Biochemistry 2, Various, Sociology 2, Psychology 3, Psychology 2, Biology 3, Sociology 1, Biochemistry 1, Biology 1, Biology (Pictures), Biology 2

What is gluconeogenesis? Steps?

Reverse of glycolysis Produces glucose from pyruvate Occurs in the liver when fasting and is done when there is a need to increase blood sugar 1. Pyruvate is converted to oxaloacetate by pyruvate carboxylase 2. Oxaloacetate is converted to phosphoenolpyruvate by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 9. Fructose 1,6 Bis-P is converted to Fructose 6 Phosphate by Fructose 1,6 Bisphosphatase 11. Glucose 6 Phosphate is converted to glucose by Glucose 6 Phosphatase (all other steps are the same, except 1 is added and 2, 9, and 11 have different enzymes)

What are the types of reversible inhibition? Irreversible?

Reversible= competitive, uncompetitive, non-competitive, and mixed Irreversible= inhibitor that binds covalently to enzyme and/or active site, disabling enzyme for prolonged time or permanently

Sympathetic vs parasympathetic NS on BP and HR

SNS increases HR and BP PNS decreases HR and BP

Describe feedback inhibition

Same as negative feedback product of a reaction acts as an antagonist for the reaction

Describe Michaelis-Menten kinetics and graph Km, Vmax, and V

Saturation Kinetics Graphs the reaction velocity (y) vs substrate concentration (x) Vmax: is the rate of the reaction at saturation of substrate. Theoretical but never really achieves this velocity. Km: Michaelis constant. Is the substrate concentration at 1/2Vmax. A lower Km means a stronger binding affinity v= Vmax [S] ÷ Km + [S]

Schwann cells vs oligodendrocytes

Schwann cells myelinate axons in the PNS. Their bodies wrap around the axon Oligodendrocytes myelinate axons in the CNS. Secrete the myelin sheath around the axon

What is functionalism?

See's society as a complex system made up of interdependent institutions that work together to promote the status quo. Any change is seen as dysfunctional Members of society have reached a general consensus on what is right and wrong, bad and good

What is semi-conservative replication? Semi-discontinuos?

Semi-C: each newly formed daughter consists of one original strand paired with one newly replicated strand Semi-D: one strand is synthesized continuously and the other (lagging strand) is synthesized in Okazaki fragments

Describe the human memory flow

Sensory= <2 sec ST/Working= <30 sec

Describe Gel Electrophoresis and the two types used

Separates proteins based on size. Gel is placed in buffer with different ions that will conduct electricity DNA has a negatively charged backbone, so it will flow toward cathode (+) The smaller the fragment, the further down the gel it will run Agarose: used for separating bigger pieces of DNA (>50bp) SDS-PAGE: used for separating smaller DNA and proteins SDS= a detergent that denatures the protein and places negative charges

Difference between sex and gender

Sex is a biological matter. People are divided into two groups, either male or female. Biological differences are found in chromosomes, anatomy, and hormones. Gender is the personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being male or female. Gender is seen as being more socially constructed

Simple vs Conjugated proteins

Simple= protein that contains only amino acids and no non-protein cofactors or prosthetic groups Conjugated= protein that is associated with it's cofactors, either covalently or intermolecularly (hemoglobin, has a non-protein heme group)

Electrical pathway in heart

Sinoatrial node (SA node) starts --> Atrioventricular node (AV node), slight delay --> down the bundle of His --> Purkinje fibers --> cell to cell through gap junctions

Smooth ER function and characteristics

Site of lipid synthesis and modification; NOT metabolism (lipids are metabolized by the mitochondria)

Describe skin temperature, skin conductivity, heart rate, and BP in response to emotion

Skin temp: decrease during fear, increase during anger Skin conductivity: indicator of general stimulation of SNS Heart rate: increase in anger or fear, decrease during happiness BP: increase during anger, fear, sadness, and happiness

What is the difference between social class and socioeconomic status

Social class is the separation of a society into hierarchical classes or divisions Socioeconomic status is indicated by occupational prestige, educational attainment, income and wealth

What is an oligarchy?

Social system under the control of a small elite. People prefer to let other's make decisions for them, system is so complex that people can't possibly know enough to intelligently partake in the decision making, those in power tend to stay in power and are unwilling to give up any of that power

Describe class differences and healthcare disparities

Socioeconomic class is strongly correlated with overall health, access to healthcare, and healthy behaviors both in the US and worldwide The poorest people are the most sick, are more susceptible to disease and disease outbreaks, have less access to healthcare, and engage in more unhealthy behaviors at a much higher rate

What is the difference between a sociopath and a psychopath

Sociopath= severe deficit of conscience Psychopath= complete lack of conscience

What is a social construct

Something developed or created rather than directly observable or measurable. Constructs are thought of as more subjective than objective, more theoretical than empirical.

What is a southern blot? Northern? Western?

Southern: used to verify the presence/absence of specific DNA sequences. Also indicates the relative size of restriction fragments Northern: identical to southern, but used on RNA instead of DNA Western: Used on protein segments instead of nucleotide segments. Probes used are radiolabeled antibodies rather than nucleotide sequences. Eastern: same as western, but used to verify post-translational modifications

What is a neuron and what are the 4 characteristics to know about it

Specialized cell that can carry electrochemical signal 1. Frozen in G0 phase (doesn't divide) 2. Depend entirely on glucose for energy 3. Don't require insulin fo glucose uptake 4. Have low glycogen and oxygen storage capacity, thus require high perfusion (blood flow)

Acetylcholinesterase: describe and what an agonist and antagonist would do

Specialized enzyme in the synaptic cleft that breaks down acetylcholine to interrupt it's action Antagonist: (inhibitor) would impeded the ability to break down acetylcholine, ending up with more acetylcholine and hyperstimulation of neurons Agonist: (activator) would assist in the breakdown of acetylcholine and would result in decreased stimulation of neurons (Antagonists can help to combat depression: fluoxetine, sertraline, amitriptyline)

What are the 4 stages of demographic transition

Stage 1. Pre-industrial society (high fertility, high mortality) Stage 2. Still pre-industrial (decreasing mortality rate as a result of societal improvements like sanitation, healthcare, and nutrition) Stage 3. Shift from agricultural toward industrial (decreasing fertility rate as a result of contraception, women's rights, and smaller family size) Stage 4. Industrial society (low fertility, low mortality)

What are sticky ends

Staggered fashion that restriction endonucleases leave (one side of helix is longer)

Where are post-translational modifications made

Start in the RER and continue in the golgi

What are the start codons? Stop codons?

Start: AUG; does code for Methionine Stop: UGA, UAA, UAG; doesn't code for anything

Where does CO₂ leave the citric acid cycle?

Step 3 and step 4 (conversion of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate and conversion of α-ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA)

What is glycogenolysis? Where?

Stimulated by glucagon. Breaks down glycogen stored in the liver to form free glucose for release into the blood

What is labeling theory of deviance

Symbolic interactionists. Deviance and conformity result from how others respond to another person's actions. Deviance is relative

2 divisions of the motor nervous system (describe)

Sympathetic: fight or flight. Cell bodies are located far from effectors. Neurotransmitters are acetylcholine at ganglia and norepinephrine at effector Parasympathetic: rest and digest. Cell bodies are located very close to, or inside, the effectors. Neurotransmitter is acetylcholine at both ganglia and effector

What is gluconeogenesis and where does it occur?

Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate substrates. Primarily in the liver.

What are the 3 kinds of lymphocytes

T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells

Hormones released by thyroid (characteristics)

T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) Are tyrosine derivatives and lipid soluble

What is the psychological construction model of emotional expression

Takes into account the universal responses, but also looks at a host of psychological factors including previous experience, mood, and language

Parietal lobe is responsible for

Taste Body awareness Touch and pressure

What is terrorism in relation to globalization

Terrorism may also be exacerbated by globalization as technology increases and puts images of western modernization in the face of traditional muslim societies that find them offensive. Technology is part of globalization and is often used by terrorists for recruitment and radicalization.

What is the function of the liver

The "metabolic brain" of the human body. Regulates blood concentration of many different solutes. -Produces bile -Filters blood to remove toxins, drugs, bacteria -Produces blood plasma proteins (albumin, prothrombin, and fibrinogen) -Regulates amino acid levels in blood -Produces cholesterol and lipoproteins and packages them for transport (LDL, HDL, etc)

Describe G0 phase and it's characteristics

The "non-proliferative" or "rest" phase Fully differentiated neurons and cardiac muscle cells are frozen here as they dont divide anymore. Multi-nucleated skeletal muscles can also be considered in G0 phase. Also called "quiescent" which means that they are stable, unchanging, and unlikely to change.

What is the 85+ cohort and why is it relevant

The 85+ cohort is dramatically increasing in today's society. Because this was formerly though of as the end-of-life for most individuals, this creates new challenges regarding caring for elderly, strains on the healthcare system, and so forth

Describe step 4 of glycolysis and why it's significant

The aldolase will produce each of these, with step 5 transforming the dihydroxyacetone phosphate into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, giving double the products in the end

Compare filtrate from the beginning to the end of the loop of henle

The beginning: more concentrated The end: less concentrated but also has much less volume (saves water) Loop of henle ultimately saves water

What is neural plasticity (changes with age)

The brains ability to change structure and function to accommodate new memories, make new connections, create new motor skills etc. As we age, we have a loss of neurons. The frontal lobe and corpus callosum lose neurons at the fastest rate. The cerebellum eventually loses ~25% of it's neurons

What is the proton motive force

The driving force of electrochemical gradient established by ETC that is harvested by ATP synthase to produce ATP Energy is released as protons move down their concentration gradient and down their electrical gradient toward mitochondrial matrix is used by ATP synthase to add free organic phosphate to ADP →ATP

Definition of glycolysis

The first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism

Is the human body an open or closed system?

The human body on a macro level is considered to be an open system. However on the cellular level, it is considered to be a closed system because the cells can exchange energy but not mass with the surroundings

Why is ATP such an energetically favorable storage molecule

The phoshoanhydride bonds are highly energetic. At physiological pH, the phosphate groups lose their protons and become negatively charged. With three negatively charged groups attached, there is a lot of repulsion. Also ADP and Pi are much more stable than ATP

Why doesn't the stomach digest itself?

The stomach wall is protected by large amounts of mucus from mucus cells

What is the dynamic steady state?

The system will stay in a constant state over time, but this requires continual work. Not in equilibrium with surrounding. Your body maintains a constant 98.6°F, despite the air temperature being at 75°

What are purines vs pyrimidines? How many bonds between each?

There are 2 hydrogen bonds between adenine and thymine or uracil There are 3 hydrogen bonds between guanine and cytosine

What is the appraisal model of emotional expression

There are cognitive appraisals of a given event that result in emotional response similar to the basic model (universality) in that they both suggest biologically programmed emotional responses

How do hormones work?

They always act to return the system to homeostatic conditions. They never cause a drift away from normal.

Describe the difference between α-glucose and β-glucose

They are anomers Different stereochemistry at anomeric carbon

Describe the difference between D-glucose and L-glucose

They are enantiomers Same name still

Describe the difference between glucose and galactose

They are epimers Different molecules

Describe neural support cells

They are not neurons that conduct electrical potential, but rather provide support to neurons. Schwann cells (oligodendrocytes in CNS), cells lining cerebrospinal fluid cavities (ependymal cells) and structural support cells (astrocytes)

Role of R groups in amino acids

They are what participate in chemistry: combination of R groups almost exclusively determines chemistry and folding patter

Describe the sarcomere (Thick, thin, A, I, H, Z, M)

Thick filaments: made of myosin Thin filaments: microfilaments and polymers of actin. Feature troponin and tropomyosin A band: runs the length of the myosin filament; does NOT change during contraction I band: distance between the ends of myosin filaments in one sarcomere to ends in next sarcomere. WILL shorten during contraction. H Zone: distance between ends of actin filaments. Shortens during contraction Z Lines: appear as zigzag lines that define the edges of each individual sarcomere unit. Actin filaments are anchored here by protein connection and stretch out in both directions. During contraction, distance between Z-lines shortens as sarcomere shortens M Line: center of myosin filaments. Distance between M lines between 2 sarcomeres will decrease during contraction

Describe what the baby boomer cohort is and why its relevant

This cohort was created by a large increase in the number of births immediately following WWII. Baby boomers began retiring in approximately 2010 and will continue at a rate of a quarter-million people per month for the next two decades. This will have a dramatic impact on social security, the healthcare system, and the US economy and many other social institutions

Differential association theory of deviance

Through interactions with other, individuals learn values, attitudes, and techniques for deviant behavior, especially criminal

T3 and T4 roles in carbohydrate metabolism

Thyroid hormones increase basal metabolic rates; both secreted by thyroid in response to TSH from anterior pituitary

Totipotent vs pluripotent vs multipotent

Totipotent= cells can give rise to all of the cell types in body, including extraembryological or placental cells. Embryonic cells within first few cell divisions after fertilization are the only totipotent cells Pluripotent= cells can give rise to all of cell types that make up the body, but not extraembryonic cells. Undifferentiated embryonic cells=pluri Multipotent= cells can develop into more than one cell type, but are further differentiated and more limited than pluripotent cells. Adult stem cells and cord blood stem cells are multi

Describe hypnosis

Trance-like state under which a person becomes highly suggestible. Induced by a therapist and can serve to recall repressed memories, control pain, or stop undesirable behavior (weight loss, addictions)

What are the digestive enzymes that the pancreas secretes? What do each do?

Trypsin and chymotrypsin: proteases that cleave peptide bonds at specific AA sequences Pancreatic amylase: catalyzes hydrolysis of carbohydrates Lipase: catalyzes hydrolysis of fats Ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease: catalyze hydrolysis of RNA and DNA

What is fixation (freud)?

Unable to resolve issues at any given stage. Oral fixation could lead to seeking oral stimulation as an adult (smoking, overeating)

What are riots

Undirected, highly emotional social eruptions that result in violence. Typically in response to social injustice

What is the Hardy-Weinberg equation?

Used for estimation of allele frequency. p²+2pq+q²=1 p+q=1 p=dominant q=recessive pq=hetero

Describe oxidative phosphorylation

Uses ATP synthase to create ATP from proton gradient Uses protons from NADH and FADH2 in Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and the ETC occurs crossing the inner membrane to the intermembrane space; via proteins embedded in the inner membrane H+ are pumped out and NAD+ stays in the mitochondrial matrix, giving a proton gradient built up in the inner membrane space

What are post-translation modifications? Where do they occur?

Usually include addition of polysaccharides, lipids, or phosphates Occurs at ER and Golgi Apparatus

What is intersectionality?

Various forms or systems of oppression, domination, or discrimination interacting with one another to create a new form of oppression or experience that cannot be understood by considering each concept individually (a black female experiences more)

Vertical vs horizontal social mobility

Vertical= a change in social status or class (poor individual marries into a rich family) Horizontal= a change in position within a class that does not result in a change in social status (e.g. a working class man gets a job with a small pay raise; the job comes with no new status or significant increase in wealth)

Describe the starvation state

Very high glucagon and epinephrine levels Very high rate of gluconeogenesis High rate of fatty acid oxidation, resulting in ketone bodies and acidosis

What are the villi in the small intestine?

Villi are finger like projections on the wall of the small intestine. They are hollow and contain blood vessels and a single lymphatic vessel called a lacteal.

Occipital lobe is responsible for

Vision

Describe Binet's contribution to intelligence

Was the first to develop the intelligence scale (Binet-Simon intelligence scale) and concept of mental age vs chronological age. Designed to identify children who needed extra educational help and attention in school

What is the function of the large intestine

Water and vitamin absorption Absorbs vitamins from food as well as vitamins from beneficial symbiotic E. Coli in large intestine

Characteristics of tight junctions (ex of where found)

Water-proof barriers Found on the epidermis of the skin

Power units

Watts J/s (P=PE/time)

What is privilege (social class)

When groups of people have advantages compared to other groups. Can be financial or emotional. Exists in race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, disability, and social class

What is the Venturi effect?

When there is a constriction in a tube, the velocity of the fluid will increase at that point while the pressure will be lower.

What is the function of the small intestine

Where the majority of all digestion and absorption occurs. Digestion primarily occurs in the duodenum, and absorption is primarily in the jejunum and ileum

Describe the order of macromolecule metabolism in a healthy individual

Will burn carbohydrates first, then fats, then proteins Carbohydrates= 4kcal/g Fat=9kcal/g Proteins= 4kcal/g

Tell the story of transcription

__RNA Polymerase__ binds to the __promoter__ region. Helicase unwinds DNA, which forms transcription bubble. RNA polymerase reads in 3' to 5' direction, creating __Pre-mRNA__ transcript that matches the coding strand, but with U subbed for T. Termination factor release mRNA transcript. Post-translational modifications will splice out non-coding __introns__, leaving just the __exons__. A __poly-A tail__ is added to the 3' end, along with a 5' cap. This is then the mature mRNA that will be translated at a ribosome

General definition for a lipid give examples

a biomolecule that is hydrophobic includes fats, oils, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, glycerides, phospholipids, and terpenes

What is a fatty acid

a carboxylic acid with long, even numbered chains from 4 to 28 Carbons long

Centrioles vs Centrosomes (functions and characteristics)

a centrosome is an amorphous area of proteins and nucleating factors within which the centrioles are located (2 centrioles within a centrosome). They organize microtubules, flagella and cilia. Play a key role in cell division

What is a demographic shift

a change in the makeup of a population over time as measured by demographic factors such as age, population size, diversity, etc

What is a holoenzyme

a conjugated protein (protein that is associated with it's cofactors)

Who is Carl Jung? How did he differ?

a contemporary and supporter of Freud, who later developed his own psychoanalytical theory

Describe a peptide bond formation

a dehydration synthesis and acyl substitution the amine nitrogen (nucleophile) from the new amino acid attacks the carbonyl carbon (electrophile) on the C-terminus of the growing peptide chain Aided by enzymatic function of the ribosome

What is an action potential

a disturbance in resting electrical potential across membrane of a nerve cell Once created, will propagate along cell membrane to neighboring portions of the neurons. As it does, areas where it originally started will gradually return to normal

Describe the Lineweaver-Burk Plot

a double inverse of the reaction rate and substrate concentration (from MM graph) Y intercept= 1/vmax X intercept= -1/Km Slope= Km/vmax Used to identify enzyme inhibition experimentally (with 2 trials; 1 w/ and 1 w/o)

What would chemiosmotic uncoupling do

a drug may uncouple at the ETC or electrochemical gradient. This means that the gradient is no longer directly driving ATP production and ATP synthase. This could be because the drug inserted proton channels into inner mitochondrial membrane that would continue pumping protons across matrix, but they have an alternative route back so it is no longer "coupled"

What is gender inequality?

a general term describing any aspect of society wherein individuals are treated differently based upon gender

Describe cellulose

a glucose polysaccharide a beta-linked glucose polymer used for energy storage in plants. Is ingestible by animals without help from symbiotic bacteria

Describe glycogen

a glucose polysaccharide branched, alpha-linked glucose polymer used for energy storage in animals

Describe starch

a glucose polysaccharide branched, alpha-linked glucose polymer used for energy storage in plants

What is totalitarianism?

a government that takes total, centralized, state control over every aspect of public and private life. Most extreme form of authoritarianism. North Korea.

What is a motor unit? How are delicate vs gross movements performed?

a group of muscle cells innervated by a single motor neuron Delicate movements are done by small motor units; Gross movements are done by larger motor units

Describe a G-protein/response

a hormone/signaling molecule binds to integral protein on extracellular domain (protein is called GPCR) This causes conformational change that activates cytosolic domain of GPCR. In the cytosolic domain, there is a G protein made of an alpha, beta, and gamma subunit. The alpha binds GTP and GDP (GTP bound="on"; GDP bound= "off"). The alpha subunit separates from b and gamma, and alpha acts as agonist for adenylyl cyclase which catalyzes conversion of ATP to cAMP plus 2 inorganic phosphates.

Describe what gel electrophoresis is

a lab technique used to separate molecules by size. The smallest molecules will travel the furthest

Describe the difference between a loose organization social movement and a social movement organization (SMOs)

a loose organization usually has little organization. There is rarely centralized, recognized organization that officially represents or speaks for the movement as a whole. "Leaders" are often unofficial or self-appointed Social Movement Organizations are formal organizations that constitute a sub-component of the movement. For example, environmentalism is a movement in the US that includes many SMOs

What is myosin

a motor protein; not a microfilament

What is of Gastrin and its function?

a peptide hormone. Stimulates secretion of gastric juices and is secreted into the blood stream in response to food It is soluble in blood without a carrier, but does require a membrane receptor

What is agoraphobia?

a persistent fear of any place or circumstance from which escape might be difficult. Individuals are usually fearful of being outside of their homes, traveling in a car, in a crowd, or in public places. May be accompanied by depressed mood, anxiousness, fearful behaviors, or panic attacks

What is self-image

a persistent mental picture of one's appearance and personality. Includes observable traits (height, weight, hair color, gender) and self-knowledge. Is derived from experience or internalization of the judgements of others ("People think I'm fat/nice/handsome") "My mental picture of my own personal characteristics/my appearance"

What is the role playing effect

a person acting out a role is likely to internalize the attitudes associated with that role; shows that your behavior directly impacts the attitudes that you hold Best exhibited in the Zimbardo (Stanford) prison experiment

Describe self-esteem

a person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. This is relatively stable and enduring. Is a valuation judgement of one's worth; "My Value"

What is a monarchy?

a political system in which a single family rules from generation to generation. There are 26 monarchies in the world today, all of European monarchies are constitutional monarchies

What is authoritarianism?

a political system that denies the people participation in government. Controls the lives of people and there is no freedom of speech. Iran

What is prejudice

a preconceived belief or judgment about a person or group developed prior to, or not based upon, actual experience or knowledge. this is an attitude emotion can exacerbate prejudice (fear or anger) and inhibit reasoned judgement

What is the Rorschach Inkblot Test?

a projective technique in which respondents' inner thoughts and feelings are believed to be revealed by analysis of their responses to a set of unstructured inkblots

What is Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

a prolonged and exaggerated sense of worry that has few or no verifiable causes. May be accompanied by an exaggerated startle reflex, trouble sleeping, headaches, nausea, fatigue, excessive sweating, etc

Define sleep. Hormone response during sleep?

a regular state of rest and reduced consciousness deemed physiologically necessary at approximately 24 hour intervals (Circadian Rhythms) -Cortisol levels are higher when awake/alert than during sleep. -Melatonin is released by pineal gland in part to decreasing levels of light

Cytoskeleton structure and function

a scaffolding-like network of microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments provides structure to the cell and creates a highway for intracellular transport

What is a subculture

a secondary culture existing within a mainstream culture that has its own set of values and norms, but is generally able to co-exist with mainstream culture

What is counterculture

a secondary culture that is antagonistic toward mainstream culture and has the overt goal of changing it. Countercultures are often political in nature because they are focused on enacting change.

What is the stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, or that their behavior will confirm the negative stereotype

What is a role in society

a set of expectations and norms that define how a person in a given status should behave

What is a social movement

a social movement is a large alliance of individuals who share a common interest in creating or blocking social or political change

What is a plutocracy?

a social system where the wealthy rule, in other words power by wealth. Could be considered some of the United States

What is secularization?

a societal transformation away from close identification with religious values or institutions, and toward non-religious, secular values or institutions

What is meritocracy

a society in where advancement or opportunity is based on merit (ability or accomplishment). Term also refers to societies where government leaders are selected based on merit, as opposed to class (aristocracy) or pedigree (monarchy)

What is environmental justice

a state in which the benefits and burdens of interacting with the environment are equally distributed among all people independent of race, ethnicity or class. Lack of environmental justice is cited when wealthy segments are thought to primarily benefit from use of environmental resources while those of lower SES primarily bear the burdens of using those resources

Describe PTSD

a stressor-induced disorder developed after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event such as a natural disaster, violent crime, or war. May include hyper-vigilance, reliving the event, anxiety, or avoidance

What is the Hawthorne effect

a study's results are affected by participant's knowledge that they are taking part in an experience or being treated differently than usual

What is evolutionary bottleneck

a sudden decrease in the number of individuals in a population

What is a reducing sugar?

a sugar capable of of reducing another molecule. The sugar will then become oxidized Has to have a free aldose group (an R-OH on only one side of the ring oxygen). Can potentially be a ketose sugar, but it has to be able to isomerize to contain an aldehyde

What is a non-reducing sugar?

a sugar that cannot participate in redox reaction to reduce another molecule. No aldehyde group

What is the looking-glass self?

a theory suggesting that a person's self-concept is largely determined by how they believe others see them. Not what we are, but what we think we are

What is a phage

abbreviated "bacteriophage" virus that infects bacteria has a capsid head, a tail, and tail fibers

What is the cocktail party effect

ability to attend to only one thing with attention, but suddenly shift to something that was previously ignored because of a cue that draws our attention "Having a conversation at a cocktail party and drowning out all other conversations, but quickly shifting our focus because we hear someone else say our name"

What are pragmatics?

ability to competently use language appropriately in any given social context

What is power (social class)

ability to control others, events, or resources To make happen what one wants despite having obstacles or opposition

What are parasomnias? Give 2 examples

abnormal movements, behavior, perceptions, or emotions during sleep -Sleep walking (somnambulism) -Night terrors (pavor nocturnus)=severe anxiety, dread, or terror during first few hours of stages 3-4 (non-REM) sleep. Most common in children

Describe a virus

acellular, can't grow, survive or reproduce on own; require a host contain some form of DNA or RNA (not both) plus proteins

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

activation of SNS looks similar regardless of encountering threat or love of our life, so physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time

Cortisol: location, class, function

adrenal cortex steroid/lipid-soluble a stress hormone; increases gluconeogenesis in the liver and thus blood glucose levels; stimulates fat breakdown

Epinephrine and norepinephrine: location, class, function

adrenal medulla tyrosine derivative/water-soluble cause responses to almost identical sympathetic nervous system response (fight or flight)

Describe gentrification and urban renewal

after an urban area has decline, demand for real estate from buyers wanting to live in the city leads to revitalization projects that convert less-desirable urban areas into high-rent urban apartments and shopping areas. The process is called gentrification because although the area is revitalized, only the wealthy can afford to live there

What is alternative splicing

after introns are removed from mRNA transcript, exons can be assembled in any number of different orders; with each variation resulting in a different protein.

