Bio II exam 2

Symplesiomorphies (shared derived) traits of animals

-Eukaryotes -Heterotrophic -locomotion -Multicellular -Internal digestion

dermal tissue in plants

a type of tissue that forms the outer layer of the body and is in contact with the environment; it has a protective function

ground tissue in plants

a type of tissue that performs many functions, including support, storage, secretion, and photosynthesis; may consist of many cell types

Which of the following is not transported within the plant by either the xylem or the phloem? -dissolved minerals -sucrose -hormones -water -starch -mRNA

-mRNA

external leaf structure: megaphylls

in plants, a leaf that has several to many veins connecting it to the vascular cylinder of the stem; most plants have megaphylls

The most diagnostic (i.e. unique) shared derived trait for animals is the presence of -sexual reproduction -multicellularity -a blastula -active movement

-a blastula

plant shoot

the aboveground portions, such as the stem and leaves.

The endodermis is found in the ____ and is used to regulate ______ . -leaf, gas exchange -shoot, plant growth -shoot, photosynthesis -root, water & nutrient transport into the plant

-root, water & nutrient transport into the plant

A plant cell containing 95% water is placed into a 10% salt solution. Is the salt solution hypotonic or hypertonic? Which direction will the water move? -Hypertonic, Into cell -Hypertonic, Out of cell -Hypotonic, Into cell -Hypotonic, Out of cell

-Hypertonic, Out of cell

heterotherms

-Many animals fall in between these extremes and can be considered heterotherms. -Temporal: bats -Regional: bees, tuna, turtles, and penguins

Which factor does not account for the efficiency of gas exchange in fish gills? -Maximized surface area -Maximum path length for diffusion -Countercurrent flow -Increasing pressure gradient

-Maximum path length for diffusion

Which of the following would increase the amount of oxygen diffusing from the lungs into the blood? -An increase in the binding rate of O2 to hemoglobin -A decrease in the partial pressure of O2 in the lungs -An increase in the partial pressure of O2 in the blood -A decrease in the red blood cell count -An increase in the water vapor of air in the lungs

-An increase in the binding rate of O2 to hemoglobin

Which of the following is a potential advantage of introducing asexual reproduction into crop species? -Cultivars would be better able to cope with a rapidly changing environment. -They would have a larger potential genome than inbred crops. -All of the desirable traits of the cultivar would be passed on to offspring. -They would benefit from positive mutations in their DNA

-All of the desirable traits of the cultivar would be passed on to offspring.

how is hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen is affected by pH and temperature

- lowered pH reduces hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen, causing it to release oxygen more readily. -The effect of pH on hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen, known as the Bohr effect or Bohr shift, is the result of H+binding to hemoglobin.

Endosperm tissue of angiosperms has what ploidy level? -n -2n -3n -4n -8n

-3n

At the summit of a high mountain, the atmospheric pressure is 380 mm Hg. If the atmosphere is still composed of 21 percent oxygen, then the partial pressure of oxygen at this altitude is about _____. -80 mm Hg -160 mm Hg -380 mm Hg -760 mm Hg

-80 mm Hg

Xylem transport

-Passive transport -Only move water up

what causes the formation of the eye

Induction between different layers

downside to breathing air

loss of water

Blastocoel

the central cavity of the blastula stage of vertebrate embryos

A second oxygen reserve is found in muscle cells using the oxygen-binding protein ______________. -Myoglobin -Hemocyanin -Oxyhemoglobin -deoxyhemoglobin

-Myoglobin

tissues

-Simple epithelial tissue -Diploblasts (ectoderm and endoderm) -Triploblasts (addition of mesoderm in the middle)

A major disadvantage for O2 exchange in mammal lungs is -One-way air flow -Two-way air flow -Dry surfaces -Positive pressure breathing

-Two-way air flow

Diploblastic

having two germ layers

Apical meristem: primary plant body

the part of a plant consisting of young, soft shoots and roots derived from apical meristem tissues.

what three effect does sperm penetration have on the egg?

- in many animals, the nucleus of the unfertilized egg is not yet haploid because it had not entered or completed meiosis prior to ovulation. Fusion of the sperm plasma membrane then triggers the eggs of these animals to complete meiosis. -triggers movements of the egg cytoplasm. In amphibian embryos, the point of sperm entry is the focal point of cytoplasmic movements in the egg, and these movements ultimately establish the bilateral symmetry of the developing animal. -activation is characterized by a sharp increase in protein synthesis and an increase in metabolic activity in general.Experiments demonstrate that the burst of protein synthesis in an activated egg uses mRNAs that were deposited into the cytoplasm of the egg during oogenesis.

Some flowering plants use wind pollination

-A number of groups of angiosperms are wind-pollinated—a characteristic of early seed plants. Among these groups are oaks, birches, cottonwoods, grasses, sedges, and nettles. The flowers of these plants are small, greenish, and odorless; their corollas are reduced or absent -Such flowers often are grouped together in fairly large numbers and may hang down in tassels that wave about in the wind and shed pollen freely.

Fish: two chamber-pump heart

-A tube with four structures arrays one after the other to form two pumping chambers. -The first two structures—the sinus venosus and atrium—form the first chamber; the second two, the ventricle and conus arteriosus, form the second chamber. The sinus venosus is the first to contract, followed by the atrium, the ventricle, and finally the conus arteriosus. -This simple loop has one serious limitation: in passing through the capillaries in the gills, blood pressure drops significantly. This slows circulation from the gills to the rest of the body and can limit oxygen delivery to tissues.

Which of the following affects stomatal opening and closing? (Can choose more than one) -Abscisic acid levels -Light levels -Water levels -CO2 levels -Temperature

-Abscisic acid levels -Light levels -Water levels -CO2 levels -Temperature

Body cavity (coelom)

-Acoelomate -Pseudocoelomate -Coelomate -Advantage to having a body cavity: space for organs, creates internal chamber for nutrients

Phloem transport

-Active transport -Move water up or down -Phloem also transports plant hormones, environmental signals can result in the rapid translocation of hormones in the plant. -Phloem also carries other molecules, such as sugars, amino acids, organic acids, proteins, and ions.

what were lungs developed in terrestrial animals?

-Air is less supportive than water. The fine membranous lamellae of gills lack structural strength and rely on water for their support. A fish out of water, although awash in oxygen, soon suffocates because its gills collapse into a mass of tissue. Unlike gills, internal air passages such as tracheae and lungs can remain open because the body itself provides the necessary structural support. -Water evaporates. Air is rarely saturated with water vapor, except immediately after a rainstorm. Consequently, terrestrial organisms constantly lose water to the atmosphere. Gills would provide an enormous surface area for water loss, potentially causing dehydration

If a stem is cut, what will occur if the xylem sap is under tension? -Xylem sap will spurt out -Xylem sap will stay at the cut surface -Air will be pulled into the xylem -The cut surface will form bubbles if placed under water

-Air will be pulled into the xylem

ectotherms

-Animals with a relatively low metabolic rate that do not use metabolism to produce heat -tend to have high thermal conductivity and lack insulation.

Apomixis

-Apomixis involves development of diploid embryos -In certain plants, including some citruses, certain grasses (such as Kentucky bluegrass), and dandelions, the embryos in the seeds may be produced asexually from the parent plant. This kind of asexual reproduction is known as apomixis. Seeds produced in this way give rise to individuals that are genetically identical to their parents. -In apomixis, embryos are produced by mitosis rather than fertilization; in contrast, asexual vegetative reproduction occurs from vegetative plant parts. Examples include runners, stolons, rhizomes, suckers, and adventitious plant parts.

Dr. Kinkle's four-year old daughter Sally is having a temper-tantrum in Krogers since he won't buy her Fruit Loops (you know how he is). In a final attempt to get her way, she yells, "I'm gonna hold my breath 'til I die!" What is the primary reason Dr. Kinkle is unconcerned. -It is impossible for Sally to control the contraction of her diaphragm and intercostal muscles since they are made up of smooth muscle. -As Sally holds her breath, the decreasing levels of oxygen in her blood will lead to stimulation of the respiratory control center in her brain. -Sally is too young to hold her breath for more than 30 seconds. -As Sally holds her breath, the increasing levels of carbon dioxide in her blood will lead to stimulation of the respiratory control center in her brain.

-As Sally holds her breath, the increasing levels of carbon dioxide in her blood will lead to stimulation of the respiratory control center in her brain.

coevolution: bees

-Bees initially locate food sources body odor and then orient themselves on the flower or group of flowers by it shape, color,and texture -Flowers that bees characteristically visit are often blue or yellow. Many have stripes or lines of dots that indicate the location of the nectaries, which often occur within the throats of specialized flowers -For example, the time of day when the flowers open may correlate with the time when the bees appear; the mouthparts of the bees may become elongated in relation to tubular flowers; or the bees' pollen-collecting apparatuses may be adapted to the anthers of the plants that they normally visit.

CO2 is more easily transferred into water through respiratory membranes compared to O2 because -CO2 is a smaller molecule than O2. -CO2 moves faster than O2. -CO2 is more soluble in water than O2. -CO2 has a higher surface cohesion than O2. -CO2 is a larger molecule than O2.

-CO2 is more soluble in water than O2.

Body size and insulation

-Changes in body mass have a large effect on metabolic rate. Smaller animals consume much more energy per unit body mass than larger animals. This relationship is summarized in the "mouse to elephant" curve that shows the non proportionality of metabolic rate versus size of mammals. Smaller animals have a much higher metabolic rate per unit body mass relative to larger animals. -For small animals with a high metabolic rate, surface area is also large relative to their volume. In a cold environment, this can be disastrous as they cannot produce enough internal heat to balance conductive loss through their large surface area. Thus, small endotherms in cold environments require significant insulation to maintain their body temperature. The amount of insulation can also vary seasonally and geographically with thicker coats in the north and in winter.

Which of the following would you classify as something other than an animal? -Sponges -Hydra -Jellyfish -Choanoflagellates

-Choanoflagellates

Organisms with a circulating body fluid that is distinct from the fluid that directly surrounds the body's cells are likely to have _____. -an open circulatory system -a closed circulatory system -a gastrovascular cavity -branched tracheae

-a closed circulatory system

Angiosperms undergo double fertilization

-Double fertilization results in two key developments: (1) the fertilization of the egg, and (2) the formation of a nutrient substance called endosperm that nourishes the embryo. -The pollen tube eventually reaches the embryo sac in the ovule. At the entry to the embryo sac, one of the nuclei flanking the egg cell degenerates, and the pollen tube enters that cell. The tip of the pollen tube bursts and releases the two sperm cells. One of the sperm cells fertilizes the egg cell, forming a zygote. The other sperm cell fuses with the two polar nuclei located at the center of the embryo sac, forming the triploid (3x) primary endosperm nucleus. The primary endosperm nucleus eventually develops into the endosperm (food supply).

Which embryonic germ layer has as one of its fates to become brain and nervous system? -Mesoderm -Archenteron -Endoderm -Ectoderm

-Ectoderm

Which of the following statements is not true about endotherms? -Endotherms can regulate their body temperature by producing heat metabolically -Endotherms can regulate their body temperature by mobilizing active mechanisms of heat loss -Endotherms respond to cold by producing heat -Endotherms depend largely on outside sources of heat

-Endotherms depend largely on outside sources of heat

To maintain guard cell turgor, which of the following must occur? -Potassium ions are pumped out. -Energy is constantly expended. -Water exits by osmosis. -Stomata take up oxygen. -Transpiration occurs.

-Energy is constantly expended.

Animals are in the domain -Animalia -Eukaryotes -Protista -Archaea

-Eukaryotes

Which of the following statements about respiratory adaptations is false? -Internalization of respiratory surfaces leads to the need for ventilation -External gills are found only in invertebrates -Some fish ventilate their gills by constantly swimming with their mouth open -In fish, water flows unidirectionally into the mouth, over the gills, and out from under the opercular flaps -Desiccation of the respiratory surface is more likely to occur in lungs than in gills.

-External gills are found only in invertebrates

coevolution: insects other than bees

-Flowers such as phloc, which are visited regularly by butterflies, often have a flat "landings platform" on which butterflies perch. They also tend to have long, slender floral tubes filled with nectar that is accessible to the long, coiled proboscis characteristic of Lepidoptera, the order of insects that includes butterflies and moths. -Flowers such as jimsonweed (Datura stramonium), evening primrose (Oenothera biennis), and others visited regularly by moths are often white, yellow, or some other pale color; they also tend to be heavily scented, making the flowers easy to locate at night

How has the avian lung adapted to the metabolic demands of flight? -Airflow through the avian lung is bidirectional like in mammals. -There is more dead space within the avian lung so that oxygen can be stored for future use. -Countercurrent circulation is present in the avian lung. -Gas exchange occurs during both inhalation and exhalation

-Gas exchange occurs during both inhalation and exhalation

Apical meristems of dicots are at the tips of stems. Apical meristems of grasses are at ground level or slightly below, concealed by the leaves. The leaves also have an intercalary meristem at their bases. What does this mean when considering care of a lawn or soccer field? -If you mow right at ground level, the leaves can keep growing with no problem. -Grass mowed two inches above ground level grows at a slower rate compared to grass mowed three inches above the ground level. -If you mow two inches above ground level, most apical meristems will be cut down. -If you mow two inches above ground level, both the apical and intercalary meristems can keep producing new cells.

-If you mow two inches above ground level, both the apical and intercalary meristems can keep producing new cells.

Fertilization

-In all sexually reproducing animals, the first step in development is the union of male and female gametes, a process called fertilization. -Fertilization in typically external in aquatic animals. In contrast, most terrestrial animals use internal fertilization to provide a non desiccating environment for the gametes -A sperm must penetrate to the plasma membrane of the egg for membrane fusion to occur

Cleavage of eggs with moderate or little yolk

-In eggs that contain moderate to little yolk, cleavage occurs throughout the whole egg -Holoblastic cleavage: process in vertebrate embryos in which the cleavage divisions all occur at the same rate, yielding a uniform cell size in the blastula, complete. Little yolk -This pattern of cleavage is characteristic of invertebrates such as mollusks, annelids, echinoderms, and tunicates, and also of amphibians and mammals.

