test usually used if the person has a family history of cancer.

Summarize the effects of sickle-cell disease on the circulatory system

The circulatory system, shown in Figure 1.12, is responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to all of the cells of your body, and removing waste materials. Altered hemoglobin becomes sticky and clumps together in the RBC, causing the RBCs to form the characteristic sickle shape (see Figure 1.11). In the capillaries of the circulatory system the sickle shape of the RBC can block the capillary and restrict blood flow to the organs and tissues. Because the RBC is responsible for oxygen transport, as the oxygen concentration of the body drops in individuals with sickle-cell disease, a condition called anemia develops.

Summarize the flow of energy through living systems and explain what happens to most of the energy

The flow of energy occurs at the cellular level. Notice that the nutrients are cycled back and forth, but the energy flows into the system and is released as heat. Heat and solar energy go to the chloroplast. CO2 and H20, O2, and chemical energy (carbohydrates) go to mitochondrion. Heat and ATP; chemical work, transport work. Mechanical work.

*Why are new flu vaccinations required for each new flu season?

The flu virus mutates frequently enough that last year's vaccination will no longer target currently circulating flu strains*

Explain the role of MHC markers in the immune system

The glycoproteins involved in identifying self are collectively called major-histocompatibility complexes, or MHCs. There are two different forms of MHC markers in the body - MHC class I markers (MHC-I) are present on every nucleated cell of the body. This is the general "self" identification tag. MHC class II markers (MHC-II) are only present on the immune system cells that provide the link between the nonspecific and specific immune response. Located along the plasma membrane of the cell are glycoproteins that act as identification tags.

List the steps in the process of DNA replication

The helicase enzyme breaks the hydrogen bonds between the complementary paired base nucleotides in each strand. The DNA polymerase enzyme begins to synthesize new strands of DNA using the separated strands as templates. If you remember from Lesson 1, the two strands of DNA are orientated in opposite directions. However, DNA polymerase can only make new DNA strands in one direction. On the leading strand, the DNA polymerase follows directly behind the helicase enzyme. On the lagging strand, the DNA polymerase makes short segments of DNA, called Okazaki fragments, which are then connected together by a DNA ligase enzyme.

Summarize the effects of sickle-cell disease on select organ systems of the body

The immune and lymphatic systems (Figure 1.14) are responsible for protecting the body from foreign pathogens. Like most body systems, anemia has an impact on the ability of the cells and organs of the immune system to perform their function. Individuals with sickle-cell disease are often more prone to infections, such as those from viruses and bacteria.

Identify the types of immune cells that may be used to treat cancer

The immune system functions to identify "self" vs. "non-self" and then target any "non-self" cells for destruction. Immunotherapy involved convincing the body's immune system to identify and eliminate cancer cells as "non-self" instead of "self." Involves identifying atigen differences between "self" and cancer cells. Cancer vaccines use modified viruses to initiate an immune response against cancer cells. Monoclonal antibodies can be created to target specific cancer antigens.

*Mendel crossed pea plants dominant for two different traits (tall and green pods) with pea plants recessive for those same two traits (short and yellow pods). This cross resulted in pea plants that had combinations of all four traits (tall with green pods, tall with yellow pods, short with green pods, and short with yellow pods). Which law of inheritance best describes why this happens

The law of independent assortment*

Describe the non-Mendelian forms of dominance

The phenotype is the result of proteins produced by gene expression (see Module 2, Lesson 2), and that these proteins do not always interact in a purely dominant-recessive fashion. One example is incomplete dominance, where the dominant allele does not completely mask the recessive allele. In familial hypercholesterolemia, individuals who are heterozygous have an intermediate phenotype, a characteristic of incomplete dominance.

Explain why the structure of the plasma membrane makes it semipermeable. (use the structure of phospholipids in your explanation.)

The plasma membrane contains two layers of phospholipids, called a phospholipid bilayer. Phospholipids have a hydrophilic polar head and hydrophobic nonpolar tails. This allows them to align so the tails point in toward each other and the heads point away towards the inside of the cell or its outside environment. The plasma membrane is considered a "fluid-mosaic model" as the phospholipids have the ability to move around and form a mosaic pattern with other components.

The Prep Reactions and the Citric Acid Cycle

The prep reactions and citric acid cycle occur in the mitochondria. All of the bonds in glucose are broken. Carbon and oxygen atoms are released as CO2 (waste). Hydrogen protons and electrons are transferred to the electron carriers: NADH.

Describe the target cells of an influenza virus

The primary targets of the influenza virus are the epithelial cells lining the respiratory system. Epithelial cells form the boundary between the tissues of our bodies and internal environments, such as the respiratory tract and digestive tract.

Antigenic shift

The second mechanism the influenza virus has of evading the immune system - antigenic shift - has greater consequences for humans. In an antigenic shift, two different forms of the virus infect the same cell.

Distinguish between alpha, beta, and gamma radiation

The shorter the wavelength, the more energy present. Radiation therapy uses high-energy gamma rays and X-rays or particles, including alpha and beta particles.

Stage 3

The tumor has been found in at least 4 lymph nodes but has not spread to distant organs

Stage 4

The tumor has fully metastasized and spread to distant organs

Stage 2

The tumor is between 2 and 5 cm but has not spread to any lymph nodes. The cancer is considered invasive, has grown in size, but is still located completely within the organ of origination

Fredrick Griffith

There is a transforming factor that can move information between bacteria.