Hormones released by adrenal cortex (characteristics)

aldosterone and cortisol Are steroids and lipid-soluble

What are the states of consciousness

alertness, sleep, dreaming, hypnosis, mediation, and drug-altered

Where is DNA located

all DNA is located in the nucleus there is a small amount of non-nuclear DNA found in the mitochondria

Describe the acid-base functionality of amino acids

all amino acids are WEAK ACIDS All have a minimum of 2 acidic protons (NH3+ and COOH); some have 3 Each amino acid therefore has 2 or 3 pKa values The amino acid will then act as a buffer when the pH is near the pKa of one of the acidic protons

Describe the role of bone marrow in immune system

all erythrocytes and leukocytes are made in bone marrow via hematopoiesis. Yellow bone marrow is primarily adipose tissue and does not produce blood cells B-lymphocytes mature in bone marrow, while T-lymphocytes migrate to thymus to mature

What is limited expressivity

all individuals have the same genotype AND all have the disease phenotype (100% penetrance), but individuals are impacted to varying degrees

Describe the characteristics of a steroid

all steroids are 4-membered ring structures (A,B,C,D)

Describe Mendel's Law of Segregation.

alleles segregate independently of one another when forming a gamete

What is an allosteric enzyme? Allosteric regulation?

allosteric enzymes change conformation and or affinity for their substrate upon binding of an allosteric regulator molecule allosteric regulation almost always results in conformational changes, always bind away from active site, and the effect is a change in the enzyme itself

What are retroviruses?

always contain RNA, therefore contain reverse transcriptase enzyme capable of translating RNA nucleotide sequence into DNA

What is residual volume

amount of air that is left in the lungs after a forced, maximal exhalation

Function and characteristics of cholesterol (in reference to plasma membrane)

amphipathic molecule with a steroid region and a polar region. Inserted between phospholipids at very high concentrations in eukaryotic cells Adds rigidity and fluidity to the membrane

What is ATP synthase

an embedded protein in inner mitochondrial membrane. Allows protons to flow down the gradient (back into the mitochondrial matrix) ADP is lodged in the ATP synthase protein, and the axel will spin and jam phosphate groups into ADP creating ATP and are then released back into the matrix

What are personality disorders?

an enduring pattern of personal experience and behavior that deviates noticeably from the expectations of one's culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to personal distress or impairment

What are networks

an established pattern of social relationships between individuals

What is culture shock

an experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life. Most intense when traveling abroad.

What is a stressor (catastrophe vs life events vs daily hassles)

an external event, condition, or stimulus that leads to stress Catastrophe=animal attack, severe weather, war Life events=new job, marriage, divorce, death of loved one, increased responsibility Daily hassles=poor phone connection, waiting in traffic, long to-do list

What is a zymogen

an inactive enzyme precursor

What is a zymogen

an inactive enzyme precursor. Often activated for something that is needed very quickly. Would be detrimental if it were active all the time Prothrombin: activated by prothrombinase which converts prothrombin to thrombin, a vital enzyme in blood coaglution

What is a prion

an infectious protein results from misfolding

Describe meditation

an intentionally altered state of consciousness intended to improve focus or overall well-being. Part of many religious beliefs Not very well defined scientifically, but has been associated with a relaxed, slower wave state of arousal reproducible on an EEG

What is a specific phobia

an irrational and excessive fear of an object or situation. May be accompanied by dizziness, nausea, difficulty breathing, a sense of unreality, or a fear of dying. In extreme cases, it can induce a full scale panic attack

Describe Strecker synthesis

an α-aminonitrile is treated to form an amino acid

What is fermentation

anaerobic glycolysis. This is the sole route of metabolizing glucose for most bacteria. Also used by animals only during oxygen debt and in ERYTHROCYTES

How does animal breeding relate to genetically based behavior variation

animals can be bred to exhibit target behaviors, such as aggression being genetically-selected for in rodeo bulls, or hunting skills being genetically-selected in certain dog breeds

LH (location, class, function)

anterior pituitary peptide/water-soluble a surge in LH causes ovulation; stimulates the secretion of the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone

ACTH (location, class, fx)

anterior pituitary peptide/water-soluble stimulates adrenal cortex to release stress hormones called "glucocorticoids" NET EFFECT=increases blood glucose and inhibits glycolysis

FSH: location, class, function

anterior pituitary peptide/water-soluble stimulates growth of follicle during menstrual cycle and production of sperm

hGH: location, class, function

anterior pituitary peptide/water-soluble stimulates growth throughout the body

Prolactin: location, class function

anterior pituitary peptide/water-soluble stimulates milk production in the breasts

TSH: location, class, function

anterior pituitary peptide/water-soluble stimulates release of T3/T4 from the thyroid

What is Eugenics

any belief, method, or practice designed to improve genetic makeup of human race. Usually by preventing birth, reproduction rate, or survival of individuals deemed to have less desirable genes

What is a mutation? Point, missense, silent, frameshift, and neutral?

any change in DNA sequence Point: single base pair substitution Missense: mutation changes sequences so that a different codon is read Silent: any mutation that doesn't alter amino acid sequence Frameshift: mutation that alters the reading frame Neutral: doesn't alter the fitness of the individual

What is a reference group

any group to which a person normally compares themselves

What is epigenetics?

any heritable phenotype resulting from any process other than changing the DNA sequence itself

What is the iron law of oligarchy?

any large organization would develop a system of governance in which many people would come under the control of a few

Characteristics of membrane receptors

any protein that specifically binds a signaling molecule that initiates cellular response

What is patriarchy

any societal, political, cultural, or familial structure wherein men are thought to have greater power, authority, privilege, or rights than women. Historically it used to refer to family structure in which the father was thought of as the head of the household

What are cofactors

any species required by an enzyme to function (coenzymes or prosthetic groups)

What are glucocorticoids? Their effects?

are cortisol produced by adrenal cortex in response to ACTH from anterior pituitary They have a "glucagon-like effect on metabolism" in that they stimulate gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, and fatty-acid oxidation They also reduce inflammation

What is the spindle apparatus

array of microtubules that grows outwards from centrioles during mitosis to bind with centromere of chromosome during metaphase

What is racialization

ascribing a racial or ethnic identity to a group that does not self-identify as that race or ethnicity

Quaternary protein structure and describe hemoglobin

association of multiple folded proteins into a multi-subunit complex hemoglobin is common, with 4 subunits (2 alpha and 2 beta). Each has heme capable of binding one O2 molecule (4 total)

What is the learning theory of attitude change

attitudes are changed by learning. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning

What is social cognitive theory of attitude change?

attitudes change because of observational learning. Not only about modeling, but looks at how observation, personal factors, and environment interact with one another to produce learning

What is a plasmid

bacterial DNA sequence used as a vector

Describe bacterial growth

bacterial colonies grow exponentially, doubling each generation. However, there is a limit to colony size as food resources decrease and waste accumulates

Characteristics of the ovum? Define oocyte

begins meiosis and is arrested at prophase I at birth; not until puberty and menstruation is meiosis I completed Meiosis II is completed after sperm fertilizes the ovum Oocyte= an immature egg

Define reaction formation

behaving in ways that are in direct contradiction to one's true feelings Example would be a homosexual politician who actively pursues legislation to limit rights of homosexuals

What is altruism

behavior by an individual or group that benefits another individual or group at it's own expense Can still be selfish (i sacrifice now, but i get recognition or prestige)

What is aggression. Where is it associated in the brain

behavior intended to injure, harm, intimidate, or inflict pain on another. Threats prior to attack are common in humans and animals. Males are more aggressive than females because of testosterone. Caused by competition for food, resources, and reproduction Associated most closely with the hypothalamus and amygdala

What is the incentive theory of motivation

behavior is motivated by desire to obtain rewards or avoid punishment

What is the cognitive theory of emotion

behavior is motivated by thinking; including plans, goals, expectations, perceptions, and attributions Intrinsic motivation: purpose or drive is based on personal, internal, often unseen motives Extrinsic motivation: purpose or drive is based on external reward or stimuli

What are species-specific behaviors?

behavior observed only among members of the same species

What is familial concordance (in terms of genetically-based behavior variation)

behaviors shown to run in families or be more frequent among children of parents with that behavioral trait

Who is B.F. Skinner and what did he do?

best know for work on operant conditioning. Said that environment and reinforcement leads to behavior.

What is the halo-effect

bias by which positive appraisal, in one area will automatically generate positive appraisals in other areas. Ex. Apple viewed in high esteem -->even if they make an inferior item, their products will still be favored

Glycogenolysis (describe)

biochemical breakdown of glycogen to glucose (opposite of glycogenesis). Takes place in cells of muscle and liver cells

Where is connective tissue found

bones, cartilage, lymphatic tissue, fat, blood if a cell isn't one of the 3 other tissues, it is connective

What is hydrolysis

breakdown of all nutrient molecules into their monomers

Define respiration in terms of carbohydrate metabolism What would aerobic vs anaerobic mean

breakdown of macromolecules into smaller pieces to harvest energy in the form of ATP aerobic=oxygen is the final electron acceptor anaerobic=molecule other than oxygen is final electron acceptor

How are pituitary hormones regulated

by hormones secreted from the hypothalamus hypothalamus hormones have similar naming pattern as pituitary, but have "releasing" in the name: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone

What is cAMP and where does it come from

cAMP is a common second messenger molecule. Loss of a phosphate transitions ATP --> ADP--> AMP -->cAMP The only difference between ATP and cAMP is the cyclization. Transition from AMP to cAMP is endergonic, whereas the other two transitions (ATP, ADP, AMP) are all exergonic cAMP is higher energy than ATP

Marijuana effects

can be a stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen Acts on endocannibinoid neurotransmitter system. Report mild euphoria, sedation, and increased appetite

What is a heterotroph

can't fix CO2 and must ingest organic molecules such as carbohydrates as their carbon source

Respiratory Acidosis

can't remove enough of the CO₂ increase in CO₂ → increase in Carbonic Acid (H₂CO₃ ↔ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻) → Decrease in blood pH Carbonic anhydrase converts CO₂ and H₂O to H₂CO₃ TYPICALLY: ↑CO₂→↑H⁺ and bicarbonate in RBCs → More O₂ released

What is an autotroph

capable of fixing CO2 and can use CO2 as carbon source for synthesizing molecules

Function of ascending loop of Henle

carries filtrate out of medulla and back into the cortex. It is impermeable to water, and actively transports ions out of the filtrate and into the medulla. At the top of the loop, the filtrate would be less concentrated

Function of collecting duct

carries filtrate through medulla toward renal pelvis. Is very permeable to water in presence of ADH from posterior pituitary. If ADH is present, the filtrate will become further concentrated as water flows out into the salty medulla.

Describe what mismatched pairs do to DNA

cause damage mismatched pairs result from errors during replication or methylation of guanine (methylated guanine pairs with thymine instead of cytosine)

What is menopause

caused by persistent low levels of estrogen and progesterone characterized by hot flashes, vaginal dryness, atrophy of breast tissue

Describe what spontaneous hydrolysis does to DNA

causes DNA damage DNA reacts in solution without external stimuli or chemicals. Amine groups on DNA react with water to form a carbonyl; entire base replaced with a hydroxyl

What is endocytosis

cell takes up small particles by invagination of plasma membrane to form vesicle called endosome

What is the opponent process theory?

centered on homeostatic principles Addiction to drugs, the body "learns" to expect heroin to come onboard, and body mounts an opponent process the opposite way of heroin effects Stop taking heroin=body has dysphoria and withdrawal symptoms

Define sublimation (Freud)

channeling unacceptable thoughts or urges into something that is more acceptable. might be used by some artists who use some personal tragedy to energize them to create a new work of art

What are dissociative disorders?

characterized by an apparent escape from one's identity as a means of avoiding stress (Dissociative identity disorder, Dissociative amnesia)

What is somatic symptom disorder (SSD)?

characterized by physical symptoms of illness or injury that cannot be explained by a general medical condition or another mental disorder. Individuals often feel severe anxiety or distress about their undiagnosed condition and are preoccupied with its symptoms. The problem is not being fabricated by the patient, but is perceived by them as real

What is conversion disorder

characterized by the "conversion" of psychological stress into actual neurological deficits; usually numbness, paralysis, or blindness.

What is an avoidant attachment childhood like and what are adults like

childhood: caregiver is absent or unresponsive to needs. Shows no preference to caregiver over strangers. Avoids their caregiver especially after a period of absence. Doesn't seek attention or comfort from caregiver adults: have problems dealing with intimate relationships. Don't invest emotionally in relationships and are unwilling to share feelings. Common to have promiscuous sexual relations

What is disorganized attachment childhood like and what are adults like

childhood: inconsistent caregiver, erratic, or abusive. Child displays a mix of unclear attachment behaviors. Often appears confused or dazed in presence of a caregiver. May assume role of caregiver at an early age adults: various negative social outcomes in avoidant or ambivalent disorders

Describe narcolepsy. Symptoms associated

chronic neurological disorder caused by autoimmune attack of the neurons that regulates hypocretin-the hormone that regulates the sleep wake cycle Sx include cataplexy and inappropriate daytime sleepiness. Will feel same tiredness all the time as normal adults after 24-48 hours. REM is entered after 5 minutes, while normal individuals enter REM after 90-120 minutes

What is role conflict

clash between roles associated with 2 or more statuses

What is an enveloped virus

cold virus and HIV spherical membranes surrounding a protein capsid and nucleic acid

Describe nervous system signaling

communication between two cells via electrical potential carried on neurons neurotransmitters bind to receptors on post-synaptic membrane which initiates a signaling cascade

What is mRNA

complementary RNA strand copied from DNA template

What is emotion

complex psychological state of mind involving one's mood, feelings, and reactions to circumstances

What is belief perseverance

confronted with evidence that clearly contradicts our previously held belief, yet continue to hold onto it

What is cartilage? Characteristics?

connective tissue composed mostly of collagen There are no perfusions or innervations Found in appendages such as nose and ears, at the end of long bones, between vertebrae, and at almost any joint or articulation

What does the frontal lobe control

conscious movement (motor cortex), executive functions, language (Broca's area), reasoning, judgment, problem solving, etc

What are sanctions

consequences for not following norms

Who is Jean Piaget

considered father of developmental psychology and major contributor to cognitive theory. Developed 4 stages of cognitive development

What is the role of the PDH complex

converts pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA; the linkage between glycolysis and the citric acid cycle

Function and characteristics of the rough ER

covered with ribosomes that actively translocates proteins into the ER lumen makes all proteins that are in the ER, golgi, lysosomes, endosomes, plasma membrane, or that are secreted out of the cell Post-translational modifications (disulfide bonds, glycosylations, etc.) are started here; continue in the golgi

Where is epithelial tissue found

covers the body of lines it's cavities epidermis of skin, endothelium of blood and lymph vessels, and mesothelium of thoracic cavity

Define rationalization (Freud)

creating excuses to justify something that is unacceptable. A student who fails a class claims that the professor was impossible to understand

What is a test cross

crossing an organism with a dominant phenotype with one that has a recessive phenotype

What is culture's role in attribution

culture impacts the kind of attributions one is likely to make. If a culture causes members to consider neighboring societies as enemies, then they will view their behaviors as negative and dispositional

What are the biological markers of depression

decreased monoamine levels in the brain (serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine). Increased cortisol level and glucose metabolism in the amygdala. The hippocampus of chronically-depressed patients atrophies (shrinks) compared to healthy individuals. Having a family member with depression is a risk factor

Function of cardiovascular system

deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells and tissues of the body pick up CO2 and waste products and deliver them to lungs and kidneys

What is self-identity

descriptive characteristics, qualities, and abilities that people use to define themselves "How i define myself; my idea of who i am"

Function of juxtaglomerular apparatus

detects decreased blood pressure in afferent arteriole and then secretes Renin. This then sets into motion the Renin-Angiotensin pathway that increases blood volume and blood pressure

Functional theory of deviance

deviance is not necessarily negative and is in fact necessary for social order. Deviance helps to clarify boundaries of social norms and can also play a positive role in initiating social change

Culture influence on cognitive development

different expectations and traditions will reward different behaviors because of different values

Environmental influence on cognitive development

different parents styles can reward different behaviors; exposure to environmental chemicals or toxins can effect; fetal environment (fetal alcohol syndrome)

What are dyssomnias?

difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or avoiding sleep

Describe lipid absorption

digestion begins in the duodenum (SI) and is complete by the end of the small intestine. Cannot begin prior to small intestine because they will encounter bile and lipase in the SI Triacylglycerides are broken down into fatty acids, transported across membrane, and then reformed into triacylglycerides They will enter lacteals (Not blood stream). In order to travel, they must either bind to carrier proteins or be formed into a chylomicron or micelle

Describe protein absorption

digestion begins in the stomach and is complete by the end of the small intestine. Proteins are broken down into small peptides and amino acids before absorption They will enter the bloodstream and travel to the liver

Describe carbohydrate absorption

digestion will begin in the mouth (from salivary amylase), and is complete by the time that food is passed through the small intestine Carbohydrates are broken down entirely to monomers (glucose, fructose, etc.) before absorption They will enter the blood stream and travel to the liver via hepatic portal vein

Describe what chemiosmotic coupling is

direct coupling of the energy inherent in electrochemical gradient across inner mitochondrial membrane to phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP

What is dispositional attribution vs situational attribution?

dispositional=explaining a behavior based on an individual's personality or disposition situational=explain a behavior as a function of context and circumstances in which behavior occurred.

What is paranoid personality disorder? What cluster is it a part of?

disruptive patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning. May be accompanied by pervasive distrust or suspicion, a feeling one is being lied to or exploited, a belief that friends and family are untrustworthy or unfaithful, attributing hidden meaning to everyday gestures and conversations Cluster A

Describe schizoid personality disorder? What cluster is it a part of?

disruptive patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning. May be accompanied by severe detachment from others, little to no desire to form relationships, a sense of indifference to praise, affirmation, criticism, or rejection, etc. These individuals rarely participate in fun or pleasurable activities and are described by others as cold, uninterested, withdrawn, or aloof Cluster A

What is schizotypal personality disorder? What cluster is it a part of?

distorted patterns of thought, behavior, and functioning. May be accompanied by eccentric perceptions, thoughts, or behaviors, "magical thinking", reported ability to read minds or foretell the future, talking to oneself, difficulty forming relationships, severe social anxiety, etc Cluster A

Define displacement (Freud)

diverting unacceptable feelings onto someone or something other than their source

Mitochondrial genetic code

doesn't use the same genetic code to translate their DNA as the normal DNA/RNA process

Characteristics of surface proteins

don't enter hydrophobic core of bilayer, but instead are contained only on the polar surface of the plasma membrane AKA peripheral proteins

What is the inflammatory response?

done by macrophages, mast cells, and dendritic cells. All are residents of nearly all tissues. When damage is caused, these cells are activated to release chemicals such as histamines, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins Chemicals increase blood blood to site, gives heat and redness Also increase permeability of veins and lymph vessels, which causes plasma and interstitial fluid to flood to infection site and gives swelling

What is the lysogenic cycle?

dormant cycle of virus during which time DNA is incorporated into host's genome but new viruses aren't being assembled This would be HIV infection without AIDS symptoms

Nucleus membrane characteristics

double bilayer; one of which is continuous with the ER

Describe what allosteric control is

downstream product inhibits an upstream enzyme. The eventual target molecule is often a major inhibitor that downregulates upstream products

Describe the problem-solving theory of dreaming

dreams are a way for mind to solve problems encountered while awake. Some proponents suggest the unconscious dreaming mind is better suited or more capable of solving problems than the awake mind. Unrestricted by reality or more sensitive to subtle clues

Role of vas deferens

duct that connects each testicle with urethra. Begins at epididymis and leads up inside scrotum, into pelvic cavity, past seminal vesicles, through prostate gland, and empties into urethra

Role of fallopian tubes

ducts that utilize ciliated epithelium to transport egg from ovary to the uterus Fertilization usually occurs in one of the fallopian tubes

What are dyads, triads, and large groups

dyad=the smallest group size you can have. tend to be emotional and unstable. Dissolved if one person leaves triad=added stability from dyad. 3rd person often mediates disputes, and this is more likely to survive as group size increase, stability and longevity increase, but intimacy, loyalty, bonding, sense of responsibility, level of individual contribution and consensus all decline.

hcG: location, class, function

egg/placenta peptide/water-soluble prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum, maintaining pregnancy

Define repression

ego defense mechanism by which information is unconsciously pushed out of conscious awareness.

Characteristics of the uterus

elastic, muscular pouch that receives a fertilized egg via implantation and provides nourishment for developing fetus Muscle contraction of uterine wall stimulated by oxytocin facilitates childbirth

Authorhythmic process in heart

electric impulse originates in SA node, not from a nervous system signal Nerves do innervate heart, but only regulate rhythm up or down Vagus nerve slows HR, sympathetic nerves increase HR

What is the social construction model of emotional expression

emotional response isn't biologically predetermined and all emotional response is based entirely on experience and context

Functions of the amygdala

emotions Part of the limbic system also plays a role in sexual activity and libido

Schachter-Singer theory of emotion

emotions are composed of 2 factors: a physiological component and a cognitive component. Physiological arousal is interpreted in context, which leads to emotional experience

James-Lange theory of emotion

emotions arise from physiological arousal. We only experience fear because of activation of sympathetic nervous system upon encountering a threat

What is the self-determination theory

emphasizes the motivational importance of 3 basic needs: 1. Autonomy: sense that one is in control of one's own lie choices 2. Competence: feeling capable at a task; ability to excel at something 3. Relatedness: sense of being accepted in social settings or relationships

Function of Bowman's capsule

encloses glomerulus and catches filtrate as its formed and funnels it into the proximal tubule

What are tumor suppressor genes?

encode proteins that in their normal state negatively regulate proliferation require 2 recessive alleles to lose function

What are macrophages role

engulf microbes and present antigens from those microbes on MHC proteins

What are restriction endonucleases

enzymes that cut DNA at specific, pre-determined sequences

Describe the mismatched repair system

enzymes that scan newly copied DNA and locate, excise and replace mismatched pairs that are missed by DNA polymerase

What are the four types of tissue

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

Characteristics of erythrocytes

essentially just sacks of hemoglobin. immature RBCs start out with a nucleus and organelles but mature RBCs have NO organelles Therefore they do not undergo mitosis because of the lacking of cellular machinery.

