BIOL 319 A&P Exam 1 Review Guide

Where are each of the 4 "types" discussed are found to "do their job"?

1. Osteoprogenitors (osteochondroprogenitor cell) a. Found in periosteum and endosteum 2. Osteoblasts a. Found in periosteum and endosteum 3. Osteocytes a. Found in lacunae within bone 4. Osteoclasts a. Found in periosteum and endosteum

About what percentage of the total body mass does this molecule comprise in the young adult?

60-67%

What is a Howship's lacuna?

A cavity/depression where osteoclasts destroy bone by dissolving bone underneath it

What is an organ in the most general terms? Your definition should mention the tissue makeup requirement as well as gross anatomical and physiological requirements for an object to be an organ.

A discrete object made up of at least 2+ tissues w/ a specific function in the body. Can be microscopic.

What is the "ground substance''?

A gel-like mixture of non fibrous molecules - 2 major components: hyaluronic acid and proteoglycans

What is a tissue in the most general terms?

A group of cells, lump or sheath of identical cells

What is a hormone in general? Your answer should contain the following words or phrases: endocrine gland, secretion, blood, target tissue, receptor, change in target cell physiology? Specifically how does oxytocin fulfill the general characteristics of a hormone?

- A hormone is a regulatory substance made in the body and secreted by an endocrine gland which releases it into the bloodstream. It is carried to the target tissue (no matter how far) where the target tissue will have receptors on/in it to accept the hormone. There, the hormone will change the physiology of the target tissue to help regulate the body and maintain homeostasis - Oxytocin is made in the hypothalamus and secreted from the pituitary gland into the bloodstream, then hitting the target tissue cells in the uterus causing more contracting and leading the smooth muscle to contract and push out the baby

What does a professional histologist need in order to start doing histology?

- A microtome- to make ultra-thin sections - A high quality light microscope that magnifies specimens up to 1000 x with good resolution - A broad array of solutions and stains so that the ultra-thin sections mounted on a microscope slide can be optimally visualized

What are the 4 components of negative feedback? What are their individual characteristics and how do they work together to exert negative feedback?

- Components of neg feedback: - Signal: change in variable (delta v: what the value actually is minus what the normal value is); want to diminish signal - Receptor: specific; picks up the signal, intimate contact with the control, receives information about the variable - Controller: brains of the operation, causes brain to make a decision and send a signal - Effector: receives signal from controller and makes the change; "muscle" of brain's will Generates the response that adjusts the changed variable back to homeostasis. - Mentioned "pacemaker"

What are cleavage lines and why do surgeons need to pay attention to cleavage lines?

- Elastic and collagen fibers in the reticular layer of dermis are oriented more in some directions than in others, producing cleavage lines, also known as tension lines. Surgeons have to pay attention to cleavage lines because an incision made parallel to a cleavage line is less likely to gap than a perpendicular incision. Gaps can lead to scar tissue and infection

You should go back and revisit the definition/descriptions of all terms in boldface on page 160.

- Epidermis: outer portion of the skin formed of epithelial simple squamous tissue that rests on or covers the dermis - Dermis: dense irregular connective that forms the deep layer of the skin - Subcutaneous tissue: under the skin; same tissue as the hypodermis - Keratinocytes: epidermal cell that produces keratin - Langerhans cell: dendritic cell found in the skin - Keratinization: production of keratin and changes in the chemical and structural character of epithelial cells as they move to the skin surface - Stratum basale: basal, or deepest, layer of the epidermis; also called stratum germinativum - Stratum spinosum: layer of many-sided cells in the epidermis with intercellular connections (desmosomes) that give the cells a spiny appearance - Stratum granulosum: consists of two to five layers of somewhat flattened diamond- shaped cells - Stratum lucidum: clear layer of the epidermis found in thick skin between the stratum granulosum and the stratum corneum - Stratum corneum: most superficial layer of the epidermis consisting of flat, keratinized, dead cells - Thick skin: Skin in the palms, soles, and tips of the digits; has all 5 epidermal strata - Thin skin: skin over most of the body, usually without a stratum lucidum; has fewer layers of cells than thick skin - Melanin: group of related molecules responsible for skin, hair, eye color. Most melanins are brown to black pigments; some are yellowish or reddish - Melanocytes: cell found mainly in the stratum basale; produces the brown or black pigment melanin

Know the meaning of, and be able to identify (possibly in a drawing) the following anatomical terms: epiphysis, epiphyses, diaphysis, diaphyses, spongy bone.