Which of the following statements about vertebrate circulatory systems is false? -Crocodilians have a four-chambered heart. -In birds and mammals, pressures in the pulmonary circuit are lower than those in the systemic circuit. -The ventricle of turtles, snakes, and lizards is partly divided by a septum. -Amphibians have two atria and one ventricle. -In fishes, blood passes through the gills, returns to the heart, and then is pumped to the body.

-In fishes, blood passes through the gills, returns to the heart, and then is pumped to the body.

Closed circulatory systems

-In the closed circulation of the earthworm, blood pumped from the hearts remains within a system of vessels that returns it to the hearts. All vertebrates also have closed circulatory systems. -Closed circulatory systems move fluids in a loop -In a closed circulatory system, the circulating fluid, bood, is always enclosed within blood vessels that transport it away from and back to the heart. -Some invertebrates, such as cephalopod mollusks and annelids, and all vertebrates have a closed circulatory system

Open circulatory systems

-In the open circulation of an insect, hemolymph is pumped from a tubular heart into cavities in the insect's body; the hemolymph then returns to the blood vessels so that it can be recirculated -Open circulatory systems move fluids in a one-way path -There is no distinction between the circulating fluid and the extracellular fluid of the body tissues. This fluid is thus called hemolymph. -In insects, a muscular tube, or heart, pumps hemolymph through a network of channels and cavities in the body. The fluid then drains back into the central cavity -Found in mollusks and in arthropods

Water tends to move into a cell that has a(n): -high turgor pressure due to cell wall rigidity -high, positive water potential -more negative water potential than its surroundings -low turgor pressure

-more negative water potential than its surroundings

In the cool morning, a desert lizard crawls from its burrow and positions itself on a rock warmed by the mid-morning sun. Which of the following is most likely not one of its responses? -Orientation to the sun to maximize exposure to solar radiation -Increased metabolic heat production -increased physical contact between the warm rock and the relatively cool lizard -Orientation on the rock into more suitable microenvironments to avoid cold air currents

-Increased metabolic heat production

Which of the cells below develop into a human embryo? -Trophoblast -Extraembryonic -Inner cell mass -Blastcoel

-Inner cell mass

Which of the following statements about the umbilical cord is false? -It contains blood vessels from the embryo -It contains blood vessels from the mother -It is derived from the allantois -It joins the placenta and the embryo -It carries nutrients and wastes

-It contains blood vessels from the mother

You find what you believe is a new species of animal. Which of the following characteristics would enable you to argue that it is more closely related to a roundworm than it is to an flatworm? -It has a coelom. -It has no segmentation. -It is shaped like a worm. -It has a mouth and an anus

-It has a coelom.

Why is an open circulatory system less efficient than a closed circulatory system? -It is more difficult to deliver O2 to specific tissues when needed. -There is no heart to pump the blood. -Open circulatory systems lack hemoglobin. -Nutrients cannot be delivered to tissues in an open circulatory system. -All of the above

-It is more difficult to deliver O2 to specific tissues when needed.

In rapidly metabolizing, acidic tissues, how does hemoglobin respond in comparison to its action in less acidic environments? -It releases more O2 -It releases less O2 -It releases more CO2 -It releases less CO2

-It releases more O2

You find a new species of worm and want to classify it. Which of the following lines of evidence would allow you to classify the worm as a nematode and not an annelid? -It is segmented. -It is triploblastic. -It has a coelom. -It sheds its external skeleton to grow

-It sheds its external skeleton to grow

mammal respiratory system

-Mammalian lungs have greatly increased surface area -The lungs of mammals are packed with millions of alveoli,tiny sacs clustered like grapes. This provides each lung with an enormous surface area for gas exchange. Each alveolus is composed of an epithelium only one cell thick, and is surrounded by blood capillaries with walls that are also only one cell layer thick. Thus, the distance d across which gas must diffuse is very small -Inhaled air is taken in through the mouth and nose past the pharynx to the larynx (voice box), where it passes through an opening in the vocal cords, the glottis, into a tube supported by C-shaped rings of cartilage, the trachea (windpipe). The term trachea is used both for the vertebrate windpipe and the respiratory tubes of arthropods, although the structures are obviously not homologous. The mammalian trachea bifurcates into right and left bronchi (singular, bronchus), which enter each lung and further subdivide into bronchioles that deliver the air into the alveoli. -The alveoli are surrounded by an extensive capillary network. All gas exchange between the air and blood takes place across the walls of the alveoli. The branching of bronchioles and the vast number of alveoli combine to increase the respiratory surface area far above that of amphibians or reptiles

Which of the following is not a common adaptation for respiratory gas exchange? -Mechanisms to adjust the temperature of the medium to increase diffusion -Increasing the surface area over which diffusion of gases can occur -Maximizing partial pressure gradients -Minimizing the diffusion path length through an aqueous medium -Countercurrent flow

-Mechanisms to adjust the temperature of the medium to increase diffusion

Which of the following characteristics is not shared by Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya? -Semiconservative replication of DNA -Plasma membranes -Ribosomes -Microtubules

-Microtubules

Which of the following traits is unique to deuterostome animals? -A coelom -Bilateral symmetry -Mouth formation on the end of embryos opposite the blastopore -A nervous system

-Mouth formation on the end of embryos opposite the blastopore

Which of the following is a correct statement about sugar movement in phloem? -Diffusion can account for the observed rates of transport. -Movement can occur both upward and downward in the plant. -Sugar is translocated from sinks to sources. -Only phloem cells with nuclei can perform sugar movement.

-Movement can occur both upward and downward in the plant.

If the O2-binding curves were plotted for the following molecules at the pH levels indicated, with pO2 on the x-axis and % oxyhemoglobin saturation on the y-axis, which curve would be to the left of all the others? -Adult human hemoglobin at pH 7.2 -Fetal human hemoglobin at pH 7.6 -Adult human hemoglobin at pH 7.6 -Myoglobin at pH 7.6

-Myoglobin at pH 7.6

Which of the following is true? -Only eukaryotes have a membrane-bound nucleus -Only eukaryotes have ribosomes -Only bacteria have cell walls -Only bacteria and eukaryotes have a plasma membrane

-Only eukaryotes have a membrane-bound nucleus

Which of the following is not one of the reasons that closed circulatory systems are more efficient than open circulatory systems? -Open systems rely exclusively on simple diffusion for transport, whereas closed systems rely on pumping mechanisms. -Transport within closed systems is more rapid than in open systems. -Blood can easily be directed to specific areas in closed systems, but not in open systems. -Compared to open systems, closed systems operate better under higher pressure.

-Open systems rely exclusively on simple diffusion for transport, whereas closed systems rely on pumping mechanisms.

Outcrossing

-Outcrossing is highly advantageous for plants and for eukaryotic organisms generally -critically important for the adaptation and evolution of all eukaryotic organisms, with a few exceptions. Often, flowers contain both stamens and pistils, which increases the likelihood of self-pollination. One general strategy to promote outcrossing, therefore, is to separate stamens and pistils. Another strategy involves self-incompatibility that prevents self-fertilization.

The widening of a tree trunk is mostly due to the activity of its -apical meristem. -secondary phloem. -vascular cambium. -primary xylem

-vascular cambium.

Which of the following is not a reason oxygen can be exchanged more easily in air than in water? -The oxygen content of air is higher than that of water -Oxygen diffuses more slowly in water than in air -More energy is required to move water than air because water is denser -Oxygen in air is exchanged by active transport, but by diffusion in water

-Oxygen in air is exchanged by active transport, but by diffusion in water

Photosynthesis occurs mostly in ________ cells. -Parenchyma -Sclerenchyma -Collenchyma -Phloem

-Parenchyma

Which of the following cell types is not directly involved in transport, i.e. part of xylem and phloem? -Parenchyma -Vessel elements -Sieve tube elements -Tracheids -Companion cells

-Parenchyma

Which of the following does not function as a site of active cell division? -Shoot apical meristem -Root apical meristem -Parenchyma meristem -Cork cambium

-Parenchyma meristem

how is carbon dioxide transported by the blood?

-Passage into bloodstream. CO2 is transported in three ways: dissolved in plasma, bound to the protein portion of hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate (HCO3−), which forms in red blood cells. -The reaction of CO2 with H2O to form H2CO3 (carbonic acid) is catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in red blood cells. -Removal from bloodstream. When the blood passes through the pulmonary capillaries, these reactions are reversed so that CO2 gas is formed, which is exhaled.

In an environment with an ambient temperature lower than an animal's core body temperature, which of the following would be an inappropriate physiological or behavioral response if the animal needed to eliminate excess body heat? -Wallowing in a pool of water -Preventing blood flow to peripheral vessels -Sweating -Moving to the shade

-Preventing blood flow to peripheral vessels

When submerged, frogs receive most of their O2 from capillaries within the skin. Which of the following structures would contain blood with the highest O2 concentration in a submerged frog that is not able to breathe using its lungs? -Right atrium -Left atrium -Aorta -Ventricle -Pulmonary vein

-Right atrium

The movement of water up the stems of tall plants is least dependent on which of the following factors? -Root pressure -Transpiration -Cohesion of water molecules -Water tension within the xylem

-Root pressure

Which of the following consists of dead cells with thick cells walls, that are primarily used to support the plant? -Parenchyma -Collenchyma -Sclerenchyma -Trienchyma

-Sclerenchyma

Self-pollination

-Self-pollination is favored in stable environments -Occurs among angiosperms, particularly in temperature regions -Most self-pollinating plants have small, relatively inconspicuous flowers that shed pollen directly onto the stigma, sometimes even before the bud opens. -self-pollination is ecologically advantageous under certain circumstances because self-pollinators do not need to be visited by animals to produce seed. As a result, self-pollinated plants expend less energy in producing pollinator attractants and can grow in areas where the kinds of insects or other animals that might visit them are absent or very scarce—as in the Arctic or at high elevations. -In genetic terms, self-pollination produces progenies that are more uniform than those that result from outcrossing. Remember that because meiosis is involved, recombination still takes place, and therefore the offspring will not be identical to the parent. However, such progenies may contain high proportions of individuals well-adapted to particular habitats.

Synapomorphies (shared ancestral) traits of animals

-Specific cell-cell junctions extracellular matrix (e.g. collagen, proteoglycan) -Blastula (most unique) -Hox genes -Electrically excitable cells -These are all important to the evolution of animals because you need all these to hold the cells together to function as a whole.

A trait not common to all animals is -Eukaryotic -Spinal cord -Heterotroph -Multicellular

-Spinal cord

No circulatory system

-Sponges and most cnidarians utilize water from the environment as a circulatory fluid. Sponges pass water through a series of channels in their bodies, and Hydra and other cnidarians circulate water through a gastrovascular cavity. -They circulate water using many incurrent pores and one excurrent pore -The gastrovascular cavity of a hydra (middle panel ) serves as both a digestive and a circulatory system, delivering nutrients directly to the -tissue cells by diffusion from the digestive cavity. The nematode (right panel ) is thin enough that the digestive tract can also be used as a circulatory system. -small/thin/ small surface area ratio

Describe how stomata are opened and closed, and the environmental conditions that trigger these events.

-Stomata open and close to balance H2O and CO2 needs -The rate of transpiration depends on weather conditions, including humidity and the time of day. -Transportation from the leaves decreases at night, when stomata are closed and the vapor pressure gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere is less -During the day, sunlight increases the temperature of the leaf, while transpiration cools the leaf through evaporation

Tracheal systems in arthropods

-The arthropods have no single respiratory organ. The respiratory system of most terrestrial arthropods consists of small, branched cuticle-lined air ducts called tracheae. These trachea, which ultimately branch into very small tracheoles, are a series of tubes that transmit gases throughout the body. Tracheoles are in direct contact with individual cells, and oxygen diffuses directly across the plasma membranes. -Air passes into the trachea by way of specialized openings in the exoskeleton called spiracles, which, in most terrestrial arthropods, can be opened and closed by valves. The ability to prevent water loss by closing the spiracles was a key adaptation that facilitated the invasion of land by arthropods

Cleavage of eggs with large amounts of yolk

-The eggs of reptiles, birds, and some fishes are composed almost entirely of yolk, with a small amount of clear cytoplasm concentrated at one pole -Blastodisc: in the development of birds, a disclike area on the surface of a large, yolky egg that undergoes cleavage and gives rise to the embryo -Cleavage in these eggs is restricted to the blastodisc. The yolk is essentially an inert mass. -Meroblastic cleavage: a type of cleavage in the eggs of reptiles, birds, and some fish. Occurs only on the blastodisc. Incomplete, a lot of yolk -The resulting embryo is not spherical, but rather has the form of a thin cap perched on the yolk.

Adventitious root

referring to a structure arising from an unusual place, such as stems from roots or roots from stems.

Working in an experimental fertility clinic, a researcher removes one cell in an 8-cell stage chimpanzee embryo. What is the likely result? -Both the cell and the blastula will die. -All the cells are already committed and therefore are not viable. -The embryo from which the cell was removed still remains viable and can form a normal chimp. -The single cell will die in the absence of the others. -The result will depend on whether or not fertilization had occurred earlier.

-The embryo from which the cell was removed still remains viable and can form a normal chimp.

What does not normally happen during gastrulation? -Three embryonic germ layers are established -A cavity forms inside the developing embryo that will become the primitive gut -The embryo increases dramatically in size -Embryonic germ layers begin to be committed toward distinct developmental fates -Cell migrations are a prominent feature of this developmental stage

-The embryo increases dramatically in size

Which process makes the water potential in a leaf more negative? -The pressure placed on the leaf by the cuticle -The evaporation of water from within the leaf -The pumping of water into the leaf from the stem -The increased K+ pumped out of guard cells

-The evaporation of water from within the leaf

Gas exchange involves diffusion across membranes

-The external environment in gas exchange is always aqueous -In vertebrates, the gases diffuse into the aqueous layer covering the epithelial cells that line the respiratory organs. The diffusion process is passive, driven only by the difference in O2 and CO2 concentrations on the two sides of the membranes and their relative solubilities in the plasma membrane. For dissolved gases, concentration is usually expressed as pressure.

what is the third and final stage of fertilization?