What is prodromal phase of schizophrenia

essentially the early onset of schizophrenia. Mild, non-psychotic symptoms begin to surface. Individual may begin to show disinterest in things that once brought them pleasure or may begin to isolate themselves from others

What is stereotyping

establishing overgeneralized beliefs and expectations of a given group that may or may not match reality

Hormones released by the gonads (characteristics)

estrogen (ovaries), progesteron (ovaries), and testosterone (testes) Are steroids and lipid-soluble

What is functional fixedness and how can it effect problem solving

example of a mental set in which, when solving a problem, we can only visualize using an object in the ways we have seen it used previously Explained best by Dunker's candle problem

What is ketoacidosis

excess acidity of blood Caused by increased number of ketone bodies found in the liver after prolonged periods of fasting (byproducts of fatty acid metabolism) 2/3 of ketones are used as energy for heart and brain, but cannot be used by the liver because it lacks enzyme Ketoacidosis can also be caused by DM because lack of insulin available for sugar uptake from blood causes liver to switch to fatty acids like you were fasting

Describe nucleotide excision repair

excision of oligonucleotides that includes several bases on either side of error. DNA polymerase and ligase will replace

What is the function of the excretory system

excrete liquid and solute waste (excess water, salts, nitrogenous waste, etc.) maintains pH, osmolarity, and blood pressure primarily involves the kidneys

Culture and socialization influences

expectations and norms of one's culture along with socialization processes to which one is subject, provides strong driving force during identity formation. Certain identities may be encouraged/discouraged by different cultures

What is a manic episode

experience marked by dramatically elevated mood, decreased need for sleep, increased energy, inflated self-esteem, increased talkativeness, and irresponsible behavior. In bipolar disorder, this is the main criteria; whereas depression is not included in the DSM criteria

Describe how external chemicals and radiation can damage DNA

exposed to radiation, neighboring pyrimidines react with each other to form covalent dimers. Chemicals can cause alkylation of functional groups on DNA base Carcinogens, often polycyclic compounds, that bind to DNA make it a bulky side group

What is a stigma

extreme dislike or negativity toward a person or group (or some characteristic of that person or group) based on perceived deviance from social norms

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

false, yet strongly held belief or prediction about an individual or group that is accepted as true. False belief will eventually elicit behavior that matches belief. Mary scores high on a test. Teacher tells her she's remedial. She then scores worse

What are the 4 major agents of socialization

family (generally considered most influential), mass media, peers, work place other agents include religion, school, government

Role of ovaries

female gonads. Develop and release ova on a regular 28 day cycle Function as endocrine glands that secrete estrogen and progesterone

Difference between feminism and feminist theory

feminism is a movement feminist theory is an area of study that explores psychological or sociological explanations for discrimination, inequality, and objectification

Characteristics of lymph nodes

filled with lymphocytes These immune system cells monitor the blood for foreign antigens and fight infections

Define selective attention

focus on one aspect of our environment and ignore the other aspects can lead to inattentional blindness: a lack of attention to what is not being focused on

What is phonology

focus on the phonemes (sound units within a given language) and how they can be combined in meaningful ways

What is conflict theory?

focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order Marx is the father of conflict theory

Function of stomach

food storage and mixing. First stage of protein digestion. Slows passage of food through digestive tract, allowing time for complete digestion and absorption The proteins in the stomach will undergo hydrolysis catalyzed by PEPSIN

Posterior pituitary (location and function) Derived from where?

forebrain secretes antidiuretic hormone (ADH aka vasopressin) and oxytocin Pituitary gland is derived from the ectodermal layer, the posterior portion is derived from the diencephalon

Pineal gland (location and function)

forebrain secretes melatonin, regulates sleep, receives input from retina regarding circadian rhythm

Amygdala (location and function)

forebrain (part of the limbic system) emotion, motivation, implicit emotional memory

Hippocampus (location and function)

forebrain (part of the limbic system) memory consolidation (short-term to longer term) and explicit emotional memory

Microfilament characteristic and function

form "thin filament" portion of the sarcomere Also plays a role in the cytoskeleton

Difference between formal and informal social control

formal=laws, sanctions, or regulations enforced by an authority figure, often government informal=socialization, or any means used to encourage adherence to societal norms and values for acceptable behavior

What is hematopoiesis?

formation and differentiation of blood cells in red bone marrow

What is speciation

formation of a new species from an existing one through evolution

Spinal cord (embryological origin and function)

from the inferior neural tube controls reflexes, bundled tracts to and from peripheral nervous system

Compare Electric Field with Gravitational Field variables

g=E (strength of electric field) G=K (electric field constant) h=r or d (distance in or radius in electric field) m=q (charge) F=F gh=V (voltage or electric potential)

Function of the respiratory system

gas exchange Inhalation and exhalation are necessary functions to deliver air to alveoli where gas exchange can occur. Oxygen will diffuse down its concentration gradient into the blood and CO2 will diffuse down its concentration gradient out of blood and back into the lungs

Intermediate filament characteristic and function

general class of several proteins that polymerizes to form filaments that are intermediate in diameter (microfilaments=small; microtubules=large)

What are age cohorts

generational segments of society that share a common characteristic or life experiences because of the time period in which they were born Baby boomers, Gen X, Millennials, etc

Oncogenes

genes that cause cancer by blocking the normal controls on cell reproduction are generally gain-of-function alleles and only require one bad copy

What are regulatory genes

genes that code for a substance that regulates the transcription of another gene (up or down, promotion or inhibition)

What is anchoring and adjustment heuristic

giving higher priority to very first piece of information received and/or framing subsequent information around it

Describe brain specific metabolism

glucose during well fed state; glucose if fasting; ketones if prolonged fasting or starvation

Describe red blood cell specific metabolism

glucose in all states; always via anaerobic glycolysis

Describe adipose tissue specific metabolism

glucose in well fed state; fatty acid if fasting

Name the common monosaccharides

glyceraldehyde, dihydroxyacetone, ribose, deoxyribose, glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose

Describe Triacylglycerol (kinds)

glycerol backbone with 3 fatty acids attached via an ester linkage AKA triglycerides Saturated: no double bonds Unsaturated: at least one double bond

Describe glycogen metabolism feeder pathway for glycolysis

glycogen=glucose polymer, mostly in the liver, also high in muscles glycogen phosphorylase will remove glucose residues from reducing ends of glycogen polymers and produce Glucose-1P. Phosphoglucomutase will then convert glucose-1P to glucose-6P with then feeds into the second step of glycolysis

estrogen: location, class, function

gonads (ovaries) steroid/lipid-soluble stimulates female sex organs; causes LH surge in menstruation

Progesterone: location, class, function

gonads (ovaries) steroid/lipid-soluble stimulates growth and maintenance of uterus during pregnancy

Characteristics of eosinophils

granulocyte Recruited to areas of parasitic invasion, particularly multicellular parasites, where they release their granules containing peroxidases and other enzymes that digest tissue --> This destroys pathogens but also host tissue

What is ethnicity

groups of people according to culture, religion, language, or national origin

Hormones released by the embryo/placenta (characteristics)

hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) Peptide and water-soluble

Mitochondria function and characteristics

has it's own circular DNA and variations to nuclear genetic code pH of intermembrane space is lower than the matrix because of the H+ gradient

Define amphipathic (which of the lipids would be so)

having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts fatty acid, phospholipid, sphingolipid, and glycolipid

Define amphipathic

having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions

What does the temporal lobe control

hearing/language (secondary to the frontal lobe, in the primary auditory cortex), memory (hippocampus)

What is the bystander effect

help to a victim is withheld in situations in which there are other people around (Kitty Genovese: attacked and murdered with multiple people watching)

Role of lymph nodes in immune system

high concentration of B and T lymphocytes. Filters blood for pathogens

What is prestige (social class)

honor or deference attached to a social class and distributed unequally as a dimension of social stratification Distributed according to 3 factors: possessions, quality, and performance

What is social perception

how we perceive other individuals or groups, form impressions of them, and make judgements about them. This is often inaccurate due to various bias'

What is self-presentation? Impression management?

how we present or display ourselves to society impression management is "presenting oneself", and implies that the representation of ourselves is not always genuine. Individuals will attempt to shape, manipulate and manage how they are perceived (front stage vs back stage self)

What is saponification

hydrolysis of esters (e.g. triacylglycerides, phospholipids, etc) Once a fatty acid attachs to a glycerol, it becomes an ester

What is cultural capital

ideas and knowledge people draw upon as they engage in social life. Example would be being able to speak in public to the correct use of utensils when eating

Function of descending loop of Henle

impermeable to salts, but very permeable to water. So water flows out of filtrate which concentrates the urine

Gender differences in health

in developed countries, women have longer life-expectancy than males Men are more prone to heart disease, diabetes, asthma, and various other chronic illnesses. Are also more prone to injury, or as casualties of war

Function of aldosterone

in the kidneys acts on *distal convoluted tubule* causing an increase in Na uptake. Also causes a reabsorption of Na out of collecting duct via insertion of Na channels, K channels, and Na/K ATPases in cells that line the collection duct NET EFFECT= water retention and increased blood pressure

What is an in-group vs out-group

in-group=social groups that members feel an affinity for, loyalty to, and respect for out-groups=social groups that individuals feel conflict or competition toward

Define denial (Freud)

inability to accept some reality. Denying something despite the fact that there is an abundance of information on the contrary

Describe vaccines

inactive forms of virus are delivered to a person so that their immune system can develop antibodies Upon exposure, immune system will create memory B-cells. If later infected these memory B-cells will differentiate into plasma cells that rapidly produce and release antibodies for the virus.

What are the biological markers of bipolar disorder?

increased monamine levels in the brain. Increased risk for persons with multiple sclerosis or who have a family member with bipolar disorder.

Describe Galton's theory of intelligence

individual heritable characteristics contribute to intelligence as much as any gene gene contributes to physical traits Pioneered the nature vs nurture debate with monozygotic/dizygotic twin study Strongly in favor of the nature component and a strong proponent of eugenics

What is conformity

individuals alter their behaviors or attitudes to "fit in" a social context passive influence that others have on our behavior

What is social identity theory?

individuals derive pride and self-esteem from group memberships As a result, individuals always strive to increase the status of the group they belong and will discriminate against out-groups

What is social facilitation?

individuals will perform better on simple tasks when being observed by others (simple=tasks in which one is already proficient) Will perform worse on complex tasks when being observed by others (complex= tasks that are still new or difficult)

What is spatial inequality? Residential segregation?

inequality in some variable between persons living in geographic locations Residential segregation is physical separation of individuals with different characteristics or backgrounds into different neighborhoods. This is usually according to race, ethnicity, or SES

Heredity influence on cognitive development

inheritance of genetic predispositions, such as autism or down syndrome

Describe an irreversible inhibitor and give an example

inhibitor binds to the enzyme irreversibly, rendering the enzyme non-functional. Inhibitor binds the active site in some way that so that substrate can't ever attach again Aspirin binds the active sites of cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 and irreversibly prevents their inflammatory response

Characteristics of unitary/single-unit smooth muscles?

innervated by a single neuron and contract simultaneously as a single group Most common smooth muscle unit, found in most organs, blood vessels, digestive tract

Characteristics of multi-unit smooth muscle?

innervated by multiple neurons and doesn't act as a single unit Allows for more precise control These are rare, found in larger vessels such as aorta and in the retina of the eye

What are minerals used for?

inorganic molecules necessary for bone formation, ion gradients, oxygen transport, muscle contraction, ATP processing, and production of stomach acid

What are thermogenin channels

inserts in the inner mitochondrial membrane that allows an alternative pathway for H+ ions in the gradient. Results in a decreased production of ATP

What are the carbohydrate metabolism hormones

insulin, glucagon, glucocorticoids, catecholamines, T3 and T4

Describe voltage-gated potassium channels

integral membrane proteins that respond to a change in membrane potential. Much higher threshold than that of sodium channel. Only react to a very large change in membrane potential caused by depolarization Just before maximum depolarization is reached, Na+ channels begin to close and K+ channels begin to open

Characteristics of transport proteins

integral proteins that span the entire width of the lipid bilayer. essentially create tunnels through the hydrophobic core

What is globalization

integration of individual economies and cultures into a more unified global economy and culture This would include things like free trade between nations, economic interdependence, ease of travel, and access to technology that tend to blur national boundaries and encourage globalization

Describe the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

intelligence follow a normal distribution (Gaussian) Mean is 100 and standard deviation is 15 Tests linguistic and logical-mathematical intellect IQ=Mental age/chronological age *100

Describe the difference between internalization and identification

internalization=process by which an individual accepts, as his/her own, a set of norms established by people or groups influential to that individual identification=process of incorporating the characteristics of a parent or other influential person by adopting their appearance, attitude, and behavior (tend to identify with persons are emotionally attached to and whom they perceive to be most similar to)

Describe REM sleep

intervallic period of sleep denoted by rapid or random eye movement at heightened sense of alertness that is greater than any of the sleep stages occurs between other stages, with several points of REM happening throughout the night First REM period are shorter and longest is typically in the morning right before waking Most vivid dreams are thought to occur during REM

Characteristics of smooth muscle

involuntary, non-striated, one nucleus controls gut, viscera, blood vessels, etc Not arranged in sarcomeres, so does not contract via the sliding filament model (but does have a similar system)

Characteristics of cardiac muscle

involuntary, striated only one nucleus Contains sarcomeres and thus use the same sliding filament model as skeletal muscles Contain large amounts of myoglobin and large amount of mitochondria to prevent fatigue Connected by intercalated discs containing gap junctions (ions for action potential pass through) These DO continue to divide after differentiation

Define projection (Freud)

involves attributing your own unwanted thoughts/feelings to someone else Example would be a teacher who doesn't like a student would insist that the student doesn't like them

Tubulin characteristics (how does it relate to microtubules)

is a globular protein that polymerizes to form microtubules alpha and beta subunit form a heterodimer and is assembled into a protofilament. 13 protofilaments surround a hollow core to make microtubule.

What is stem cell therapy

it was assumed for years that neurons never regrow; that once dead, a neuron could never be replaced. Recent research has shown that the brain of healthy individuals does occasionally form new neurons out of pluripotent stem cells in the CNS; cells similar to neurologically-bound fetal stem cells This has provided hope for treating diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's and holds out the promise of some future ability to regrow or repair nervous tissue

What happens if you insert a H+ channel into the mitochondria membrane

it will decrease the production of ATP because of it presenting an alternate pathway for the H+ gradient

What is ethnocentrism

judging another culture based solely on the values of own culture

What is cultural relativism

judging another's culture by it's own standards Something weird in another country may be normal based on their culture

Describe lactic acid fermentation

lactate is produced and is the final electron acceptor when oxygen isn't present This is important because NAD+ is regenerated again so that glycolysis can continue

Name the common disaccharides

lactose= galactose + glucose (β-linked) maltose= glucose + glucose sucrose= glucose + fructose

Describe the interactionist theory of language

language acquisition occurs in predictable fixed stages of development

What is attitude

learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. Can be positive, negative, biased, or neutral. Possible to be uncertain --> "mixed feelings"

Describe brain waves, what their frequencies are, and what each of them relate to

level of consciousness on an EEG Alpha: (9-13Hz) very relaxed or meditation Beta: (14-40Hz) awake and alert Theta: (4-8Hz) light sleep Delta: (0.5-3.9Hz) Deep sleep

What is an alpha linked carbohydrate?

linked through an oxygen atom on OPPOSITE side of the plane from CH₂OH group

What is a beta linked carbohydrate?

linked through an oxygen atom on the SAME side of the plane

What are prostaglandins?

lipid mediators that have autocrine (self-target) and paracrine (target=cell in immediate vicinity) functions throughout the body HORMONE LIKE EFFECTS Produce and released throughout body, NOT just in specialized glands (like endocrine) Act locally, rather than traveling to distant targets via bloodstream (like endocrine)

Characteristics of phospholipids

lipid molecule with non-polar tail region s and polar phosphate heads

Intracellular receptors (endocrine): describe

lipid-soluble hormones (steroids) don't require plasma membrane surface receptor; they dissolve through the membrane and bind targets in the cytosol instead. In most cases the activated target acts inside the nucleus on promotor region of a gene

Define contralateral

literally means opposite side In reference to the brain, it refers to the idea that sensory and motor functions on the left side of the body are processed on the right side of the brain and vice versa

role of thymus in immune system

location where T-lymphocytes acquire immunocompetence, differentiate, and mature

What are telomeres

long sections of repetitive DNA nucleotides found at both ends of each chromosome they are the buffer regions of non-coding DNA so that repetitive losses in length don't affect a gene sequence ~50 replication cycles will consume all of telomere; then there starts to be some loss of gene sequence

Describe Asch's conformity study

looked at peer pressure (1952) Students were grouped (6-8) and all but one was told that their job was to put pressure on the remaining person to answer the wrong way Found that 1/3 of students would be willing to question their own beliefs/judgments in the face of disagreement with others

What is deindividualization

loss of one's sense of themselves and personal responsibility when part of a large group Often is associated with Mob Mentality (violence and destruction) Also associated with charitable events (prosocial behavior)

Characteristics of T-cells (Helper vs suppressor vs Killer)

lymphocyte mature in the thymus and participate in cell-mediated immunity. Recognize and bind antigens via a "T-cell receptor" (TCR) not found in B-cells Helper: T-cells that help other immune system cells such as B-cells and cytotoxic T-cells to perform their function Suppressor: AKA regulatory T-cells; suppress body's own immune system. Helps prevent severe allergic reactions or autoimmune disease and AIDs in turning off an immune response once an infection has been eliminated Killer: AKA cytotoxic T-cells; target infected and cancerous versions of the body's own cells and destroy them

Characteristics of natural killer cells

lymphocyte recognize infected or cancerous cells and release cytotoxic granules that destroy the cell

Characteristics of B-cells (memory and plasma)

lymphocytes that mature in bone marrow and lymph tissue and participate in humoral immunity. B-cells produce antibodies, T-cells DON'T Plasma cells: formed when a B-cell binds its matching antigen and is activated (with help of help T-cells) to undergo mitosis. Essentially act as "Antibody factories" making and secreting soluble copies of that antibody Memory: remain in the body, allowing immune system to mount a more efficient secondary immune response if there is a later infection by the same pathogen

What is the expectancy-value theory of emotion

magnitude of motivation to engage in a behavior is a function of an interplay between an individuals expectation of success and perception of relative value of rewards associated with success

Role of the tesicles

make, nurture, and store sperm

Malignant vs benign

malignant= currently exhibiting uncontrolled growth and are likely to metastasize Benign= tumors that are slowly growing, have not invaded other tissues, but could become cancerous later on

Where is physical digestion

mastication, churning in the stomach and breaking food into smaller pieces. This includes emulsification of fats by bile

What are cultural barriers

may occur when a person of one culture interacts with a person of another culture. Beliefs, attitudes, and customs may clash. Example of this would be accommodating religious preferences in the work place

What are semantics?

meaning of language and involve how meaning is changed as a function of relationship among the words that are used

What is the function of the digestive system

mechanical and chemical digestion of food into monomers and simple components for absorption and later use as source energy, carbon chains, and amino acids

What is the acromsome

membrane-bound structure on top of head of each sperm contains hydrolytic enzyme to break down impenetrable coating around ovum

Describe information processing theory of dreaming

memories and information accumulated during the day are consolidated during sleep, dreaming is the cerebral cortex associating images or meaning with this consolidation process

Biological influences on cognitive development

metabolic or other biological conditions can alter cognition or cause brain damage

What are the 3 primary contributors to the cytoskeleton of the cell

microfilament, intermediate filaments, and microtubules

What is the threshold potential

minimum stimulus that must be exerted on membrane to initiate full action potential. Is usually somewhere around -55mV. If a stimulus depolarizes membrane above this threshold, the entire action potential will follow; if not it will return to -70mV

Racial differences in health

minorities have poorer health, less access to healthcare, and are more prone to engage in unhealthy behaviors Race and class are different constructs, but are often considered together with regard to health disparities

What is the endosymbiotic theory and explain it's implications

mitochondria evolved from aerobic prokaryotes that were engulfed by a larger "host prokaryote" this results in mitochondria having it's own circular DNA like prokaryotes; the genes of the mitochondria are only passed down through the maternal line

What is tRNA

molecule that bridges gap between mature mRNA and assembled protein. Has an anti-codon on one end and other end is covalently bonded to amino acid associated with that anti-codon

Characteristics of monocytes/macrophages

monocytes mature into macrophages Macrophages phagocytize pathogens and cellular debris. Phagocytosis by macrophages is non-specific and a type of innate immunity but macrophages also present antigens from pathogens they consume for recognition by B and T cells --> An aspect of acquired immunity

What do monozygotic vs dizygotic twin studies examine

monozygotic twins= genetic influence is controlled; studies examine twins raised in different homes so that environmental influence is variable dizygotic twins=genetic influence is variable; studies examine twins in the same home, so that environmental influence is controlled

Describe anxiety disorder frequencies

more frequent among women than men. Most common psychological disorders in the US

What is a phosphatid

most basic phospholipid 2 fatty acids and ONLY a phosphate group attached directly to a glycerol backbone

What is a secure attachment? What are childhoods like and what are adults like

most developmentally healthy form of attachment childhood has a constant caregiver present. Prefers their caregiver but can be comforted by strangers. They are going to be visibly upset when their caregiver leaves, and comforted when they return Adults are going to be trusting, have lasting relationships, high self-esteem, and comfortable with sharing feelings

What is the role of the musculoskeletal system

movement, support and stabilization, generation of heat, aid to circulation, and maintenance of homeostasis

Describe the characteristics of the diaphragm

moves down when flexed and moves up when relaxed. When relaxed it has an upward-oriented convex shape. When flexed it is flat Moves down during inhalation, moves up during exhalation

What is myoglobin

muscles own oxygen storage molecule Is one subunit of hemoglobin, capable of holding one O2 molecule

Characteristics of arteries Characteristics of veins

muscular, thick-walled vessels that push blood through via rhythmic contraction thin-walled vessels with little to no musculature that rely on a valve system to move blood back toward the heart

What are fungi? Describe

mushrooms, yeasts, molds All are heterotrophs; most are saprophytic (live off dead, decaying matter), but a few are parasitic (live off host, killing it), or mutualistic Have walls made of chitin, spend most of life as haploid, grow via long intertwining branches called hyphae, and yeasts reproduce almost exclusively from budding

What does the term heterotrophs mean

must eat the carbon that is needed to build macromolecules humans are heterotrophs

What are carcinogens

mutagenic chemicals that cause or promote cancer

What happens if there is no ATP present for sliding filament

myosin heads can't detach from actin and muscle is stuck in the contracted position This is called rigor --> Rigor Mortis

What is the brush border

name of microvilli and collection of mucus and digestive enzymes intermingled within them in the small intestine

What are neuropeptides. Compare to neurotransmitters

neuro-active peptides whose function is similar to that of neurotransmitters. Endorphins are one example Neurotransmitters are faster and have more short-lived effects Neuropeptides are slower and have longer lasting effects

What is Secondary Active Transport

no direct coupling of ATP required, is instead carrier mediated Antiport or symport

What is pinocytosis

non-specific endocytosis of extracellular fluid and very small particles; occurs in all cells

Characteristics of Leukocytes (2 subtypes)

normal cells with all organelles Granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils (live for hours to days) Agranulocytes: monocytes (macrophages) and lymphocytes --> live for months to years

What are proto-oncogenes?

normal versions of oncogenes. They encode for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth & division. Usually regulate cell-growth, division, apoptosis, etc as their normal function

What is anomie

normlessness. a state of instability due to lack of social norms or breakdown of social standards or values Individuals in a state of anomie lack purpose and feel a sense of futility because acceptable goals or ideals are unclear

What are mores

norms that have moral significance and are widely observed by members of society (driving a care while drunk=violation of more)

Where does translation occur?

occurs in the cytoplasm on free floating ribosomes and on RER

Describe fatty acid synthesis

occurs primarily in the cytosol of liver cells Always occurs with the construction of 16C palmitic acid, which is the only fatty acid the human body can synthesize from scratch Then moves to smooth ER Is a source of acetyl-CoA via the citrate shuttle

What is base rate fallacy

occurs when representativeness heuristics are used in error Fail to take into account general information when dealing with specific cases

Where are proteins that are bound for the cytosol made

on free floating ribosomes in the cytosol

Microtubule function and characteristics? Found where?

one of 3 primary contributors to the cytoskeleton an alpha and beta tubulin will form a heterodimer that is assembled into long chains called protofilaments. 13 protofilaments then surround hollow core to make 1 microtubule Found in places that contain cilia (lungs, ependymal cells of brain, and fallopian tubes), flagella of sperm, and in all cells as part of cytoskeleton

What is genetic imprinting?

one specific gene is expressed differently depending on which parent it originated from

What is a non-zero sum game?

one's gain is not balanced by losses of others

Describe the role of group memberships

one's identity is tightly associated with the groups to which one belongs. Religion, nationalism, ethnicity

What is a zero-sum game

one's own gain is balanced by the losses of another

What is locus of control? Internal vs External

one's personal belief regarding the degree to which one can or cannot control life events or outcomes Internal= i believe i primarily control and determine outcomes External= i believe external events or influences beyond my control determine outcomes

Describe trial and error approach to problem solving

only effective when relatively few options

What is depolarization

opening of voltage-gated sodium channels causes a sudden spike in membrane potential from -70mV to +40mV

Describe Freud's Ego

operates in the conscious, PRE-conscious and unconscious realms Responsible for helping the desires of the Id to be realized in a way acceptable in real-life scenarios. Also helps balance the perfectionist tendencies of the Superego NOT present at birth; develops from the Id

Pain killers (types and effects)

opiates and opioids Have pronounced analgesic (pain killing) properties, act on opioid system in the brain. Feelings of euphoria when smoking or IV usage Effect motility of smooth muscle, temperature regulation, HR, and RR

What is hydroxyapatite?

organic compound of calcium, phosphate, and hydroxide this is the mineral matrix responsible for a bone's strength and is form in which most all of body's calcium is stored

What would reliance on central traits be

our perception of others is affected by focusing on characteristics that are of particular interest to us

What is confirmation bias

overestimate of how "right" we are. Seek out and attend to information that agrees with our own perspective while ignoring counter information

What is confirmation bias

overestimating how "right" we are by seeking out information that agrees with our own perspective and ignoring information that might challenge previously held beliefs

Describe the levels of estrogen and progesterone through the various reproductive stages

ovulation requires a surge in hormone levels, whereas menstruation requires a chronic decline Persistent low levels leads to symptoms of menopause

What is a chemotroph

oxidize organic or inorganic molecules to harvest energy

Lysosome function and characteristics

pH of 5 digests cell parts and fuses with phagocytotic vesicles. Participates in cell death They are formed by budding from the golgi

How does pH, temperature, substrate concentration, and enzyme concentration effect enzyme reaction rate?

pH: changes in either direction will disrupt the H-bonding of enzyme and enzyme substrate complex Temp: mild increases will increase rate, but too much will denature Substrate Conc: at low conc, reaction rate will increase rapidly, but as it becomes saturated the rate will drop off Enzyme Conc: same as substrate

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation

pH=pKa + log(base/acid)

Insulin: location, class, function

pancreas islet cells peptide/water-soluble stimulates uptake and storage of glucose from the blood (causes cells to uptake glucose)

Parathyroid hormone: location, class, function

parathyroid peptide/water-soluble increases blood calcium by stimulating proliferation of osteoclasts, uptake of Ca2+ in the gut, and reabsorption of Ca2+ in the kidney

What is the word association test?

participants are provided a word and are asked to provide a word they associate with it

What is a schema

pattern of thought we use to create categories of information or behavior and to understand the relationship that exists among these categories. Help process tremendous amount of information we receive daily, but also bias the ways that we deal with new information We will assimilate things to fit the schema, but we can also amend our schemas

What is the foot-in-the-door phenomenon?

people are more likely to agree to larger or more difficult requests if they first agree to a smaller request. The behavior of the person making the request changes the attitude of the person being asked to do something

What is social loafing

people will exert less effort towards a common group task because others are engaged in completing the task

Characteristics of mast cells

permanent resident cells within many tissues activated by allergens and other antigens to release histamine and other chemical mediators Usually associated with severe allergic reactions, including anaphylactic shock

What is antisocial personality disorder? What cluster is it a part of?

persistent pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others. May be accompanied by cruelty to animals, lack of concern for others, difficulty feeling empathy for others, impulsivity, aggressiveness or irritability, failure to conform to social norms, etc. Symptoms usually begin in childhood and include such things as setting fires, legal trouble, and difficulty with authority. -Is never diagnosed before the age of 18 -Must include some symptoms before the age of 15 -Severe cases are further classified as a sociopath or a psychopath Cluster B

What is compliance

person changes their behavior because they are asked to do so explicitly or implicitly an active attempt to alter one's behavior, but doesn't require changes in thought or attitude about the behavior

What is situational personality theory?

personality (and behavior generally) is the result of external situational factors rather than internal traits or unconscious motivations.