How do tumor suppressor genes work to prevent the onset of cancer within cells

They synthesize proteins that inhibit the cell cycle and proteins that promote apoptosis

Fossil Evidence

Tiktaalik fossils show an intermediate between fish and tetrapods, archaeopteryx is considered to be a transitional species between reptiles and birds as evidence by fossil records, the remains of ancient whales have legs bones indicating a terrestrial ancestor

Explain the role of transcription in a cell

Transcription coverts the genetic information into an intermediary RNA molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA).

During translation, tRNA carries amino acid to the waiting ribosome to be assembled into a polypeptide chain. Recall what tRNA stands for

Transfer RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Explain the role of translation in a cell

Translation interprets the genetic information, from the mRNA, into the structure of a protein.

Mutations in proto-oncogenes are examples of recessive mutations because it requires both proto-oncogenes to be mutated in order for the mutation to be physically expressed

True

True or False - Flu vaccinations must be made yearly because the strain of flu it protects against will change

True

True or false - the flu virus can originate in animal hosts, including chickens and pigs, and shift to human hosts

True

True or false - to transcribe something is to make an identical copy (i.e., if the original is DNA, the transcribed copy is also DNA)

True

*True or false - in order to generate active immunity, individuals must be exposed to the actual pathogen itself. This is why vaccinations always contain live pathogens

True*

What activates the expression of tumor suppressor genes

Tumor suppressor genes are activated by the presence of signals outside of the cell that bind to receptors on the cell surface, initiating a signal pathway

Identify how mutations in tumor suppressor genes may lead to cancer

Tumor-suppressor genes prevent unregulated cell growth by slowing down the progression of the cell through the cell cycle. Most code for proteins that survey DNA for damage during the G1 checkpoint. Examples associated with breast cancer include p53 and BRCA1.

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase

Used radioactive DNA and proteins to establish DNA as the genetic material.

*During gene therapy, bone marrow stem cells are removed from the individual. What must happen to those cells before they are injected back into the individual

Viruses act as vectors to carry the normal gene into the genome of the stem cells*

Define the term virus

Viruses are basically parasites of our cells. The purpose of a virus is to find a host cell, and then hijack the metabolic machinery of that cell to produce more copies of itself. Viruses need a host cell in order to replicate. Viruses vary in their shape and in the types of cells they infect.

Attachment

Viruses are specific in the types of cells they infect. Therefore, it is possible to target either the molecules on the surface of the host cell that the virus identifies with, or the proteins that the virus uses to attach to the cell.

What are vitamins and how do they influence metabolic processes? (specifically B vitamins)

Vitamins are organic molecules. They act as - coenzymes that assist in chemical reactions (niacin), hormones (vitamin D) - act as cellular signals, antioxidants (vitamin C).

Select all of the following individuals that contributed to our knowledge of DNA

Watson and Crick, Rosalind Franklin, Hersey and Chase

Summarize how hemoglobin is involved in gas exchange

When hemoglobin picks up oxygen, it forms oxyhemoglobin. Hb (hemoglobin) + O2 (oxygen) -> HbO2 (oxyhemoglobin). Carbon dioxide is transported within the interior of the red blood cell as carbonic acid. H- (hydrogen ion) + HCO3 (bicarbonate ion) -> H2CO3 (carbonic acid) - carbonic anhydrase -> H2O (water) + CO2 (carbon dioxide).

Summarize the effects of sickle-cell disease on the respiratory system

When the capillaries surrounding the alveoli become blocked by sickle-shaped RBCs, it can cause a condition known as acute chest syndrome. This is characterized by pain and shortness of breath and is often accompanied by a high fever. Because these conditions also reduce the amount of available oxygen, acute chest syndrome accelerates the problems of anemia, and together with the deformed hemoglobin, this can result in a what is referred to as a sickle crisis, which requires immediate medical attention.

During translation

Within the cytoplasm, mRNA moves to a ribosome. tRNA reads codons (3 nucleotides) of the mRNA. For each codon, the corresponding amino acid is brought to the ribosome by tRNA and assembled. The polypeptide is released and the ribosome and mRNA may be used again.

During transcription

Within the nucleus, RNA polymerase exposes the nucleotide bases of the DNA to be transcribed. A copy of mRNA is made from the DNA strand. Uracil (U) is used instead of thymine (T). mRNA is edited and leaves the nucleus.

Invasive species and ecoystems

a population of beetles are accidently imported to a remote island in a shipment of timber. The beetle begins to infect the trees on the island, damaging them and impacting organisms that relay on those trees

Biopsies

a surgical procedure when tissue is removed from the patient and examined under a microscope to determine if cancerous cells are present

Choose the characteristics that best describe normal cellular function

ability to differentiate, ability to undergo apoptosis, ability to regulate cell division

Large intestine

absorbs water and salt to form feces

Growth factors work as signaling molecules. When they bind to receptors on target cells, they function to

activate proto-oncogenes, stimulating cell division

Caffeine and the body

activates adrenaline neurotransmitters, blocks the brain's ability to recognize adenosine receptors, acts as a stimulant, increases metabolic rate, causes the brain to produce hormones that release fatty acid chains from adipose tissue

Vaccinations generate ______ immunity by exposing individuals to antigens specific to pathogens

active

In autosomal dominant traits, heterozygous have _______ phenotypes

affected

____ are chemotherapeutic drugs, meaning they are used to fight cancer. They integrate into the DNA, usually causing it to break

alkylating agents

Which of the following statements best describe how alkylating agents work as chemotherapy

alkylating agents work to prevent the cell from replicating its genetic material, preventing cell division

Which of the following statements is NOT correct in describing the physiology of the human body

all of the answer choices are correct (groups of organs that collectively work together are called organ systems, different tissues are organized into organs, which perform a specific function within the body, cells with a similar function are organized together into tissues)

Which of the following is possible through the process of genome editing

all of the answer choices are possible through the process of genome editing: the removal and replacement of single nucleotide mutations that can cause disease, the inactivation of disease-causing genes, the removal of disease-causing genes

Which of the following statements best describes the benefits of radiation therapy

all of them - radiation damages the DNA within cancer cells, either slowing down cell division or stopping it altogether, radiation therapy can be directed against specific cells and tissues within the body, radiation therapy may shrink tumors, making them easier to remove surgically, radiation therapy can be combined with other therapies, including chemotherapy.