- Epiphysis: end of long bone, bulk of it is made of spongy bone w/ some compact bone - Epiphyses: plural of epiphysis (both ends of long bone) - Diaphysis: shaft of bone, has hollow area, most is made of compact bone w/ surface of medullary cavity being spongy bone - Spongy bone (Trabecular bone, Cancellous bone): made of trabeculae and interstitial space - Trabeculae: solid part of bone made of beams and struts - Interstitial space: contains bone marrow (red marrow and yellow marrow) and blood vessels

What gives rise to friction ridges and where are they most prominent and how does their anatomy dovetail with their function?

- Friction ridges are the dermal papillae under the thick skin, which shapes the overlying epidermis. They form fingerprints and footprints. Because of their textured ridges they function to improve the grip. Everyone has unique friction ridges.

Do hair follicles have a unique function?

- Grow your hair and repair skin after injury

Would you say hair color is a polygenic trait? Why do some people develop "gray hair" as they age?

- Hair is polygenic because many genes contribute - With age the amount of melanin in hair can decrease causing the color to fade or become white. - Gray is usually a mixture of unfaded, faded, and white hairs

What stages does such a healing process go through and what anatomical and physiological changes are orchestrated to enter and progress through these stages until healing is completed?

- Hematoma forms to stop bleeding - Callus formation occurs with fibroblasts and chondroblasts -- The fibroblast and chondroblast cells are stimulated to go into overdrive and set up a cartilagenous frame - Callus ossification occurs with osteoblasts -- Osteoblasts form woven bone to start making solid bone on top of - Bone remodeling occurs with osteoclasts -- Osteoclasts get rid of woven bone in the medullary cavity Similar process to bone growth!

What stops the positive feedback from spiraling out of control beyond its own usefulness, both in this specific case of maternal labor and for positive feedback regulation in general?

- In labor, the goal is achieved after the baby is delivered leading to the end of stretching = stops oxytocin - There is always a way to stop the feedback which ends after completing the achievement/goal

How does positive feedback differ from negative feedback in terms of how the controller affects the signal? Compared to negative feedback, how does positive feedback affect the signal?

- Instead of bringing the variable back down, positive feedback tries to increase it multiple times and amplify the signal again and again - Compared to neg. Feedback, the goal is not homeostasis and will continue to push out and output - Result of failed negative feedback mechanisms - Some positive feedback can be detrimental

What is another name for electrolytes? Know the names, chemical symbols and ionic valence of each important electrolyte mentioned in class.

- Ions either positive or negative; Cations and anions - Homeostatically regulated inside and outside of cell (both different) esp blood and Ca2+ - Ca2+= calcium (divalent cation) - Na+= sodium (monovalent anion) - Cl-= chloride - K+= Potassium - PO4^3-= phosphate (trivalent anion) - HCO^3-= bicarbonate (monovalent anion)

What is the general pattern of how a variable changes over time for positive feedback?

- It is what you are doing to the signal- neg (Signal goes away), pos- (achieve signal and grow it until finally it's so intense you start moving the baby) - There always has to be a way to stop the feedback, have a logic to them, the achievement of the goal and causes the feedback loop to stop (birth)

Based on a histological specific example, can the argument be made that "anatomy" (structure) and "physiology"(function) are linked (Hint: this is what slide 1-7 is all about)? Explain.

- Knowledge of tissue structure and function is important in understanding organs, organ systems, and the complete organism l - The structure and function of a tissue are so closely related that we can often predict the function of a tissue when given its structure and vice versa - Ex. in slides = simple squamous epithelium of alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs allow diffusion → of gasses between air and blood - Alveoli (tiny sac) that make up the lungs to expand (O2 in) and relax (CO2 air out) --> the shorter the distance (thickness epithelial) allow for diffusion and gas exchange to be more efficient; can bring in O2 much faster and simultaneously let CO2 out

Why is negative feedback called negative feedback? What is "change of the variable" called and how does negative feedback function to change this, and specifically how does the signal change as a result of negative feedback (Does it increase?...decrease?)

- Neg feedback is called this because it takes the signal and diminishes (negatively affect) the variable until it becomes zero - Pushes back to the opp. Direction of the deviation (signal) - Change as a result of neg feedback is ALWAYS POSITIVE because it pushes it back into the direction it should be (use absolute value of change) - "Change of the variable" is the signal that the negative feedback loop works to diminish back to the set point - If signal is too high: pushes back down - If signal is too low: pushes back up

A critical player that carries the message from the controller to the effector is oxytocin. What type of molecule is oxytocin? Answer the question from a macromolecular standpoint and from a physiological standpoint? (Hint: Oxytocin is a type of macromolecule (what type) that functions in the endocrine system).