Describe trait personality theories

personality is the sum of broad, relatively stable characteristics or dispositions, called traits. More focused on unique differences between individuals, whereas psychoanalytical or humanistic focuses more on commonalities among all people

What is the elaboration likelihood model?

persuading someone to change their attitudes about a situation Central route: thoughtful consideration of information that is being presented. More likely to have a lasting change, but person being persuaded must have an open mind Peripheral route: when person being persuaded has very little interest in subject. Persuaded by the impressions of person trying to persuade. Can cause attitude change, but shorter-lived than central

What is incomplete dominance?

phenotypes of the dominant and recessive alleles appear to be mixed or blended in the phenotype of a heterozygote (Red and white give pink flower)

Role of bones

physical support and movement, protection of vital structure, mineral storage and regulation of blood mineral concentration and blood cell formation

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization

What is polygyny vs polyandry?

polygyny= marriage between one man and 2 (+) women polyandry=marriage between one woman and 2(+) men. This is very rare Polygamy is more normal in lower income countries, whereas monogamy is the norm of the majority of countries today

What is rRNA

polymer of which ribosomes are constructed. Assembled in nucleolus. Ribosomes are a non-protein entity that act as enzymes in polymerization of proteins.

What is absolute refractory period

portion of time during which an action potential cannot be initiated regardless of strength of stimulus Occurs during progression of previous action potential

What is the relative refractory period

portion of time during which the membrane is hyperpolarized action potential can be generated, but requires a stronger than normal stimulus

What is token economy

positive behavior is reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged later for prizes, treats, or other reinforcers.

Describe the effects of chronic insomnia

positively correlated with decreased cognitive functioning, depression, and multiple chronic disease including heart disease, htn, obesity, and dm

How is a chemical transmission signal stopped

post-synaptic membrane will be continuously stimulated as long as neurotransmitter is present. Specialized enzymes in synaptic cleft must break down the neurotransmitter to interrupt its action Most common is acetylcholinesterase

ADH: location, class function

posterior pituitary peptide/water-soluble causes the collecting duct of the kidney to become highly permeable to water, concentrating the urine

Oxytocin: location, class, function

posterior pituitary peptide/water-soluble stimulates contractions during childbirth and milk secretion during nursing

What is mental set and how can it effect problem solving

predetermined mental framework for approaching a problem. Has the tendency to rely on approaches and solutions that have worked in the past Can lead to rigid thinking and lack of cognitive flexibility

What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination

prejudice is an attitude; whereas discrimination is an actual behavior

Describe ethanol fermentation

primarily happens in yeast and a few bacteria. EtOH is produced and is the final electron acceptor. Pyruvate (3 Carbons) is changed into ethanol (2 Carbons) and CO₂

What is antigen presentation

process by which a cell that has engulfed an antigen or microbe via endocytosis or phagocytosis takes protein segments of that microbe, and "presents" them on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins

What is exocytosis

process by which a vesicle on the inside of the plasma membrane fuses with the plasma membrane, dumping it's contents into the extracellular matrix

What is ketogenesis

process by which ketone bodies are produced through the breakdown of fatty acids. Occurs during periods of starvation when blood glucose drops and there's no further source of carbohydrate

What is role exit

process by which people disengage from important social roles

Characteristics of dendritic cells

professional antigen-presenting cells. They efficiently phagocytize pathogens and present antigens on their surface to stimulate other immune cells Are WBC's (leukocytes), but are not lymphocytes Can form from monocytes or independently in own cell line from blood cell precursor

Define apoptosis

programmed cell death featuring autolysis of cell contents by lysosomes. It is initiated in cells exposed to extreme heat, radiation, viral infection, DNA damage, etc. or to remove healthy unwanted cells (digits in embryological development)

Role of integumentary system

protects against abrasion, physical barrier to pathogens, vitamin D synthesis, insulation/cushioning (due to subcutaneous fat), prevention of water-loss, and temperature regulation Hair, skin, nails and oil/sweat glands located within the skin

Describe histones

protein around which the DNA helix is wrapped during the first step of DNA condensation

What is a proteasome

protein complex that degrades unneeded or damaged proteins by proteolysis (chemical reaction that breaks peptide bonds)

What is actin

protein monomer that polymerizes to form microfilaments

Characteristics of integral proteins

proteins that have 1(+) moieties embedded within the bilayer (plasma membrane)

An intrinsically disordered protein is an example of what

proteins with low hydrophobicity that do not fold into a stable structure, but can retain their function

Cilia characteristics and function. Found where?

protrusions on lumen-facing side of epithelial cells lining various cavities in the body is NOT used for locomotion, but rather to move fluid or extracellular materials past the cell Exclusively in respiratory system (lungs), Nervous System (ependymal cells that line ventricles of brain), and reproductive system (cells that line the fallopian tubes)

What is libido

psychosexual energy that focuses on different erogenous zones at different stages

Describe characteristics of Hemoglobin

quaternary protein made of 4 protein chains; 2 alpha and 2 beta. Each has an Fe-containing "heme" group at its center so it can hold 4 O2 total.

What is racial formation

racial categories are not permanent or easily defined, but are constructed by various forces in history and society. Racial identities can be created, strengthened, and destroyed, and are always fluid

What are polymorphisms

random variations in DNA sequence among individuals. Random, due to mutations. May or may not increase in future generations depending on whether or not that mutation provides an evolutionary fitness advantage

What is disturbance of affect? Flat, inappropriate, blunted?

refers to emotional irregularities that can occur in individuals who suffer from schizophrenia Inappropriate affect= inappropriate emotions Blunted affect= significant reduction in emotional response Flat affect= complete lack of emotional response

What is the fluid mosaic model

refers to the dual-layer model of a phospholipid membrane two-opposite facing leaflets wit polar tails toward the center

Define ipsilateral

refers to the same side for example the temporal portion of each hemiretina projects ipsilaterally because it receives information from the contralateral visual field

What is a centromere

region of the chromosome that joins the sister-chromatids

Function of distal convoluted tubule

regulates calcium, sodium, and hydrogen concentrations sodium reabsorption here is regulated by aldosterone hormone (ADH stimulates increased sodium reabsorption at DCT and collection duct) Also reabsorbs calcium in response to PTH

What is kinship? What are the 3 levels?

relationships derived from descent and marriage. Can be both voluntary and involuntary Primary kin= a person belonging to the same nuclear family as the ego (father, mother, sister, brother, wife, husband, son, daughter) Secondary kin= primary kin of ego's primary kin. 33 potential, just think about them Tertiary kin= primary kin of secondary kin. 131 possibilities including great-grandparents, first cousins, spouses of nieces nephews aunts and uncles

Role of seminal vesicles

release a majority of fluids that make up semen, including fructose and alkaline fluids that make semen basic

What is fundamentalism?

religious movements focused on "returning to" or "preserving" pure, original, or unchanged values, teachings, or behaviors. Often a direct reaction to social change, especially modernization or secularization.

What is the Thematic Apperception Test?

respondents are provided with a series of ambiguous pictures and are asked to come up with a dramatic story about the picture

What is civil unrest in relation to globalization

results from globalization because some theorists propose that globalization creates global inequality by making the entire world a single capitalist market. Globalization can also make previously isolated groups aware of their relative deprivation compared to others around the world, leading to uprising

Neural pathway is controlled where? What term relates to loss of alertness

reticular formation of the brain stem stimulates prefrontal cortex to maintain alertness A COMA= loss of this function

Define regression

reverting to patterns of behavior that were used in earlier stages of life in order to deal with stress

Pulmonary circulation

right ventricle --> pulmonary arteries --> lungs --> pulmonary veins --> left atrium

What are biological and sociocultural motivators

root of many behaviors we exhibit regularly hunger, sex-drive, substance addiction

What are norms

rules and expectations by which members of society are expected to follow

What are folkways

rules for casual social interaction (everyone faces forward in an elevator)

What is syntax

rules that govern how words are ordered into meaningful sentences "Rules of grammar"

What is the isoelectric point (describe and how to find the values)

same as the equivalence point in acid base titration pH at which a molecule carries no net charge (zwitterion) pI=pKa1 + pKa2 / 2

Anterior pituitary function Derived from where?

secretes FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin, and GH (Mnemonic: FLAT PiG) Pituitary gland is derived from the ectodermal layer, the anterior pituitary is derived from the oral ectoderm region

Role of prostate gland

secretes a white milky fluid that is slightly acidic and contains proteases Plays protective role: sperm have longer survival rates and better protection of genetic material in presence of prostate secretions compared to without

What is rational choice theory?

see's all actions as fundamentally rational and people ascertain the costs and benefits of any action prior to acting. Actions are rationally motivated despite appearing otherwise. Similar to the exchange theory in the cost benefit analysis, but differs with an emphasis on the individual action rationally

What is a structural functionalists view

sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability

What is symbolic interactionism?

sees society as the product of everyday interactions among individuals. This differs from functionalism and conflict theory in that it focuses more on micro interactions. Says that humans will act towards things on the basis of the meanings they have for them; the meanings arise from the interactions with others; and the meanings are changed through interaction

What is a vector

segment of DNA used to transfer a desired sequence to another

What is the neighborhood effect

segregation of the elderly, disabled, minorities, or the poverty-stricken into neighborhoods or housing projects can lead to social exclusion and even social isolation, an extreme case where a person has no contact or nearly no contact with society

Peroxisomes function and characteristics

self-replicate detoxify hydrogen peroxide using catalase into water and oxygen participate in lipid metabolism

What is a nucleosome

set of 8 histone proteins in a cube shape with DNA coiled around it

Describe intracrine signaling

signal molecules (usually steroids) bind to receptors inside the same cell that produced them without ever being secreted out of the cell

Describe autocrine signaling

signal molecules secreted by a cell bind to receptors on the same cell

Describe paracrine signaling

signal molecules secreted by one cell bind to receptor on other cells in local area example would be neurotransmitter acting in synaptic gap

Describe juxtacrine signaling

signaling that requires direct contact between two cells

What is simultaneous move game? Sequential move game?

simultaneous=players act at the same time or in ways to make it impossible to know how other's act sequential=moves made in sequence with later players having some knowledge of previous players actions

Nucleolus characteristic

site of rRNA transcription and ribosome assembly

Where is muscle tissue found

skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscle

What are vitamins? Which are fat-soluble/water? Easier to OD on which?

small organic molecules that are essential nutrients required for proper metabolism Fat soluble= A,D,E,K Water soluble= B and C Easier to OD on fat soluble because they are stored in fat tissue, whereas water are excreted through urine quicker

What are morphemes? Morphology?

smallest unit of language that carries meaning. Can be used by combining one or more phonemes together Morphology involves focusing on how words are formed from combinations of morphemes

What is exchange mobility

social classes maintain a relatively static number of people Should a set number of people move up from middle class, an equal number of people is expected to move down from upper class

What is class consciousness (social class)

social condition in which members of a social class are aware of themselves as a class

What is peer pressure

social influence exerted by a peer or peer group

What is conflict theory?

social life is characterized by inequality where groups and individuals compete for scarce resources. This results in various levels of wealth, power, and prestige across society. Effects everyday social interactions at the micro level and more macro phenomena. This theory is interested in how inequality is reproduced

What is collective behavior

social processes or "collectives" that do NOT reflect stable social structure but emerge in a spontaneous way Neither normative or deviant Exists when social norms are absent, unclear, or conflict with one another

What is social control

societal or political mechanisms used to regulate behavior of individuals to ensure conformity and compliance to established rules of that group

What is modernization?

societal transformation away from a traditional, rural, agrarian society, and toward a secular, urban, industrial society.

What is strain theory of deviance

society promotes deviant behavior. Puts pressure on individuals to achieve goals that may not be attainable, so they deviate

Function of proximal convoluted tubule

sodium reabsorption via secondary active transport. Filtrate will remain isotonic here because water and solutes are reabsorbed at the same rate

What is culture lag

some cultural elements change more quickly than others, causing conflict with the cultural system. An example of this would be the use of drones, and how the technology outpaced public policy and laws

What is the adaptive role of emotion?

some evolved via natural selection. Disgust has scrunching nose and mouth, limiting intake of food and foul odors. Fear has widening of eyes, allowing more light in to identify threat.

Define temperament

somewhat ambiguous term describing one's general emotional disposition has been shown to be established at birth and relatively persistent across the life span

Role of spleen in immune system

somewhat analogous to a lymph node that filters blood instead of lymph; High concentration of leukocytes and platelets Storage of a considerable amount of blood that can help combat hemorrhagic shock; breaks down and recycles parts of old erythrocytes

What is a kinetochore

specialized group of proteins to which spindle fibers attach during mitosis

What are recognition sequences

specific base sequences recognized by endonucleases

What is acquired immunity? What are the 2 types

specific response to one particular virus, bacteria, or other pathogen based upon prior exposure. Humoral immunity: AKA B-cell immunity or antibody mediated immunity. (When you see B-cell immunity think humoral). Antibodies and primary/secondary response Cell-mediated: AKA T-cell immunity; self attack of diseased cells

Spermatozoa characteristics

sperm produced in seminiferous tubules of testicles, stored and nurtured in epididymis Head is cell body, tail is flagellum; contains lots of mitochondria

Describe the ejaculation pathway

sperm leaves epididymis via vas deferens. Vas deferens arch back up into pelvis and then back down toward penis. Along the way, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral gland (Cowpers) all secrete various lubricants and nutrients into the ejaculate. Vas deferens empty into the urethra at base of urinary bladder

What is divided attention

splitting attention among multiple tasks would do this while driving and car and engaged in a conversation

What is mass hysteria

spontaneous, socially contagious, irrational behavior of a large group of people in response to an event (reading of war of the worlds over the radio)

Define metastasis

spreading of cancer from one tissue or organ to another

Define alertness

state of consciousness in which a person is awake, responsive, and capable of processing information

What is cognitive dissonance theory

state of unpleasant psychological tension experienced when one holds 2 attitudes or beliefs that are in conflict with one another. Ease tension by changing attitude or belief to remove the conflict People are most likely to behave in a way that matches their attitudes i.e. There will be no cognitive dissonance when a person holds the attitudes as result of personal experience, is an expert in the subject, frequently expresses the attitude, expects a favorable outcome, has a risk of gaining/losing something based on outcome

What is status? Achieved vs ascribed?

status=one's hierarchal position in society, inherently suggests inequality Achieved status=a status that is earned through personal effort and achievement Ascribed status=status assigned at birth or assumed involuntary based on race, ethnicity, lineage, etc

What is ageism

stereotyping or discrimination based on one's age

Describe how drug addiction works

stimulation of dopamine-based reward pathway in limbic system of brain

What is the function of the gall bladder? What is bile emulsification?

stores and concentrates bile, but does not produce bile (liver). Bile emulsifies fats (separates fats from each other, which increases surface area for enzymatic digestion) Bile emulsification is physical digestion because emulsifies them, and doesn't actually break bonds

Function of glomerulus

strains blood, allowing fluid, ions and molecules about the size of glucose or smaller to pass through to Bowman's capsule

What is self-efficacy

strength of a person's belief in their own abilities Self-evaluation of one's ability; my ability

What is role strain

stresses among the roles associated with one particular status

Characteristics of adherens junctions (ex of where found)

strong mechanical attachments Found in epithelial and cardiac muscle

Characteristics of desmosomes (ex of where found)

strongest of the cellular junctions weld cells together and protect against stress, but are NOT watertight Found in the epidermis

What are the biological markers of schizophrenia

strongly associated with increased dopamine levels in the brain. Most anti-schizophrenic drugs are competitive antagonists that bind dopamine receptors. Having a family member with schizophrenia is a risk factor

Substrate level phosphorylation vs oxidative phosphorylation

substrate level= phosphate is transferred to ADP or GDP. This process is used by citric acid cycle step 5) Oxidative phosphorylation= in ATP synthase and ETC; combine ADP to Pi to generate ATP through proton gradient. Oxidizes NADH and FADH2 from Krebs for the protons

What is cataplexy?

sudden transient periods of muscle weakness or paralysis during which the patient remains fully conscious and aware

What is social support

support provided to an individual by a social group or network Family, friends, coworkers who provide financial, emotional, advice, etc. These are also called support networks

What is mycorrhizae?

symbiosis between fungi and plant roots

What is a lichen?

symbiotic relationship between fungus and algae

What is glycogenesis? Where?

synthesis of glycogen for storage in the liver This is stimulated by insulin

What does the parietal lobe control

tactile sensation, spatial reasoning, and some language (secondary to frontal)

What is McDonaldization?

tendency of a large organization to standardize operations, even when standardization would be non-sensical, in an attempt to achieve consistency and efficiency

What is urbanization

tendency of a population to move away from rural or agricultural settings and be concentrated in urban settings, usually because of the lure of economic opportunity. Global trade and economic exchange is often centralized in one particular city within each country, resulting in hyperurbanization of cities such as New York City, Tokyo, or Hong Kong

What is groupthink

tendency of groups to make decisions that are incorrect or illogical based on desire to maximize group consensus and minimize group conflict Often results in the group ignoring conflicting information or evidence, or dismissing something without consideration

What is group polarization

tendency of groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual members would acting alone

What is the just-world hypothesis

tendency to believe that people get what they deserve

What is Libido

the "psychic energy" created by the survival and sexual instincts. It is part of the Id, and is considered by Freud to be the driving influence of all behavior

Describe Km

the Michaelis constant Km= [S] at 1/2 vmax Magnitude is inversely proportional to substrate-enzyme binding affinity A lower Km= stronger binding affinity

What is primary protein structure

the amino acid sequence

Describe base excision repair of DNA

the base portion only is going to be excised via DNA glycosylase; other enzymes will then remove sugar-phosphate backbone. The DNA polymerase and ligase will then replace the nucleotides

What is chemical digestion

the breakdown of food that involves breaking of bonds with digestive enzymes

What is the sentence completion test?

the client is asked to complete a sentence. clients can't figure out what the best or prefect answer is and it is difficult to fake an answer

Vasopressin regulates the insertion of aquaporins into the apical membranes of the epithelial cells of which renal structure?

the collecting duct

What is adaptive value

the degree to which a behavior increases evolutionary fitness. Traits with high adaptive value are more likely to be represented in future generations, and because of natural selection these behaviors will eventually result in a change in the gene pool.

What is egalitarianism?

the doctrine that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities. In reality does not occur anywhere in the world, and never has in history

What is social capital

the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups Example would be being part of a sorority or fraternity and upon graduating being hired by an alumn

What is relative deprivation

the experience of being deprived of something to which one believes to be entitled; it is said to be relative because it usually arises from comparing one's situations to that of others and feeling that one has less than what one deserves Considered a potential cause of social movements and deviance

Describe chromatin

the general term for DNA and protein together. Chromosomes are made up of chromatin

What is tertiary protein structure

the geometric, 3-D folding of alpha helices, beta sheets, and other moieties to form functional globular or structural protein

Hydrophobic vs Hydrophilic parts of protein folding

the hydrophobic R groups fold into the interior of globular protein to escape water. Will also bring smaller polar groups with them to interior The majority of R groups on the surface of globular protein are either polar or uncharged

Experience-based influence on behavior

the influence of experience on behavior would include EVERYTHING that is not genetic; learning, conditioning, socializing, one's environment, and any other experience you in encounter in life

Define socialization

the lifelong process beginning in infancy, by which an individual acquires the habits, norms, and beliefs of society Also includes the ways in which society disseminates skills, knowledge, and behaviors

Describe the activation synthesis theory of dreaming

the limbic system is randomly active during sleep, mimicking incoming stimuli. Dreams are an attempt by the cerebral cortex to synthesize and interpret this activity in a logical way

What is the origin of replication? Bidirectional?

the location on the chromosome where replication begins. There are multiple in humans replication proceeds in both directions simultaneously from the origin of replication

What is carrying capacity?

the maximum number of organisms and environment or ecosystem can sustain.

What is a substrate

the molecule that is acted on by the substate and that is converted to product by the enzyme

What is intuition

"Gut feeling". Often based on previous experience, in which case, it is an example of unconsciously applying a heuristic or mental set

What is a heuristic

"rule of thumb". Can be helpful in problem-solving, but can also cause functional fixedness and lack of cognitive flexibility

What are taboos

the most morally significant. Violating brings out a strong negative response (having consensual relations rather than forcing another to have sex)

What is mortality rate? Total, crude, age-specific?

the number of deaths per unit time Total mortality rate=number of deaths in a year within a given population Crude mortality rate= total number of deaths per year per 1000 people Age-Specific mortality rate= total number of deaths to residents of a specified age or age group in a specified geographic area divided by the population of the same age or age group in the same geographic area for a specified period of time multiplied by 100,000

Enzymes in saliva

the only enzyme is alpha amylase. This is the first enzyme to which food is exposed in digestive tract

What is gender segregation

the physical, legal, or social segregation of individuals according to sex. (separate gym classes for girls and boys, different legal treatments for men and women, encouraging young women to pursue traditional female careers such as teaching or nursing)

What is multiculturalism?

the presence of, or support for the presence of, several distinct cultural or ethnic groups within a society. This is in opposition to melting pot, in which everyone becomes like one another

What is medicalization?

the process by which all human illness, disability, discomfort, or related problems, are assumed to have a medical or clinical cause and/or solution

What is assimilation

the process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture. Second and third generation immigrants become less like the first generation family members

What is positive feedback

the product of a reaction acts as an agonist for the product

What is adaptive radiation

the rapid formation of a variety of species from one ancestral species. Usually characterized by a strong environment-species connection

Describe the resonance of the peptide bond and it's functionality

the resonance allows for a rigid peptide bond with limited rotation

What is global inequality

the same inequalities already discussed, but applied to a global scale. Countries are stratified according to resources, economic strength, and wealth (GDP)

Describe the dominant hemisphere of brain

the side of the brain that is used in controlling the preferred arm or leg. Most individuals are right handed, and therefore are their dominant hemisphere is usually the left

What is social exclusion

the systematic blocking of a segment of society from the rights and opportunities available to others

What is attribution in social thinking?

the tendency to infer that the behavior we see in others can be attributed to specific causes. Generally assumptions made ourselves without actual knowledge of the root cause

What is bioenergetics?

the thermodynamics of biological systems. Similar to how biochemistry is the chemistry of biological systems

What is the illness experience?

the ways in which individuals define and adapt to a perceived lack of good health

What is the World Systems theory? Core, peripheral, and semi-peripheral countries?

theory emphasized a global inequality that is similar to the stratified inequality present in individual societies. Core countries dominate and exploit peripheral countries for labor and raw material. Peripheral countries are dependent on core countries, especially for capital Semi-peripheral countries feature characteristics of both core and peripheral countries

What is the sick role? What would rights of a sick person be? Obligations?

theory that explains a sick person having a unique role in society that includes both rights and obligations. Being sick is seen as a temporary form of deviance that prevents a person from being a productive member of society during their illness. Rights of a sick person= exempt from normal social roles and expectations; not responsible or to be blamed for their condition Obligations of a sick person= attempt to get well as soon as possible; seek help and cooperate with medical professionals

What happens if there is no Ca during sliding filament model

there is an inability to contract. This is called flacidity

Calcitonin: location, class, function

thyroid peptide/water-soluble decreases blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts

T3 and T4: location, class, function

thyroid tyrosine derivative/lipid-soluble increases basal metabolic rate, effecting metabolism

Characteristics of platelets

tiny membrane bound drops of cytoplasm Are sticky when exposed to injured epithelium. If they encounter injured epithelium, they release chemicals that activate other platelets and clotting factors Are derived from megakaryocytes (in bone marrow). Mature megakaryocytes produce small fragments which they release into circulating blood which become platelets

What is the general diagnostic rule of psychological disorders

to be diagnosed affirmatively, the symptoms of almost any disorder must cause clinically significant distress OR impairment in normal functioning (familial, social, occupational, etc)

Function of chromosomes

to efficiently package very long DNA so they can be easily stored and moved during division

What is vital capacity

total volume of air the lungs can hold at maximal inhalation minus the residual volume

Describe the protein folding system

translated proteins assume secondary system almost instantaneously, then will fold into globular/tertiary states

Function of blood

transport nutrients, gases, waste products and hormones to and from cells Regulate the extracellular environment; help maintain homeostasis; repair injuries; protect body from foreign entities (antigens)

Characteristics of gap junctions (ex of where found)

tunnels between adjacent cells allowing exchange Found between cardiac muscle cells

What is a social group

two (+) persons who interact with on another, share similar characteristics, and feel a sense of unity

What is hybridization

two complementary fragments cut by the same endonuclease join together

What are sister chromatids

two strands of DNA in duplicated chromosomes attached by a centromere

What is phagocytosis

type of endocytosis specifically referring to engulfing large particles, bacteria, etc.