-The fusion of nuclei restores the diploid state - the haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the haploid egg nucleus to form the diploid nucleus of the zygote. The process involves migration of the two nuclei toward each other along a microtubule-based aster. A centriole that enters the egg cell with the sperm nucleus organizes the microtubule array, which is made from stored tubulin proteins in the egg's cytoplasm. -In mammals, including humans, the nuclei do not actually fuse. Instead sperm and egg nuclear membranes each break down prior to the formation of a new diploid nucleus. A new nuclear membrane forms around the two sets of chromosomes.

frog lungs

-The lungs of amphibians are formed as saclike outpouchings of the gut. Although the internal surface area of these sacs is increased by folds, much less surface area is available for gas exchange in amphibian lungs than in the lungs of other terrestrial vertebrates. Each amphibian lung is connected to the rear of the oral cavity, or pharynx, and the opening to each lung is controlled by a valve, the glottis. -Amphibians force air into their lungs, filling their oral cavity with air, closing their mouth and nostrils, and then elevating the floor of their oral cavity. This pushes air into their lungs in the same way that a pressurized tank of air is used to fill balloons. This is called positive pressure breathing

Which of the following is a correct description of the fate of the germ layers? -The mesoderm gives rise to the notochord. -The endoderm gives rise to the hair follicles. -The ectoderm gives rise to the liver. -The mesoderm gives rise to the lungs

-The mesoderm gives rise to the notochord.

Which of the following statements comparing respiration in fish and in mammals is correct? -The respiratory medium for fish carries more oxygen than the respiratory medium of mammals. -A countercurrent exchange mechanism between the respiratory medium and blood flow is seen in mammals but not in fish. -The movement of the respiratory medium in mammals is bidirectional, but in fish it is unidirectional. -In blood, oxygen is primarily transported by plasma in fish, but by red blood cells in mammals.

-The movement of the respiratory medium in mammals is bidirectional, but in fish it is unidirectional.

A rabbit taken from a meadow near sea level and moved to a meadow high on a mountainside would have some trouble breathing. Why? -The percentage of oxygen in the air at high elevations is lower than at sea level. -The percentage of oxygen in the air at high elevations is higher than at sea level. -The partial pressure of oxygen in the air at high elevations is lower than at sea level. -The partial pressure of oxygen in the air at high elevations is higher than at sea level.

-The partial pressure of oxygen in the air at high elevations is lower than at sea level.

What do all deuterostomes have in common? -Adults are bilaterally symmetrical. -Embryos have pharyngeal pouches that may or may not form gill slits. -All have a spinal column. -The pore (blastopore) formed during gastrulation becomes the anus.

-The pore (blastopore) formed during gastrulation becomes the anus.

induction: Spemann

-The process of induction that Spemann initially discovered appears to be a fundamental mode of development in vertebrates. Inductions between the three primary germ layers—ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm—are referred to as primary inductions. The differentiation of the central nervous system during neurulation by the interaction of dorsal ectoderm and dorsal mesoderm to form the neural tube is an example of primary induction. -Inductions between tissues that have already been specified to develop along a particular developmental pathway are called secondary inductions

birds respiratory system

-The respiratory system of birds is a highly efficient flow-through system -The bird lung channels air through tiny air vessels called parabronchi, where gas exchange occurs. Air flows through the parabronchi in one direction only. This flow is similar to the unidirectional flow of water through a fish gill. -In birds, only fresh air enters the parabronchi of the lung, and the "old" air exits the lung by a different route. The unidirectional flow of air is achieved through the action of anterior and posterior air sacs unique to birds. When these sacs are expanded during inhalation, they take in air, and when they are compressed during exhalation, they push air into and through the lungs. -Respiration in birds occurs in two cycles. Each cycle has an inhalation and exhalation phase—but the air inhaled in one cycle is not exhaled until the second cycle.

Hemoglobin

-a globular protein in vertebrate red blood cells and in the plasma of many invertebrates that carries oxygen and carbon dioxide. Composed of four polypeptide chains and four organic compounds called heme groups. -At the center of each heme group is an atom of iron, which can bind to a molecule of oxygen. -Each hemoglobin molecule can carry up to four molecules of oxygen

internal leaf structure

regulates gas exchange and evaporation

the overall rate of heat transfer depends on a few factors

-These factors include surface area, temperature difference, and specific heat conduction. Taking these in order, the larger the surface area relative to overall mass, the greater the conduction of heat. Thus, small organisms have a relatively larger surface area for their mass, and they gain or lose heat more readily to the surroundings. This can be affected to a small extent by changing posture, and by extending or pulling in the limbs. -Temperature difference is also important; the greater the difference between ambient temperature and body temperature, the greater the heat transfer. The closer an animal's temperature is to the ambient temperature, the less heat is gained or lost. -an animal with high heat conductance tends to have a body temperature close to the ambient temperature. For animals that regulate temperature, surrounding the body with a substance with lower heat conductance has an advantage: It acts as insulation. Insulating substances include such features as feathers, fur, and blubber. For animals that regulate body temperature through behavior, a high heat conductance can maximize heat transfer.

In which way are crocodilians different from other reptiles? -They have open circulation -They have bigger atria -They have lungs but no gills -They have a 4-chambered heart

-They have a 4-chambered heart

Hummingbirds are small birds that require a regular food supply. When hummingbirds are faced with a situation that decreases their food supply, such as a storm, which of the following adaptations would be most useful for the bird to survive such an unpredictable and short-term absence of food resources? -Shivering -Torpor -Hibernation -burrowing into soil

-Torpor

______________ are used for respiration by terrestrial insects. -Gills -Moist skin surfaces -Lungs -Tracheal tubes

-Tracheal tubes

Environmental factors affect transpiration rates

-Transportation rates increase with temperature and wind velocity because water molecules evaporate more quickly -As humidity increases, the water potential difference between the leaf and the atmosphere decreases -On a catastrophic level, when a whole plant wilts because insufficient water is available, the guard cells may lose turgor, and as a result, the stomata may close. Fluctuations in transpiration rate are tempered by opening or closing stomata.

Draw the pathway of water movement from soil, through plants, to the atmosphere

-Water first enters the roots and then moves to the xylem, the innermost vascular tissue of plants. Water rises through the xylem because of a combination of actors, and most of that water exits through the stomata at the leaves. -Aquaporins speed up water movement, but do not change its direction. They are important in maintaining water balance within a cell and in moving water into the xylem -Most of the water absorbed by the plant comes in through the region of the root with root hairs -Transport through the endodermis is selective -Any further passage through the cell walls is blocked by the Casparian strips -Molecules must pass through the plasma membranes and protoplasts of the endodermal cells to reach the xylem -The endodermis controls water and nutrient flow to the xylem to regulate water potential and helps limit leakage of water out of the root

In which of the following conditions do plants close their stomata? (Can choose more than one) -Bright sunlight -Water stress -Low CO2 -Lack of wind

-Water stress

CO2 concentration, light, and temperature also affect stomatal opening.

-When CO2 is high, the guard cells of many plants species close the stomata -Blue light regulates stomatal opening. This helps increase turgor to open the stomata when sunlight increases the evaporative cooling demands. K+ transport against a concentration gradient is promoted by light. Blue light in particular triggers proton (H+) transport, creating a proton gradient that drives the opening of K+ channels. -The stomata may close when the temperature exceeds 34°C and water relations are unfavorable. To ensure sufficient gas exchange, these stomata open when it is dark and the temperature has dropped.

evaporative cooling

-When ambient temperatures rise, many endotherms take advantage of evaporative cooling in the form of sweating or panting. -For evaporative cooling to be effective, the animal must be able to tolerate the loss of water.

Plants can be cloned from isolated cells in the laboratory

-Whole plants can be cloned by regenerating plant cells or tissues on nutrient medium with growth hormones. This is another form of asexual reproduction. Cultured leaf, stem, and root tissues can undergo organogenesis in culture and form roots and shoots. In some cases, individual cells can also give rise to whole plants in culture. -When single plant cells are cultured, wall regeneration takes place. Cell division follows to form a callus, an undifferentiated mass of cells. Once a callus is formed, whole plants can be produced in culture. Whole-plant development can go through an embryonic stage or can start with the formation of a shoot or root.

Countercurrent flow

-Within each lamella, blood flows opposite to the direction of water movement. This arrangement is called countercurrent flow, and it acts to maximize the oxygenation of the blood by maintaining a positive oxygen gradient along the entire pathway for diffusion, increasing Δp in Fick's Law of Diffusion. -Advantage: Countercurrent flow ensures that an oxygen concentration gradient remains between blood and water throughout the length of the gill lamellae. This permits oxygen to continue to diffuse all along the lamellae, so that the blood leaving the gills has nearly as high an oxygen concentration as the water entering the gills.

cleavage pattern of insects

-Yolk-rich eggs -Syncytial blastoderm: multiple mitotic divisions of the nucleus occur in the absence of cytokinesis -Because there are no membranes separating the early embryonic nuclei of insects, gradients of diffusible proteins termed morphogens within the egg's cytoplasm can directly and differentially affect the activity of these embryonic nuclei, and thus the pattern of the early embryo. -The nuclei eventually migrate to the periphery of the egg, where cell membranes form around each nucleus. The resulting cellular blastoderm of an insect has a single layer of cells surrounding a central mass of yolk

An embryo with meroblastic cleavage, extraembryonic membranes, and a primitive streak must be that of _____. -an insect -an amphibian -a bird -a sea urchin

-a bird

Which of the following animals most likely uses the largest percentage of its energy budget for homeostatic regulation? -a marine jelly (an invertebrate) living deep in the ocean -a snake in a tropical forest -a shark swimming in the open ocean -a bird living year round in a desert

-a bird living year round in a desert

You are a physician, and you are seeing a patient who complains of abnormal fatigue during exercise. You find that the immediate problem is a buildup of carbon dioxide in the tissues. What is the most likely cause? -abnormally shaped platelets -abnormal carbonic anhydrase -abnormal hemoglobin -not enough hemoglobin

-abnormal carbonic anhydrase

From earliest to latest, the overall sequence of early development proceeds in which of the following sequences? -first cell division → synthesis of embryo's DNA begins → acrosomal reaction → cortical reaction -cortical reaction → synthesis of embryo's DNA begins → acrosomal reaction → first cell division -cortical reaction → acrosomal reaction → first cell division → synthesis of embryo's DNA begins -acrosomal reaction → cortical reaction → synthesis of embryo's DNA begins → first cell division

-acrosomal reaction → cortical reaction → synthesis of embryo's DNA begins → first cell division

The head of a sperm is capped with an organelle that contains glycoprotein-digesting enzymes. This organelle is the -zona pellucida. -acrosome. -granulosa. -neural cap.

-acrosome.

Multicellularity is a trait that has evolved independently in -animals -plants -fungi -all of the above

-all of the above

Which of these animals uses positive pressure breathing? -amphibians -reptiles -birds -mammals

-amphibians

In all vertebrate animals, development requires _____. -a large supply of yolk -an aqueous environment -extraembryonic membranes -a primitive streak

-an aqueous environment

An animal whose internal temperature rises linearly with increases in ambient temperature is most likely -dead -an ectotherm -an endotherm -a heterotherm -a homeotherm

-an ectotherm

Among these choices, the largest cell involved in frog reproduction is _____. -an egg -a blastomere in the vegetal pole -a blastomere in the animal pole -one of the products of the first cleavage

-an egg

Primary growth in plants originates in -apical meristems. -lateral meristems. -vascular cambium. -cork cambium.

-apical meristems.

Plant meristematic cells _____. -are distributed evenly in all tissues throughout the plant -are undifferentiated cells that produce new cells -increase the surface area of dermal tissue by developing root hairs -subdivide into three distinct cell types named parenchyma, ground meristem, and procambium

-are undifferentiated cells that produce new cells

Arthropods invaded land about 100 million years before vertebrates did so. This most clearly implies that _____. -arthropods evolved before vertebrates did -extant terrestrial arthropods are better adapted to terrestrial life than are extant terrestrial vertebrates -vertebrates evolved from arthropods -arthropods have had more time to coevolve with land plants than have vertebrates

-arthropods have had more time to coevolve with land plants than have vertebrates

Small insects may take a bubble of air underwater when they dive. The bubble can serve as an air tank for some time because -as CO2 increases, the bubble inflates. -as O2 is consumed, air pressure in the bubble decreases. -as O2 is consumed, more O2 diffuses into the bubble. -for each O2 molecule used, a CO2 molecule replaces it.

-as O2 is consumed, more O2 diffuses into the bubble.

The value for Ψ in root tissue was found to be -0.15 MPa. If you take the root tissue and place it in a 0.1 M solution of sucrose (Ψ = -0.23 MPa), the net water flow would _____. -be from the tissue into the sucrose solution -be from the sucrose solution into the tissue -be in both directions and the concentration of water would remain equal -be impossible to determine from the values given here

-be from the tissue into the sucrose solution

Meroblastic cleavage occurs in _____. -sea urchins, but not in humans or birds -humans, but not in sea urchins or birds -birds, but not in sea urchins or humans -both sea urchins and birds, but not in humans

-birds, but not in sea urchins or humans

An oil-water mixture works as an insecticidal spray against mosquitoes and other insects because it _____. -blocks the openings into the tracheal system -interferes with gas exchange across the capillaries -clogs their lungs -prevents gases from leaving the atmosphere

-blocks the openings into the tracheal system

concurrent flow

-blood and water flows in the same direction. -Disadvantage: the concentration difference across the gill lamellae would fall rapidly as the water lost oxygen to the blood, and net diffusion of oxygen would cease when the level of oxygen became the same in the water and in the blood.