- Oxytocin is a small peptide (protein) hormone - It is a hormone that is secreted by the pituitary gland, oxytocin receptor is highly expressed on the surface of the uterine smooth muscle cells - It is a hormone that causes increased contraction of the uterus during labor and stimulates the ejection of milk into the ducts of the breasts

Know location and definition of papillary layer, reticular layer and what tissue type predominates in each.

- Papillary layer- superficial layer of the dermis . Papillary layer is loose connective tissue with thin fibers and somewhat loosely arranged. This layer contains blood vessels that supply the epidermis . - Reticular layer- deeper layer of the dermis. Composed of dense irregular connective tissue Reticular layer is a fine network of cells and fibers. The elastic and collagen fibers are oriented in different directions and form cleavage lines.

In general, what is the function of a serous membrane?

- Parietal serous membrane lines the walls of cavities and the visceral serous membrane covers the internal organ (like a fist (organ) pushing into a balloon(membranes and the cavity)) the two serous membranes are separated by serous fluid that is produced from the membranes. - Combination of serous fluid and smooth serous membranes reduces/dissipates friction in thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity. - Membranes that encircle and encapsulate an important organ

In class, I went over a simplified version of the famous positive feedback mechanism that governs the physiology of labor contractions that drive giving birth. Know the details of this to the extent discussed in class.

- Positive feedback example: us being born - Contract uterus - Variable = force of contractions (start at zero → get much stronger) - Stretch receptors: the more the uterine receptors get stretched - Makes hormone oxytocin (short peptide hormone) - Baby press against cervix → stronger stretch → more oxytocin secreted → stronger contractions - Baby comes out → no more stretch receptor → no more oxytocin → no contractions

What is the phrase you have learned that indicates osteoblasts and osteoclasts are cooperating to either improve bone or enlist bone in a beneficial physiological process?

- Synergy - Bone remodeling(?)

Know why histology is of central importance in modern-day medicine.

- The professional medical histologist (Aka pathologist) is a physician who often will examine the appearance of a sample tissue (ex: biopsy) from a patient - The pathologist is an expert on the appearance of normal tissue and the appearance of abnormal tissue. Can be essential part of diagnosis and therefore treatment - Histologists: can study abnormalities in tissue - Pathologist are more like histopathologist: study diseases tissues

Contrast how the signal is changed via positive feedback compared to negative feedback.

- The signal for a positive feedback amplifies the change while the negative feedback reduces the change

What is the highest environmental factor correlating with skin cancer?

- UV radiation from sunlight

What is the general pattern of how a variable changes over time for negative feedback?

- Variable adjusts to homeostasis

Furthermore, know the meaning/anatomy and physiological significance of and be able to identify (possibly in a drawing) the following terms: endosteum, periosteum, , canaliculi, trabecula(e), cancellous bone, spongy bone, trabecular bone, perforating canals, Volkmann's canals, haversian canals, central canals, cortical bone.

- Volkmann's canal (perforating canals) - any of the small channels in the bone that transmit blood vessels from the periosteum into the bone and that communicate with the haversian canals - Trabeculae - interconnecting rods (beams or struts) of bone - Canaliculi - tiny canals that allow interstitial fluid to flow out of the lacunae, where cell extensions are located too - Haversian canal (central canal) - canal in the center of osteon that is a passageway for arteries, veins, and nerves- only in compact bone - Endosteum: membrane lining the inner surface of bony wall, creates new cells for new bone growth - Periosteum: membrane of blood vessel and nerves that wrap around bone, help repair and grow bone too

How do stretch marks arise and what do they represent?

- When the skin is overstretched, the dermis ruptures and leaves lines that are visible through the epidermis. They can develop when an individual rapidly grows, pregnant women or athletes who rapidly increase muscle size.

Regarding negative feedback, can the set-point of a variable change? If so, in general terms how might this be beneficial? Specifically, what example of this did we go over in class and how is the changing of the set-point beneficial/necessary ?

- Yes, set points are not concrete- Body has discretion to change set points as it sees fit based physiological demands at the time - Example - Blood Pressure - normal is 120/80 - at the gym - BP will increase because skeletal muscle needs more oxygen and nutrients and to get rid of more CO2 faster than it does at rest - The BP will go up to supply blood and "normal" set points will change - Hypothalamus will adjust set point of high and low BP depending on the situation- set point should go back to resting normal after exercise

For a complete breaking of a long bone (a complete transverse fracture of the diaphysis for example). What medical attention must be given to set the path for bone healing?

- You need to see a doctor to realign the bones and to set it properly. First step in bone healing

Compare and contrast the underlying cause(s) clinical signs /symptoms and ultimate effect on the body (and how/why these effects occur) of the following: Pituitary Dwarfism; Achondroplasia (achondroplastic dwarfism), cretinism, and gigantism and acromegaly.