What are fads

unconventional social patterns that are embraced briefly and enthusiastically by large number of people (tattoos and body piercings)

What are collectives (examples)

unplanned activity among large number of people that may result in social change often controversial; examples include Fads, Mass Hysteria, and Riots

Describe suburbanization and urban decline

urban overcrowding leads to sprawling suburbs. As people migrate out of the urban centers what they leave behind becomes depressed, resulting in slums and ghettos

Describe algorithmic approach to problem solving

uses mathematical formulas, or step-by-step flowchart-like approach

Describe second messenger systems

usually occur via a cascade: one hormone activates another hormone, enzyme, or signaling molecule. This then activates another, etc. G-proteins are a prime example

Describe the process of fertilization

usually occurs in fallopian tubes. Sperm and egg are traveling toward one another generally meet here Implantation normally occurs in the uterus but can occur in the fallopian tubes, leading to ectopic pregnancy

What is ketolysis

utilization of ketone bodies (from ketogenesis) by converting them to acetyl-CoA for energy. Occurs mainly in heart and brain, but NOT in liver

What is verbal vs non-verbal communication

verbal=language of any kind (speaking, sign language, braille) non-verbal=eye-contact, gestures, body-language, etc (tone of voice is a common non-verbal communication)

What is a niche

very specific status or role an organism plays in its ecosystem

How does endocrine cellular communication function?

via hormone signaling: hormones are manufactured and secreted by cells in the endocrine system and then transported via bloodsteam to receptors on the cell surface (water-soluble) or inside the cell (lipid-soluble)

How are lipids metabolized

via β-oxidation of fatty acids occurs in the mitochondrial matrix; extra long chain fatty acids first enter a peroxisome and are catabolized into smaller pieces. These pieces are then oxidized in mitochondria Utilize carnitine shuttle because fatty acids can't cross inner mitochondrial membrane Carbons will be removed 2 at a time to form Acetyl-CoA NET RESULT= 1FADH2, 1 NADH, and 1 acetyl-coa

What is game theory

views social or group behaviors as a game with players, winners, losers, prizes, and other outcomes. Assumed that individuals or groups make decisions on outcomes, based on ultimate goal of winning

What is deviance

violation of cultural norms

What is the lytic cycle

virus period during which viral genes are actively transcribed and new viruses are assembled. Infected cells usually burst to release large number of new viruses Examples would be active cold sores (herpes) or AIDS

What does the occipital lobe control

vision (primary visual cortex)

What is a disease that inhibits the function of the large intestine likely going to be caused by

vitamin deficiency, diarrhea, or constipation

What is tidal volume

volume of air that enters and exits the lungs during an average, unforced respiration

Describe skeletal muscle

voluntary, striated, multinucleated attaches at tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone to bone) Joints formed by most muscles and bones in human body are hinges with poor lever systems that works at a mechanical disadvantage store large amounts of glycogen are suspended in G0 and don't divide

What is the Malthusian Theory of Population

was developed in response to a spike in population growth. Thomas Robert Malthus was an English economist who warned that unbridled population growth would lead to chaos. Said population would increase by a geometric progression (2,4,8,16,32) and population would eventually soar out of control. Food production would increase in a geometric (2,3,4,5,6) because of a limit of farmland People will reproduce beyond what that planet can sustain, leading to starvation and conflict over limited resources

What are second-messenger systems?

water-soluble hormones bind to membrane receptors on external surface of plasma membrane. This will then most often initiate a cascade-event that magnifies the signal (G-proteins are a common second messenger system)

What is interpersonal attraction

we "like" other people because of similarities, complementary differences, etc

What is the fundamental attribution error?

we are generally more likely to make dispositional attributions about undesirable behavior observed by others, rather than situational That person cut across the lane because he is a bad driver, not because he was in a bad situation

What is overconfidence bias

we're very unlikely to question the wisdom of our decisions

What is attribute substitution

when faced with a complex mental task or judgment, we tend to substitute to a more simple scenario of problem This includes visual shortcuts that cause us to misinterpret an optical illusion

What is a dihybrid cross

when two traits are being considered. Should always draw out two independent punnett squares, one for each trait. Then to calculate probability of having two traits, multiply the individual probabilities for each trait.

What is incomplete penetrance?

when various individuals all have identical genotypes and yet some have the disease phenotype and others do not

Role of seminiferous tubules

where sperm is produced, then moves to the epididymis where sperm is nurtured, fully matures, and stored until ejaculation

What is flagella/found where?

whip-like projections from the cell body used for locomotion sperm is the only cell in the human body with flagella

Describe metabolism of a 14C lipid

will need 6 rounds of β-oxidation Yields 7 NADH, 7 FADH2, and 7 Acetyl-CoA

What is the prisoner's dilemma

will you turn the other prisoner in to get off free. If both deny, they both get a short sentence. If they both betray, they both get a long sentence. One denies and one betrays= one does a long time, the other goes free

Risk factors for Alzheimer's disease?

women are at higher risk than men. A family history of Alzheimer's is a major risk factor

Describe the functionality in the enzyme pocket

works with the chemistry of the R groups A stabilizing feature of an enzyme may attract a substrate with opposite charge (a positively charged enzyme would stabilize a negatively charged substrate)

What would damage to the dominant hemisphere result in (assuming they are right handed)?

would likely result in language difficulties and loss of control of movement to the right side of the body. Damage to non-dominant hemisphere would result in some control of movement to the left side and possible difficulties with spatial reasoning and emotional processing

Describe mitosis and the phases

yields two genetically identical diploid daughter cells, which are also identical to the mother that produced them. Centromeres split. Prophase: nuclear membrane degenerates and chromosomes condense Metaphase: chromosomes line on the metaphase plate and the spindle apparatus is formed Anaphase: separation of chromosomes and migration toward opposite poles of cell Telophase: nuclear membranes begin to re-form and chromosomes unwind

Difference between ∆G, ∆G°, and ∆G°'

∆G=Free energy change at some present, non-standard set of conditions ∆G°= Free energy change at standard conditions; 25°C, 1 atm, [1M] ∆G°'=Free energy change at standard physiological conditions; pH=7 Think of ∆G° and ∆G°' as same, but with pH specified

Equation to find ∆G°'

∆G=∆G°'+RTlnQ Think of ∆G°' as the a constant, given that it will not change. R=universal gas constant Q=reaction quotient OR ∆G°'=-RTlnKeq (∆G=0; Keq=Q)

What is the fundamental thermodynamic relationship? (Equation) What do each negative and positive values indicate for each?

∆G=∆H-T∆S G=Gibbs Free Energy H=Enthalpy S=Entropy T=Kelvin A negative G means the reaction is spontaneous. Positive G means the reaction is non-spontaneous. If G=0, then the reaction is at equilibrium A reaction is favorable if H is negative and/or S is positive

What determines the strength of contraction of a muscle

# of motor units being used size of motor units frequency of action potentials (stimulation)

Function of ADH

(antidiuretic hormone) in kidneys acts on *collecting duct*, making it permeable to water. If not for ADH, the collecting duct is impermeable to water. NET EFFECT= water retention and increased blood pressure

Tell the story of DNA replication

*Helicase* unzips double helix at the beginning. *Single-strand binding protein* coat individual strands to prevent re-annealing. They are then fed through replication complex that contains all necessary proteins for replication. *Primase* (RNA polymerase) then constructs short primers on both strands of DNA. Two DNA polymerase molecules then begin building new complementary DNA strands. They are read in the 3' to 5' direction, and build the new strands in 5' to 3' direction. *Sliding Clamp* is a protein that helps keep DNA polymerase tightly associated with the strand. Both enzymes move in opposite direction in the 3' to 5' direction. The enzyme working on the *Lagging Strand* must copy short segments downstream, release from strand, move upstream, and copy another short segment. *Leading Strand* requires only a single primer, while the lagging strand requires multiple primers, one for each of the *Okazaki Fragments*. *RNase H* removes all RNA primers after replication. DNA polymerase then fills in the gaps. *DNA Ligase* creates the last necessary phosphodiester bond.

What is resting potential

-70mV Voltage across membrane when action potential is NOT present

What are the 5 elements of culture

-Beliefs (religion, politics) -Language -Rituals (ceremonies, religious rites of passage, symbolic acts) -Symbols (flags, emblems) -Values (individualism, patriotism, communalism, Judeo-Christian values in the US)

Embryology stages

-Cleavage=(mitosis without change in size) - Morula= 8-celled zygote - Gastrulation= at about week 2, cells migrate to form 3 germ layers - Neurulation= at about week 3, the notochord forms from mesoderm and induces the overlaying ectoderm to form the neural plate, which becomes neural tube and eventually the spinal cord

What are the 5 mechanisms for choosing a mate

-Direct phenotypic benefits -sensory bias (more choosy sex prefers certain characteristics) -Fisherian runaway hypothesis (peacocking) -Indicator traits (good overall qualities of individual) -Genetic compatibility

What are Irving Janis' eight symptoms of groupthink?

-Illusions of invulnerability -illusion of morality -rationalization -stereotyping -self-censorship -illusion of unanimity -pressure to conform -mindguards

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

-Oligodendrocytes: CNS -Schwann Cells: PNS -Both cell types synthesize myelin to support neurons

What is the -ose suffix What does deoxy- mean

-ose is the suffix for all sugars deoxy= normal location of an -OH group is replaced with a Hydrogen

Erickson: Trust vs Mistrust

0-1.5 years old Favorable outcome: Trust in world around us and hope for the future Negative: Distrust and fear

Order of Erickson' psychosocial development

0-1.5: Trust vs Mistrust 1.5-3: Autonomy vs shame 3-5: Initiative vs Guilt 5-12: Industry vs inferiority 12-18: Identity vs confusion 18-40: Intimacy vs isolation 40-65: Generativity vs Stagnation 65+: Integrity vs despair

glomerular capsule (bowman's capsule)

1

renal medulla

1

superior vena cava

1

superior vena cava opening

1

What are the steps of the citric acid cycle

1. Acetyl-CoA (2C) joins with oxaloacetate (4C) and forms citrate (6C) via citrate synthase; CoA is released 2. Aconitase converts citrate to isocitrate 3. Isocitrate is converted to α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase by isocitrate dehydrogenase; NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH + H⁺ and CO₂ si released 4. α-ketoglutarate is converted to succinyl CoA by α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex; NAD⁺ and CoA enter and NADH and H⁺ and CO₂ released 5. Succinyl CoA is converted to succinate by succinyl CoA synthetase; GDP and Pi converted to GTP and CoA released 6. Succinate converted to fumarate by succinate dehydrogenase; FAD to FADH₂ release 7. Fumarate and H₂O converted to malate by fumarase 8. Malate to oxaloacetate by malate dehydrogenase; NAD⁺ to NADH + H⁺ **DON'T worry about memorizing enzymes

What are the 3 stages in response to stress

1. Alarm stage 2. Resistance stage 3. Exhaustion stage

Describe thermoregulation by the skin

1. Blood vessels closer to the surface of the skin DILATE when heat needs released and CONSTRICT when heat needs retained; blushing is from dilation 2. Arrector Pili muscles cause erection of hair follicles (goose bumps) that traps an insulating layer of air next to the skin. Contraction of arrector pili also generates small amount of heat 3. Subcutaneous fat provides insulation 4. Sweating, followed by evaporation of water in sweat, carries away significant amount of heat due to high heat of vaporization of water and its specific heat capacity

What are the 3 primary components of attitude

1. Cognitive: how you think about something/somebody 2. Affective (emotional): how you feel about something/somebody 3. Behavioral: how you behave toward or with respect to something/somebody

What are the 3 germ layers and what do they give rise to

1. Ectoderm= epidermis, nails, tooth enamel, lens of eye, pituitary gland, central and peripheral and autonomic nervous system 2. Mesoderm= dermis, muscle, bone, connective tissues, kidneys, genitalia, and most internal organs except liver and pancreas 3. Endoderm= entire digestive tract, thyroid, parathyroid, urinary bladder, the lining of lungs, liver and pancreas

What are the 4 stages of sleep, describe the EEG during each

1. Falling asleep, EEG is a mix of alpha and theta waves 2. Deeper sleep, EEG is theta waves mixed with sleep spindles and K complexes 3. Transitional, EEG is mostly theta waves, but delta waves begin to appear 4. Deep sleep, often called delta sleep because EEG contains slow low frequency delta waves

Describe the first steps of Glycolsysis (1-5)

1. Glucose → Glucose 6-Phosphate (via hexokinase; Uses ATP, gives off ADP) 2. Glucose 6-Phosphate → Fructose 6-Phosphate (via phosphoglucose isomerase) 3. Fructose 6-Phosphate → Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphate (via phosphofructokinase; uses ATP, gives off ADP) 4. Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphate→ Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate OR Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate (via Aldolase) 5. Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate → Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate (via triose phosphate isomerase)

Steps of cellular respiration

1. Glycolysis: in the cytoplasm. Splits glucose into 2 pyruvate 2. Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex: converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA; happens in the mitochondrial matrix 3. Acetyl-CoA converted to NADH and FADH2 (via many steps). NADH and FADH2 are going to then be used as the electron carriers. Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix 4. Electron Transport Chain: happens on the inner mitochondrial membrane. Ultimately makes ATP from electrons of NADH and FADH2

What are the 6 interactions between amino acids (briefly describe them)

1. H-bonding: non-covalent between amide and carboxyl or between R groups 2. Disulfide bonds: covalent bonds between sulfurs of 2 Cysteines 3. Hydrophobic/philic: in soluble proteins, hydrophobic AA collapse inward to protein core. In membrane proteins hydrophilic members are toward the outside 4. Ionic interactions: Salt bridges; formed by charged interactions between positively and negatively charged AA 5. Van der Walls Force: intermolecular force that repels aways from each other (steric hindrance) 6. Proline turns: first in alpha, and at turns in beta

What are the 3 functions that the functional attitude theory asserts?

1. Knowledge: attitudes give us valuable information about other people, events, and likelihood of outcomes 2. Ego-expression: attitudes are one route through which we express ourselves 3. Adaptive: socially acceptable attitudes provide an adaptive advantage in society much like certain random mutations provide an evolutionary advantage

What are the 4 types of stomach lining cell types and what do they do

1. Mucous neck cells: make and secrete mucus into gastric pits, which leads to the stomach. Mucus is alkaline, providing protection from acidic stomach 2. Chief Cells: make and secrete pepsinogen into gastric pits/stomach 3. Parietal Cells: secrete HCl into gastric pits. Keeps stomach pH ~2. Also converts pepsinogen to pepsin 4. G-Cells: Make and secrete gastrin, which enhances digestion.

Describe the role of the Pentose Phosphate pathway, and what they do

1. NADPH synthesis: important reducing agent in reductive biosynthesis (synthesize fatty acids and sterols) 2. Ribose-5-Phosphate (R5-P): synthesize nucleotides. It is the oxygen bearing ring of all nucleotides

Freud's stages of psychosexual development

1. Oral: mouth of an infant is primary erogenous zone 2. Anal: 18mo-3years; Anus is primary erogenous zone; pleasure derived from controlling bowel/bladder movements 3. Phallic: 3-6years; Genitalia is erogenous zone 4. Latency: Relative calm between phallic and genital stage 5. Genital: Strong sexual interest in people outside family

What are the 3 destinations of pyruvate

1. PDH complex: where they're converted to Acetyl-Coa for Krebs 2. Lactate dehydrogenase: gives rise to lactate 3. Pyruvate decarboxylase: gives rise to oxaloacetate

What are Kohlberg's 3 stages of moral development

1. Pre-conventional: (pre-adolescence) obedience and self-interest 2. Conventional: (adolescence to adult) conformity, law and order 3. Post-conventional: (adulthood) social contract, universal human ethics

What are 4 mechanisms of DNA repair and describe them

1. Proofreading: DNA polymerase proofreads, catches, and repairs most mismatched pairs on the spot 2. Mismatched repair system: enzymes that scan newly copied DNA and locate, excise and replace mismatched pairs missed by DNA polymerase 3. Base excision: the base portion is only excised via DNA glycosylase; other enzymes will then remove sugar-phosphate backbone; the DNA polymerase and ligase replace the nucleotide 4. Nucleotide excision: excision of oligonucleotide that includes several bases, on either side of error. DNA polymerase and ligase replace

What are the 3 mechanisms of gene regulation?

1. Rate of transcription: RNA has short half-life, so gene products will only continue to be expressed if DNA is continually transcribed. 2. Activators and Repressors: Regulatory molecules may upregulate transcription (lactose in lac operon) or downregulate (glucose in lac operon). Often hormones, products of rxn cascade, byproducts that buildup, etc. 3. Permanent or semi-permanent suppression: methylation or other covalent modifications that prevents or dramatically decreases transcription

What are Piaget's stages of cognitive development (briefly describe them)

1. Sensorimotor: 0-2 years. Coordinate senses with motor responses, sensory curiosity about the world. Language is used for demands and cataloging. Object Permanence developed 2. Preoperational: 2-7. Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and grammar to express full concepts. Imagination and intuition are strong, but abstract thought is still difficult. Conservation is developed. 3. Concrete operational: 7-11. Concepts attached to concrete situations. Time, space, and quantity are understood and can be applied, but not as independent concepts 4. Formal operation: 11+. Theoretical. hypothetical, and counterfactual thinking. Abstract logic and reasoning. Strategy and planning become possible. Concepts learned in one context can be applied to another

What are the 3 components of emotion?

1. Subjective experience: (AKA cognitive response) subjective interpretation of the mood or feeling experienced by the individual 2. Physiological response: physiological changes in HR, BP, breathing, and skin temp observed in the individual experiencing the emotion. 3. Behavioral response: facial expressions or body language that accompany emotional expression

What are the two main ways that ATP is formed and describe them

1. Substrate level phosphorylation: The formation of ATP from ADP. This usually occurs in the cytosol as a part of glycolysis, but sometimes can occur in the mitochondrial matrix. MUST BE COUPLED TO AN EXERGONIC REACTION TO PROCEED. 2. Oxidative Phosphorylation: Forms ATP out of ADP and Pi from the energy of the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. (Protons from oxidation of NADH and FADH2)

How we think (information processing model 4 parts and describe them)

1. Thinking: perception of stimuli, encoding, and storage for later 2. Analysis of stimuli: stimuli is altered and analyzed by the brain, not just responded to automatically 3. Situational modification: stored decision-making and problem-solving experiences from past can be extrapolated to solve new problems 4. Obstacle Evaluation: Skill level in problem solving doesn't depend solely on cognitive development level, but largely on nature and context of problem/obstacle

Order of deprotonation in an amino acid

1. α-COOH (pKa ~ 2) 2. Acidic R group (pKa ~4): Asp=3.7; Glu=4.5 3. His R Group (pKa ~6) 4. α-NH₃⁺ (pKa ~9) 5. Basic R group (pka ~11-12): Lys=10.7; Arg=12

Erickson: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

1.5 to 3 years Favorable: sense of self-efficacy Negative: self doubt

Pulmonary artery

10

left atrium

10

left ventricle

10

renal vein

10

Describe Freud's Id

100% unconscious Responsible for all instinctive and primitive behaviors the only one of the three components (Id, ego, and superego) that is present from birth Primary or most important component of personality, the "source of all psychic energy" Primary process and Wish Fulfillment

aortic valve

11

left pulmonary veins

11

aortic arch

12

bicuspid valve (mitral)

12

renal pelvis

12

Erickson: Identity vs Confusion

12 to 18 Favorable: True sense of self and uniqueness Negative: Identity confusion

chordae tendineae

13

right atrium

13

interventricular septum

14

left pulmonary artery

14

right ventricle

14

left pulmonary veins

15

papillary muscle

15

coronary sinus

16

left ventricle

16

superior vena cava

17

ascending aorta

18

Erickson: Intimacy vs. Isolation

18 to 40 Favorable: intimate relationships and love Negative: Loneliness

right pulmonary artery

19

coronary sulcus

2

proximal convoluted tubule

2

pulmonary valve

2

renal cortex

2

What is the product of one single turn of the citric acid cycle

2 CO₂, 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂, and 1 ATP There are 2 CoA produced by each glycolysis cycle though; so each glycolysis gives 4, 6, 2, 2

pulmonary artery

2 and 10

Explicit vs implicit memory

2 components of emotional memory Explicit: conscious memory of having experience the emotion (hippocampus) Implicit: unconscious encoding and storage of the actual feeling. May be retrieved and emotion "felt again" when encountering a similar experience, or during explicit recall (amygdala)

Describe the anatomy of long bones

2 epiphyses cushioned by cartilage Ends are filled with spongy bone and shaft in between is made of compact bone Center is hollow cavity filled with yellow bone marrow

What is the net result of glycolysis? What step does each come from?

2 pyruvates (after step 10 happens twice) 2 NADH (from step 5 happening twice) 2 ATP (NET; 2 lost in steps 1 and 3; 4 gained in steps 7 and 10) 2 H₂O (step 9 happens twice) 2H⁺ (**Step 4 will yield 2 Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate so all steps afterwards will yield double)

What are homologues

2 related but non-identical chromosomes (one from each parent)

What are groups

2(+) people interacting and identifying with one another Primary and secondary=large impersonal group of members for a short period of time Family=most influential

right pulmonary veins

20

inferior vena cava

21

ascending aorta

3

ascending limb of loop of Henle

3

renal column

3

right atrium

3

right ventricle

3

Erickson: Initiative vs Guilt

3 to 5 Favorable: sense of purpose and self-motivation Negative: guilt and inadequacy

coronary sinus opening

4

descending limb of loop of Henle

4

pulmonary trunk

4

renal capsule

4

Erickson: Generativity vs Stagnation

40 to 65 Favorable: Making contributions to society Negative: Unable to make contributions in meaningful ways

distal convoluted tubule

5

inferior vena cava opening

5

right pulmonary veins

5

Erickson: Industry vs. Inferiority

5 to 12 Favorable: Sense of competence and understanding Negative: Sense of inferiority

collecting duct

6

inferior vena cava

6

juxtaglomerular apparatus Where this distal tubule and afferent arteriole cells meet

6

left ventricle

6

tricuspid valve

6

Describe the later steps of glycolysis (6-10)

6. Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate → 1,3-Bisphosphoglyerate (via glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate isomerase; Pi and NAD+ converted to NADH) 7. 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate → 3-Phosphoglycerate (via phosphoglycerate kinase; ADP to ATP) 8. 3-Phosphoglycerate → 2-Phosphoglycerate (via phosphoglycerate mutase) 9. 2-Phosphoglycerate → Phosphoenolpyruvate (via enolase; get H₂O) 10. Phosphoenolpyruvate → Pyruvate (via pyruvate kinase; turn ADP to ATP)

Erickson: Integrity vs. Despair

65+ Favorable: Wisdom and integrity Negative: Dissatisfaction with life's outcomes

aortic arch

7

right ventricle

7

glomerulus

8

left atrium

8

Describe Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence and list

8 types of intelligence. Challenges the concept that all children learn in the same way, and says that IQ only examines, and wester culture only favors, linguistic and logical-mathematical 1. Visual-spatial: good with directions, maps, charts, videos, pictures 2. Body-kinesthetic: excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity 3. Musical: Strong appreciation for music and often good at performance and composition 4. Interpersonal: Skilled at assessing emotion, motivation, desires, and intentions of those around them 5. Intrapersonal: self-reflection, daydream, exploring relationships with others, personal strengths 6. Naturalistic: highly aware of subtle changes to the environment 7. Linguistic: good at writing stories and memorizing information and reading 8. Logical-mathematical: think conceptually about numbers, relationships, and patterns

coronary sulcus

9

glomerular capsule

9

left pulmonary artery

9

left pulmonary vein openings

9

renal artery

9

What is ∆G°' for ATP hydrolysis

<<0 (~-30.5kJ/mol or -7.3kcal/mol)

Dendrites

A

Sinoatrial node

A

What is genetic drift?

A change in allele frequencies caused by random events

Simple definition of operant conditioning

A change in behavior based on past outcomes

What is a Zwitterion

A dipolar amino acid where the positively and negatively charged functional groups cancel each other out, resulting in a neutral ion All amino acids are zwitterions at physiological pH (7.4), except Asp, Glu, Lys, Arg, and His (Basic and Acidic Rs)

Characteristics of neutrophils

A granulocyte Phagocytes recruited to areas of inflammation and infection by chemotaxis. They live for only 5 days, but are the most abundant WBC's Pus at a wound is mostly dead neutrophils

Describe phosphorylation using ATP

A major human body regulatory mechanism. Many regulatory proteins, enzymes, and signaling molecules are turned "on" or "off" by phosphorylation via phosphoryl group transfer. Protein kinases are the enzymes that catalyze phosphorylation couple to ATP cleavage

What is a nucleotide and what are common nucleotide polymers

A phosphate (or group) bound by a phosphodiester bond to a sugar backbone and a nitrogenous base Common nucleotide polymers would include cAMP, NADH, FADH2, FMN, Coenzyme A, ATP, GTP, UTP, etc.