If the blastopore dorsal lip is grafted from one frog embryo onto a second embryo, the second dorsal lip will -change the polarity of the adjacent segments. -block gastrulation. -change the developmental fate of the surrounding cells. -change the prospective potency of the surrounding cells.

-change the developmental fate of the surrounding cells.

The period of rapid division in which the embryo does not increase in overall size is called -syngamy. -cleavage. -neurulation. -meiosis.

-cleavage.

Most of the carbon dioxide produced by humans is _____. -converted to bicarbonate ions by an enzyme in red blood cells -bound to hemoglobin -transported in the erythrocytes as carbonic acid -simply dissolved in the plasma

-converted to bicarbonate ions by an enzyme in red blood cells

In plants with only primary growth, the epidermis is not -one cell thick. -the outer protective coating of the plant. -covered by a waxy layer that constitutes the cuticle. -covered with bark.

-covered with bark.

The function of cortical granules is to -create a fertilization envelope -stimulate egg mitosis -determine the ventral surface of embryo -form the blastocoel

-create a fertilization envelope

Which of these structure-function pairs is incorrect? -stomata-regulate gas exchange -trichomes-repel herbivores -cuticle-layer of cells where light reactions occur -guard cells-control stomatal pore size

-cuticle-layer of cells where light reactions occur

Proteins in the egg cytoplasm that play a role in directing embryonic development are called -polar proteins -cytoplasmic determinants -transcription factors -somites

-cytoplasmic determinants -transcription factors

the Spemann organizer

-determines dorsal-ventral axis The renowned German biologist Hans Spemann and his student Hilde Mangold solved this puzzle early in the 20th century. Normally, cells derived from the dorsal lip of the blastopore of a gastrulating amphibian embryo give rise to the notochord. Spemann and Mangold removed cells of the dorsal lip from one embryo and transplanted them to a different location on another embryo. The new location corresponded to that of the animal's future belly. They found that some of the embryos developed two notochords: a normal dorsal one, and a second one along the belly. Moreover, a complete set of dorsal axial structures (e.g., notochord, neural tube, and somites) formed at the ventral transplantation site in most of these embryos.

Which of these actions describes secondary growth? -growth in height -development of fruit -development of leaves and flowers -development of wood and bark

-development of wood and bark

All of the following are features representing blastulation except -each cell is in contact with a different set of neighboring cells. -some blastomeres are larger than the others and thus not equivalent. -differentiation into notochord and the hollow nerve chord takes place. -different blastomeres receive different components of the egg cytoplasm. -some blastomeres may divide slower than others depending on the amount of yolk.

-differentiation into notochord and the hollow nerve chord takes place.

Countercurrent exchange in the fish gill helps to maximize _____. -blood pressure -diffusion -active transport -osmosis

-diffusion

Gas exchange in animals always involves -cellular respiration -breathing movements -active transport of gases -diffusion across membranes

-diffusion across membranes

The archenteron of the developing sea urchin eventually develops into the _____. -blastocoel -heart and lungs -digestive tract -brain and spinal cord

-digestive tract

Unripe fruits protect seeds from predation and early germination. What is the major function of ripe fruits? -attracting pollinators -dispersing seed -releasing nutrients to seeds -keeping the seed hydrated before germination

-dispersing seed

Porifera differ from other animals in that they -do not form true organs -are sessile -have three germ layers -have radial symmetry

-do not form true organs

In humans, identical twins are possible because _____. -cytoplasmic determinants are distributed unevenly in unfertilized eggs -extraembryonic cells interact with the zygote nucleus -early blastomeres can form a complete embryo if isolated -the gray crescent divides the dorsal-ventral axis into new cells

-early blastomeres can form a complete embryo if isolated

Select the incorrectly matched germ layer and its developmental tissue fate. -ectoderm—lining of the digestive tract -ectoderm—epidermis -mesoderm—blood vessels -mesoderm—gonads -endoderm—lining of the respiratory tract

-ectoderm—lining of the digestive tract

Consider the energy budgets for a human, an elephant, a penguin, a mouse, and a snake. The _____ would have the highest total annual energy expenditure, and the _____ would have the highest energy expenditure per unit mass. -elephant; mouse -elephant; human -human; penguin -mouse; snake

-elephant; mouse

If gastrulation was blocked by an environmental toxin, then _____. -cleavage would not occur in the zygote -embryonic germ layers would not form -the blastula would not be formed -the blastopore would form above the gray crescent in the animal pole

-embryonic germ layers would not form

positive feedback

-enhance a change - In a few cases, the body uses positive feedback mechanisms, which push or accentuate a change further in the same direction. In a positive feedback loop, the effector drives the value of the controlled variable even farther from the set point. As a result, systems in which there is positive feedback are highly unstable, analogous to a spark that ignites an explosion. They do not help to maintain homeostasis.

There are advantages and disadvantages to adaptations. Animals that are endothermic are likely to be at the greatest disadvantage in _____. -very cold environments -very hot environments -environments with a constant food source -environments with variable and limited food sources

-environments with variable and limited food sources

What is the main force by which most of the water within xylem vessels moves toward the top of a tree? -active transport of ions into the stele -evaporation of water through stoma -the force of root pressure -osmosis in the root

-evaporation of water through stoma

The only vertebrates in which blood flows directly from respiratory organs to body tissues without first returning to the heart are the _____. -amphibians -fishes -mammals -reptiles

-fishes

Biennial plants

-follow a two-year life cycle. A plant that normally requires two growing seasons to complete its life cycle. Biennials flower in the second year of their lives. -During the first year, biennials store the products of photosynthesis in underground storage organs. During the second year of growth, flowering stems are produced using energy stored in the underground parts of the plant. Certain crop plants, including carrots, cabbage, and beets, are biennials, but these plants generally are harvested for food during their first season, before they flower. They are grown for their leaves or roots, not for their fruits or seeds.

To adjust blood pressure independently in the capillaries of the gas-exchange surface and in the capillaries of the general body circulation, an organism would need a(n) _____. -open circulatory system -Hemocoel -two-chambered heart -four-chambered heart

-four-chambered heart

Plant cells A and B are adjacent to each other. The solute potential (ψS) of cell A is -0.35 MPa, and its pressure potential (ψP) is +0.15 MPa. The solute potential (ψS) of cell B is -0.30 MPa, and its pressure potential (ψP) is +0.05 MPa. In which direction will net water movement occur? -Neither; cells A and B are in equilibrium with each other. -from cell A to cell B -from cell B to cell A

-from cell A to cell B

Angiosperms are the most successful terrestrial plants. Which of the following features is unique to them and helps account for their success? -wind pollination -dominant gametophytes -fruits enclosing seeds -sperm cells without flagella

-fruits enclosing seeds

Bird and fish respiratory systems are similar in that both -employ a countercurrent exchanger. -have air sacs. -function by means of unidirectional flow of the environmental medium over the gas exchange membranes. -consist of tidal flow of air.

-function by means of unidirectional flow of the environmental medium over the gas exchange membranes.

At what stage of animal development do cells first move from the surface of the embryo into the interior, resulting in a two- or three-layered embryo? -zygote formation -blastulation -neurulation -gastrulation -metamorphosis

-gastrulation

Effectors

-generally muscles or glands, and their actions can change the value of the condition in question back toward the set point value -When a deviation in a condition occurs, a message is sent to increase or decrease the activity of particular target organs, termed effectors.

A decrease from pH 7.4 to pH 7.2 causes hemoglobin to _____. -release all bound carbon dioxide molecules -bind more oxygen molecules -serve as a buffer -give up more of its oxygen molecules

-give up more of its oxygen molecules

A high school cross-country runner follows her coach's rule about drinking water regularly and is well hydrated. She overheats, however, and collapses. The paramedics that come to her aid will -have a hard time starting an intravenous line because the blood vessels in her skin are constricted -will have a hard time treating her because she will be shivering violently to regulate her temperature -most likely give her an aspirin to lower her body temperature -have an easy time starting an intravenous line because the blood vessels in her skin are dilated

-have an easy time starting an intravenous line because the blood vessels in her skin are dilated

What is the most likely scenario triggering an increased rate of breathing in humans? -low blood pCO2 -high blood pCO2 -low blood pO2 -high blood pO2

-high blood pCO2

male structures: anther

-in angiosperm flowers, the pollen-bearing portion of a stamen -Anthers contain four microsporangia, which produce microspore mother cells (2x). Microspore mother cells produce microspores (x) through meiotic cell division. The microspores, through mitosis and wall differentiation, become pollen. Inside each pollen grain is a generative cell; this cell later divides to produce two sperm cells.

Gills

-in aquatic animals, a respiratory organ, usually a thin-walled projection from some part of the external body surface, endowed with a rich capillary bed and having a large surface area. They can be simple, as in the papulae of echinoderms, or complex, as in the highly convoluted gills of fish. The great increase in diffusion surface area that gills provide enables aquatic organisms to extract far more oxygen from water than would be possible from their body surface alone. -There are between three and seven gill arches on each side of the fish's head. Each gill arch is composed of two rows of gill filaments, and each gill filament contains thin membranous plates, or lamellae, that project out into the flow of water. Water flows past the lamellae in one direction only.

Translocation

-in plants, the long-distance transport of soluble food molecules (mostly sucrose), which occurs primarily in the sieve tubes of phloem tissue -Glucose molecules are used to make the disaccharide sucrose, which is transported in the phloem. Such studies have shown that sucrose moves both up and down in the phloem.

root system

-in plants, the portion of the plant body that anchors the plant and absorbs ions and water. -Root systems are often extensive, and growing roots can exert great force to move matter as they elongate and expand. Roots evolved later than the shoot system as an adaptation to living on land.

The large amount of yolk in birds' eggs results in -incomplete cleavage -complete cleavage -fewer, smaller cells in vegetal pole -a blastocyst

-incomplete cleavage

What would be the consequences if we were to reverse the direction of water flow over the gills of a fish, moving water inward past the operculum, past the gills, the out the mouth? This reversal of water flow would _____. -reduce efficiency of gas exchange -change the exchange of gases in the body from carbon dioxide out and oxygen in to carbon dioxide in and oxygen out -increase the efficiency of gas exchange

-increase the efficiency of gas exchange

All of the following are major stages of animal development except -cleavage. -fertilization. -inversion. -gastrulation. -organogenesis

-inversion.

In a cool environment, an ectotherm is more likely to survive an extended period of food deprivation than would an equally sized endotherm because the ectotherm _____. -maintains a higher basal metabolic rate -expends more energy per kilogram of body mass than does the endotherm -invests little energy in temperature regulation -has greater insulation on its body surface

-invests little energy in temperature regulation

Mesoderm -is located on the outside of the embryo -gives rise to gut linings -is located between endoderm and ectoderm -is found in the blastula

-is located between endoderm and ectoderm

A two-cycle heart of a bird or a mammal is more efficient than the amphibian heart in all of the following except -it can pump twice as much blood. -it creates a true double circulatory system. -it separates oxygenated and nonoxygenated blood. -it increases the speed of the blood through the lungs. -it exchanges gases by mixing aerated and nonaerated blood.

-it exchanges gases by mixing aerated and nonaerated blood.

negative feedback

-keeps values within a range -a homeostatic control mechanism whereby an increase in some substance or activity inhibits the process leading to the increase; also known as feedback inhibition -Physiologically, this requires the ability to detect both internal and external conditions using sensors that may be cells or membrane receptors. If conditions deviate too far from a set point, biochemical reactions are initiated to change conditions back toward the set point.

In a developing frog embryo, most of the yolk is _____. -located near the animal pole -located near the vegetal pole -found within the cleavage furrow -distributed equally throughout the embryo

-located near the vegetal pole

Most of the water taken up by a plant is _____. -used as a solvent -used as a hydrogen source in -photosynthesis -lost during transpiration -used to keep cells turgid

-lost during transpiration

When the body's blood glucose level rises, the pancreas secretes insulin and, as a result, the blood glucose level declines. When the blood glucose level is low, the pancreas secretes glucagon and, as a result, the blood glucose level rises. Such regulation of the blood glucose level is the result of _____. -catalytic feedback -positive feedback -negative feedback -protein-protein interactions

-negative feedback

All other terrestrial vertebrates except amphibians breathe by expanding their lungs and thereby creating a -negative pressure within the lungs. -positive pressure within the lungs. -neutral pressure within the lungs. -countercurrent pressure within the lungs.

-negative pressure within the lungs.

The vast number and variety of flower species is probably related to various kinds of _____. -seed dispersal agents -pollinators -herbivores -climatic conditions

-pollinators

The rate at which a gas diffuses between two locations is _______ the surface area involved. -unrelated to -positively related to -the square root of -negatively related to

-positively related to

Symmetry

-refers to the correspondence in size, form, and arrangement of parts on opposite sides of a plane, line, or point; regularity of form or arrangement in terms of reciprocal, or corresponding parts -Asymmetrical -Radial -Bilateral --Advantages: cephalization (having a head)

In response to a 10°C rise in environmental temperature, an endotherm's body temperature will -rise at a constant rate -fall at a constant rate -remain relatively constant -fall to a point, then become stable double

-remain relatively constant

Most of the water absorbed by the plant enters through the -root apical meristem. -root cap. -root hairs. -stomata.

-root hairs.

The most compelling evidence that the choanoflagellates give rise to animals is -similarity in DNA sequences -that they are segmented -that they are multicellular -that they are not ancestral, i.e. animals are a polyphyletic group

-similarity in DNA sequences

After gastrulation, mesodermal cells contribute to the developing -brain -skeletal system and muscles -inner lining of gut -nerves

-skeletal system and muscles

The main source of water necessary for photosynthesis to occur in the leaf mesophyll is _____. -soil via the xylem -soil via the phloem -the atmosphere through the stomata -the atmosphere through the cuticle

-soil via the xylem

The __________ eventually develop into vertebrae, ribs, and muscles and are found along the sides of the __________. -somites; notochord -neural tube cells; notochord -blastopore cells; dorsal lip -neural crest cells; dorsal lip

-somites; notochord

Most of the water that evaporates from leaves passes out through the -cuticle. -ends of xylem vessels. -spaces between epidermal cells. -stomata.