- pituitary dwarfism - More rare - pituitary doesn't secrete enough growth hormone - can be 2-3 feet tall - proportionate - Treatment: can inject authentic human growth hormone - cohn had a student with this and without growth hormone treatment student would be 10 inches shorter - Achondroplastic Dwarfism - More common - epiphyseal plate won't respond to IGF1 properly - chondrocytes will have limited mitosis - only has an effect in long bones in the body (shorter limbs/torso) - head grows fine - normal adult head of short body - no treatment - Cretinism - thyroid hormone - mainly stimulates metabolism - permisive hormone - accentuate other hormones activity - other hormones depend on this - promoting growth and development in the brain and growth - low thyroid hormone - most serious form - diminished stature and irreversible deficits in brain development especially in frontal lobe - will be intecullaly disabled - rare - test for this when you are born in the US - treatment- thyroid hormone replacement - preventable if caught in time

What microscopic structures allow osteocytes to be intimately connected with each other and with the interstitial fluid environment outside their own lacunae?

-Canaliculi are tiny spaces that allow interstitial fluid to flow out of the lacunae and give nutrients to neighboring osteocytes -connecting cell extensions migrate through canaliculi to help form this network

How does the epiphyseal plate maintain more or less a constant thickness throughout the growing years?

-New cartilage forms on the epiphyseal side of the plate at the same rate new bone forms on the diaphyseal side of the plate -only diaphysis increases in length Both epiphyses move outward when the bone is elongating Added a cell close to epiphysis and made it bigger, killed it and took it away.

If so, how so. Where do osteoblasts and osteoclasts emerge in the process?

-in the zone of ossification: osteoblasts line up on the surface of the calcified cartilage and through appositional bone growth, deposit new matrix, which is later remodeled

What are the 4 major tissue types?

1) Connective tissue: most abundant tissue 2) Epithelial tissue: line body surfaces, major tissues types of glands 3) Muscle tissue: shortens, pulling force 4) Nervous tissue: convey electrochemical signals for sensing, decision making and control

For the four major tissue types, know salient "structural" and "functional" aspects of each tissue spelled out for each type. Do not just go by the details spelled out on the PowerPoint slides. I said a lot more than is just outlined on the slides, but if you took good notes and recorded my lectures (this is especially true for slides 1-11 and 1-14), you should be fine for the test if you know the details to the extent I discussed in class.