Biochemical Evidence

all organisms contain DNA/RNA/ATP, Hox genes are highly conserved and found in all animals

Embryonic Evidence

all vertebrates have pharyngeal pouches at some stage of embryonic development, all vertebrates have a tail at some stage of embryonic development

Select all of the following functions of the respiratory system

allow for the diffusion of oxygen into the blood, transport air out of the lungs, transport air into the lungs

Flu vaccines contain ______________ to increase the ability of the immune system to detect the virus

aluminum salts

Select all of the following structures that are part of the respiratory system

alveoli, diaphragm, lungs

Mutations can cause no impact if the resulting __________ is not changed

amino acid

They can also cause impact if the __________ is changed, as it can result in the protein becoming nonfunctional

amino acid

Proteins are composed of amino acids that contain a nitrogen-containing _____ group, a(n) ________ group, and a variable R group

amino, carboxyl

Climate change and extinction

amphibians and reptiles are at an increased risk of extinction because of their susceptibility to pollution in their ecosystem, extinction is occurring at unprecedented rates, thought to be the result of human activities, as ocean acidification occurs members of coral reef communities are at risk of extinction, it is common for organisms to go extinct gradually as environments change, as forests are bulldozed for livestock the risk of extinction of the forest community members increases

Flu vaccines contain ___________ to prevent bacterial growth during vaccine preparation and storage

antibiotics

Small changes to the surface spikes of the influenza virus introduce variation and lead to natural selection. This process is called

antigenic drift

What is the best definition of a mutation

any change in the DNA sequence of an organism

In the thymus gland, any T cell that has the potential to destroy the body's own cells undergoes _______, which destroys the cell

apoptosis

Energy drinks _______ regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

are not

This area ranges from the depths of the oceans to the upper limits of the __________, or the layers of gases that surround and protect the earth

atmosphere

Select the correct order to describe the life cycle of the influenza virus

attachment, fusion and entry, uncoating, reverse transcription, replication, biosynthesis, maturation, release

Cytokines, secreted by helper T cells, function to

attract cells of the immune system, stimulate the cloning of T and B cells, stimulates phagocytosis by cells

In a pedigree for _________ disorders, a child can be unaffected even when both parents are affected

autosomal dominant

In a pedigree for _____________ disorders, a child can be affected when neither parent is affected

autosomal recessive

Recall the inheritance pattern that sickle-cell disease follows

autosomal recessive

The study of the geographical distribution of organisms is called

biogeography

Which of the following are methods used to detect the presence of cancer? Select all that apply

biopsies, blood tests to look at enzymes or nutrient levels, MRIs, CT and PET scans, and mammograms, blood tests to look at blood cell counts

The sum of all locations on earth where life exists is called its

biosphere

Select all of the following organs and parts within the body that can get cancer

blood; soft tissue, including muscles, tendons, and blood vessels; brain; skin; bone

Vitamin B6

breakdown of organic nutrients.

Stomach

breaks down food and mixes it with digestive juices and enzymes

Mouth

breaks down food by mechanical digestion and starts chemical digestion

Lipid (saturated fat)

butter

Blood test

can be useful as a first test when looking cancers related to bone marrow or specific proteins produced by tumors

Lipid (unsaturated fat)

canola oil

A virus is composed of an inner core of either DNA or RNA and a _____ composed of protein subunits

capsid

The ______ of a flu virus contains spikes that are used to create the flu vaccine

capsid

These groups are arranged around a central _____ atom

carbon

This releases _____________ gas as a by-product

carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide dissolves easily in water, forming

carbonic acid

Red blood cells

carry oxygen

The overall main purpose of DNA is to

carry the instructions for making proteins

Angiogenesis contributes to carcinogenesis because it

causes blood vessels to grow into the tumor

The life cycle of a cell as it grows, develops, and divides can be called the

cell cycle

Platelets

cell fragments that function to clot blood

Of the following list, select only those that are known to cause mutations

certain chemicals, such as benzene; ultraviolet radiation from the sun; viruses; x-rays

Disruptive selection

changes in the environment cause the average, or most common, form of variation to be detrimental and favors the variants at the end of the distribution.

Directional selection

changes in the environment direct natural selection to favor the variants at one end of the distribution. This causes a shift in the distribution of the trait over time toward one of the extremes.