-stomata.

The terms "acoelomate," "pseudocoelomate," and "coelomate" are used to describe -cephalization -origin of the blastopore -ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm -the body cavity of animals

-the body cavity of animals

A water molecule could move all the way through a plant from soil to root to leaf to air and pass through a living cell only once. This living cell would be a part of which structure? -a guard cell -the root epidermis -the endodermis -the root cortex

-the endodermis

The primitive streak in a bird is the functional equivalent of _____. -the lip of the blastopore in the frog -the archenteron in a frog -the notochord in a mammal -neural crest cells in a mammal

-the lip of the blastopore in the frog

where is the respiratory control center located?

-the medulla oblongata -Neurons of the medulla oblongata must be responsive to changes in blood PO2 and PCO2 in order to maintain homeostasis. The rise/fall in blood carbon dioxide, as indicated by a rise in PCO2, is the primary initiator, rather than the rise/fall in oxygen levels. -

Carbon dioxide levels in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid affect pH. This enables the organism to sense a disturbance in gas levels as _____. -the brain directly measures and monitors oxygen levels and causes breathing changes accordingly -the medulla oblongata, which is in contact with cerebrospinal fluid, monitors pH and uses this measure to control breathing -the brain alters the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid to force the animal to retain more or less carbon dioxide -stretch receptors in the lungs cause the medulla oblongata to speed up or slow breathing

-the medulla oblongata, which is in contact with cerebrospinal fluid, monitors pH and uses this measure to control breathing

Plasmolysis

-the shrinking of a plant cell in a hypertonic solution such that it pulls away from the cell wall -If the cell loses too much water it will die. Even a tiny change in cell volume causes large changes in turgor pressure. Then the turgor pressure falls to zero, most plants will wilt.

Most often, the largest gradient in water potential is between -the water potential inside the leaf and the water potential outside the plant. -xylem and root hairs. -leaf cells and the intracellular spaces inside the leaves. -roots and soil water.

-the water potential inside the leaf and the water potential outside the plant.

Endotherms

-they can maintain relatively constant body temperatures independent of the environmental temperature. In humans, when the blood temperature exceeds 37°C (98.6°F), neurons in a part of the brain called the Hypothalamus detect the temperature change. Acting through the control of motor neurons, the hypothalamus responds by promoting the dissipation of heat through sweating, dilation of blood vessels in the skin, and other mechanisms. These responses tend to counteract the rise in body temperature. -Mammals and birds -tend to have a lower thermal conductivity due to insulating mechanisms

Water moves through a plant by each of the following methods except -through the Casparian strip. -through the spaces between cells. -through xylem. -from cell to cell across plasma membranes.

-through the Casparian strip.

In mammals, the embryonic cells form an inner cell mass that will become the body of the embryo, and a layer of surrounding cells called the _________, which becomes part of the placenta. -blastocoel -yolk -blastodisc -trophoblast

-trophoblast

Which of the following events would be predicted by the Bohr shift effect as the amount of carbon dioxide released from your tissues into the blood capillaries increases? The amount of oxygen in _____. -arterial blood would increase -arterial blood would decrease -venous blood would increase -venous blood would decrease

-venous blood would decrease

cleavage pattern of mammals

-very little yolk -Because cleavage is not impeded by yolk in mammalian eggs, it is holoblastic, forming a structure called a blastocyst, in which a single layer of cells surrounds a central fluid-filled blastocoel. In addition, an inner cell mass (ICM) is located at one pole of the blastocoel cavity. The ICM is similar to the blastodisc of reptiles and birds, and it goes on to form the developing embryo. -The outer layer of cells, called the trophoblast, is similar to the cells that form the membranes underlying the tough outer shell of the reptilian egg. These cells have changed during the course of mammalian evolution to carry out a very different function: Part of the trophoblast enters the maternal endometrium (the epithelial lining of the uterus) and contributes to the placenta, the organ that permits exchanges between the fetal and maternal blood supplies. -In contrast, mammals exhibit highly regulative development, in which early blastomeres do not appear to be committed to a particular fate. For example, if a blastomere is removed from an early eight-cell stage human embryo (as is done in the process of preimplantation genetic diagnosis), the remaining seven cells of the embryo will "regulate" and develop into a complete individual if implanted into the uterus of a woman.

Countercurrent exchange is evident in the flow of _____. -water across the gills of a fish and the blood within those gills -blood in the dorsal vessel of an insect and that of air within its tracheae -air within the primary bronchi of a human and the blood within the pulmonary veins -water across the skin of a frog and the blood flow within the ventricle of its heart

-water across the gills of a fish and the blood within those gills

Leaves

-which are initiated as primordia by the apical meristems, are vital to life as we know it. They are the principal sites of photosynthesis on land, providing the base of the food chain. -Because leaves are crucial to a plant, features such as their arrangement, form, size, and internal structure are highly significant and can differ greatly. Different patterns have adaptive value in different environments.

Which of the following would increase the rate of heat exchange between an animal and its environment? -feathers or fur -Vasoconstriction -wind blowing across the body surface -blubber or fat layer

-wind blowing across the body surface

The cleavage pattern is influenced by the amount of __________ and its distribution in the egg. -albumen -yolk -shell -mRNA

-yolk

In mammals there are enzymes located in the acrosome that enables a sperm to tunnel its way through the -blastula to the egg's plasma membrane -zona pellucida to the egg's plasma membrane -archenteron to the egg's plasma membrane -chorion to the egg's plasma membrane.

-zona pellucida to the egg's plasma membrane

Arrange the following five events in an order that explains the mass flow of materials in the phloem. 1. Water diffuses into the sieve tubes. 2. Leaf cells produce sugar by photosynthesis. 3. Solutes are actively transported into sieve tubes. 4. Sugar is transported from cell to cell in the leaf. 5. Sugar moves down the stem.

2, 4, 3, 1, 5

Place the following developmental events in their proper chronological sequence: (1) formation of the neural tube, (2) movement of neural folds, and (3) thickening of neural ectoderm

3, 2, 1

A birdhouse is nailed into a tree 6 feet up from the ground. If the tree grows about 2 feet taller each year, where will the birdhouse be 25 years later?

6 feet

the neural crest

A band of cells called the neural crest. These cells develop along the borders of the ectoderm where the neural tube pinches off. These band of cells migrate pinch off and migrate to many parts of the embryo forming different tissue that include peripheral nerves as well as parts of the teeth and skull bones.

Which of the following would be least likely to affect osmosis in plants? -A difference in solute concentrations -Receptor proteins in the membrane -Aquaporins -A difference in water potential

A difference in solute concentrations

sclerenchyma cells: lignin

A highly branched polymer that makes plant cell walls more rigid; an important component of wood. Make up secondary cell walls of sclerenchyma cells.

acrsome

A saclike organelle positioned between the plasma membrane and the nucleus of the sperm head. The acrosome contains digestive enzymes, which are released by the process of exocytosis when a sperm reaches the outer layers of the egg. These enzymes create a hole in the protective layers, enabling the sperm to tunnel its way through to the egg's plasma membrane.

Myoglobin

A second oxygen reserve is available in myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule found in muscle cells. Myoglobin is composed of a single polypeptide chain with an iron atom that can bind to an O2 molecule. Myoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin, which means that when oxygen levels fall in muscle cells, myoglobin will contain oxygen after the hemoglobin supplies have been exhausted. Deep sea-diving mammals, such as the elephant seal in, are able to stay underwater for long periods in part because of the high levels of oxygen stored in the myoglobin in their muscles.

A human blastomere is _____. A) an embryonic cell that is smaller than the ovum or egg B) an embryonic structure that includes a fluid-filled cavity C) that part of the acrosome that opens the egg's membrane D) a cell that contains a (degenerating) second polar body

A) an embryonic cell that is smaller than the ovum or egg

An organism that exhibits cephalization probably also _____. A) is bilaterally symmetrical B) has a coelom C) is segmented D) is diploblastic

A) is bilaterally symmetrical

In a newly fertilized egg, the vitelline layer _____. A) lifts away from the egg and hardens to form a fertilization envelope B) secretes hormones that enhance steroidogenesis by the ovary C) reduces the loss of water from the egg and prevents desiccation D) provides most of the nutrients used by the zygote

A) lifts away from the egg and hardens to form a fertilization envelope

Water potential is generally most negative in which of the following parts of a plant? A) mesophyll cells of the leaf B) xylem vessels in leaves C) xylem vessels in roots D) cells of the root cortex

A) mesophyll cells of the leaf

Which tissue type, or organ, is NOT correctly matched with its germ layer tissue? A) nervous — mesoderm B) muscular — mesoderm C) stomach — endoderm D) skin — ectoderm

A) nervous — mesoderm

The vegetal pole of a frog zygote differs from the animal pole in that _____. A) the vegetal pole has a higher concentration of yolk B) the blastomeres originate only in the vegetal pole C) the vegetal pole cells undergo mitosis, but not cytokinesis D) the polar bodies bud from this region

A) the vegetal pole has a higher concentration of yolk

Segmentation

Advantages: specialization

how does membrane fusion activates the egg

After ovulation, the egg remains in a quiescent state until fusion of the sperm and egg membranes triggers reactivation of the egg's metabolism. In most species, there is a dramatic increase in the levels of free intracellular Ca2+ ions in the egg shortly after the sperm makes contact with the egg's plasma membrane. This increase is due to release of Ca2+ from internal, membrane-bounded organelles, starting at the point of sperm entry and traversing across the egg.

Evaporation

All substances have a heat of vaporization—that is, the amount of energy needed to change them from a liquid to a gas phase. Water has a high heat of vaporization, and many animals use this attribute of water as a source of cooling.

morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4)

All the prospective mesoderm in a frog embryo expresses bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4). Cells with receptors for BMP4 have the potential to develop into mesodermal derivatives, but their specific fate depends on the amount of BMP bound by receptors. Cells that bind more BMP4 will adopt a more ventral mesodermal fate.

how does the Spemann organizer work?

An organizer is a cluster of cells that release diffusible signal molecules, which can convey positional information to other cells. Spemann's transplantation experiments demonstrated how organizers can have a profound influence on the development of surrounding tissues. Working as signal beacons, they inform surrounding cells of their distance from the organizer. The closer a particular cell is to an organizer, the higher the concentration of the signal molecule (morphogen) it experiences. Organizers and the diffusible morphogens that they release are thought to be part of a widespread mechanism for determining relative position and cell fates during vertebrate development.

Turgor pressure in guard cells cause stomata to open and close

As solute concentration increases, water potential decrease in the guard cells, and water enters osmotically, as a result, these cells accumulate water and become turgid, opening the stomata.

Organisms with a circulating body fluid that is distinct from the fluid that directly surrounds the body's cells are likely to have _____. A) an open circulatory system B) a closed circulatory system C) a gastrovascular cavity D) branched tracheae

B) a closed circulatory system

A researcher is trying to construct a molecular-based phylogeny of the entire animal kingdom. Assuming that none of the following genes is absolutely conserved, which of the following would be the best choice on which to base the phylogeny? A) genes involved in chitin synthesis B) collagen genes C) glycolysis and Kreb's cycle genes D) genes involved in eye-lens synthesis

B) collagen genes

The embryonic precursor to the human spinal cord is the _____. A) notochord B) neural tube C) mesoderm D) archenteron

B) neural tube

The vast number and variety of flower species is probably related to various kinds of _____. A) seed dispersal agents B) pollinators C) herbivores D) climatic conditions

B) pollinators

The most efficient lungs are found in which of the terrestrial vertebrates listed below? Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals Insects Fish

Birds

brachial chambers of gills

Brachial chambers protect gills of some invertebrates Some aquatic animals evolved specialized branchial chambers, which provide a means of pumping water past stationary gills.

Which of the following is a potential advantage of introducing asexual reproduction into crop species? A) Cultivars would be better able to cope with a rapidly changing environment. B) They would have a larger potential genome than inbred crops. C) All of the desirable traits of the cultivar would be passed on to offspring. D) They would benefit from positive mutations in their DNA.

C) All of the desirable traits of the cultivar would be passed on to offspring.

One important difference between the anatomy of roots and the anatomy of leaves is that _____. A) only leaves have phloem and only roots have xylem B) root cells have cell walls and leaf cells do not C) a waxy cuticle covers leaves but is absent from roots D) vascular tissue is found in roots but is absent from leaves

C) a waxy cuticle covers leaves but is absent from roots

During most daily activities, the human respiration rate is most closely linked to the blood levels of _____. A) nitrogen B) oxygen C) carbon dioxide D) carbon monoxide

C) carbon dioxide

Which of the following correctly displays the sequence of developmental milestones? A) blastula → gastrula → cleavage B) cleavage → gastrula → blastula C) cleavage → blastula → gastrula D) gastrula → blastula → cleavage

C) cleavage → blastula → gastrula

As cleavage continues during frog development, the size of the blastomeres _____. A) increases as the number of the blastomeres decreases B) increases as the number of the blastomeres increases C) decreases as the number of the blastomeres increases D) decreases as the number of the blastomeres decreases

C) decreases as the number of the blastomeres increases

In a cool environment, an ectotherm is more likely to survive an extended period of food deprivation than would an equally sized endotherm because the ectotherm _____. A) maintains a higher basal metabolic rate B) expends more energy per kilogram of body mass than does the endotherm C) invests little energy in temperature regulation D) has greater insulation on its body surface

C) invests little energy in temperature regulation

cranial neural crest cells

Cranial neural crest cells contribute significantly to development of the skeletal and connective tissues of the face and skull, as well as differentiating into nerve and glial cells of the nervous system, and melanocyte pigment cells. Changes in the placement of cranial neural crest cells during development have led to the evolution of the great complexity and variety of vertebrate heads.

In examining an unknown animal species during its embryonic development, how can you be sure what you are looking at is a protostome and not a deuterostome? A) There is evidence of cephalization. B) The animal is triploblastic. C) The animal is clearly bilaterally symmetrical. D) You see a mouth, but not an anus.