1) Epithelial tissue- line body surfaces, major tissue type of glands (endocrine, excretory) - Organs of the body: secretes (made of epithelial tissue) - Covers and protects surfaces, both inside and outside of the body - The lungs have a thin layer of specialized epithelial tissues that enhances the exchange of gasses between air and blood - Outer layer of skin is composed of a different type of epithelial tissue (stratified squamous epithelium), which provides protection to underlying tissues - The body surfaces include the exterior surface, the lining of digestive and respiratory tracts, the heart and blood vessels, and the linings of many body cavities Structure: - Cells take up max volume, minimal extracellular space - Lines body surfaces - Often have a basal surface and an apical (facing the body cavity and hollow) surface - - Specialized connections between adjacent cells (i.e. desmosomes: reduce frictional forces, keep fluid from moving around the cell) - Can regenerate - avascular Function: - From the textbook: protect, secrete, absorb - Mechanical protection: protection of dead cells ex: epidermis, stratified and squamous epithelial cell - Barrier for chemicals and small particles - Passage of certain molecules: i.e: alveoli diffusion of gas exchange - Synthesize and secrete (moving from one place to another) molecules or solutions (ex: predominant tissue type of glands) - Excretion: removing something from the body (waste material) - Maximize diffusion (gasses from one organ system to another) - Absorption (ex: intestinal lining): absorbing of macromolecules across intestinal lining into the bloodstream \ - Filtration: pressure system: have a fluid of higher pressure that passes through a barrier (epithelial cells) where it keeps some molecules back and lets smaller molecules pass through. Important in the kidney - Diffusion: rely on concentration gradient i.e: permeable membrane 2) Connective tissue: as name implies, has connection (found everywhere) function; most abundant tissue typeStructure: - Cells can inhabit a relatively small volume with much of the volume found between cells in an extracellular matrix. The space between cells can be quite large: - Types examples: bone, adipose, cartilage - For bone, and cartilage-cells (chondro: cartilage) are classified as - "Blasts": building cells → proliferation → secreting more matrix (constellation of molecules to fill up the interstitial space (in between space) - "-cytes": blasts mature into cytes - "Clasts": destroyers - 3 MAJOR TYPES OF BONE CELLS: - Osteoblasts: new bone extracellular matrix - Osteocytes: maintain bone - Osteoclasts: remove old to build new; shave down bone - Extracellular- matrix can contain collagen, reticular fibers, elastin fibers, and "ground substance " along with a lot of interstitial fluid Function: - Binding (deep fascia): binds tissues together, separate, i.e (dense regular tissue) - Tendons: muscle to bone - Ligaments: bone to bone - Support and movement (rigid and fixed) - Skeletal system= 206 bones= organ= support - Muscular system= pulling against bones= movement - Both systems work together - Joints: made up of soft connective tissue, including cartilage ; joints between bones allow movement - Storage: store calcium in skeletal system, fat tissue: adipose, store energy - Fat tissue= energy dense - Padding and insulation: fibrocartilage and adipose fat tissue - Insulation: keep you from losing heat - Transport - Blood: connective tissue (nutrients to the rest of the body), blood (Zes) - Blood carries oxygen, waste (CO2, nitrogenous waste), hormones - Protection: - Immune system- protects from pathogens (microscopic bacteria/viruses) and rogue cells like cancer cells - Bone protects organs and other delicate structures in the body - Skeleton: shield for important organs 3)Muscle tissue Structure: - Rapidly shortens (length) producing force - Major tissue type of the muscular system - 3 types: - Skeletal: overwhelmingly abundant (40% of your weight) and under nervous conscious control - Can be very large, cylindrical, multinucleated, visibly striated - Smooth: - Fusiform shaped (elongated small football), mononucleated, not striated (no stripes) Function: - Embedded across many organ system (involuntarily; unconsciously controlled by nervous system or endocrine system, by itself) (hollow organs except for the heart; usually contains fluid or objects that get pushed around/out) - High endurance can stay contracted for long periods - Regulates size of lumen of hollow organs - Can be activated by hormones - Cardiac (heart): not large, mostly mononucleated (initiates its own contractions), only found in the heart, contains "gap junctions" (ion to flow, electric current), amitotic and are much denser at the intercalated discs for contraction - An organ - Connective tissue - Cardiac muscle cells= mostly makes up the heart, but not entirely for example, can also have connective tissue, ligamentous tissue, and endothelial tissue. (this is super specific, but he mentioned it, so just in case) - From the textbook: produce body movement - Skeletal: (when mature= no mitosis=amitotic) - Large powerful cells, always can be controlled consciously but may move unconsciously, can only be activated by the nervous system, moves the skeleton, amitotic - Not all skeletal muscles are attached to bone; some attached to muscle that are attached to bone - Smooth: - Not large and weaker in contractile force, but can have high endurance (can contract for a long time, longer than skeletal muscle cell), never controlled consciously, regulates the size of the lumen (hollow space) of hollow organs (Except the heart), can be controlled by the nervous system, endocrine system (hormones go through blood), etc - Cardiac: - Not large, but has spectacular endurance, never controlled consciously (but emotional state can influence). Contraction stimulated by "pacemaker" which in turn can be influenced by the nervous system - gap junctions involvement - Gap junctions: connections between adjacent cardiac cells; allows electric current to flow from one to another; electric impulse due to movement of ions; dense at intercalated discs → can be seen under microscope 4) Nervous tissue: amitotic - Major tissue type of both the nervous system; cell convey electrochemical signals for signals for sensing, decision making, and control - Essential for conveying signals - Internal/external on how to react Structure - Neurons: only make of 1-2% of cells in brain - Multipolar: 1 axon, more than 1 dendrite; axon → electric impulse → stimulated cell - Bipolar: 1 major axon, 1 major dendrite. Essential for smell. Have polarity in structure: they gave an axonal pole and dendritic pole - formation of olfactory nerve (cranial nerve 1), retina - Pseudo-unipolar: essential for sensory info communication to CNS - Glial cells: more prominent in CNS, help with development of CNS, mitotic, make up majority of cells in the brain; needed for neurons to function properly - Astrocytes: (essential cells) important for regulating axonal trajectory (proper targets) astrocytes help guide them and hold them in position (axonal pathfinding) - Surrounding neurons, control extracellular fluid around neurons - Microglia: specialized immune cells in the brain, clean up for damaged/dead cells, fight invaders, moving in b/w cells - Ependymal cells: lines ventricles of brain (4 ventricles) and cilia for CS fluid (a calibrated ionic solution with concentration of sodium potassium and other ions) circulation very slowly - Oligodendrocytes: important for insulation only found in the brain and spinal cord. Only in CNS - Schwann cells: important for insulation only found in the PNS. - Oligodendrocytes and schwann have in common to insulate axons to increase neural impulses, but are found in different locations. More specifically, they wrap themselves around axons which insulate axons, keeping them from cross talking with neighboring neurons. They also speed up nerve impulses. Function: - Multipolar: function in the decision-making, interneuronal, and control functions of the nervous system - Bipolar: centrality of function of the retina and olfaction - Pseudounipolar- somatosensation (conducted up to CNS to determine what sensation is being felt); sensing from the body: Temperature, pressure, pain, vibration, itching