Hormones located in the posterior pituitary (characteristics)

ADH and oxytocin Are peptides, water-soluble, regulated by hormones secreted from the hypothalamus

Describe cell-mediated immunity

AKA T-cell immunity Involves T-lymphocytes (T-cells also made in the bone marrow but mature in the thymus) T-cells have receptor proteins embedded in their cell membrane, but unlike B-cells, they never produce free antibodies; instead they are "tested" in the thymus against host's own membrane proteins (self-antigens). All T-cells matching a self-protein are destroyed, leaving only cells that will recognize invaders. CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY= SELF-ATTACK of DISEASED CELLS

Epinephrine (found where, primary regulatory functions, and any correlates to disease or psych disorder)

AKA adrenaline Found primarily in the PNS associated with stress response elicited by activation of the sympathetic nervous system

describe the nativist theory of language development

AKA biological or nature __Psycholinguistic__ Humans are prewired for language at birth and language will naturally emerge as we grow and interact with our environment

Describe the learning theory of language development

AKA environmental, behaviorist, nurture we were born without any knowledge of language and we learn language through classical learning mechanisms and through observational learning

What is fecundity? Total, crude, and age-specific?

AKA fertility rate the average number of children born to each woman in a given population Total fertility rate=the average number of children a woman give's birth to in her lifetime Crude birth rate=the number of live births given in a year for every 1000 people in a population. Crude because the population includes both men and women Age-specific fertility rate= number of births during a specific year or reference period per 1000 women of reproductive age in single or five year groups

Characteristics of lymphatic vessels

AKA lymphangions a lot like veins in that many contain one way valves. Backward flow is restricted when single cells overlap slightly, creating a trap that allows fluid in but not out The entire lymph system eventually drains into two main vessels; right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct--> both merge with large veins in lower portion of neck to dump back into the blood

Norepinephrine (found where, primary regulatory functions, and any correlates to disease or psych disorder)

AKA noradrenaline Found in both the CNS and PNS In CNS, noradrenaline is associated with attention and emotional processing. Anxiety disorders and depression are associated with decreased norepinephrine In PNS, norepinephrine contributes to stress response associated with activity of sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

What is social constructionism? What is life-world and how does it tie in

AKA phenomenology or phenomenological sociology This is the study of human experience in everyday life. Interested in how individuals perceive, think, and talk about social life. How individuals assign meaning to perceptions and experiences through interaction Life-world is a consequence, and it is the everyday routines and experiences that are taken for granted

Describe the fasting state

AKA post-absorptive state High glucagon, low insulin levels Higher relative rate of catabolism (vs anabolism) Glycogenolysis= immediate increase Gluconeogenesis=delayed increase (~12 hours)

Describe the well-fed state

AKA postprandial state occurs the first few hours after eating a meal High insulin, low glucagon levels High relative rate of anabolism (vs catabolism); high rate of glycogen and fatty acid synthesis

What is Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD)

AKA social phobia an overwhelming feeling of anxiety and excessive self-consciousness in everyday social situations. It is characterized by a fear of being judged and feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, embarrassment, humiliation, and depression. May be accompanied by blushing, nausea, excessive sweating, trembling, difficulty speaking, etc

Describe hydrolysis of ATP

ATP + H₂O → ADP + Pi + energy Almost always coupled to another reaction or process, such that the resulting energy can be used to drive that process (e.g. cocking the myosin head)

Where is ATP required/produced in glycolysis? NAD+/NADH?

ATP is required in steps 1 and 3 ATP is produced in steps 7 and 10 NAD+ is required in step 6 and NADH is produced in the same step

What is Active Transport

ATP is required to move across cell Always required to move something against it's concentration gradient or against an electrical potential

Describe the sodium potassium pump

ATP pump that actively pumps 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell per cycle. Net effect is a more positive charge outside of the cell and a progressively more negative charge inside the cell

Describe how phosphoryl group transfers work in the consumption of ATP

ATP → ADP + energy Similar to ATP hydrolysis, except instead of a free phosphate being released (Pi), it is transferred onto another molecule Example: Glucose + ATP → Glucose-6-Phosphate + ADP (during glycolysis)

What are examples of childhood stressors? What do they lead to

Abuse, neglect, exposure to violence lead to increased risk of major psychological disorders Divorce/marital problems lead to increased life stress as an adult, more family conflict, lack of social support networks, increased prosperity for learned helplessness War/Terrorism leads to PTSD and depression as an adult

Neuromuscular junction (chemical and process)

Acetylcholine (ACh) is the only neurotransmitter at NMJ. When ACh is released from motor neuron at NMJ, an action potential is initiated. Action potential then spreads along muscle cell sarcolemma and down specialized invaginations called T-Tubules (dive deep into muscle) The T-Tubule then interfaces directly with sarcoplasmic reticulum (specialized ER in muscles). Electrochemical impulse then spreads from T-Tubules to SR and the SR releases Ca2+ Ca2+ then initiates muscle contraction After muscle contraction, Ca2+ is actively transported back into the SR

What are the 4 main denaturing agents and describe how to renature them

Acid, Heat, Urea, and Mercaptoethanol Often not possible to renature proteins unless there was a slow and mild denaturant used to break hydrogen and sulfide bonds, but not other covalent bonds To re-fold, need to slowly remove denaturant, but not possible to renature with extreme heat or pH

Describe the process of signal transmission starting with presynaptic membrane

Action potential arrives at presynaptic membrane --> triggers voltage-gated calcium channels to open --> Calcium ions flow into the cell --> Calcium initiates cascade of exocytosis of vesicles filled with neurotransmitters to fuse with presynaptic membrane and dump contents into synaptic cleft --> neurotransmitter molecules the diffuse across gap --> bind to receptors on postsynaptic membrane --> receptors usually associated with sodium channels --> if enough flows into the cell the threshold is reached

What is the self perception theory

Actions influence attitude because people infer their attitudes by observing their own behavior

What is the difference between Active Transport and Secondary Active Transport

Active transport requires ATP, secondary does not require ATP to be coupled

What is an allosteric enzyme

Activity of the enzyme is influenced by the reversible non-covalent binding of another molecule

Acute and chronic physiological responses to stressors

Acute: stimulation of SNS Chronic: ulcers, decreased immune response, increased risk of heart disease, high BP, etc

Describe the ERG theory of needs

Adaptation and categorization of Maslow's Hierarchs that distills it down to 3 categories: -Existence needs: physiological and safety needs -Relatedness needs: portions of love/belonging and esteem needs -Growth needs: Portions of esteem and self-actualization needs Individual can be motivated by needs from each category simultaneously, whereas Maslow's have to have lower level's satisfied before moving higher

Purines vs Pyrimadines

Adenine and Guanine and purines (2 cyclo) Thymine (Uracil) and Cytosine are pyrimidines (1 cyclo)

Four (DNA) nucleotide bases and describe their characteristics

Adenine pairs with thymine via 2 H bonds Guanine pairs with cytosine via 3 H bonds Adenine and guanine are *Purines*: hex and pent ring Thymine and Cytosine are *Pyrimadines*: just a hex ring (also Uracil)

Aldosterone: location, class, function

Adrenal cortex steroid/lipid-soluble increases Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion at the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct; net increase in salts in the plasma, increasing osmotic potential and subsequently blood pressure

Difference between afferent, efferent, and interneurons

Afferent (Sensory): receive sensory signals from sensory cells Efferent (motor): carry signals to a muscle or gland to respond to stimulus. Interneurons: connect afferent and efferent. Also transfer and process signals. The brain and 90% of all other neurons are interneurons

Describe the Bobo doll experiment

Albert Bandura exposed children to adults modeling aggressive and non-aggressive behavior. The aggressive adult models repeatedly punched, hit, kicked, and spoke violently to Bobo. Non-aggressive models played quietly with non-aggressive toys. Control group with no models Children were then allowed to play in a similar room after watching the models. Those exposed to the aggressive models mimicked the violent behavior toward Bobo, while those exposed to non-aggressive model did not. Boys were more aggressive than girls. Children were more likely to model the behavior of a same-sex model. Girls were more likely to model the aggressive language, and boys were more likely to model the physical violence.

What is the difference between aldose and ketose sugars?

Aldose sugars have an R-OH on ONLY one side of the ring oxygen (glucose, ribose, deoxyribose) Ketose sugars have an R-OH on only one side of the ring oxygen (fructose)

Aldose vs Ketose

Aldose= aldehyde sugar Ketose=ketone sugar

Describe the Gabriel Synthesis

Alkyl halide and potassium phthalamide form a primary amine

What are the 3 irreversible steps of glycolysis

All 3 are irreversible because of the large -∆G Step 1: phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase Step 3: Phosphorylation of Fructose-6-Phosphate by phosphofructokinase Step 10: Transfer of phosphate from phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP by pyruvate kinase

What is the basic structure of bacteria?

All bacteria are prokaryotes Capsule, peptidoglycan cell wall, plasma membrane, no complex membrane-bound organelles, single circular DNA chromosome, tiny circular DNA molecules called plasmids

What is hematopoiesis?

All blood cells develop from stem cells (undifferentiated cells) in the bone marrow

Differences between enzymes and catalysts

All enzymes are catalysts, but not all catalysts are enzymes Both effect reaction rate and energy of activation. Have no effect on equilibrium, Keq, yield, or percent yield Enzymes are organic and catalysts can be inorganic. Enzymes are typically specific for a substrate or group of substrates whereas catalysts are typically more universal

Where do Pancreatic secretions enter?

All secretions empty into the upper end of the duodenum. Just before emptying into the duodenum the pancreatic duct is joined by the bile duct.

L vs D sugars in human body

All sugars in the body are D. L sugars don't occur naturally in body

Role of bulbourethral glands

Also called Cowper's gland Don't release any fluid to ejaculate, but secrete the pre-ejaculate fluid that lubricates and neutralizes any acidic urine in the urethra prior to arrival of other semen components

Stimulates (subclasses and effects)

Amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy Stimulates CNS. Feel euphoria and high levels of energy. Have a higher HR and RR Amphetamine and coke act as agonists of monoamine neurotransmitters with their effects on dopamine activity receiving the most attention. Both will block dopamine reuptake, but amphetamine causes additional release

What is an apoenzyme

An enzyme alone. Doesn't contain any cofactors or substrates

What is telomerase

An enzyme that adds bases to the ends of telomeres. Are turned off in mature somatic cells because this adds a timeclock for apoptosis. Telomerase remains active in sperm and egg cells and are passed from one generation to the next.

What are proteases

An enzyme that breaks down proteins and peptides Assists proteasomes

Describe a competitive inhibitor, its effects on variables, and an example

An inhibitor that binds at the active site. The inhibitor will resemble the substrate in shape. Can be overcome by increasing concentration of substrates Vmax= no change Km= increase Statin Drugs: HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors that occupy HMG-CoA reductases active site and preventing HMG-CoA from entering and being converted to mevalonic acid.

What are the 6 most common psychological disorders

Anxiety disorders (GAD, SAD, Phobias, Panic Disorder) ~18% Depressive Disorders (MDD, Bipolar, Dysthmyia) ~10% Substance Use Disorders ~7% PTSD ~3.5% Antisocial Personality Disorder ~1.5% Schizophrenia ~1%

What are neuroses?

Anxiety or mental disorders that result from fixations

Describe barbiturates and benzodiazapenes

Are both depressants (along with alcohol) Agonize GABA neurotransmitter At low doses can result in minor mood changes, and at high doses can result in unconsciousness and death (for alcohol and barbiturates)

What are Jung's 4 archetype's (describe)

Are unique to Jung, nothing comparable for Freud -Persona: how one presents themselves to the world and is often represented by the symbol of a mask - Anima(Animus): The female in a male (animus=male in a female). Virgin Mary might represent Anima -Self: an archetype in which the entire mind (both conscious and unconscious) is unified. Circles, squares, trees, and holy figures all serve as representations of the self -Shadow: an archetype that embodies uncertainty and danger and it is often alluring in some way

Fluid flow through capillaries (arterial vs venous side)

Arterial side: higher hydrostatic pressure, lower osmotic pressure. Hydrostatic force essentially pushes the fluid like a pump from the heart Venous side: Higher osmotic pressure, lower hydrostatic pressure. Acts like a vacuum and pulls water from interstitial fluids back into the veins

Characteristics of arteries and veins

Arteries leave the heart, veins return to the heart doesn't matter if if they are carrying oxygenated or deoxygenated blood

Describe industrialization and urban growth

As society and the economy become more industrialized, people migrate to the urban centers

What are the basic diagnostic symptoms of bipolar disorder? (DSM)

At least one week of abnormally elevated or irritated mood during which the individual also experiences at least 3 of the following: inflated sense of self, decreased need for sleep, increased talkativeness, racing thoughts, increased distractibility, increased psychomotor activation, excessive involvement in pleasurable, yet risky, activities Change in mood significantly impairs work or family functioning or leads to hospitalization to prevent harm to self or others. Changes are not better explained by the use of some drug or some other medical condition

Describe the fructose metabolism feeder pathway for glycolysis

At the muscle and kidneys: Hexokinase converts Fructose to Fructose-6P, which then feeds into the 3rd step of glycolysis At the liver: Fructokinase converts fructose to Fructose-1P. Fructose-1P Aldolase then converts Fructose-1P to Gylceraldehyde-3P and Dihydroxyacetone-P (DHAP). Triose phosphate isomerase then converts DHAP to glyceraldehyde-3P, which then feeds into step 5 of glycolysis

Describe the relationship between attitude and behavior

Attitude influences behavior: absent of strong external influences, attitude generally guides behavior. The more strongly held the attitude, the more directly and quickly it will determine behavior Behavior influences attitude: our behavior can change our attitudes significantly. People tend to have a positive attitude toward behaviors they exhibit themselves, or towards things in which they personally participate

Bowman's capsule

B

Cell Body

B

atrioventricular node

B

Describe how acquired immunity from a B cell works

B-cells will mature in bone marrow or lymph tissue. Each produces only one kind of protein receptor on it's membrane called an "antibody"; Each antibody will recognize and bind only one foreign particle (antigen) If antigen binds to B-cells antibody, the B-cell will undergo differentiation into a plasma cell and a memory B-cell Plasma cell's manufacture free antibodies and release them into the blood; whereas memory B-cells multiply and remain in blood, preparing body for a second response

Cerebellum is responsible for

Balance and coordination

Why is hemophilia more common in males?

Because it is an X-linked recessive disorder. All X-linked recessive disorders are easier for males to get than females because they only need a single "bad X". There is no such thing as a male-carrier for an X-linked disease.

What is repolarization

Because there are more K+ inside the cell (due to Na+/K+ pump), opening of the potassium channels causes K+ to flow out of cell This causes a sudden decrease from +40mV to -70mV

Tell the story of translation

Begins when small subunit attaches __mRNA__ strand at 5' end. Small subunit will begin scanning mRNA until it reaches start codon, AUG. The first __tRNA__, which will always carry methionine, will have the anticodon 3'UAC5' (complements 5'AUG3'. The process up to this point is considered __initiation__. Complete ribosome then begins moving along mRNA strand from 5' to 3'. There are aminoacyl (A), peptidyl (P), and exit (E) sites on the ribosome. New tRNA molecules carrying associate amino acid enter the A site driven by hydrogen bonding. A peptide bond then forms between the amino acid on the new tRNA and amino acid on the previous tRNA, adjacent to the P site. New tRNA shifts over the P site, and previous tRNA moves to the E site, dissociates from the protein, and exits the ribosome. Another new tRNA enters the A site and the process repeats. This process is called __elongation__. Finally at some point the ribosome will reach a stop codon, stimulating a release factor. This process is called __termination__

Describe the process of the menstrual cycle and the hormones involved

Begins with FSH stimulating the maturation of ovum and follicle in the ovary LH then stimulates cells in ovaries to secrete estrogen which signals the uterine wall to proliferate and prepare for potential pregnancy Just before ovulation, a surge in level of estrogen released causes a subsequent surge in levels of LH (Luteal surge), which signals ovulation and development of corpus luteum Corpus luteum then begins secreting estrogen and high levels of progesterone to signal uterine lining to prepare for implantation If no fertilization occurs, corpus luteum degrades and menstrual lining sloughs off If fertilization does occur, corpus luteum continues to secrete estrogen and progesterone, maintaining pregnancy

What is the drive reduction theory of motivation? Primary vs secondary

Behavior is motivated by desire to reduce or eliminate an undesirable or uncomfortable internal state Primary drives involve physiological needs for survival (food, water, sex) Secondary drives are motivating because of association with and or produce access to the basic needs of primary (money, social status, fame)

Describe sulfide bonds

Between two Cysteine residues Two oxidized cysteine residues (R-S-S-R) bond. Strongest protein folding interaction Between Keratin α-helices, more disulfide bonds =curlier hair

How do bacteria reproduce? How do they increase their genetic variability

Binary fission; NO mitosis or meiosis Increase by: 1. Conjugation: one bacteria has an F plasmid (F+); F plasmid is a plasmid containing the gene for a sex pilus. The recipient can be (F-) 2. Transformation: bacteria pick up DNA from the environment 3. Transduction: Viruses accidentally incorporate host genetic material into their nucleic acids

What are the 4 non-enzymatic functions of proteins (examples of them)

Binding: hemoglobin, calmodulin, troponin, tropomyosin, histones, transcription factors, cell adhesion molecules immune system: antigens and antibodies Structural proteins: actin (thin filaments, microfilaments), elastin (connective tissue, extracellular matrix), tubulin (microtubules), and Keratin (hair and nails, intermediate filaments) Motor: Myosin, Kinesins, Dyneins

What is the biological personality theory vs the behavioral personality theory?

Biological personality theory=personality is predominantly the result of the expression of genes. Personality traits are the result of heritable biological characteristics. Behavioral= personality is the sum of those behaviors that have been reinforced over time.

What is the biomedical vs the biopsychosocial approach to psychological disorders

Biomedical approach= psych disorders caused by biological or chemical dysfunction (e.g. genetic predisposition, abnormally low hormone or neurotransmitter levels); treatments are primarily biochemical (surgery, drugs). Considered more narrow by psychologists, focused more on relieving symptoms Biopsychosocial approach= psych disorders caused by a combination of biochemical (genetic defect, low hormone level), psychological (personality, unhealthy behaviors), and sociological factors (culture, peer pressure). Treatments should include interventions in all three of these areas to be most effective

What is Bipolar I vs Bipolar II

Bipolar I= individuals have full blown manic episodes Bipolar II= individual experiences less intense mania (hypomania)

What is innate immunity

Body's non-specific attack of pathogens. All forms of innate immunity are present at birth, not acquired in any way Immune responses are not specific to one particular virus, bacteria, pathogen, etc Example: skin, stomach acid, enzymes in mucus and saliva, digestive enzymes, blood chemicals, fevers, inflammation, non-specific phagocytosis

What is co-dominance?

Both phenotypes are fully expressed at the same time in a heterozygote (Red and white give red and white striped flower)

Broca's area and Wernicke's area

Broca's= motor aspects of speech (moving mouth and tongue) Wernicke's= language comprehension Two area's communicate with each other via a bundle of axons called Arcuate Fasciculus. Connection allows integration of language comprehension and speech

Describe the organization of skeletal muscles

Bundle of many __fasciculi__ make up a muscle group. Each fasciculi is a bundle of many long tubular cells called __muscle fibers__. Around each muscle cell is a specialized cell membrane called __sarcolemma__. __Myofibrils__ are long bundles of proteins composed primarily of actin and myosin fibers. __Sarcomeres__ are repeating units of actin and myosin fibers The __sarcoplasmic reticulum__ is bundles of interwoven myofibrils. The SR stores and releases Ca2+ ton initiate contraction sequence.

Axon

C

Left Bundle Branch

C

CNS vs PNS

CNS: brain and spinal cord. Made of interneurons only PNS: al neurons outside of the CNS; includes both sensory and motor neurons

Hormones released by the thyroid (characteristics)

Calcitonin Peptide and water-soluble

Describe hormone regulation in terms of bones

Calcitonin= "tones your bones"; inhibits osteoclast activity, while osteoblasts continue. NET INCREASE PTH= stimulates osteoclasts. NET BREAKDOWN of bone matrix

Blood calcium levels via hormones

Calcium elevated above normal levels --> thyroid releases Calcitonin --> Osteoblasts stimulated to take up calcium Calcium levels drop -->Parathyroid releases PTH --> Osteoclasts stimulated to break down bone

Amino Acid stereocenter characteristics

Called the α-carbon all have a stereocenter except for glycine (2H). Contain 4 substituents: R, H, Carboxylic acid, and amine All amino acids are S except Glycine (no stereo) and Cysteine (Sulfur makes it R)

Proline role in proteins folding

Can be thought of as disrupting secondary structure or contributing to tertiary structure. Neither alpha helices or beta sheets have them internally Can be thought of as outside of the alpha helices or beta sheets because they are either in the turns of beta sheets, at the beginning of alpha, or in kinks of alphas

What is a phototroph

Capture energy from sun via photosynthesis

Describe cardiac specific metabolism; skeletal

Cardiac= fatty acids during well fed state; fatty acids and ketones if fasting Skeletal= glucose during well fed state; fatty acids and ketones if fasting. Creatine phosphate is also a very short-lived energy source for short-bursts of action. Glycogen is still main fuel source

What is Client Centered Therapy?

Carl Rogers One of the most widely-used psychotherapeutic approaches. It CCT, therapists should not direct the therapy or offer solutions. This is a MAJOR DEPARTURE from psychoanalysis, in which the therapist actively drives the interpretation of patients behaviors, dreams, etc. Therapist must always be empathetic, genuine, and show unconditional positive regard for the client, regardless of circumstance

Describe the role of proline in secondary structure

Causes a kink/turn Usually the first residue at the end of alpha helices, but is rarely found on the inside of the helix Also desirable at the end of beta sheets to make the 180 degree turn to the next row

How is ATP produced by the mitochondria

Cellular respiration starts with glycolysis and results in NADH and FADH2 as the electron carriers. These electrons move down the electron transport chain (series of enzymes on the inner mitochondrial membrane). The H+ ions are then transferred out into the mitochondrial intermembrane space. An increased concentration gradient between the intermembrane space and the matrix forces the electrons through the ATP synthase enzyme channel (into the matrix) The turning of the ATP synthase enzyme results in the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.

Which region of the brain is responsible for automated motor learning?

Cerebellum

What is obedience

Change in behavior that is a function of command from some authority figure Focus is on the behavior, the underlying attitude may not be affected

What is Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD)?

Characterized by Dysthymia, which is depressive symptoms that are not severe enough to qualify as a MDE, but persist most of the time for at least 2 years

What is obsessive-compulsive personality disorder? What cluster is it a part of?

Characterized by a chronic and significant preoccupation with perfection, control and order. May include rigid behaviors, resistance to change, inflexibility, stubbornness, and a sense of helplessness in uncontrollable circumstance Cluster C

What is dependent personality disorder? What cluster is it a part of?

Characterized by a chronic, pervasive pattern of dependent, submissive, and needy behavior. Individuals may seek excessive approval, advice, or encouragement. May include sensitivity to criticism or rejection, low self-esteem, low self-confidence, an inability to make decision without others, feelings of helplessness, and extreme devastation when close relationships end-with the need to immediately begin a new relationship Cluster C

What is narcissistic personality disorder? What cluster is it a part of?

Characterized by an excessive sense of self-importance, an extreme preoccupation with oneself, and a lack of empathy for others. May be accompanied by a constant need for attention, affirmation, or praise, a belief that one is "special" and should only associate with others of the same caliber, fantasies about success and power, a sense of entitlement, or expectations of special treatment Cluster B

What is histrionic personality disorder? What cluster is it a part of?

Characterized by attention-seeking, excessive but shallow emotions, inappropriately seductive behavior or flirtation, and excessive suggestibility. May be accompanied by fleeting moods, opinions, or beliefs. Individuals are often vivacious, dramatic, and have a desire for others to witness their emotional outbursts. Cluster B

What is avoidant personality disorder? What cluster is it a part of?

Characterized by extreme shyness, sensitivity to criticism and rejection, low self-esteem, and avoidance of social situations-including school and work. Individuals may desire closeness with others but have difficulty forming relationships outside of their immediate personality Cluster C

What is illness anxiety disorder (IAD)?

Characterized by heightened bodily sensations and intense anxiousness about the possibility of an undiagnosed illness. Individuals may devote excessive time and energy to health concerns, often obsessively researching them

What is borderline personality disorder? What cluster is it a part of?

Characterized by pervasive instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and behavior. This instability often disrupts the individuals sense of self-identity and leads to extreme fears of abandonment. May be accompanied by self-destructive behavior, including self-harm or threats of suicide Cluster B

Define chemiosmosis and oxidative phosphorylation

Chemiosmosis: H+ passing though the special channels in ATP synthase and then spinning the axle making ATP from ADP and P+ Oxidative Phosphorylation: ADP being phosphorylated to ATP; happens because of the oxidation of NADH and subsequent enzymes in the ETC.

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) (found where, primary regulatory functions, and any correlates to disease or psych disorder)

Chief inhibitory neurotransmitter of the CNS

What is an ambivalent attachment childhood like and what are adults like

Childhood: inconsistent caregiver availability or response to needs. They are upset when caregiver leaves, and are not comforted when they return. May avoid or refuse comfort from parents Adult: reluctant to form relationships, worry partner doesn't reciprocate their love, and are devastated by breakups

What is nondisjunction and examples

Chromosomes fail to separate during anaphase. This can occur during meiosis I or II or mitosis, but is most common during meiosis I This will result in daughter cell having too many/too few chromosomes Turner's Syndrome: monosomy X chromosome Down Syndrome: Trisomy 21

What is the difference between a church, sect and a cult?