D) You see a mouth, but not an anus.

In plant roots, the Casparian strip _____. A) aids in the uptake of nutrients B) provides energy for the active transport of minerals into the stele from the cortex C) ensures that all minerals are absorbed from the soil in equal amounts D) ensures that all water and dissolved substances must pass through a cell membrane before entering the stele

D) ensures that all water and dissolved substances must pass through a cell membrane before entering the stele

The panting responses that are observed in overheated birds and mammals dissipate excess heat by _____. A) countercurrent exchange B) acclimation C) vasoconstriction D) evaporation

D) evaporation

The pattern of embryonic development in which only the cells lacking yolk subsequently undergo cleavage is called _____. A) holoblastic development, which is typical of mammals B) meroblastic development, which is typical of humans C) holoblastic development, which is typical of amphibians D) meroblastic development, which is typical of birds

D) meroblastic development, which is typical of birds

Which of the following cells transport sugars over long distances? A) parenchyma cells B) sclerenchyma cells C) tracheids and vessel elements D) sieve-tube elements

D) sieve-tube elements

Why are mosses so small? A. They have underdeveloped stomata. B. They are seedless. C. They lack a cuticle. D. They lack xylem.

D. They lack xylem.

Blood flow through the heart

Deoxygenated blood travels in the pulmonary circuit from the right atrium into the right ventricle and then to the lungs; it returns to the left atrium. Oxygenated blood travels in the systemic circuit from the left atrium into the left ventricle and then to the body; it returns to the right atrium.

Embryo sac formation

Eggs develop in the ovules of the angiosperm flower. Within each ovule is a megaspore mother cell. Just as in pollen production, the megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid megaspores. In most plants, however, only one of these megaspores survives; the rest are absorbed by the ovule. The lone remaining megaspore enlarges and undergoes repeated mitotic divisions to produce eight haploid nuclei that are enclosed within a seven celled embryo sac.

Torpor

Endotherms can also reduce both metabolic rate and body temperature to produce a state of dormancy called torpor.Torpor allows an animal to reduce the need for food intake by reducing metabolism. Some birds, such as the hummingbird, allow their body temperature to drop as much as 25°C at night. This strategy is found in smaller endotherms; larger mammals have too large a mass to allow rapid cooling.

problems once animals moved to land

Gas exchange, gravity, desiccation, reproduction, food capture, and locomotion were all problems encountered once animals moved to land.

hemoglobin structure

Hemoglobin consists of four polypeptide chains: two α chains (blue) and two β chains (gold). Each chain is associated with a heme group (white),and each heme group has a central iron atom (red ball), which can bind to a molecule of O2.

Hensen's node functions similarly to the dorsal lip of the blastopore

Hensen's node induces a second axis when transplanted to another area of a chick embryo. Studies have shown that cells of Hensen's node act like the Spemann organizer, secreting molecules that inhibit ventral development. These molecules are the same as those found in frog embryos. Therefore, these experiments once again illustrate the evolutionary conservation of particular genes in animal development.

hibernation

Hibernation is an extreme state in which deep torpor lasts for several weeks or even several months. In this case, the animal's temperature may drop as much as 20°C below its normal set point for an extended period of time. The animals that practice hibernation seem to be in the midrange of size; smaller endotherms quickly consume more energy than they can easily store, even by reducing their metabolic rate.

Vegetative reproduction: adventitious plantlets

In a few plant species, even the leaves are reproductive. The common names of this plant are based on the fact that numerous plantlets arise from meristematic tissue located in notches along the leaves. The maternity plant is ordinarily propagated by means of these small plants, which, when they mature, drop to the soil and take root.

dioecious

In a number of species—for example, willows and some mulberries—staminate and pistillate flowers may occur on separate plants. Such plants, which produce only ovules or only pollen, are called dioecious, meaning "two houses." These plants clearly cannot self-pollinate and must rely exclusively on outcrossing.

circulatory system review

In many invertebrates, open circulatory systems pump hemolymph into tissues, from which it then drains into a central cavity. Closed circulatory systems move fluid in a loop to and from a muscular pumping region such as a heart. The hemolymph of invertebrates occurs both in the circulatory system and in the extracellular fluid.

pith

In monocot (and a few eudicot) roots, the primary xylem is in discrete vascular bundles arranged in a ring, which surrounds parenchyma cells, called pith, at the very center of the root

monoecious

In other kinds of plants, such as oaks, birches, corn (maize), and pumpkins, separate male and female flowers may both be produced on the same plant. Such plants are called monoecious, meaning "one house". In monoecious plants, the separation of pistillate and staminate flowers, which may mature at different times, greatly enhances the probability of outcrossing

neurulation

In vertebrates, organogenesis begins with neurulation and somitogenesis. The process of organogenesis in vertebrates begins with the formation of two morphological features found only in chordates: the notochord and the hollow dorsal nerve cord. The development of the dorsal nerve cord is called neurulation.

Signaling molecules from the Spemann organizer habit ventral development

It was assumed that they would act directly to induce dorsal mesodermal fates, but in fact they act indirectly by inhibiting ventral development. Thus, dorsal mesoderm development results from the inhibition of ventral development.

Shade leaves

Leaves produced in the shade, where they receive little sunlight, tend to be larger in surface area, but thinner and with less mesophyll than leaves on the same tree receiving more direct light. This plasticity in development is remarkable. Environmental signals can have a major effect on development.

Simple tubular hearts

Little more than a specialized zone of the ventral artery that was more heavily muscled than the rest of the arteries; it contracted in simple peristaltic waves

respiratory systems overview

Lungs provide a large surface area for gas exchange while minimizing evaporation; unlike gills, they contain structural support that prevents their collapse. Amphibians push air into their lungs; most reptiles and all birds and mammals pull air into their lungs by expanding the thoracic cavity. The respiratory system of birds has efficient, one-way air flow and crosscurrent blood flow through the lungs

how are additional fertilization events blocked?

Many animals use additional mechanisms to permanently alter the composition of the exterior egg coats, preventing any further sperm from penetrating through these layers. In sea urchins and mammals, specialized vesicles called cortical granules, located just beneath the plasma membrane of the egg, release their contents by exocytosis into the space between the plasma membrane and the vitelline envelope or zona pellucida, respectively. In each case, cortical granule enzymes remove critical sperm receptors from the outer coat of the egg.

describe the physical forces to help water movement up plants

Mineral ion concentration in the soil water is usually much lower than it is in the plant. Minerals are often taken up by root cells via active transport across the endodermis to increase the solute concentration in the stele. The plasma membranes of endodermal cells contain a variety of protein transport channels, through which proton pumps transport specific ions against even larger concentration gradients. Once inside the vascular stele, the ions, which are plant nutrients, are transported via the xylem throughout the plant.

external leaf structure: petiole

Most eudicot leaves have a flattened blade and a slender stalk, the petiole, while grasses and other monocots usually lack a petiole.

Ectotherms regulate temperature using behavior

Most invertebrates use behavior to adjust their temperature. Many butterflies, for example, must reach a certain body temperature before they can fly. In the cool of the morning, they orient their bodies so as to maximize their absorption of sunlight. Moths and many other insects use a shivering reflex to warm their thoracic flight muscles so that they may take flight

reptilian breathing

Most reptiles breathe in a different way, by expanding their rib cages by muscular contraction. This action creates a lower pressure inside the lungs compared with the atmosphere, and the greater atmospheric pressure moves air into the lungs. This type of ventilation is termed negative pressure breathing because of the air being "pulled in" by the animal, like sucking water through a straw, rather than being "pushed in."

In certain plants, some of the roots may be modified to carry out unusual functions. Which of these is not an example of one of these special functions? -Move the entire plant -Help absorb oxygen -Store food -Parasitize other plants -Store water

Move the entire plant

mesophyll cells in plants

Nearly all eudicot leaves have loosely arranged spongy mesophyll cells between the palisade mesophyll and the lower epidermis, with many air spaces throughout the tissue. The interconnected intercellular spaces, along with the stomata, function in gas exchange and the passage of water vapor from the leaves.

amphibian circulatory system

Optimally, oxygenated blood from lungs would go directly to tissues, rather than being mixed in the heart with deoxygenated blood returning from the body. The amphibian heart has two structural features that significantly reduce this mixing. First, the atrium is divided into two chambers: The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation, and the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs. These two types of blood, therefore, do not mix in the atria. Oxygenation of blood also occurs by gas exchange through the skin. Thus, amphibians have a pulmocutaneous circuit that sends blood to both the lungs and the skin. Cutaneous respiration is also seen in turtles.

Fick's law of diffusion equation

R = DAΔP/ d R - rate of diffusion D -diffusion constant A - area ΔP - pressure difference d - distance

Of the following structures, which one is not made of specialized leaf cells? -Sclereids -Guard cells -Trichomes -Tendrils -Spines

Sclereids

__________cells function when dead -Parenchyma -Sclerenchyma -Collenchyma -Phloem

Sclerenchyma

disadvantages of asexual reproduction

Self-pollination reduces genetic variability, but asexual reproduction results in genetically identical individuals because only mitotic cell divisions occur. In the absence of meiosis, individuals that are highly adapted to a relatively unchanging environment persist for the same reasons that self-pollination is favored. Should conditions change dramatically, there will be less variation in the population for natural selection to act on, and the species may be less likely to survive.

shivering thermogenesis

Shivering thermogenesis uses muscles to generate heat without producing useful work. It occurs in some insects, such as the earlier example of a butterfly warming its flight muscles, and in endothermic vertebrates. Shivering involves the use of antagonistic muscles to produce little net generation of movement, but hydrolysis of ATP, generating heat

female structures: carpels

Single or fused carpels are often referred to as simple or compound pistils, respectively

ram ventilation

Some bony fishes that swim continuously, such as tuna, have practically immobile opercula. These fishes swim with their mouths partly open, constantly forcing water over the gills in what is known as ram ventilation. Most bony fishes, however, have flexible gill covers.

Vegetative reproduction: runner or stolons

Some plants reproduce by means of runners (also called stolons)—long, slender stems that grow along the surface of the soil. In the cultivated strawberry, for example, leaves, flowers, and roots are produced at every other node on the runner. Just beyond each second node, the tip of the runner turns up and becomes thickened. This thickened portion first produces adventitious roots and then a new shoot that continues the runner.

Fever

Substances that cause a rise in temperature are called pyrogens, and they produce the state we call fever. Fever is a result of resetting the body's normal set point to a higher temperature. A number of gram-negative bacteria have components in their cell walls called endotoxins that act as pyrogens. Substances produced by circulating white blood cells act as pyrogens as well. Pyrogens act on the hypothalamus to increase the set point.

The action of morphogens

The action of morphogens can be studied by using isolated portions of the blastula. The blastula can be bisected into an animal half (the animal cap) and vegetal half (the vegetal cap). If animal caps are removed from a frog blastula and cultured alone, they will form only ectoderm-derived epidermal cells. Similarly, cultured vegetal caps will form only endodermal cells. However, if animal caps are cultured combined with vegetal caps, the animal caps will form mesodermal structures.

what stimulates metabolism

The adrenal medulla is stimulated to produce epinephrine, and the anterior pituitary to produce TSH, both of which stimulate metabolism. In the case of TSH, this is indirect as it stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroxin, which stimulates metabolism. A combination of epinephrine and autonomic nerve stimulation of fat tissue can induce thermogenesis to produce more internal heat. Again, as temperature rises, negative feedback to the hypothalamus reduces the heat-producing response.

tradeoff for endotherms

The advantage of endothermy is that it allows sustained high-energy activity. The tradeoff for endotherms is that the high metabolic rate has a corresponding cost in requiring relatively constant and high rates of energy intake (food).

heart evolution

The chordate heart has evolved from a muscular region of a vessel, to the two-chambered heart of fish, the three-chambered heart of amphibians and most reptiles, and the four-chambered heart of crocodilians, birds, and mammals

colonial flagellate hypothesis of metazoan origin

The colonial flagellate hypothesis proposes that multicellular organisms evolved from a single flagellated cell. It is believed that a group of these unicellular flagellates combine to form an aggregate then form a sphere which develops specialized cells (such as reproductive cells), and then fold in on themselves to create a tissue layer.

Conduction

The direct transfer of heat between two objects is called conduction. It is literally a direct transfer of kinetic energy between the molecules of the two objects in contact. Energy is transferred from hotter objects to colder ones.

epidermis (leaves)

The entire surface of a leaf is covered by a transparent epidermis, and most of these epidermal cells have no chloroplasts. The epidermis has a waxy cuticle, and different types of glands and trichomes may be present. Also, the lower epidermis (and occasionally the upper epidermis) of most leaves contains numerous slitlike or mouth-shaped stomata flanked by guard cells.

two waves of cranial neural crest cell migration

The first produces both dorsal and ventral structures, and the second produces only dorsal structures and makes much less cartilage and bone. Transplantation experiments indicate that the developmental potential of the cells in these two waves is identical. The differences in cell fate are due to the environment the migrating cells encounter and not due to prior determination of cell fate.

polyspermy

The large numbers of sperm released during spawning or ejaculation mean that many sperm are likely to reach, and try to fertilize, a single egg. Multiple fertilization, called polyspermy, would result in a polyploid zygote with three or more sets of chromosomes. Polyploidy is incompatible with animal development, although it is a mechanism of speciation in plants

pressure-flow hypothesis

The most widely accepted model of carbohydrate transport through the phloem is the pressure-flow hypothesis.Dissolved carbohydrates flow from a source to a sink, where they are unloaded and used.Carbohydrate sources include photosynthetic tissues, such as the mesophyll of leaves. Food-storage tissues, such as the cortex of roots, can be either sources or sinks. Sinks also occur at the growing tips of roots and stems and in developing fruits. Sources and sinks can change across the life of a plant. As needs change, the direction of phloem flow can change.

notochord formation

The notochord forms from mesoderm and is first visible soon after gastrulation is complete. It is a flexible rod located along the dorsal midline in the embryos of all chordates, although its function as a supporting structure is supplanted by the subsequent development of the vertebral column in the vertebrates.