The collective term for drugs that aid in the treatment of cancer is

chemotherapy

DNA is compacted and organized into dense, threadlike structures called

chromosomes

In humans, our DNA is organized and packaged into ________ that are located within the nucleus of every cell in our body

chromosomes

In humans, our DNA is organized and packaged into _____________ that are located within the nucleus of every cell in our body

chromosomes

The _______ of a given area refers to its patterns of temperature and rainfall

climate

Other factors that impact ______ include the amount of the sun's energy that strikes that area and its __________, or physical features

climate, topography

All possible _______ of chromosomes are in the gametes produced by meiosis

combinations

During a DNA microarray, cDNA is hybridized with DNA on the microarray. What does hybridization mean

complimentary strands of DNA bled together

Riboflavin

component of FAD coenzyme

Niacin

component of NAD coenzyme (electron carrier)

Carbon dioxide

considered a major contributing gas to the greenhouse effect, produced through natural events like fires and volcanoes but also through the burning of fossil fuels, released from the decomposition of organic matter and from livestock and landfills, trap infrared heat and release it slowly back to the earth, considered a greenhouse gas

Methane

considered a major contributing gas to the greenhouse effect, released from the decomposition of organic matter and from livestock and landfills, trap infrared heat and release it slowly back to the earth, considered a greenhouse gas

The body maintains a relatively ______ internal environment by adjusting its physiological processes

constant

DNA viruses

contains deoxyribonucleic acid as genetic material, incorporates its genetic material into the host cell, includes smallpox, chicken pox, and herpes, and surrounded by a proteinaceous capsid

Pancreas

contains digestive enzymes, produces insulin

RNA Viruses

contains ribonucleic acid as genetic material, requires reverse transciptase to synthesize proteins, include HIV and influenza, more prone to mutations, incorporates its genetic material into the host cell, surrounded by a proteinaceous capsid

Nucleus

contains the genetic information of the cell

Vitamin B12

converstion of fats and proteins to enter cellular respiration pathways.

Mitochondria

converts energy found in nutrients to energy that is usable by the cell

The purpose of PCR is to

create many copies of a segment of targeted DNA sequence in a test tube in a matter of hours.

Additionally, the red blood cells do not form correctly, resulting in a __________ appearance

crescent moon-shaped

Mitochondria have a double membrane. The inner membrane is folded into _____, which increases the surface area for metabolic reactions

cristae

Notice that the by-products of one process are used as the reactants for the other process. This is referred to as the _______ of molecules

cycling

It is actually the _______ of molecules between chloroplasts and mitochondria that allows a ____ of energy from the sun through all living things

cycling, flow

____ T cells are responsible for a cellular response to virus-infected and cancer cells

cytotoxic

The following list describes ways that CRISPR may be used to treat cancer. Which of the following describes immunotherapy instead of CRISPR therapy

cytotoxic T cells may be stimulated, creating an immune response against cancer cells and shrinking tumors.

This causes the pH of oceans to _______ as they become more acidic, and this is called ocean __________

decrease, acidification

White blood cells

defend the body from foreign substances

When enzymes link monomers together, the reaction is called a _____________________ reaction and water is made as a byproduct

dehydration synthesis

A __________ reaction joins the amino acids together, forming a(n) covalent bond called a _______ bone

dehydration, peptide

Individuals with family histories of these cancers can be tested to see if they carry copies of this gene. If the results show a _____ variation, it is associated with breast cancer; if the results show a ____ variation, it either is not believed to be associated with breast cancer

deleterious, polymorphism

Recall that "DNA" stands for

deoxyribonucleic acid

Because of this, energy drinks are classified as ___________________, not as _____

dietary supplements, foods

Lysosome

digests incoming nutrients and worn out cell parts

This is an example of ___________ selection

directional

Groups of two monomers are called _____________ and include _______

disaccharides, maltose

Energy drinks ______ provide energy in the form of carbohydrates. They __ provide energy by interacting with the metabolic pathways that provide energy

do not, do

This disease ______ depend on environmental factors, meaning its inheritance pattern can be easily studied

does not

An allele that makes the expression of an alternate form of that same gene is called a ____ allele

dominant

Select all of the following that describe the structure of a molecule of DNA

double helix, contains a phosphate group, contains four nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine)

DNA

double-stranded, stores genetic information, functions within the nucleus, contains thymine bound to adenine

All of the following are components of natural selection except

during their lifetime, animals acquire characteristics that are passed on to future generations

In humans, meiosis results in the production of

egg and sperm cells

Some flu shots contain ____________ that are leftover from vaccine production

egg protein

Protein

egg whites

Of these ________, 2 reside in the first shell and 4 reside in the second, outermost shell

electrons

To complete its outermost shell, it needs 4 more

electrons

Carbon tends to share these _______ with ______________________, the elements that comprise a majority of living organisms

electrons - C, H, N, O, P, and S

Chemical energy

energy from the bonds in carbohydrates, fats, and proteins

Solar energy

energy from the sun, the source of energy for nearly all life

ATP cycle

energy released during cellular reproduction - ATP - energy for cellular work (e.g., protein synthesis, muscle contraction) - ADP+P

The purpose of checkpoints within the cell cycle is to

ensure that cell division is occurring correctly and regulate how quickly cell division occurs

Factors other than genes that control our traits include ___________ influences

environmental

Once synthesized, proteins can be used for a variety of functions within the cell, including as _______ for digestion or as signaling molecules within the nervous system

enzymes

Within the process of DNA replication, special proteins called _____ are required for any tasks, including unzipping the double strand, adding nucleotides to the growing strand, and sealing gaps in shorter segments of DNA

enzymes

Approximately 2.1 billion years ago the first __________ were thought to have evolved

eukaryotes

The term _________ describes how populations change over time

evolution

Select all of the following functions of the respiratory system

expelling carbon dioxide from the body, bringing oxygen into the body

The use of X-rays or gamma rays to externally target cancer within the body is called

external radiation

The only treatment options for stage 3 cancer are chemotherapy or surgery

false

There are no treatment options available for stage 2 cancers

false

There are no treatment options for stage 4 cancers

false

Treatment options exist only for stage 1 cancer

false

Though all of these _______ somewhat, they do not go beyond a certain range. If they do, _____ results

fluctuate, illness

Flu vaccines contain ____________ to inactive toxins that may be present from viruses or bacteria