Church= attempts to appeal to everyone. Has a formalized worship style. Leaders will be educated, trained and ordained. It is long term established and organized. Attracts members that are mainstream Sect= Stands apart from the larger society. It holds rigid religious convictions and does not have a universal appeal. Has a spontaneous and emotionally charged style of worship. Leaders will be charismatic. Is less stable than a church, typically splitting off from other groups. Attracts social outsiders Cult= Also stands apart from larger society. It differs from a sect in that it is outside of society's cultural traditions. Cults can be seen as deviant.

What are coenzymes What are prosthetic groups

Coenzymes: non-protein species that are NOT permanently attached to the enzyme but are required to function (NAD is common coenzyme) Prosthetic groups: non-protein species that are permanently attached and are required to function

What is self-concept

Collection of beliefs and self-perceptions about one's own nature, unique abilities and typical behavior Self concept= self-schemas + self-esteem + self-image + self-identity + past self + future self Collective mental picture of self; my total concept of myself Carl Rogers said there are 3 components: self-image, self-esteem, and the ideal self (who i wish i could be)

Compact vs spongy bone

Compact= dense bone surrounding outside of all bones and constitutes the shafts of long bones. Organized in orderly units called osteons Spongy= interiors of flat and irregular bones, as well as bulbous ends of long bones. Contain many open spaces formed by interwoven trabeculae. Fill with red bone marrow

Difference between a competitive, competitive, and uncompetitive inhibitors: Graphs and values

Competitive: Inhibition because competes with substrate for active site Non-comp: Can bind [E], [E+S], and [E+P] Uncomp: keep the conformation locked in the [E+S] complex

Describe Spearman's theory of intelligence

Concept of general intelligence or g factor General intelligence is the bedrock intellect from which all other forms of intelligence are developed

Cones vs rods

Cones are only in the Fovea. There is a high concentration of cones here and they detect COLOR Rods are found everywhere else in the retina except the fovea. They detect black and white, and are much more sensitive to low light

Describe confrontational tactics vs peaceful tactics in social movements

Confrontational tactics involve obstruction such as sit-ins, human-chain, blocking access, etc. They could also include property damage and violence Peaceful tactics include candlelight vigils, mass demonstrations, cultural politics (AIDs quilt, benefit concerts, etc), or political lobbying

Function of the corpus callosum

Connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain No corpus callosum would result in individuals having difficult transferring information between the two hemispheres and have difficulties with problem solving. Impaired social behavior, variety of sensory impairments, and problems in muscle tone and motor behavior

Describe the characteristics of unsaturated triglycerides

Contain at least one double bond. Cis are good. They introduce kinds into the chain. Liquid at RT (cis) Generate fewer calories when metabolized (cis) TRANS=bad. Are a result of food processing. Enzymes for metabolizing unsaturated fatty acids are just for cis, so trans will just accumulate in the blood

Describe the difference between controlled processing and automatic processing

Controlled processing requires attention, whereas automatic processing does not Driving a car: first learning, requires a lot of attention, but as tasks become more well-learned process becomes more active and requires less active attention. Leads to being able to drive a car and hold a conversation at the same time

What is cultural transmission vs cultural diffusion

Cultural transmission= also known as cultural learning. It is the way a group of people within a society or culture learns and passes on new information. Cultural diffusion= spread of cultural beliefs and social activities from one group to the next.

Culture and evolution

Culture speeds up human evolution. Cultural change most directly drives evolution. The more dramatic the change, the more likely that change is to speed up evolution

Nodes of Ranvier

D

Purkinje fibers

D

Describe how proofreading repairs DNA

DNA polymerase proofreads, catches, and repairs most mismatched pairs on the spot

What is the basic model of emotional expression (who)?

Darwin emotional expression is universal and expressed in similar ways across cultures

Describe the sliding filament mechanism for muscles

Default low-energy position of myosin heads is bent. Between contractions, ATP hydrolysis provides energy required to straighten these myosin heads into their straight positions They are always attracted to and bind readily with actin (regardless of straight or bent configuration) They are not bound because tropomyosin is covering myosin binding site on actin filament Tropomyosin is clamped down by troponin, and when Ca is released from the SR, it binds to Troponin, releasing the clamp and freeing the binding site The higher energy straight position binds to actin, and relaxes back to bent position: ultimately dragging actin filaments with them (This is the power stroke of contraction) After the power stroke, ATP binds to the myosin head again facilitating it's release from actin filaments; tropomyosin will rebind to binding site and the attached ATP is hydrolyzed providing necessary energy to put the head back in straight position

What are delusions? Delusions of grandeur? Delusions of persecution? Delusions of reference? Thought insertion? Thought broadcasting?

Delusions of grandeur= inflated sense of self-importance or power Delusions of persecution= a belief that others are plotting to hurt or control them Delusions of reference= seeing personal meaning in a variety of mundane events that occurs around them Thought insertion= believing others are placing thoughts in their minds Thought broadcasting= belief that others have access or can hear their thoughts

Describe alcohol

Depressant "Messy" drug with effects on all sorts of neurotransmitter systems. Agonizes GABA neurotransmitter

Describe the Yerkes-Dodson Law

Describes social facilitation optimal performance is associated with an intermediate level of arousal

What is identity?

Descriptive characteristics, qualities, and abilities that make a person unique or different relative to others, in relation to social context A combination of self-identities and group identities How i am defined by myself, others, and in various situations; Who i am

What is the DSM-5? Describe how it's used

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Volume 5 the official reference manual mental health professionals and physicians use to diagnose mental disorders in the United States Is based on symptoms ONLY, not causes or treatments. Most disorders are a list of possible symptoms and the exact criteria for diagnosis are predetermined (e.g. three or more of the following, persisting for a period of at least 6 months)

What is mosaicism?

Different cells in the same individual contain non-identical phenotypes

Diploid vs Haploid

Diploid= 2n chromosomes Haploid= n chromosomes

What is disorganized behavior? What is catatonia?

Disorganized behavior= engaging in bizarre, pointless behaviors Catatonia= remaining abnormally still for extended period of time

What is dissociative identity disorder? Dissociate amnesia? (DSM)

Disruption of identity with 2 or more distinct personalities Recurrent periods of amnesia for both everyday events and important personal experiences Disturbances fall outside of cultural/religious practices and imaginary play of children Disturbances have caused significant impairment of occupational or social functioning Disturbance not better explained by drugs or other medical condition

Distress vs Eustress

Distress= negative/unpleasant aspects of life (poor performance in school, losing job, divorce) Eustress= positive/pleasant aspects of life (graduating, getting married, new job)

Somatic vs Autonomic

Divisions of the peripheral nervous system Somatic: voluntary control; innervates skeletal muscle; contains both sensory and motor subdivisions Autonomic: involuntary control; innervates cardiac, smooth, and glands; contains both sensory and motor subdivisions

What are catecholamines

Dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine Dopamine is a CNS neurotransmitter Epi and Norepi are two metabolic hormones for carbohydrates; has a glucagon-like effect but causes more rapid mobilization of energy stores

Describe the Citrate-Acetyl-CoA shuttle and why it's used

During periods of energy abundance, acetyl-CoA groups in the mitochondria are redirected from the citric acid cycle to fatty acid synthesis. However fatty acid synthesis occurs in the cytosol and acetyl-CoA cannot pass through the inner mitochondrial membrane Acetyl-CoA is combined with oxaloacetate to form citrate, which is able to pass through membrane

Right Bundle Branch

E

Terminal Button

E

Describe the enzyme-substrate complex

E + S ↔ ES →EP ↔ E + P Occurs at the active site

What is Echolalia and Echopraxia?

Echolalia= individual automatically repeats anything that is said by others Echopraxia= imitate any movements made by others

What is the difference between educational segregation and educational stratification?

Educational segregation= students tend to be segregated into groups or classes within a school, or even different schools, based on race, SES, or similar differences Educational stratification= students tend to be separated into different classes or schools that have stratified curriculum of unequal difficulty. Eg private schools have more difficult curriculum, but are mostly reserved for families of upper SES. In public schools, having remedial, gifted, special ed classes

Describe blood typing

Either A, B, AB, or O this describes the antigen that is present on blood membrane (O=neither) this is a co-dominant system because both A and B antigens can be present

Where does Acetyl-CoA come from?

Either from pyruvate in PDH complex or as primary product of β-oxidation of fatty acids

What is reserve volume

Either inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) or expiratory reserve volume (ERV) the volume of additional air that can be exhaled or inhaled after a normal unforced exhalation or inhalation

What are the 2 kinds of synapse? Describe them

Electrical: gap junctions between cells allow electrical signal to pass quickly from cell to cell. In humans they are found in retina, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and CNS Chemical: small gap between the terminal button and either 1.) Dendrite of subsequent neuron or 2.) Membrane of muscle or other effector

What are the 6 types of cellular communication

Endocrine, paracrine, autocrine, intracrine, juxtacrine, nervous system

What is the endocrine function of the pancreas? Exocrine?

Endocrine: insulin and glucagon secretion Exocrine: digestive enzyme secretion

What is self-serving bias?

Enhance self-esteem. Focus on strengths and praise we may receive and downplay our weaknesses and negative feedback

Portions of the skin

Epidermis: outermost layer is avascular and made of mostly dead of dying keratinized cells Dermis: contains blood vessels, hair follicles, sebaceous glands (oil), sudoriferous glands (sweat), and nerve endings. Dermis is a connective tissue

Hormones released by adrenal medulla (characteristics)

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine Are tyrosine derivates and water soluble

What is cognitive bias and how can it effect problem solving

Error in thinking that leads to inaccuracy, illogical thought, lack of objectivity, failure to consider all available options or consequences, or prejudice toward one approach or outcome

Essential vs Non-essential amino acids

Essential: your body canNOT synthesize these, and you must ingest them Non-essential: your body can synthesize on it's own

Difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic flagella?

Euk: whipping motion with microtubules and is made of tubulin Pro: spinning/rotating motion. Simple helices made of flagellin

Describe the differences between exergonic and endergonic

Exergonic reactions are spontaneous and their ∆G is negative Endergonic reactions are non-spontaneous and their ∆G is positive

What do exocrine glands do vs endocrine glands

Exocrine: release enzymes or other liquids into the external environment (including digestive tract and epithelial-lined orifices; substances released are sweat, oil, mucus, and digestive enzymes) Endocrine: release hormones into internal fluids of body (blood, lymph, etc)

Exocrine vs excretory system

Exocrine= sebaceous or oil glands Excretory=kidneys

What are exons? Introns?

Exons exit the nucleus. They are the coding sequences in mature mRNA. Introns stay inside the nucleolus. They are the non-coding sequences that are spliced out.

Effects of external and internal locus of control

External: low-self esteem, depressed Internal: happier and higher self esteem

Bundle of His

F

Schwann Cell

F

Hormones located in anterior pituitary (characteristics)

FSH, LH, ACTH, hGH, TSH, Prolactin Are peptides, all water-soluble, regulated by hormones secreted from the hypothalamus

Describe family, adoption, and twin studies in relation to nature vs nurture study methods

Family: compare the frequency of behavior/condition/trait among related individuals to the frequency of that same measure among non-relatives Adoption: compare the behaviors/conditions/traits of an adopted child to those of its adoptive parents; simultaneously compare that same child, on those same measures, to its biological parents Twin: compare concordance rates between monozygotic twins raised in the same family to dizygotic twins raised in the same family; or compare concordance rates for monozygotic twins raised in the same family to those raised apart

How are fats, carbs, and proteins absorbed in the small intestine

Fats are absorbed into the lymph system via Lacteals. Carbs and proteins are absorbed into the blood

Describe the Carnitine shuttle and why it's used

Fatty acids cannot pass through the inner mitochondrial membrane, where they need to be to go through β-oxidation Carnitine acyltransferase attaches fatty acyl group from acyl-CoA to hydroxyl of Carnitine

What is availability heuristic

Favoring the most easily recalled or imagined solution as a shortcut to making a decision or judgment

What are the 7 universal emotions

Fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, and sadness

What are the three types of joints

Fibrous= skull Cartilaginous= pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs Synovial= knee, elbow, etc

First way to think about work? Second way?

First always think of work as a change in energy Second think of work as Force x distance Always in J

Absolute configuration of amino acids

Fischer projection (L=Left; D=Right) All native human amino acids have L-configuration All are S enantiomers except glycine (not a steroeocenter) and Cysteine (sulfur makes it R)

Fixed ratio vs fixed interval vs variable ratio vs variable interval

Fixed ratio: worker is paid every time he finishes a project Fixed interval: worker is paid every Friday Variable ratio: worker is paid after a various number of finished projects Variable interval: worker is paid at variable times

Blood glucose homeostasis mechanism

Food/Eating: causes increase --> beta cells of pancreas release insulin --> liver stores glycogen and somatic tissues take up glucose Fasting/Starvation: causes decrease --> alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon --> liver stimulated to perform glycogenolysis

Many physiological processes have positive ∆G's, why?

For many anabolic and metabolic reactions, ∆G is positive. But this is due to reaction coupling in which the negative G of some steps will outweigh the positive G of other steps

Hypothalamus (subdivision, embryological origin, and function)

Forebrain From the prosencephalon is in charge of hunger, thirst, emotion (secondary); major endocrine function via releasing hormones to the pituitary gland

Cerebral cortex (subdivision, embryological origin, and function)

Forebrain from the prosencephalon Is in charge of executive functions, complex perceptions and cognition

Basal ganglia (subdivision, embryological origin, and function)

Forebrain from the prosencephalon controls voluntary motor control, procedural memory

Thalamus (subdivision, embryological origin, and function)

Forebrain from the prosencephalon is in charge of consciousness (sleep/wake), relay between subcortical areas and cerebrum

Limbic system (subdivision, embryological origin, and function)

Forebrain from the prosencephalon is in charge of emotion (primary), and memory

Describe Alpha Helices

Formed by a hydrogen between carbonyl oxygen and amide-hydrogens that are 4 residues apart A-B-B-A: the A's will share a H bond R groups are directed away from the helix core Keratin (hair and nails) is an example

Serotonin (found where, primary regulatory functions, and any correlates to disease or psych disorder)

Found in CNS Associated with homeostatic regulation of sleep and appetite. Also involved in regulation of mood. Lower serotonin levels are associated with depression

Dopamine (found where, primary regulatory functions, and any correlates to disease or psych disorder)

Found in CNS Associated with sensorimotor integration and in reward processing Parkinson's disease, Huntington's chorea, Tourette's syndrome, and schizophrenia are all associated with abnormal dopamine

Acetylcholine (found where, primary regulatory functions, and any correlates to disease or psych disorder)

Found in both CNS and PNS In CNS, acetylcholine is involved in both arousal and attention. Depletion of acetylcholine is associated with memory deficits that characterize Alzheimers In PNS, acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter of the neuromuscular junction and is found in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic system divisions of autonomic nervous system

Describe the psychoanalytical theory of dreaming

Freud Dreams are expressions of unconscious desires, thoughts, and motivations. Dreams can serve as a virtual form of wish fulfillment

Describe Freud's defense mechanisms

Freud theorized that as the Ego attempts to resolve anxiety between the Id (instinctual) and the Superego (idealistic), it resorts to unconscious falsifications or distortions called defense mechanisms.

Bachmann's Bundle

G

Myelin Sheath

G

Describe the galactose metabolism feeder pathway for glycolysis

Galactose is turned into Glucose-1P and then phosphoglucomutase coverts it into Glucose-6P for 2nd step

Function of lymphatic system

Gather excess interstitial fluid and return it to the blood; remove from the interstitial spaces proteins and other molecules too big to be taken up by the capillaries; monitor the blood and lymph for infection.

Describe Isoelectric Focusing

Gel is created with a stable pH gradient. Proteins in regions of pH lower than pI will move toward toward cathode (higher pH than pI will move toward anode) The protein will move through the gel and stop where their pI=pH

What is a gene? What is an allele?

Gene: segment of DNA that codes for a protein Allele: one of various alternative forms of the same gene

Describe population and it's relationship to industrialization and modernization

Generally population is inversely related to industrialization and modernization.

Describe Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

Genes located on different chromosomes assort independently

What was George Herbert Meads I vs Me

George Herbert Mead was a symbolic interactionist that said that "I": is the active, spontaneous, autonomous self "Me": is socialized, sense of self is derived from others

What is Personal Construct Theory?

George Kelly Personality is composed of the various mental constructs through which each person views reality

Globule vs Molten

Globule=fully folded protein Molten Globule= partially folded protein Molten= fully unfolded/ DENATURED

Hormones released by pancreas (characteristics)

Glucagon and insulin Are peptides and water-soluble *Pancreas also releases digestive enzymes, but this is an exocrine function

Describe liver specific metabolism

Glucose in well-fed state; fatty acids during fasting; NO ketones used

Total energy given from glycolysis and krebs cycle

Glycolysis= 4 ATP from NADH, 2 ATP as byproducts Krebs= 24 ATP from NADH, 4 ATP from FADH2, and 2 GTP as byproducts TOTAL= 36 ATP

Basic definitions: Glycolysis, Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenolysis, Glycogenesis

Glycolysis= consume glucose from blood stream Gluconeogenesis= making glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon sources Glycogenolysis= breaking down glycogen (glucose released from cell) Glycogenolysis= making glycogen (storing glucose for future use)

Testosterone: location, class, function

Gonads (testes) steroid/lipid-soluble stimulates development of secondary sex characteristics and closing of epiphyseal plates

Describe Gram positive vs Gram negative

Gram Positive: -Stains purple -Very thick cell wall -Form endspores -Single cell membrane Gram Negative: -Stains pink -Relatively thin cell wall -Do NOT form endospores -Contain 2 cell membranes; one inside the cell wall and one outside the cell wall

Characteristics of basophils

Granulocyte least common WBC. Granules contain mostly histamine, which they release when activated These chemicals promote inflammation and are integral in allergic reactions Basophils --> ALLERGIES

Axon hillock

H

Describe the cognitive theory of dreaming

Hall Dreams are a conceptualization of our experiences; they are visualizations of our thoughts and perceptions about 5 concepts: our self, others, the world around us, morals, and conflict

What is the Hawk-Dove game?

Hawk Strategy: Fight until you are injured or the opponent gives up the resource. If battling a dove, always win; if battling another hawk will only win half of the time Dove Strategy: Act as though you are going to fight, but you will give up if the opponent attacks. If battling a hawk, will lose every time; if encountering another dove, they will split the resources

Emile Durkheim on division of labor

He said that division of labor is beneficial for society because it increases the reproductive capacity, the skill of workers, and it creates a sense of solidarity. Argues that a division of labor helps establish a social and moral order within a society

What is the difference between health disparity and healthcare disparity

Health disparity= higher burden of illness, injury, disability, or mortality experience by one population group relative to another Healthcare disparity= differences between groups in terms of health care coverage, access to care, and quality of care

Temporal lobe is responsible for

Hearing and facial recognition

Describe the stimulations in response to high glucose levels

High glucose levels will stimulate beta cells in the pancreas to secrete insulin. Insulin then stimulates glycogenesis in the liver. Glycogenesis is the the synthesis of glycogen for storage in liver.

Medulla oblongata (subdivision, embryological origin, and function)

Hindbrain From the rhombencephalon Controls breathing, heart rate, and digestion

Pons (subdivision, embryological origin, and function)

Hindbrain From the rhombencephalon Controls sensory and motor tracts between the medulla and the cortex

Reticular formation (subdivision, embryological origin, and function)

Hindbrain from the rhombencephalon controls states of consciousness (sleep --> wake)

Cerebellum (subdivision, embryological origin, and function)

Hindbrain rhombencephalon Controls balance, refined motor movements

Describe Beta sheets

Hydrogen bonding between all carbonyl oxygens in one row and amide hydrogens in the adjacent row All residues are involved in H-bonding R groups are perpendicular to the plane on both sides Assumes pleated conformation that allows each carboxyl and amide to participate in H-bonding Fibroin (molecule of silk) is an example

Functionality of hydrophobic/hydrophilic R groups

Hydrophobic R groups fold into the protein core Hydrophilic R groups are more common on the surface of proteins

What are the three major perspective on globalization (and describe)

Hyperglobalization perspective=globalization is a major new epoch in human history, national boundaries will be dissolved. Will ultimately cause economic logic of a global economy Skeptical Perspective=current globalization is fragmented and regionalized. The peak of globalization occurred in the 19th century and nationalism is now on the rise. Ultimately says that globalization isn't really occurring Transformationalist perspective= globalization may be occurring, but the degree to which it is, and its eventual outcomes is undetermined. There is not single cause for this

Hypertonic vs hypotonic cells

Hypertonic: cell is more concentrated, so water leaves the cell Hypotonic: cell is less concentrated, so water enters the cell

Nucleus

I

Role of renin/angiotensin pathway in kidneys

If there is low BP, then the Juxtaglomerular apparatus detects and secretes Renin. This will set into motion the Renin-angiotensin pathway which increases blood volume and blood pressure Angiotensin also stimulates aldosterone release from adrenal cortex gland which will cause reabsorption of of Na and Cl, excretion of K, and water retention

Illness vs Disease

Illness= a person's subjective experience of a health problem Disease= a medical professional's scientific definition of a health problem based on signs and symptoms

Imitation vs Role-taking

Imitation=especially in children, modeling of other influences identity formation Role-taking=adopting and acting out particular role ("Cops and Robbers" or "Put yourself in their shoes")

Immigration vs emigration Push vs pull factors

Immigration= movement into a nation or region Emigration= movement out of a nation or region Push factors= aspects of a society that encourage emigration. Examples could be low wages, low standard of living, lack of employment, religious persecution or war Pull factors= aspects of a society that attract immigrants. Examples would be higher wages, higher standard of living, employment opportunities, or political freedom

Describe the phases of the cell cycle

In order: G1: first growth phase. Where most active cells live and function. Considerable growth S: DNA is replicated G2: continued cell growth and higher metabolic activity. Especially high production of microtubules for M phase G0: Coincides with G1 phase. The "non-proliferative" or "rest" phase. Home of fully differentiated neurons and cardiac muscle cells. M: mitosis phase Then back into G1. G1, S, G2, and G0 are all part of interphase

Incidence vs Prevalence

Incidence= measure of a disease that allows a person's probability of being diagnosed with a disease during a given period of time. Incidence rate is number of new cases of a disease divided by number of persons at risk for the disease Prevalence= measure of a disease that allows us to determine a persons likelihood of having a disease. Prevalence rate is the total number of disease in an existing population divided by a total population

Over The HILL acronym and what each do

Increasing energy of activation Oxidoreductases= redox reactions Transferases= transfer functional groups (kinases, aminotransferases) Hydrolases= hydrolysis (breakdown with reaction of water) Isomerases= rearrangements (phosphoglucose isomerase, epimerases) Lyases= AB ↔ A + B (cleavage/synthesis with no water involved) Ligases= addition or synthesis of large molecules, usually ATP-dependent (DNA ligase)

What happens if you increase the percent saturation of Hb What happens if you decrease

Increasing= decreased [H+], [CO2], temperature and BPG Decreasing= increased [H+], [CO2], temperature, and BPG

Describe the basic diagnostic symptoms of Schizophrenia

Individual must exhibit for at least one month two or more of the symptoms: hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, grossly abnormal psychomotor behavior, and negative symptoms; at least one of them has to be a positive symptom Have experienced significant impairments in ability to engage in day to day activities and in interpersonal relationships as a function of the onset of symptoms Alternative diagnoses have been ruled out (schizoaffective and mood disorders) Symptoms are not better explained by substances and/or other medical conditions Individuals with autism or another pervasive developmental disorder must present with prominent delusions or hallucinations for at least one month

Two theories of enzyme-substrate specificity

Induced fit: as the substrate binds, the affinity for the substrate increases (favored theory) Lock and key: active site is an exact fit for substrate. Unfavored because it is very rigid and inflexible active site

What is inductive reasoning vs deductive reasoning

Inductive= making generalizations from specific observations (bottom-up) Deductive= conclusions are based on assumed premises (top-down)

Describe a competitive inhibitor and the graphs associated

Inhibitor binds at the active site Vmax will not change Km will increase

Describe noncompetitive inhibitors and their graphs

Inhibitor binds away from the active site Vmax decreases Km doesn't change

Describe uncompetitive inhibitors and their graphs

Inhibitor binds only the enzyme substrate complex Vmax and Km decrease

Describe an uncompetitive inhibitor, its effects on variables, and an example

Inhibitor that binds ONLY w/ the enzyme substrate complex, not the active site. Uncommon because the time window is very small to bind before converted to product Vmax= decrease Km=decrease Lithium (manic depression) acts on phosphoinositide synthesis pathway, inhibiting inositol monophosphates and preventing inositol recycling in the brian

Describe a non-competitive inhibitor, its effects on variables, and an example

Inhibitor that binds away from the active site. Changes the shape of the enzyme. Has an equal affinity for both the E-S complex and just the enzyme Vmax=decrease Km=no change Alanine acts as non-competitive for pyruvate kinase enzyme. Alanine will bind to pyruvate kinase and prevent transfer of phosphate group from PEP to ADP

Describe a mixed inhibitor, its effects on variables, and an example

Inhibitor that has unequal affinity for E-S and the E, and favors one over the other. Mix of non-competitive and uncompetitive Vmax=decrease Km= (increase if higher affinity for E) (decrease if higher affinity for E-S) Palladium is mixed inhibitor for xanthine oxidase (enzyme that converts xanthine to uric acid)

Innate behavior vs learned behavior

Innate behavior is thought to be predominantly genetic and present regardless of environmental influences Learned behavior is thought to be predominantly environmental (learned via experience), and independent of heredity

Describe insomnia and sleep apnea

Insomnia=difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep Sleep apnea=difficulty breathing while asleep

Instinct vs arousal theory of motivation

Instinct= behavior is motivated by evolutionary instincts (migration) Arousal= behavior is motivated by desire to maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal. That optimum level varies among individuals. People will seek new interests, action, or stimuli when arousal is low to increase arousal. When hyper-stimulated, they seek to reduce with relaxation

Why is insulin released and what happens?