Vegetative reproduction: suckers

The roots of some plants—for example, cherry, apple, raspberry, and blackberry—produce suckers, or sprouts, which give rise to new plants. When the root of a dandelion is broken, as it may be if one attempts to pull it from the ground, each root fragment may give rise to a new plant.

the second group of trunk neural crest cells

The second group of trunk neural crest cells migrate away from the neural tube in the space just under the surface ectoderm, to occupy this space around the entire body of the embryo. There, they will differentiate into the pigment cells of the skin. Mutations in genes that affect the survival and migration of neural crest cells lead to white spotting in the skin on ventral surfaces, as well as internal problems in other neural crest-derived tissues

External stem structure

The shoot apical meristem produces stem tissue and intermittently produces bulges (primordia) that are capable of developing into leaves, other shoots, or even flowers. Leaves may be arranged in a spiral around the stem, or they may be in pairs opposite or alternate to one another; they also may occur in whorls (circles) of three or more

Endotherms create internal metabolic heat for conservation or dissipation

The simplest response that affects heat transfer is to control the amount of blood flow to the surface of the animal. Dilating blood vessels increases the amount of blood flowing to the surface, which in turn increases thermal heat exchange and dissipation of heat. In contrast, constriction of blood vessels decreases the amount of blood flowing to the surface and decreases thermal heat exchange, limiting the amount of heat lost due to conduction.

Parasitic roots

The stems of certain plants that lack chlorophyll, such as dodder (Cuscuta species), produce peglike roots called haustoria that penetrate the host plants around which they are twined. The haustoria establish contact with the conducting tissues of the host and effectively parasitize their host. Dodder not only weakens plants but can also spread disease when it grows and attaches to several plants.

mesophyll

The tissue between the upper and lower epidermis. Which is interspersed with veins of various sizes. the photosynthetic parenchyma of a leaf

Radiation

The transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation, such as from the Sun, does not require direct contact. Heat is transferred from hotter bodies to colder bodies by radiation.

On a short-term basis, closing the stomata can control water loss

This occurs in many plants when they are subjected to water stress. But the stomata must be open at least part of the time so that CO2 can enter. As CO2 enters the intercellular spaces, it dissolves in water before entering the plant's cells where it is used in photosynthesis. The gas dissolves mainly in water on the walls of the intercellular spaces below the stomata. The continuous stream of water that reaches the leaves from the roots keeps these walls moist.

the gradient of inhibitory molecules that emanate from the spemann organizer lead to...

Thus, the gradient of inhibitory molecules that emanates from the Spemann organizer leads to a declining level of BMP4 function in the ventral-to-dorsal direction. Cells farthest from the organizer bind the highest levels of BMP4 and differentiate into ventral mesoderm structures such as blood and connective tissues. Cells that are midway from the organizer bind intermediate amounts of BMP4, differentiate into intermediate mesoderm, and form organs such as the kidneys and gonads. BMP4 binding is completely inhibited by the high levels of antagonists in the organizer itself. Thus, these cells adopt the most dorsal of mesoderm fates and develop into somites. The influence of the organizer also extends to ectoderm as inhibition of BMP4 in ectoderm leads to formation of neural tissue instead of epidermis

Tracheids and vessels are essential for the bulk transport of minerals

Ultimately, the minerals that are actively transported into the roots are removed and relocated through the xylem to other metabolically active parts of the plant

Vegetative reproduction: rhizomes

Underground horizontal stems, or rhizomes, are also important reproductive structures, particularly in grasses and sedges. Rhizomes invade areas near the parent plant, and each node can give rise to a new flowering shoot. The noxious character of many weeds results from this type of growth pattern, and many garden plants. Tubers are also stems specialized for storage and reproduction. Tubers are the terminal storage portion of a rhizome. Potatoes (Solanum species) are propagated artificially from tuber segments, each with one or more "eyes." The eyes, or "seed pieces," of a potato give rise to the new plant.

pollination in angiosperms does not involve direct contact between the pollen grain and the ovule.

When pollen reaches the stigma, it germinates, and a pollen tube grows down, carrying the sperm nuclei to the embryo sac.After double fertilization takes place, development of the embryo and endosperm begins. The seed matures within the ripening fruit; eventually, the germination of the seed initiates another life cycle.

Thermogenesis

When temperatures fall below a critical lower threshold, normal endothermic responses are not sufficient to warm an animal. In this case, the animal resorts to thermogenesis, or the use of normal energy metabolism to produce heat.Thermogenesis takes two forms: shivering and nonshivering thermogenesis.

Coelom

a body cavity completely lined with mesoderm

Lophotrochozoa

a clade of protostome animals with the spiralia. The taxon was established as a monophyletic group based on molecular evidence

female structures: gynoecium

a collective term for all the female parts of a flower. In most flowers, the gynoecium, which is unique to angiosperms, consists of a single carpel or two or more fused carpels

Gastrulation

a complex series of cell shape changes and cell movements, the cells of the blastula rearrange themselves to form the basic body plan of the embryo. Forms the three primary germ layers and converts the blastula into a bilaterally symmetrical embryo with a central progenitor gut and visible anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral axes.

cutin in plants

a fatty layer produced by the epidermis that forms the cuticle on the outside surface

trichomes

a hairlike outgrowth from an epidermal cell; glandular trichomes secrete oils or other substances that deter insects. They occur frequently on stems, leaves, and reproductive organs. Reduce evaporation by covering stomatal openings. They also protect leaves from high-intensity light and ultraviolet radiation and can buffer against temperature fluctuations. Trichomes can vary greatly in form; some consist of a single cell; others are multicellular. Some are glandular, secreting sticky or toxic substances to deter herbivory.

Blastula (blastocyst in mammals)

a hollow mass of cells

axillary bud

a lateral shoot apex that allows the plant to branch or replace the main shoot if it is eaten by an herbivore. a bud found in the axil of a stem and leaf; an axillary bud may develop into a new shoot or may become a flower

Tensile strength

a measure of the cohesiveness of a substance; its resistance to being broken apart. Water in narrow plant vessels has tensile strength the helps keep the water column continuous

Self-incompatibility

results when the pollen and stigma recognize each other as being genetically related, and pollen tube growth is blocked

root hairs

a tubular extension from an epidermal cell located just behind the root tip; root hairs greatly increase the surface area for absorption. They keep the root in intimate contact with the surrounding soil particles. Most of the absorption of water and mineral occurs through root hairs.

Intercalary meristems

a type of meristem that arises in stem internodes in some plants, such as corn and horsetails; responsible for elongation of the internodes.

cuticle in plants

a waxy or fatty, noncellular layer (formed of a substance called cutin) on the outer wall of epidermal cells. Several layers of wax may be added to the cuticle to limit water loss and protect against ultraviolet damage

Reptilian Circulatory System

additional modifications have further reduced the mixing of blood in the heart. In addition to having two separate atria, reptiles have a septum that partially subdivides the ventricle. This separation is complete in crocodilians, which have two separate ventricles divided by a complete septum. Another change in the circulation of reptiles is that the conus arteriosus has become incorporated into the trunks of the large arteries leaving the heart.

Pseudocoelomates

an animal whose body cavity is not completely lined by mesoderm

secondary induction

an induction between tissues that have already differentiated.

Coelomate

animal that possesses a true coelom (fluid-filled body cavity lined by tissue completely derived from mesoderm)

Apical meristem: primary meristems

any of the three meristems produced by the apical meristem; primary meristems give rise to the dermal, vascular, and ground tissues

secondary tissues in plants

any tissue formed from lateral meristems in trees and shrubs

sporophytic self-incompatibility

as occurs in broccoli, bothS alleles of the pollen parent, not just the S allele of the pollen itself, are important. If the alleles in the stigma match either of the pollen parent's S alleles, the haploid pollen will not germinate.

The functional equivalent of arteries and veins in plants are -roots and shoots -xylem and phloem -stomata and trichomes -parenchyma and collenchyma

b. xylem and phloem

how do unfertilized eggs present a challenge to sperm?

because it is enveloped by one or more protective coats. These protective coats include the chorion of insect eggs, the jelly layer and vitelline envelope of sea urchin and frog eggs, and the zona pellucida of mammalian eggs. Mammalian oocytes are also surrounded by a layer of supporting granulosa cells. Thus, the first challenge of fertilization is that sperm have to penetrate these external layers to reach the plasma membrane of the egg.

what are fish gills the most efficient of all respiratory organs?

because of the countercurrent exchange of gases

Carbon dioxide is primarily transported as ____________________

bicarbonate ion

dilation of peripheral blood vessels leads to

bringing more blood to the surface to dissipate heat. (when you're too hot)

How does the lung minimize evaporation?

by moving air through a branched tubular passage

opercular cavities

cavities function as pumps that alternately expand; move water into the mouth, through the gills and out open operculum

counter-current heat exchange

certain large fish, including tuna, swordfish, and some sharks, can maintain parts of their body at a significantly higher temperature than that of the water. They do so using counter-current heat exchange. This circulatory adaptation allows the cooler blood in the veins to be warmed through radiation of heat from the warmer blood in the arteries located close to the veins. The arteries carry warmer blood from the center of the body

taproot system

characterized by a single large root with smaller branch roots

fibrous root system

composed of many smaller roots of similar diameter.

Ecdysozoa

comprise one of the major and largest groups within the animal kingdom. Animals that shed their exoskeleton

vascular tissue: phloem

conducts a solution of carbohydrate - mainly sucrose - used by plants for food. Also transports hormones, amino acids, and other substances that are necessary for plant growth. Located toward the outer parts of roots and stems. Food conduction in phloem is carried out through two kinds of elongated cells; sieve cells and sieve-tube members. Gymnosperms, ferns, and horsetails have only sieve cells; most angiosperms have sieve-tube members.

The repeating unit of the vegetative shoot

consists of the internode, node, leaf, and axillary bud, but not reproductive structures

vascular tissue in plants

containing or concerning vessels that conduct fluid

Perennial plants

continue to grow year after year and may be herbaceous (as are many woodland, wetland, and prairie wildflowers), or woody (as are trees and shrubs). The majority of vascular plant species are perennials. Perennial plants in general are able to flower and produce seeds and fruit for an indefinite number of growing seasons.

The waterproof cuticle covering the epidermis of land plants helps prevent dehydration, much like the skin of some land animals. As a consequence, what other evolutionary adaptation was important for most land plants? -the endodermis in the root -root hairs on the root epidermis -collenchyma fibers just beneath the surface of the epidermis -stomata in the leaves

d. stomata in the leaves

Gametophytic self-incompatibility

depends on the haploid Slocus of the pollen and the diploid S locus of the stigma. If either of the S alleles in the stigma matches the pollen's Sallele, pollen tube growth stops before it reaches the embryo sac. Petunias exhibit gametophytic self-incompatibility.

male structures: stamens

the organ of a flower that produces the pollen; usually consists of anther and filament; collectively, the stamens make up the androecium

allantois

derived as an outpouching of the gut and serves to store the uric acid excreted in the urine of birds. During development, the allantois of a bird embryo expands to form a sac that eventually fuses with the overlying chorion, just under the eggshell. The fusion of the allantois and chorion form a functioning unit, the chorioallantoic membrane, in which embryonic blood vessels, carried in the allantois, are brought close to the porous eggshell for gas exchange. The chorioallantoic membrane is thus the respiratory membrane of a bird embryo.

female structures: ovules

develop into seeds, are produced in the pistils swollen lower portion,the ovary

If your body is too warm, it will constrict blood vessels dilate blood vessels cause muscles to shiver both A and C None of the above

dilate blood vessels

gases must be ________ to diffuse across living membranes

dissolved

Blastomere

each individual cell in the resulting tightly packed mass of cells. In many animals, the two ends of the egg and subsequent embryo are traditionally referred to as the animal pole and vegetal pole

The outer layer of cells that protects the plant is called the -vascular tissue. -endoderm. -epidermis. -pericycle.

epidermis.

Sweating allows a person to lose heat through the process of _____. conduction convection radiation evaporation

evaporation

nonshivering thermogenesis

fat metabolism is altered to produce heat instead of ATP. Nonshivering thermogenesis takes place throughout the body, but in some mammals, special stores of fat called brown fat are utilized specifically for this purpose. This brown fat is stored in small deposits in the neck and between the shoulders. This fat is highly vascularized, allowing efficient transfer of heat away from the site of production.

Cleavage

following fertilization, the second major event in animal development is the rapid division of the zygote into a larger and larger number of smaller and smaller cells. This period of division is not accompanied by an increase in the overall size of the embryo. The blastomere decreases in size, the nucleus stays the same, the ratio for the nucleus of the cell goes up

Annual plants

grow, reproduce, and die in a single year. Annual plants grow, flower, and form fruits and seeds within one growing season and die when the process is complete. Many crop plants are annuals, including corn, wheat, and soybeans. Annuals generally grow rapidly under favorable conditions and in proportion to the availability of water or nutrients. The lateral meristems of some annuals, such as sunflowers or giant ragweed, produce some secondary tissues for support, but most annuals are entirely herbaceous. Annuals typically die after flowering once; the developing flowers or embryos use hormonal signaling to reallocate nutrients, so the parent plant literally starves to death.

vegetative axillary bud

has the capacity to replace the primary shoot. When the plant has shifted to the reproductive phase of development, these axillary buds may produce flowers or floral shoots.