You should have good comprehension of the 5 functions of the Integumentary System

1) Protection: Skin is the covering of the body; reduces negative and harmful effects of UV rays, keep microorganisms from entering the body and prevents dehydration by reducing water loss. 2) Sensation: The integumentary system has sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain. 3) Temperature regulation: Skin regulates body temperature through the modulation of blood flow through the skin and the activity of sweat glands. 4) Vitamin D production: When exposed to UV light, the skin produces a molecule that can be transformed into the hormonal form of Vitamin D, an important regulator of calcium homeostasis. 5) Excretion: Small amounts of waste products are excreted through the skin and glands.

*** Know the 3 reasons why the periosteum is so important (function) to living bone.

1) Scaffolding for blood vessels + nerves for bone (guiding structure) 2) Produces Osteoblast (birthplace) 3) Bridging tissue for ligaments and bone

Know the names (and the synonyms of the names) for each zone and the order they appear, from the epiphyseal edge of the plate to the diaphyseal edge of the plate.

1) Zone of reserved cartilage/zone of resting cartilage - Nearest to the epiphysis and contains slowly dividing chondrocytes 2) Zone of proliferation/zone of growth/ zone of hyperplasia - Chondrocytes divide and form columns of resembling stacks of plates or coins 3) Zone of hypertrophy - Chondrocytes continue maturing and enlarging 4) Zone of calcification - Chondrocytes die and matrix is calcified 5) Zone of ossification/osteogenic zone - The cartilage on the diaphyseal side of the plate is replaced by bone

Meissner corpuscles, Ruffini end organs, Pacinian corpuscles, free nerve endings and hair follicle receptor nerve endings. For each, be able to recognize a description of their function.

1) meissner corpuscles- detecting touch 2) Ruffni end organs- sensing continuous touch or pressure 3) Pacinian corpuscles- deep pressure 4) Free nerve ending- pain, itch, tickle, and temperature sensations 5) Hair follicle rector- light touch and bending of hair

Know the definition, location, secreted product and physiological function for sebaceous glands, apocrine glands, ceruminous glands and eccrine glands?

1) sebaceous glands: located in the dermis, are simple or compound alveolar glands that produce sebum (rich in lipids) 2) eccrine glands: (sweat glands) they are simple, coiled, tubular glands that open directly onto the surface of the skin through sweat pores. The deep, coiled portion is located in the dermis; the duct passes to the skin surface. Secrete sweat, and are most common type of sweat gland 3) apocrine glands: simple, coiled, tubular glands that usually open into hair follicles superficial to the opening of the sebaceous glands. Found in the axillae and genitalia and around the anus. Secrete organic substances that are odorless but metabolized by bacteria causes bacterial odor. 4) ceruminous glands: modified eccrine sweat glands located in the ear canal. Cermen (earwax) is composed of the combined secretions of ceruminous glands and sebaceous glands.

How is trabecular bone a fitting term for spongy bone?

AKA Cancellous bone Trabeculae (pl.) are bigger and easier to see than osteons. Look like holes on a sponge...

Why, if left unaddressed, can osteoporosis be so serious?

Accidents happen you can break bones easily. If you sit down too hard you can get compression fractures.

Given your knowledge of the effect of sex steroids on osteoblast activity and the differential secretion of testosterone vs estrogen in men vs. women, respectively, why are women on average more vulnerable to osteoporosis?

After menopause, womens estrogen levels decrease. estrogen promotes osteoblast production. men's testosterone levels decrease slower than women's estrogen's levels. therefore women are more vulnerable to osteoporosis.

Understand the cause and effects of albinism.

Albinism is usually a recessive genetic trait that results from an inability to produce tyrosinase (catalyzes the production of melanin). The result is a deficiency or an absence of pigment in the skin, the hair, and the irises of the eye

Can one develop acromegaly without developing gigantism? If so, how so?

All people with gigantism will develop acromegaly but all people with acromegaly will not have gigantism. Yes, if gigantism develops in adulthood. This is because epiphyseal plate has already turned into the epiphyseal line and all of the bones

If peritonitis does occur, what might be its deadly consequences?

An infection throughout your body (sepsis). Sepsis is a rapidly progressing, life-threatening condition that can cause shock, organ failure and death.

What is the "goose bump" muscle?