formaldehyde

The remains of once living organisms are called

fossils

The production of haploid egg and sperm cells through meiosis is collectively referred to as

gametogenesis

From the following list, select those types of radiation that are used for the treatment of cancer

gamma rays, alpha and beta particles, x-rays

Flu shots contain _______________________ to stabilize the vaccine and keep it shelf stable at varying temperatures

gelatin, sorbitol, or MSG

Genes of interest can also be inserted into bacteria and ______ can also be used to create copies of genes or gene products

gene cloning

The insertion of genetic material into human cells for the treatment of a genetic disorder is called

gene therapy

Blood is drawn and the ______ of interest are copied via techniques including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing

genes

Our ___ control all aspects of our lives, from our physical appearance to the enzymes needed to digest our food to the proteins necessary to transport oxygen

genes

Recall that cancer can have genetic causes, especially if individuals carry one or more _____ that predispose them to cancer

genes

Variations in patterns of nucleotides that are associated with diseases are called _____. They can be used to determine if one carries alleles for a disease

genetic markers

All viruses contain two components - ____________ and a proteinaceous capsid

genetic material

Select all of the following that are outcomes of meiosis

genetically diverse cells, four haploid cells

During mitosis, cells divide to produce

genetically identical cells, two daughter cells

The entire collection of an organelle's genetic material is referred to as its

genome

Stages of cellular respiration

glycolysis (2 ATP) - preparatory reaction (CO2) - citric acid cycle (2 ATP and CO2) - electron transport chain (34 ATP and H2O)

Within the plasma membrane are __________, molecules composed of a sugar attached to a protein. They are responsible for communicating with and recognizing other cells

glycoproteins

Within the plasma membrane are _____________, molecules composed of a sugar attached to a protein. They are responsible for communicating with and recognizing other cells

glycoproteins

It is important to note that because the biosphere is dependent on climate, changes in the climate of one region may have _____________ on the climates of other regions

great impacts

When they are burned, this carbon is released back into the atmosphere, where it acts as a(n)

greenhouse gas

Select all of the following that are characteristics of all living organisms

grow and develop, respond to environmental stimuli, process energy and materials, maintain a constant internal environment

____ are external signals received at a cell's plasma membrane that promote cell division

growth factors

Wind energy

harnesses the energy of the wind to move turbines, creating electrical energy

To begin replication, the enzyme _____ unwraps the double helix, exposing the nitrogenous bases

helicase

Topolsomerase is an enzyme that

helps unwind the two strands of DNA during replication

The _____ contain iron, which readily interacts with _____, allowing hemoglobin molecules to transport this gas to the cells of the body

heme group(s), oxygen

As a result, the resulting _______ protein in misshapen

hemoglobin

This is because both parents could be __________ and each could pass on an unaffected allele to their offspring

heterozygous

This is because both parents could be ___________ and each could pass on an affected allele to their offspring

heterozygous

Simple carbohydrate

high fructose corn syrup

The growth of cells is typically a _____ process

highly controlled

An individual's body chemistry is tightly regulated in order to maintain a constant internal environment, also known as

homeostasis

The body's ability to maintain a constant internal environment is called ___________

homeostasis

gg

homozygous recessive, yellow

Recall that the target cell of a virus that is infected is referred to as its ____ cell

host

The type of organism that viruses infect are called their

host

Global warming and climate change

hurricanes and tornados, extreme precipitation events, heat waves, coastal flooding, severe droughts

Autosomal chromosomes

includes 22 pairs of chromosomes, these traits display no differences between males and females

Sex Chromosomes

includes the X and Y chromosomes, determine if an individual is male or female

A mother with straight hair and a father with curly hair have a child with wavy hair. This is an example of what type of dominance

incomplete

As levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases rise in the atmosphere, global temperature

increase

Energy drinks are beverages that claim to ________ energy levels and mental awareness

increase

Sea levels ________ as sea ice levels and glacier coverage ________

increase, decrease

As a result, carbon dioxide levels have _______ in concentration

increased

The emissions from fossil fuels have _______ since 1995

increased

Over time, the proportion of the favorable trait _________ in the population, and the population becomes ______ to the environment

increases, adapted

Genes rarely act ________ but instead act ________ to control these traits

individually, in groups

The term universal flu vaccine implies

individuals would no longer have to receive yearly vaccines, but instead only one series of vaccines could provide flu protection

The importance of Mendel's work is that it made a connection between observed patterns of _____ and probability

inheritance

Light reactions

inputs include NADP+ and ADP, must occur in the daytime, requires solar energy

Alkylating Agents

integrate into DNA, causing it to break, can have long-term negative impacts, prevent cell division, either directly or indirectly

When radioactive materials are introduced into the body to treat cancer, it is called

internal radiation

Select all of the following types of vaccinations that are available for the influenza virus

intramuscular injection, nasal spray

Recall how the term antigenic is used to describe the influenza virus

it refers to its ability to evade immune system defenses

Select the 2 correct answer choices from the list below. The spindle serves two roles in mitotic cell division

it separates sister chromatids and elongates the cell

There are three major parts within each DNA nucleotide. Of these three, which is responsible for the storage of genetic information

its four nitrogen bases

The genotype of an organism is

its genetic makeup

Cytotoxic T cells

kill virus-infected and cancer cells

The longer the wavelength of a form of radiation, the ____ energy is present

less

These types of molecules are typically used for _________________ and for structural support

long-term storage

When cancer strikes, the body ___ the ability to control this process

loses

Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by

lowering the energy of activation required

Select all of the following that are types of cancer

lymphoma, leukemia, prostate tumor, tumor in breast tissue

*During translation, a polypeptide chain is created using a RNA template. Which of the following components is responsible for bringing amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain

mRNA*

Which of the following cell types are associated with the immune system? Select all that may apply

macrophages, T lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) cells

Glycoproteins that are involved in identifying self are called

major histocompatibility complexes (MHCs)