____________ and _____________ provide an oxygen reserve

hemoglobin and myoglobin

Mammalian thermoregulation is controlled by the _______________

hypothalamus

Hyperventilating

if breathing is excessive, so that blood PCO2 is abnormally lowered

Hypoventilating

if breathing is insufficient to maintain normal blood gas measurements

Deuterostome development

in animals, a developmental mode distinguished by the developer of the anus from the blastopore; often also characterized by enterocoelous development of the body cavity and by radial cleavage

Protostome development

in animals, a developmental model distinguished by the development of the mouth from the blastopore; often also characterized by schizocoelous development of the body cavity and by spiral cleavage

animal pole

in fisher and other aquatic vertebrates with asymmetrical yolk distribution in their eggs, the hemisphere of the blastula comprising cells relatively poor in yolk. In general, the blastomeres of the animal pole go on to form the external tissues of the body

female structures: ovary

in flowering plants, the enlarged basal portion of a carpel that contains the ovule(s); the ovary matures to become the fruit

apoplast route

in plant roots, the pathway for movement of water and minerals that leads through cell walls and between cells

symplast route

in plant roots, the pathway for movement of water and minerals within the cell of cytoplasm that leads through plasmodesmata that connect cells

Cavitation

in plants and animals, the blockage of a vessel by an air bubble that breaks the cohesion of the solution in the vessel; in animals more often called embolism

transmembrane route

in plants roots, the pathway for movement of water and minerals that crosses the cell membrane and also the membrane of vacuoles inside the cell (via water channels)

Casparian strip

in plants, a band that encircles the cell wall of root endodermal cells. Adjacent cells' strips connect, forming a layer through which water cannot pass; therefore, all water entering roots must pass through cell membranes and cytoplasm

external leaf structure: microphyll

in plants, a leaf that has only one vein connecting it to the vascular cylinder of the stem; the club mosses in particular have microphylls

Phyllotaxy

in plants, a spiral pattern of leaf arrangement on a stem in which sequential leaves are at a 137.5° angle to one another, an angle related to the golden mean, which may optimize the exposure of leaves to the Sun.

root cap

in plants, a tissue structure at the growing tips of roots that protects the root apical meristem as the root pushes through the soil; cells of the root cap are continually lost and replaced

External leaf structure: veins

in plants, a vascular bundle forming a part of the framework of the conducting and supporting tissue of a stem or leaf. consist of both xylem and phloem and are distributed throughout the leaf blades. The main veins are parallel in most monocot leaves; the veins of eudicots, on the other hand, form an often intricate network

Root pressure

in plants, pressure exerted by water in the roots in response to a solute potential in the absence of transportation; often occurs at night. Root pressure can result in guttation, excretion of water from cells of leaves as dew

Axil

in plants, the angle between a leaf petiole and the stem to which it is attached

Zone of maturation

in plants, the part of the root that lies posterior to the zone of elongation; cells in this zone differentiate into specific cell types.

Zone of cell division

in plants, the part of the young root that includes the root apical meristem and the cells just posterior to it; cells in this zone divide every 12-36hr.

Zone of elongation

in plants, the part of the young root that lies just posterior to the zone of cell division; cells in this zone elongate, causing the root to lengthen

Vascular cambium

in vascular plants, a cylindrical sheath of meristematic cells, the division of which produces secondary phloem outwardly and secondary xylem inwardly; the activity of the vascular cambium increases stem or root diameter. Makes vascular tissue

Phloem loading

in vascular plants, a food-conducting tissue basically composed of sieve elements, various kinds of parenchyma cells, fibers, and sclereids

primary meristems: procambium

in vascular plants, a primary meristematic tissue that gives rise to primary vascular tissues

vascular tissue: xylem

in vascular plants, a specialized tissue, composed primarily of elongated, thick-walled conducting cells, which transports water and solutes through the plant body. conducts water and dissolved minerals. usually contains a combination of vessels, which are continuous tubes formed from dead, hollow, cylindrical cells arranged end-to-end, and tracheids, which are dead cells that taper at the ends and overlap one another

Secondary growth

in vascular plants, an increase in stem and root diameter made possible by cell division of the lateral meristems

Apical meristem

in vascular plants, the growing point at the tip of the root or stem. During periods of growth, the cells of apical meristems divide and continually add more cells at the tips.

Lateral meristems

in vascular plants, the meristems that give rise to secondary tissue; the vascular cambium and cork cambium. In woody plants they produce an increase in root and shoot diameter.

primary induction

inductions between the three primary tissue types: mesoderm and endoderm

External leaf structure: stipules

leaflike appendages that occur at the base of some flowering plant leaves or stems

evergreen

leaves dropping throughout the year and the plants never appearing completely bare. Conifers

sclerenchyma cells: fibers

long, slender cells that are usually grouped together in strands

ectotherms have _______ metabolic rates

low -not capable of sustained high-energy activity

In the countercurrent exchange in a fish's gills, the oxygen concentration is always _______ in the blood than the water along the entire pathway of each lamella. -higher -lower -the same -varies depending on the time of year

lower

what animals have two completely separate circulatory systems?

mammals, birds, and crocodilians

Plant cells that give rise to two cells, one of which is free to differentiate into various kinds of cells that contribute to the plant body, are called -endodermal cells. -primary cells. -parenchyma cells. -meristematic cells.

meristematic cells.

Vegetative reproduction

new plant individuals are simply clones from parts of adults. The forms of vegetative reproduction in plants are many and varied

stomata

occur in the epidermis of leaves and sometimes stems or fruits. Serve a dual function. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases through the stomata is essential for photosynthesis. In addition, diffusion of water in vapor form takes place almost exclusively through the stomata, enabling transport of water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.

guard cells in plants

one of a pair of sausage-shaped cells flanking a stoma; the guard cells open and close the stomata

morphogenesis/ organogenesis

organization and spatial distribution of differentiated cells in multicellular body and its organs

Breathing of air takes advantage of...

partial pressures of gases

body plan

particular set of morphological and developmental trita integrated in a functional whole.

yolk sac

plays a critical role in the nutrition of bird and reptile embryos; it is also present in mammals, although it does not nourish the embryo.

Triploblastic

possessing three germ layers; the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm

Differentiation

process by which different types of cells arise

Apoptosis

programmed cell death. At various times in development, individuals cells, sets of cells or whole tissue are cease to develop, die and are engulfed by neighboring cells. An example would be the cell in the tadpole, which undergo apoptosis during frog metamorphosis. The cells in the tail of tadpole basically die during for metamorphosis.

constriction of blood vessels leads to

reduce heat transfer, and inhibit sweating to prevent evaporative cooling (when you're too cold)

somites

second set of cells that undergo long-range migration -located in strips of mesoderm lateral to the notochord -Their role: help in the organization of the segmentation of the vertebrate body. Some cells dissociate and become mesenchyme cells, which migrate individually to other locations. Mesenchyme cells (cells from the mesoderm) can also form the muscles within the vertebral column and ribs.

stem function

serve as a scaffold for positioning the leaves, the principal sites of photosynthesis. The arrangement, size, and other features of the leaves are critically important in the plant's production of food. Flowers, other reproductive organs, and ultimately, fruits and seed are also formed on the shoot.

Determination

sets developmental fate of a cell

Antagonistic effectors

similarly involved in the control of body temperature. When body temperature falls, the hypothalamus coordinates a different set of responses, such as constriction of blood vessels in the skin and initiation of shivering, muscle contractions that help produce heat. These responses raise body temperature and correct the initial challenge to homeostasis

Hensen's node

spemann organizer in mammals and birds

____ are used to allow gas exchange in leaves whereas _____ are used to maximize water uptake in roots -stomata, root hairs -xylem, root hairs -stomata, phloem -trichomes, xylem

stomata, root hairs

Radial symmetry

symmetry around a central axis, as in a starfish or a tulip flower.

the extraembronic membranes include...

the amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois.

lamina (blade)

the broad, expanded part of a leaf

cork tissues

the cells of which become impregnated with water-repellent suberin shortly after they are formed and which then die, constitute the outer bark. The cork tissue cuts off water and food to the epidermis, which dies and sloughs off. In young stems, gas exchange between stem tissues and the air takes place through stomata, but as the cork cambium produces cork, it also produces patches of unsuberized cells beneath the stomata. These unsuberized cells, which permit gas exchange to continue, are called lenticels

collenchyma cells

the cells that form a supporting tissue called collenchyma; often found in regions of primary growth in stems and in some leaves. Flexible collenchyma cells provide support for plant organs, allowing them to bend without breaking. Strands of collenchyma provide much of the support for stems in the primary plant body.

Endoderm

the cells that move into the embryo to form the tube of the primitive gut are endoderm; they give rise to the lining of the gut and its derivative (pancreas, lungs, liver, etc.)

Mesoderm

the cells that move into the space between the endoderm and ectoderm or mesoderm; they eventually form the notochord, bones, blood vessels, connective tissues, muscles, and internal organs such as the kidneys and gonads.

Ectoderm

the cells that remain on the exterior are ectoderm, and their derivatives include the epidermis on the outside of the boyd and the nervous system.

Homeostasis

the dynamic constancy of the internal environment. Temperature, pH, the concentrations of glucose and oxygen, and many other factors must remain relatively constant for cells to function efficiently and interact properly with one another. The term dynamic is used because conditions are never constant, but fluctuate continuously within narrow limits. Homeostasis is essential for life, and most of the regulatory mechanisms of the vertebrate body are involved with maintaining homeostasis.

Guttation

the exudation of liquid water from leaves due to root pressure. cannot move water up great heights or at rapid speeds. It does not take place through the stomata, but instead occurs through special groups of cells (hydathodes) located near the ends of small veins that function only in this process. Guttation contributes to dew on leaves.

Deuterostome

the first opening (the blastopore) becomes the anus, while in protostomes, it becomes the mouth

Organogenesis

the formation of the organs in their proper locations, which occurs by interactions of cells within and between the three germ layers. Follows rapidly on the heels of gastrulation, and in many animals begins before gastrulation is complete. Over the course of subsequent development, tissues develop into organs and animal embryos assume their unique body form

when does embryonic development begin?

the fusion of the sperm and egg plasma membranes

Vegetal pole

the hemisphere of the zygote comprising cells rich in yolk. Go on to form the internal tissues.

amnion

the inner membrane that surrounds the embryo and suspends it in amniotic fluid, thereby mimicking the aquatic environments of fish and amphibian embryos. The chorion is located next to the eggshell and is separated from the other membranes by a cavity—the extraembryonic coelom.

Cork cambium

the lateral meristem that forms the epidermis, producing corm (phellem) towards the surface (outside) of the plant and phelloderm toward the inside. Makes the bark

Transpiration

the loss of water vapor by plant parts; most transpiration occurs through the stomata.

Tidal volume

the lung volume representing normal volume of air displaced between normal inhalation and exhalation when extra effort is not applied.

vital capacity

the maximum amount of air that can be expired after a forceful, maximal inhalation. an abnormally low vital capacity may indicate damage to the alveoli in various pulmonary disorders

parenchyma cells

the most common type of plant cell; characterized by large vacuoles, thin walls, and functional nuclei. They function in the storage of food and water, photosynthesis, and secretion. Some contain chloroplasts, especially in leaves and in the outer parts of herbaceous stems.

epidermis in plants

the outermost layers of cells; in plants, the exterior primary tissue of leaves, young stems, and roots; in vertebrates, the nonvascular external layer of skin, of ectodermal origin; in invertebrates, a single layer of ectodermal epithelium

hemocyanin

the oxygen-binding atom is copper instead of iron. Hemocyanin is not found associated with blood cells, but is instead one of the free proteins in the circulating fluid (hemolymph) of arthropods and some mollusks.

secondary plant body

the part of a plant consisting of secondary tissues from lateral meristem tissues; the older trunk, branches, and roots of woody plants.

Node

the part of a plant stem where one or more leaves are attached Internode: in plants, the region of a stem between two successive nodes

Corolla

the petals, collectively; usually the conspicuously colored flower whorl. Many petal function to attract pollinators.

primary meristems: protoderm

the primary meristem that gives rise to the dermal tissue

primary meristems: ground meristem

the primary meristem, or meristematic tissue, that gives rise to the plant body (except for the epidermis and vascular tissues

Pollination

the process by which pollen is placed on the stigma. Pollen may be carried to the flower by wind or by animals, or it may originate within the individual flower itself.When pollen from a flower's anther pollinates a flower of the same plant, the process is called self-pollination. This is a form of inbreeding. When pollen from the anther of one flower pollinates the stigma of a different plant, the process is termed cross-pollination, or outcrossing.

Cutaneous respiration

the process of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide across the skin

Senescence

the process that leads to the death of a plant

Bilateral symmetry

the property of being divisible into symmetrical halves on either side of a unique plane.

Fick's laws of diffusion

the rate of diffusion is increased by a greater pressure difference and membrane area, and decreased by greater distance. Evolutionary strategies have therefore aimed to increase gradient and area and to lessen the distance gases must travel.

Calyx

the sepals collectively; the outermost flower whorl. Consists of flattened appendages, called sepals, which protect the flower in the bud

Convection

the transfer of heat brought about by the movement of a gas or liquid. This movement may be externally caused (wind) or may be due to density differences related to heating and cooling—for example, heated air is less dense and rises; the same is true for water.

Protostome

those animals in which the mouth forms from the blastopore during development. Divided into spiralians, characterized by spiral cleavage, and ecdysozoans, which milt

Apical meristem: primary tissues

tissue that make up the primary plant body

sclerenchyma cells

tough, thick-walled cells that strengthen plant tissues. They are typically dead at maturity.

deciduous

trees and shrubs, with all the leaves falling at one time of year and the plants remaining bare for a period

Mammalian, bird, and crocodile hearts have four chambers with two separate atria and ventricles to ensure _____ distinct circuits for blood flow.

two

Meristems

undifferentiated plant tissue from which new cells arise. Can divide indefinitely and give rise to many types of differentiated cells. A lot like out stem cells

sclerenchyma cells: sclerids

variable in shape but often branch. May occur singly or in groups; they are not elongated, but may have many different forms, including that of a star

anatomical dead space

where no gas exchange occurs, and the gases in this space mix with fresh air during inhalation

water potential equation

Ψ = Ψp+Ψs -Water potential = pressure potential + solute potential -Water moves from a high water potential to a low water potential -Water flows away from an area with high pressure -Water follows solute -By definition the solute potential of pure water equals 0 -All other solutions will have a negative solute potential