Arrector pili muscle

What is a biopsy, and why can taking one from a patient be so important in guiding the proper course of medical treatment? In a certain sense, can you make the argument that a blood draw is essentially a biopsy?

Biopsy: the process of removing tissue samples from patients surgically or with a needle for diagnostic purposes. Examining tissue samples can distinguish various disorders and could lead to the proper course of medical treatment Yes, because when examining blood cells, you are able to see if they are abnormally shaped which can indicate diseases such as sickle-cell disease or iron-deficiency anemia. Blood is one of the 4 types of connective tissue (connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, and blood). 9-NC

In general, what two types of organs are most likely to be the basis of a particular body surface?

Bone or muscle that is deep (below/internal) to that surface

What is a general term used to specify the cooperation of osteoclasts and osteoblasts in making bone better or making bone fulfill an important physiological purpose or both?

Bone remodeling

Is there an example of a very short "long bone" mentioned in class? If so, name an example.

Bone that goes from distal knuckle and reaches the finger tip in the pinky (distal phalanx of the pinky)

Can gross anatomy be studied regionally...systemically.....some combination of both.

Both - in lab we look at it more systematically but medical systems do regionally approach more

Can each of these 4 major tissue types be classified into sub-classifications? If so, which of the 4 are especially complex in this regard?

CONNECTIVE Connective tissue can be sub-classified and is the most abundant/complex tissue type - Bone: Spongy bone & Compact bone - Cartilage: Hyaline cartilage, Fibrocartilage, Elastic cartilage - Connective tissue proper: Loose (Adipose, Areolar, Reticular); Dense (Dense regular, Dense irregular, Elastic dense); & Fluid (Blood (red and yellow marrow), Lymph) Epithelial tissue can be sub-classified into four different types: - Simple epithelium: single layer of cells from basement of membrane to the free surface - Stratified epithelium: more than one layer of cells from basement membrane to the free surface - Pseudostratified columnar epithelium: special type of simple epithelium; appears to be stratified but is false (pseudo = false); one layer, multiple lengths of cells but all attach to the basement membrane -Transitional epithelium: special type of stratified epithelium; shape of cell changes from cuboidal & columnar to squamous-like - Can also be categorized by shape: (Squamous: cells are flat/ scale-like), (Cuboidal: cells are cubed-shaped; as tall as wide), (Columnar: cells are taller than they are wide (like a column))

Both spongy and compact bone have:

Canaliculus, lacunae, osteocytes, osteoclasts, concentric rings of bone, osteoblasts, lamellae

What four elements make up most of the body's molecules (by mass)?

Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen (Prof. C.O.H.N.)

Eating large amounts of carrots, oranges, yellow squash, yellow peppers, and corn might cause the development of a yellowish tinge to the skin. Explain how and why this is so.

Carotene is a yellow pigment found in plants, such as carrots and corn. Humans normally ingest carotene and use it as a source of vitamin A. Carotene is lipid-soluble and, when large amounts of carotene are consumed, the excess accumulates in the stratum corneum and in adipocytes of the dermis and subcutaneous tissue, causing the skin to develop a yellowish tint.

What are the different levels one can one study/learn/ discuss physiology?

Cell physiology, systemic physiology, cardiovascular physiology, neurophysiology Organismal, system, organ, tissue, cellular, molecular

What are melanocytes?

Cells found mainly in the stratum basale; produces the brown or black pigment melanin.

Did I give an example of a bone that has "long bone markers" but also flat bone markers? Example?

Clavicle: longer than it is wide, has at least one epiphysis, but because the shaft isn't straight it can't be classified as long bone. Mostly classified as a flat bone

What is the major component that contributes "tensile strength" to bone?

Collagen (Type I)

What is compact bone and what other term describes "compact bone"?

Compact (Cortical) bone: the most superficial/outer bark

If you had to name a repetitively present structure that comprises most of the volume of the diaphyseal wall of a long bone, what would it be?

Compact bone

Why are nails so hard?

Consists of layers of dead stratum corneum cells that contain a very hard type of keratin

How is the term cortical bone fitting for compact bone?

Cortical derives from cortex which means the outermost layer

Where is the hypodermis (another name for this?) located, and what is its tissue composition?

Deep to the skin, also called subcutaneous tissue. Located below the dermis. Consists of loose connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers. Main cells present are fibroblasts, adipocytes, and macrophages

Compare and contrast endosteum vs. periosteum.