Small intestine

major organ of digestion and absorption

A tumor that invades surrounding tissue is called a(n)

malignant tumor

Ribosomes

manufactures proteins

The surrounding open spaces within this folded inner membrane is called the

matrix

Which of the following is taken into account when classifying a biome?

mean annual temperature, mean annual rainfall, vegetation, animal species present

During _____, homologous chromosomes separate and each resulting _____ receives one member from each pair of chromosomes

meiosis, gamete

Genes also control __________ traits, including how the cells in our body should function

metabolic

Although cancer may originate in many regions of the body, many patients die from cancerous growth in the lungs, lymph glands, or liver. This is most readily explained as

metastasis occurring more commonly in organs that have a filter effect.

____ are part of the cytoskeleton of the cell. They help compose spindle fibers, which are active during mitosis to pull apart sister chromatids and elongate the cell

microtubules

Facts that support the endosymbiotic theory

mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA, mitochondria and chloroplasts often leave cells - surviving well on their own, mitochondria and chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes, mitochondria are about the same sizes as most bacteria

Stomach

mixes chyme with digestive enzymes for final breakdown; absorbs nutrients

Organic molecules

molecules that contain carbon and hydrogen, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, make up all living organisms, over 5000 examples exist in a single bacterial cell

Inorganic molecules

molecules that do not contain carbon and hydrogen, water and table salt

These ________ join together to form long ________

monomers, polymers

Single monomers are called _______________ and include _______

monosaccharides, glucose

The more closely related two organisms' DNA, the ____ likely it is that they share a common ancestry

more

A predator feeds on fish living on the reef. It is ____ likely to see the orange fish than the yellow fish; so, as a result, the ______ fish are more likely to survive and reproduce

more, yellow

Starch digestion begins in the _____ and protein digestion begins in the _______

mouth, stomach

Osmosis

movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration, passive movement of water, no energy is required

Facilitated transport

movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration, require protein carriers, no energy is required, the way glucose moves across a membrane

Diffusion

movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration, the way oxygen moves across a membrane, no energy is required

Influenza and body systems

muscle fibers break down and fluid accumulates in joints and muscles, cytokine action reduces the action of appetite centers in the brain, cytokine action causes the hypothalamus to increase body temperature, causing fever, fluid accumulates in the lungs, lung tissue becomes inflamed, infected epithelial cells undergo apoptosis

Any of these substances that are known to cause mutations are called____, and when they are known to cause specific forms of cancer, they are called_____

mutagens, carcinogens

Changes to the nucleotide sequence of genes are called

mutations

Which of the following is true about mutations

mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

However, it was less than 1 billion years ago that the first ________________ organisms evolved, meaning that they have existed for less than 20% of Earth's life history

muticellular

This control of the internal environment is called homeostasis, and can be observed through the _____ range of the body's pH, temperature, and blood glucose

narrow

The process that results in changes in a population over time is called

natural selection

Select all of the following that compose a DNA nucleotide

nitrogen-containing base, phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar

In autosomal recessive traits, heterozygotes have ______ phenotypes

normal

Some traits are not passed on to future generations. For example, an individual learns Spanish, and then has children. Their children will not known Spanish unless they are explicitly taught Spanish. These traits are considered to be

not inheritable

Any changes to the ____ sequence of DNA are called mutations

nucleotide

Mutations can change the ___ sequence of DNA, which may result in changes to the resulting ____

nucleotide

Mutations are changes in the sequence of _________ in the DNA of an organism

nucleotides

Once sequenced, the pattern of _______ can be compared to databases to determine if mutations exist

nucleotides

Recall that DNA is a nucleic acid and is composed of monomers called

nucleotides

DNA is found inside the

nucleus

Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is found inside the membrane-bound nucleus in the form of condensed chromosomes

nucleus

Select all of the following organelles that play a role in the synthesis of proteins

nucleus, ribosomes, rough ER

Sickle-cell disease is an inherited disease that is caused by a mutation to ____ gene

one

Male

one X chromosomes and one Y chromosomes

Disruptive Selection

one population of finches occupy different niches and eventually evolve to have different beak sizes, British land snails comprise two very different phenotypes as they are both adapted to different habitats

A small structure within a cell that carries out a particular function for the cell is a(n)

organelle

Cancer is named based on the types of cells or tissues where it

originates

This process requires ______ and carbohydrates, and produces ______________ and water

oxygen, carbon dioxide

Mitochondria use ______ gas and _______ from the food we eat to produce the energy of the cell

oxygen, glucose

The ______ gas is used to completely break down the carbon to carbon bonds in the ______ molecule

oxygen, glucose

Greenhouse gases

ozone, water vapor, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane

Esophagus

passageway where peristalsis pushes food to the stomach

Foreign substances such as bacteria or viruses that enter the body and can cause disease are called

pathogens

A chart of a family's history with regard to a particular trait, in which males are designed by squares and females by circles, is a

pedigree

The appearance of an organism is called its

phenotype

Chloroplasts appear to have been derived from

photosynthetic bacteria

Genes control our _________ traits, including eye color, hair color, and finger length

physical

The type of organism that a virus infects is called its host. Select all of the following that can act as hosts for viruses

plants, humans, bacteria

A technique that uses the enzyme DNA polymerase to produce millions of copies of a particular piece of DNA is called the

polymerase chain reaction

What is the name of the technique used to amplify small amounts of DNA

polymerase chain reaction

Carbohydrates exist as either individual unit called monomers or ______, long chains of monomers bound together

polymers

Groups of three or more monomers are called ____________ and include ______

polysaccharides and include starch

The _________ produces more offspring than the resources of the environment can support, therefore, only certain members survive and _____

population, reproduce.