Insulin is released in response to high glucose levels. Insulin will stimulate glycogenesis in the liver, as well as the uptake of glucose from blood into cells

Describe voltage gated sodium channels

Integral proteins that change shape ("open") in response to a disturbance in the resting potential across the membrane. In open state they allow for more rapid flow of sodium back into the cell

Intergenerational vs intragenerational social mobility

Intergenerational= change in social class by one or more members of a family between generations Intragenerational= change in social class by an individual within their lifespan

Invasive and non-invasive methods of brain studying

Invasive= direct electrode stimulation (open cranium, during brain surgery), human brain injury case studies, extirpation of brain regions in lab animals Non-invasive= electroencephalography (EEG), transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS), and regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)

Golgi Apparatus function and characteristics

Is the cellular "post-office" for proteins: it organizes and distributes the proteins continue post-translational modifications, excretes vesicles bound for plasma membrane, ER, or cellular organelles

Difference between Jung's Cognitive Processes and Myer's-Briggs personality types

Jung's works with 3 sets of dichotomies: Extrovert vs Introvert, Sensing vs Intuition, and Thinking vs Feeling Myer's Briggs uses all 3 of these but adds a 4th: Judging vs Perceiving

Differences between Jung and Freud on Ego

Jung= Ego is the conscious mind only Freud= Ego is conscious, preconscious, and unconscious

Differences between Jung and Freud on libido

Jung= Libido is generalized psychic energy, not exclusively sexual Freud= Libido is the driving psychic energy of the Id that is primarily sexual

Differences between Jung and Freud on behavior?

Jung= behavior is caused by past experiences (from childhood or adulthood) and future aspirations Freud= behavior is caused by repressed desires from childhood

Differences between Jung and Freud on unconscious?

Jung= unconscious is the storage place of repressed memories, both good and bad. Ego is not part of the conscious mind, it is 100% unconscious. There are two subdivisions of the unconscious: personal unconscious and collective unconscious Freud= unconscious is the storage place of unacceptable, repressed desires. Parts of the Ego and Superego are unconscious, as is all of the Id

What is hyperpolarization

K+ channels are somewhat slow to close as membrane potential approaches -70mV; so membrane potential actually dips to around -90mV before gradually returning to resting potential

Equation for kcat

Kcat = Vmax / [E]

Ketogenic vs Glucogenic AA synthesis

Ketogenic= degraded into acetyl-CoA or acetoacetyl CoA through ketogenesis. Their carbons are ultimately converted to CO₂ in the citric acid cycle. LEUCINE and LYSINE do only this Glucogenic= can be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis. Are first converted to alpha keto acids and then to glucose in the liver. Isoleucine, Phenylalanine, Tryptophan, Tyrosine, and Threonine are BOTH ketogenic and glucogenic. The rest are just glucogenic

Difference between phosphorylase, kinase, and phosphatase

Kinase transfers a phosphate from a high energy molecule like ATP to other molecules Phosphorylase transfers a phosphate group from inorganic phosphate to another molecule Phosphatase removes a phosphate group from a molecule

Difference between kinesins and dyneins

Kinesins: move along microtubules from (-) to (+) (center of the cell to periphery) Dyneins: move along microtubules from (+) to (-) (periphery of cell to center)

Classification levels in taxonomy (what are humans in)

Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species Humans= Animalia, Chordata, Mammalia, Primates, Hominidae, Homo, Homo sapiens

What is Field Theory?

Kurt Lewin Focuses on the state of mind of the patient as the sum of interactions between their individual personality and the total field (their environment)

Hallucinogens types

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), peyote, mushrooms

Left hemisphere vs right hemisphere

Left is thought to be more important for linguistic processing in most people Right is considered non-dominant for most individuals. Is more important in visuospatial processing and in the processing of certain kinds of emotional information

Systemic circulation

Left ventricle --> arteries --> arterioles --> capillaries --> venules --> veins --> vena cava --> right atrium

Contents of blood

Leukocytes (WBCs), erythrocytes (RBCs), antibodies (immunoglobulins), clotting factors (fibrinogen), transport proteins (albumin), and platelets Blood is connective tissue

What is the life course? What are transition and trajectory in relation?

Life course is a theoretical approach to studying human experience, aging or development. It considers an individual's entire lifetime as a whole and pays particular attention to life transitions and trajectories Transition= a significant, discrete change or event in one's life (first day of school, graduation, first marriage, first real job) Trajectory= a stable, long-term sequence of linked states, roles, or experiences (education, career, parenthood)

What is the outcome of adult stressors

Life stress leads to depression, anxiety, increased substance abuse Traumatic events lead to PTSD and acute stress disorder (ASD)

What is positive cooperativity?

Ligand affinity increases with the binding of each subsequent ligand (hemoglobin) Binding affinity of first O2 molecule is low, but each subsequent O2 has an increased affinity

Describe sulfur linkages and the mechanism

Linkage between 2 cysteine residues

Lipid vs peptide hormones action at target

Lipid-soluble: act almost exclusively by binding to a receptor on or inside the nucleus and influencing transcription Peptide hormones: act at a variety of cell locations

Lipid vs peptide hormones on membrane permeability

Lipid-soluble: diffuse easily through lipid center of membrane and thus do NOT require a cell membrane receptor. They do require a receptor wherever they act inside the cell though. Peptide hormones: are hydrophilic and can't dissolve through the membrane, thus they require a membrane receptor

Lipid vs peptide hormone transport

Lipid-soluble: require a protein carrier or a micelle/vesicle Peptide hormones: are water-soluble and dissolve in blood readily

What are the accessory organs involved in digestion

Liver: manufactures bile Gall Bladder: concentrates and stores bile Pancreas: secretes bicarbonate into duodenum to neutralize acidic chyme from stomach. Also secretes 6 pancreatic digestive enzymes

What is secondary protein structure

Local 3-D configuration of the peptide chain Alpha Helices and Beta Sheets

What are the 4 bone types

Long= femur, humerus Short= tarsals, carpals Flat= skull, sternum Irregular= hip, vertebrae

Describe the stimulations in response to low glucose levels

Low glucose levels will stimulate alpha cells in the pancreas to secrete glucagon. Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis in the liver. Glycogenolysis breaks down glycogen stored in the liver to form free glucose for release into the blood

What is macrosociology? Microsociology?

Macro=large group and social institutions Micro=small groups or individuals

Describe PCR and steps

Makes more copies of a DNA fragment 1. Denature DNA by heating, which will separate the two strands 2. Cool down, and primers come in to do what is called Primer Annealing 3. Then slightly reheat, and the primer extends, this is done by Taq polymerase 4. You will then have 2x as much as you started with 5. Heat back up to start again with step 1

What is mass media and how does it effect cultural values

Mass media is the methods or instruments of conveying information that allow for communication with large numbers of people at once (television, radio, internet) Cultural values influence what the media presents; and what the media presents influences cultural values Cultural values↔Mass Media

Material vs Symbolic culture

Material culture is all symbolic artifacts created by members of a society. Anthropologists and archaeologists are primarily interested in studying material culture. Chairs, tables, smart phones, tablets. Symbolic culture is the ideas created by members of a society. Sociologists are primarily interested in studying non-material culture. Symbols, language, norms, values, and beliefs.

What is Gestalt therapy?

Max Wertheimer a humanistic approach to therapy emphasizing the treatment of the individual as a whole, rather than reducing a person to the sum of their individual behaviors, drives, or neuroses

What is the difference between medical model of disability and social model of disability?

Medical model: Sees the illness or impairment as the problem. The illness or disability is the target of cure and individuals are the passive receivers of services. Diagnosis and treatment is the primary approach Social model: sees the structures within society as the problem. The ill or people with disability are active participants working in partnership with others. Prevention and integration are the primary approach rather than treatment. This approach benefits everyone and pushes society to evolve.

What is false consciousness (social class)

Members of a social class are unaware of themselves as a social class. Produces distorted perceptions of the reality of class and its consequences

Lipid metabolism, production, and modification location

Metabolized for energy in the mitochondria Synthesized in the cytosol Modified at the smooth ER (Fatty acid synthesis in the cytosol stops at 16-C palmitic acid. Elongation and modification then occurs in the smooth ER)

Inferior Colliculi (subdivision, embryological origin, and function)

Midbrain from the mesencephalon controls auditory center, hearing reflexes

Superior Colliculi (subdivision, embryological origin, and function)

Midbrain from the mesencephalon controls visual motor reflexes

What is Major Depressive Disorder? What is a major depressive episode? Seasonal Affect Disorder?

Mood disorder with at least one major depressive episode. A major depressive episode (MDE) is depressed mood or loss of interest in normally-enjoyable daily activities, that interferes with normal functioning, and lasts for at least two weeks. The MDE criteria are also an important part of diagnosing Bipolar disorder. Seasonal Affect Disorder is MDD that occurs only at a specific time of the year

Morbidity vs mortality

Morbidity is another name for illness. Prevalence is a measure used to determine the level of morbidity in the population. Mortality is another name for death. Mortality rate is the number of deaths caused by a disease divided by the total population.

Describe protein metabolism

Most amino acids can be broken down into either pyruvate of acetyl-CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle. Others than can't can be transformed into various citric acid cycle intermediates and enter the cycle at appropriate points

Describe the movement of metabolites around the cell

Most metabolic substrates are able to move freely or be transported around the cell; However most enzymes are trapped in one location, often embedded in a membrane

Frontal lobe is responsible for

Motor control Smell Speech Concentration, planning, problem solving

Path of air in inhalation/exhalation

Mouth/nose --> pharynx --> larynx --> trachea --> bronchi --> bronchioles -->alveoli

Describe the basic diagnostic symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder (DSM)

Must exhibit obsessions and or compulsions Obsessions= repeated occurrence of unwanted thoughts which generate significant anxiety such that the individual experiencing them will try to make these thoughts stop Compulsions= repeated patterns of behaviors or thoughts that the individual engages in to make the obsessions go away The purpose of these ritualized patterns is to reduce stress or avoid some feared situation. They are time consuming and represent a significant impairment to the individuals daily activities

What is mutualism? Commensalism? Parasitism?

Mutualism= symbiosis where both participants benefit equally Commensalism= symbiosis in which one participant benefits and the other is neutral Parasitism= symbiosis where one participant benefits at the expense of the other

Describe the structure of myosin

Myosin filaments=bundle of individual myosin molecules Each myosin has globular head, which binds to actin filaments to form "myosin cross-bridges" responsible for actual contractile mechanism Default, low-energy position of myosin heads is bent

What is the role of myosin in muscles

Myosin has 2 moieties (globular head and a tail) Two fibers intertwine to make up a myosin molecule (a dimer) Heads protrude from the myosin filament at an angle in relaxed conformation ("Bent" sliding filament model) Heads have a high affinity for actin and bind it unless binding sites are blocked by tropomyosin

How to find the pI of a neutral, acidic, and basic amino acid

N: pI= pKa(Amine) + pKa (Carboxyl) /2 A: pI=pKa (acidic R) + pKa (Carboxyl) /2 B: pI= pKa (Amine) + pKa (basic R) /2

Describe the Glycerol-3-Phosphate shuttle and why it's used

NADH cannot pass through inner mitochondrial membrane into matrix, so NADH donates 2 electrons to DHAP so that it becomes G3P, which allows it to cross inner mitochondrial membrane

Describe the malate-aspartate shuttle and why it's used

NADH cannot pass through the inner mitochondrial membrane, so NADH donates two of it's electrons to oxaloacetate, converting it to malate. Malate will then pass into the mitochondrial matrix via the malate-α-ketoglutarate antiporter and is converted back into oxaloacetate inside, releasing NADH

Describe the flow of NADH and FADH2 in the ETC

NADH will yield 3 ATP each. NADH flows through complexes I, III, and IV; pumping 4, 4, and 2 electrons FADH2 will yield 2 ATP each. FADH2 flows through complexes II, III, and IV; generating 0, 4, and 2 electrons each (complex II doesn't pump electrons because it doesn't span the entire membrane)

Name some of the common electron carrier molecules/redox reaction molecules in biological systems

NADH/NAD+ FADH2/FAD NADPH/NADP+ FMNH2/FMN semiquinone ubiquinone cytochrome

What is race

NOT genetic or directly measurable. It is inferred or determined subjectively based on a certain set of phenotypic traits, such as facial features and skin color

Where is nervous tissue found

Neurons of the central and nervous tissue. Also includes glial cells (Ependymal cells have both nervous and epithelial characteristics)

Norepinephrine function and characteristics

Neurotransmitter at effector neurons of sympathetic nervous system (post-ganglionic of sympathetic) tyrosine derivative (water-soluble) produced in the adrenal medulla. Similar to epinephrine (increase blood sugar and heart rate), but also has the effect of raising blood pressure Often linked to stress

Acetylcholine characteristics Receptor types and where?

Neurotransmitter in parasympathetic nervous system and pre-ganglionic in sympathetic Nicotinic receptors: in skeletal muscles. Are ion channels that open in response to acetylcholine binding (excitatory) Muscarinic receptors: in heart muscle. Are triggering signal pathways that inhibit firing of action potential (slows heart rate)

Characteristics of granulocytes

Neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils -Basophils are stained dark blue (due to basic nature) -Eosinophils are stained bright red (due to acidic nature) -Neutrophils are stained a "neutral" pale pink color They are called granulocytes because of appearance on light microscope when stained because they contain large cellular granules All are short lived, do NOT reside permanently in tissues, circulate in blood, and are recruited to areas of infection and inflammation

Granulocyte roles

Neutrophils: Common Basophils: Allergies, histamine Eosinophils: Parasites North Carolina Basketball Always Has Extra Players

Define simple diffusion

No ATP is required. High concentration to low with to assistance

Define facilitated diffusion

No ATP is required. Movement from high concentration to low concentration. Is mediated by carriers or channels

Describe the characteristics of saturated triglycerides

No double bonds. Are usually very straight. Solid at RT because they have a higher MP Unhealthy (often associated with cardiovascular disease) because they are stored more easily Higher energy required to metabolize (generate more calories). Often come in handy in times of famine

Are our bodies at equilibrium?

No they are in a dynamic steady state. If we were in equilibrium, we would be dead, we must constantly work to maintain a steady state that is far away from equilibrium

What is the difference between an obligate and a facultative aerobe? Obligate vs facultative anaerobe?

Obligate: there is no other option. So obligate aerobes must use oxygen for respiration and cannot survive without. Facultative implies that the organism will use whichever respiration is available

What is an Oedipal complex? Castration anxiety? Penis Envy?

Oedipal: boy secretly wants to kill father and posses mother as own Castration: boy fears stronger father in Oedipal complex and challenging may result in castration, so boy identifies with father in a way to possess the mother vicariously Penis envy= same as above but for daughters to fathers

What are hallucinations?

Often a marker for schizophrenia Often auditory in nature

What is positive feedback in relation to the menstrual cycle

On approximately day 14, high estrogen levels stimulate a rapid increase in LH. This increase in LH is a good example of positive feedback

Describe Freud's Superego

Operates in the conscious, PRE-conscious, and Unconscious Responsible for judging action based on internalized moral standards obtained from parents and society. Often called the "perfectionist" portion of Freud's personality theory. Further suppresses impulses of the Id and influences the Ego to be more idealistic than realistic Develops around age five

What is the tissue organization hierarchy?

Organ systems > Organs > Tissues > Cells

Difference between osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and osteocytes

Osteoclasts= bone cells that break down and resorb bone matrix, releasing the component minerals (Ca2+ and P) back into the blood Osteoblasts= immature bone cells that secrete collagen, organic compounds, and mineral forming bone matrix around themselves. Once completely enclosed by matrix they differentiate into osteocytes Osteocytes= mature bone cells surrounded by a mineral matrix

Difference between the outer and inner mitochondrial membrane

Outer: lipid bilayer that is permeable to small molecules Inner: lipid bilayer that is NOT permeable to small molecules. Also has cristae (small folds) that increase the surface area for the ETC.

Describe P1 generation, F1, and F2

P1 is the parents F1 is the first offspring F2 is the offspring of F1

Hormones released by parathyroid (characteristics)

PTH (parathyroid hormone) Are peptides and water-soluble

Glucagon: location, class, function

Pancreas peptide/water-soluble stimulates gluconeogenesis and release of glucose into the blood

What are the biological markers of Parkinson's disease?

Parkinson's is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by slow, halting movements, tremors, muscle rigidity, and a shuffling gait. Dementia and language difficulties are common, but not always present Decreased stimulation of the motor cortex by the basal ganglia due to a decrease in dopamine production by the substantia nigra. Basal ganglia is responsible for producing smooth motor movements. Parkinson's is often treated with L-Dopa, direct precursor for dopamine. Direct treatment with dopamine cannot pass the blood brain barrier

What is exchange theory?

People act rationally to get what they need by exchanging goods and services with others. Relationships continue with others based on a simple calculation of rewards minus costs equals outcome. If the outcome is neutral or positive, then the relationship is likely to continue. If the outcome is negative then this theory says that this relationship is likely to end.

What is the dissonance theory of attitude change

People change their attitudes because they feel cognitive dissonance, and change as a method to reduce discomfort

Describe what pepsin is and where it comes from

Pepsin is the enzyme in the stomach that breaks down proteins via hydrolysis. Pepsin will begin as pepsinogen, which is a zymogen

What is social identity

Person's sense of who they are based on groups that they belong to

What is the difference between personal unconscious and collective unconscious

Personal unconscious= part of our minds that we are not consciously aware of but that affect our behavior and can be revealed to us in our dreams Collective unconscious= portion of the unconscious that is inherited and contains universal themes through all of our lives

What is the trait theorist view of personality

Personality characteristics are part of a larger continuum of personality

What is the type theorist view of personality

Personality characteristics exist as discrete, fixed categories. Most people will fit into one category or another.

What is paradoxical sleep

Phase used to describe ironic fact that during REM sleep, alertness, heart rate, breathing, and EEG patterns are nearly that of wakefulness, but muscles are paralyzed

Phenotype vs. Genotype

Phenotype is the expression of the gene in terms of its visible or observable characteristics. Genotype refers to the specific alleles held by that individual

Describe phosphorylation and dephosphorylation in regulation

Phosphorylation is catalyzed by protein kinases and works by transferring a phosphoryl group from ATP to another molecule. This will turn the molecule "on" or "off". Dephosphorylation also functions to turn a molecule "on" or "off", but dephosphorylation doesn't usually result in recreating ATP. This is done using phosphatases and releases a free Pi. Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are NOT reverse reactions

Path of a photon into eye

Photon → Cornea → Aqueous Humor → Pupil → Lens → Vitreous Humor → Retina

Describe age-related cognitive changes (physically and memory)

Physically: Brain literally shrinks in size and neural plasticity Overall memory: declines Procedural memory: stable Working memory: significant decline Semantic memory: stable

What does polygenic mean? Pleiotropy?

Polygenic= When many genes contribute to one phenotypic trait? Pleiotropy= when once single gene contributes to multiple phenotypic traits

Describe IQ correlations (based on outside factors)

Positive correlation with higher level of parent expectation Positive correlation with higher level of socioeconomic status Positive correlation with early education intervention Positive correlation with adequate nutrition

Power without consent vs Power with consent

Power without consent is force, coercion, and tyrannical forms of government such as totalitarianism. Are said to have little or no legitimacy. Power with consent are authority dependent uses of power, such as democratic forms of government that require the consent of the governed. Are said to have a high level of legitimacy.

What is the difference between power and authority

Power= the ability to attain one's desires or goals, even in the face of opposition Authority= the legitimate, approved use of power by a leader over person's who recognize, or have granted, that power to the aforementioned leader.

What are self-schemas

Pre-existing, organized patterns of thought about oneself that is used to categorize or process information. Can be helpful, but can cause bias or omission My cognitive framework about myself; how my ideas of who i am are used to categorize new information

What is the primacy effect vs recency effect

Primacy is that we recall the first few items in a list more readily than other items Recency is recall of the most recent items in a list better than others

Primary vs secondary immune response

Primary response= immune systems first exposure and reaction to a pathogen Secondary response= immune systems response to that same pathogen during subsequent exposures

Describe primary vs secondary stress appraisal

Primary: initial evaluation of potential threat. Judge as either: irrelevant, benign-positive (good), or stressful (bad) Secondary: if threat is determined to be stressful, individual next judges whether they have the resources to cope with the stres

What is a primary group vs a secondary group

Primary=long-lasting, close interactions, tight bonds, and unlikely to dissolve Secondary=short-lived, superficial, weak bonds. Dissolve easily

What is primary socialization? Secondary socialization?

Primary=the most influential form of socialization. The most intense and has the longest term effects. Family (parents, siblings, spouse, children Secondary=wide variety of agents. Influential, but not as much as primary. Peer groups, eduction, mass media, religion

2 approaches for managing stress?

Problem solving approach: find solutions, obtain help, stress prevention plan, etc Emotional approach: change how you feel about the stressor through positive thinking, taking personal responsibility, internal locus of control, etc Proven tools for stress management= exercise, relaxation, spirituality

What is social reproduction

Process through which entire societies and their cultural, structural, and ecological characteristics are reproduced. Includes economic institutions, religious institutions, language, varieties of music, and other cultural products

Type A vs Type B personality

Proposed by 2 cardiologists to predict one's likelihood of developing CAD. Type A: Competitiveness, time-urgency, hostility Type B: More relaxed and reflective; lower anxiety levels and higher imagination/creativity

What are the 3 embryological regions of the brain and what do each of them give rise to?

Prosencephalon (gives rise to the telencephalon and diencephalon) Mesencephalon Rhombencephalon (gives rise to the metencephalon and myelencephalon)

What is the role of the immune system

Protect the body from infection and disease; destroy pathogens invading the body

Trypsin and Chymotrypsin function and mechanism

Protein hydrolysis cleave proteins at the carboxyl side of amino acids Trypsin cleaves at Arginine and Lysine Chymotrypsin cleaves at Phenylalanine, Tryptophan, and Tyrosine

What is a protein? Oligopeptide? Polypeptide?

Protein is amino acid polymers Oligopeptides=very small chain of amino acids Polypeptides=longer chain of amino acids

Psychoanalytical vs Humanistic perspectives

Psychoanalytical: Patients are "sick", repressed, or have other troubles in need of treatment. A person is DEFINED by their neuroses Humanistic: How healthy individuals strive toward self-realization; HOLISTIC view of the person, as more than the sum of their neuroses

Pyranose vs furanose

Pyranose= 6-membered ring Furanose= 5-membered ring

What happens with the pyruvate after glycolysis? NADH?

Pyruvate: If O₂ available, pyruvate is oxidized all the way to CO₂ and many molecules of ATP are made NADH: If O₂ is present, NADH passes electrons to the ETC, and regenerates NAD+ for glycolysis again

Describe the differences between Galvanic, Electrolytic, and Concentration cells

RED CAT AN OX for Galvanic and Electrolytic cells In Galvanic cells, reduction will occur at the cathode. The port with the higher Eo will be the cathode In Electrolytic cells, reduction will occur at the cathode. The port with the lower Eo will be the cathode. This will always have a NET -E value Concentration cells will use the same metal in both beakers, but in different concentrations. The electrons will go from the smaller concentration to the larger concentration to have a balance. Follow OIL RIG for RED CAT AN OX, not Eo values

Differences between RNA and DNA

RNA has a 2' hydroxyl group, DNA doesn't RNA is normally single-strands, DNA is double RNA contains uracil bases instead of thymine RNA exits the nucleus into the cytoplasm; DNA always stays in the nucleus

What did Raymond Cattell do?

Ranked large sample on 171 character traits, and used factor analysis to reduce this to 16 traits Resulting in 16-personality factor questionnaire is widely used

Role of red bone marrow vs yellow bone marrow

Red= where hematopoiesis occurs. Fills cavities of spongy bone Yellow= fills medullary cavity of long bones. Consists mostly of fat.

Describe the roll of the limbic system and where it is

Region of the brain most directly tied to emotion Ventral and prefrontal cortex is also involved; left processes positive emotion and right processes negative emotions LIMBIC= EMOTION and MOTIVATION

What is relative vs absolute poverty

Relative= low income compared to other individuals Absolute=income too low to provide life necessities, persisting for a period long enough to cause harm or endanger life

What is a representative heuristic

Reliance on prototypes or stereotypes as a shortcut to making a decision or judgement

What is the difference between religion and religiosity?

Religion= formal beliefs, values, or doctrines taught or associated with a specific church or group Religiosity= a more broad term encompassing any guiding belief or behavior by an individual regarding ultimate or transcendent issues (e.g. purpose of life, death, life after death, morality, ethics)