Organisms within a(n) _________ have heritable _________ that are passed on from generation to generation

population, variations.

Over several generations, the _________ will consist of more ______ fish than _____ fish, due to natural selection

population, yellow, orange

Antimetabolites

prevent cell division, either directly or indirectly, can also be called antibiotics and interfere with enzymes involved in DNA replication or transcription, integrate into DNA, preventing DNA replication

Alkaloids and Taxanes

prevent spindle formation during mitosis, can have long-term negative impacts, prevent spindle formation during mitosis

A ________________ is mounted and memory B and T cells are produced by the immune system

primary response

Golgi apparatus

processes and packages proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates

Liver

processes and stores nutrients

T cells

produce cytotoxic and helper T cells

The mitochondria of cells today were once a type of bacteria that was able to

produce energy in the form of ATP

Liver

produces bile and cholesterol, filters out toxins from blood, regulates blood sugar

The first living organisms were likely ___________ that evolved over 3.5 billion years ago

prokaryotes

Genes that code for proteins that promote the cell cycle and inhibit apoptosis are called

pronto-oncogenes

Nonspecific responses to pathogens

protective or complement proteins, phagocytes and natural killer cells, the inflammatory response, skin and mucous membranes, low stomach pH

Skin

protects the body, helps regulate body temperature

The ____ may have no change, may be abnormally formed, or may be incomplete

protein

Recall that during gene expression, genes are transcribed and translated into _______, so these changes in nucleotide structure may directly impact the _____ that are synthesized

proteins, proteins

Carbon has 6 positively charged ______ and 6 negatively charged ________

protons, electrons

Heart

pumps blood throughout the body

Mitochondria appear to have been derived from

purple bacteria

The movement of energy in the form of waves or particles is called____

radiation

Cancer is a disorder in which some cells have lost the ability to control their

rate of cell division

Transport processes that require energy

receptor-mediated endocytosis, pinocytosis, exocytosis, the sodium-potassium pump, endocytosis, phagocytosis

This causes the characteristic sickle-shape of the ___ blood cells and the other symptoms of the disease, including anemia

red

The role of a ____ is to transport oxygen throughout the body

red blood cell

Sickle-cell disease is called such because misshaped hemoglobin molecules cause _____ to become sickle-shaped in appearance

red blood cells

Which cell type is responsible for carrying oxygen in the body

red blood cells

Hemoglobin functions in ____ cells and carries ____ to all cells of the body

red blood; oxygen

Nitrous oxides

released from agricultural practices like fertilizers and the burning of fossil fuels, trap infrared heat and release it slowly back to the earth, considered a greenhouse gas

Water vapor

released from natural geological processes within the water cycle, trap infrared heat and release it slowly back to the earth, considered a greenhouse gas

Select all of the following that are parts of the human life cycle

reproduction, growth and development, mitosis, meiosis

Impacts of climate change

reptiles, amphibians, and plants are going extinct at increased rates, frequency of drought and heat waves has increased, habitat loss has increased, diseases that were historically tropical are beginning to spread, severity of drought and heat waves has increased

The Calvin cycle

requires high-energy carriers, can occur in the daytime or nighttime, produces carbohydrates, requires chemical energy, reduces carbon dioxide gas

Fossil fuels are _________ of carbon, storing them deep in the ground

reservoirs

*Meiosis is different from mitosis in that meiosis

results in four haploid daughter cells that are genetically diverse, whereas mitosis results in two diploid daughter cells that are genetically identical*

Raises carbon footprint

riding in airplanes instead of driving, converting from geothermal to oil for heating

Carbon can form long chains, branches, or _____ through single, double, or even triple bonds

rings

Often, a second vaccination is required and the body mounts a _________________ that increases the production of memory B and T cells

secondary response

The results of genetic crosses derived from Punnet squares assume that each gamete contains one allele for each trait, which come from Mendel's law of _______, and that collectively the gametes have all possible combinations of alleles, using Mendel's law of __________

segregation, independent assortment

Within the immune system of an individual, ____cells are those that belong within the body and ________ cells are those that are foreign to the body

self, non-self

Because each newly replicated DNA strand consists of a newly synthesized strand and one original strand, it is said to be

semi-conservative

Because all living organisms evolved from a single common ancestor, they are fundamentally _______ in their characteristics

similar

Cancer can impact many locations in the body. For example, melanoma impacts the ___, while lymphomas impact the _____

skin, immune system

Internal radiation therapy

small deposits of radioactive material are placed in the body. Interstitial brachytherapy- seeds placed in direct contact with tumor. Intracavitary brachytherapy - seeds placed in nearby body cavities. Low-dose treatments - seeds are left inside patient after treatment. High-dose treatment - seeds are removed after treatment.

Climate change

snow cover and glaciers decrease, the oceans undergo acidification, extreme weather events increase in frequency, sea levels rise, sea surface temperatures increases, air and land temperatures increase

Chloroplasts are organelles that capture ____________ and use it to convert water and carbon dioxide to carbohydrates

solar energy

Select all of the following diseases and disorders that can be treated through gene therapy

some forms of cancer, sickle-cell disease

Cell specialization refers to the ability of embryonic cells to

specialize and differentiate into any cell within the body

Levels of biological organization

species, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere

When functioning properly, photo-oncogenes tend to ____ the cell cycle

speed up

The ______ on the surface of the influenza virus are responsible for identifying and aiding entry to host cells

spikes

Vaccinations against the flu use viral ______ as the antigen

spikes

Select all of the following body structures that play a role in the immune system

spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, red bone marrow

When constructing a pedigree, _____ are used to represent male and _____ are used to represent female

squares, circles

Gallbladder

stores bile from liver

Homologous structures

structures that are similar because they have been inherited from a common ancestor. The bone structure of the limbs of a mouse, bat, and whale are all similar because these mammals all descended from a common ancestor.

Tumor ____ genes code for proteins that inhibit the cell cycle

suppressor

Lowers carbon footprint

switching from a diet high in meat to a vegetation diet, turning the lights off when you leave the room and using a timer for your hot water heater, converting your home's electricity to solar energy, eating a diet rich in local produce

Endoplasmic reticulum

synthesizes proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates

Lungs

takes in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide

Adaptive immunity

targets specific antigens associated with a pathogen, and also has the ability to remember past responses. Adaptive immunity has the ability to target cells of the body that are infected with the pathogen, while also responding to any pathogens that are free in the blood or interstitial fluid of the body

During DNA replication, each of the original ______ strands act as a template for the resulting ____ strands

template, daughter

Biomes can best be described as

terrestrial ecosystems that are classified based on climate and plant and animal species present

Homeostasis can best be described as

the body's ability to maintain constant internal conditions

Anatomical Evidence

the bone structures of whale fins, bat wings, and human arms are all very similar

Mechanical energy

the energy of position or the position of an object before it moves, includes kinetic energy, includes potential energy

The energy of activation is best described as

the energy threshold that must be reached before a reaction can proceed and products may be formed

Both starch and cellulose are made by stringing together many glucose molecules. However, while starch is easily digested by humans, cellulose is indigestible. The starch polysaccharide has bonds occurring below the sugar rings, while the bonds in cellulose alternate above the ring and below the next ring. How can you explain humans' inability to digest cellulose?

the enzyme that breaks down starch can only fit the specific bond configuration of bonds below the ring

Which choice describes incomplete dominance

the heterozygous individual shows a phenotype between that of an individual homozygotic for either allele

Most viruses undergo one of two life cycles. These include

the lytic cycle, the lysogenic cycle

Water (H2O)

the molecule that is broken apart in the light reaction creating electrons and releases the Oxygen we breathe

ATP

the molecule that transfers energy in cells and powers cellular functions

Select all of the following ways that mutations may impact an individual organism

the mutation may result in changes that are beneficial, there may be no physical differences as a result of the mutation, the mutation may result in changes that are harmful

Which of the following locations could you expect to find epithelial cells in the body

the skin, the lining of the nasal cavity, the lining of the lungs

Naming Flu Viruses

the type (A or B), the viral host, the types of spikes found on it, the year of isolation, the strain

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

this molecule enters the plants via the leaves and is the building block of glucose (carbohydrates)

Photosynthetic bacteria use pigments embedded in their membranes

to derive energy from the sun

Recall the overall function of the immune system

to respond to foreign organisms that invade body systems and cause disease

Place the following structures in order to describe the path oxygen takes as it moves into the lungs for gas exchange. Begin with the trachea

trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

RNA

transcribes and translates genetic information into proteins, contains uracil bound to adenine, single-stranded, functions within the nucleus, as well as the cytoplasm

Select the two main stages of gene expression in cells

transcription and translation

Biotin

transfer of carbon dioxide; fat and amino acid metabolism

Select all of the following functions of the circulatory system

transport hormones and nutrients throughout the body, transport carbon dioxide and wastes away from cells, transport oxygen to cells

Enzymes have no effect on the energy levels of the reactants or products of reactions, only the energy of activation

true

Height and several other traits are controlled by several different genes, each with multiple sets of alleles

true

Cells that pile on top of each other in multiple layers form a

tumor

Which of the following is a gene that normally codes for a protein that suppresses cell division

tumor suppressor gene

Female

two X chromosomes

Recall the overall goal of DNA replication

two strands of DNA that are genetically identical to each other and the original strand

Evolution is considered to be a(n) ________________________, meaning that nearly all aspects of biology can be explained by evolutionary processes

unifying theory of biology

Mammograms

use x-rays to examine breast tissue for cancer

Pantothenic acid

used to make acetyl CoA

External radiation therapy

uses X-rays or gamma rays to target a specific area of the body.

Solar energy

uses panels to harness the sun's energy and convert it to electrical energy

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

uses radio waves and magnets to generate detailed images of the body

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans

uses radioactive tracers to look at the uptake of sugar by cells

Geothermal energy

uses the heat of the earth to power hot water heaters and heat homes

Nuclear energy

uses uranium or other materials to split the nucleus of an atom, releasing large amounts of energy

Sickle-cell disease is caused by a single nucleotide change that results in the synthesis of the amino acid ______ instead of the amino acid _______

valine, glutamine

Mutations result in _______ and can drive natural selection

variation

Stabilizing Selection

very large and very small newborns are more likely to suffer serious health problems, bird clutch sizes consisting of 4-5 eggs are more likely to hatch than larger or smaller clutches

These mutations can be caused by chemicals, radiation, or

viruses

These mutations can be caused by exposure to radiation, chemicals, mistakes in replication, or even infection from

viruses

Complex carbohydrates

whole grain oats

Computerized tomography (CT) scans

x-rays take pictures of organs from different angles and computer assemble them into 3-D models

Select all of the following that differentiate types of influenza virus

year of isolation, their host, type of spikes found