Endosteum [Gr., endo, within + osteon, bone] diaphysis, plural: diaphyses epiphysis, plural: epiphyses ● Membranous lining of the medullary cavity of the diaphysis and the cavities of spongy bone and compact bone. ● Single cell layer of connective tissue ● No ligaments/ tendons attach, inside membrane of bone ● Cover inner surface of trabeculae ● Periosteum [Gr., peri, around + osteon, bone] ● Thick, double-layered connective tissue sheath covering the entire surface of a bone, except the articular surface, which is covered with cartilage. Contains blood vessels and nerves. ● Perforating fiber, or sharpy fibers, and they strengthen the attachment of the tendons or ligaments to the bone. Sharpey Fibers: penetrate deep into the compact bone + attaches the periosteum to bone through ligaments ● Includes osteoblast, osteoclast, and osteochondral progenitor cells ● Ligaments attach to periosteum

For Figure 5.1, you should take away knowledge of the relative position of the dermis vs. the epidermis and their relative thickness with respect to one another. What are examples of "accessory structures" that are pictured?

Epidermis: superficial layer of skin, consisting of stratified squamous epithelium; the multiple layers of the epidermis protect from abrasion and reduces water loss through the skin. - Keratinocytes: makes up most cells of the epidermis and produces keratin to make cells more durable and resistant to abrasion/water loss. These cells are constantly lost at the surface but also constantly replaced by new cells rising to the surface made by keratinocyte stem cells undergoing mitosis - Keratinization: process keratinocytes go through as they rise to the surface where they change shape and chemical composition, in addition to accumulating keratin. The cells will eventually die and produce an outer layer of dead, hard cells that resists abrasion and forms a permeability layer - Melanocytes: produce melanin, contributes to skin color - Langerhan's Cells: part of the immune system - Merkel Cells: associated with nerve endings responsible for detecting light touch and superficial pressureDermis: connective tissue responsible for most of the strength of the skin Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis): layer of loose connective tissue, not part of integumentary system, but connects skin to underlying bone or muscle

Compare contrast epidermal thickness vs. dermal thickness.

Epidermis: thin layer Dermis: thick layer

What is the name of the tissue between the epiphysis and diaphysis that drives long bone growth?

Epiphyseal growth plate

What "defines" juvenile bone, from an anatomical/physiological perspective?

Epiphyseal growth plate is engine of long bone growth and once it disappears in middle age and later 20-> epiphyseal line which is locking in place and will never grow again

Define and the terms erythema and cyanosis and give examples of what might cause these changes in skin coloration to arise.

Erythema is a condition in which the skin turns a reddish hue when the amount of blood flowing through the skin increases. An inflammatory response stimulated by infection, sunburn, allergic reactions, insect bites, or other causes can produce erythema.Exposure to the cold and blushing or flushing when angry or hot can also produce erythema. A decrease in blood flow, as occurs in shock, can make the skin appear pale, and a decrease in the blood O2 content produces cyanosis, a bluish skin color.

Know the "Sandwich" organization of flat bone?

Flat bone has 2 layers of compact bone with a layer of spongy bone in between.

Why is all this so important? When we talked about cardiac muscle, we learned about gap junctions. Explain the role of gap junctions in the context of osteocytes to the extent discussed in class.

Gap junctions (allow adjacent cells to communicate) in smooth and cardiac muscle help coordinate functions. Ions can pass through gap junctions and electrical signals can be passed from one cell to the next to coordinate contraction. Important in the heart. There is a point of fusion where the cell extensions meet (we cannot see this). At this point there are gap junctions. This means that the osteocytes are electrically connected and allow communication.

From what language did we borrow the term "gross"?

German origin or word meaning "large"

Are there examples of one or more of these hormones exerting one effect during one window of growth/development and then later a different/opposite effect? Explain.

Gonadal Sex hormones, estrogen and testosterone do this they stimulate growth plate during puberty age and then after puberty deactivate the epiphyseal growth plate (testosterone takes longer to do this)

What are the different levels one can one study/learn/ discuss anatomy?

Gross anatomy, systemic anatomy, regional anatomy -Be apprehended at many different levels: Organismal, organ system, organ, tissue, cellular, molecular

What is a tissue in the most general terms?

Groups of identical (similar?) cells and material that surrounds them

Know the roles of the following in promoting or detracting from skeletal growth: Growth Hormone, Insulin like Growth Factor-1 (IGF-1), thyroid hormone, testosterone, estrogen.

Growth Hormone (somatotropin): - Produced by pituitary gland - Has an indirect effect on skeleton - Target tissue is the liver (hepatocytes have GH receptors) - Signals the secretion of IGF-1 Insulin like Growth Factor-1 (IGF-1) - Produced by liver - goes through the bloodstream to reach the target tissue epiphyseal plate - Stimulate hyperplasia of chondrocytes - Chondrocytes can make own IGF-1 (secreted by blood cells and interacts w/ neighboring cells) - Does not go through bloodstream so it is not a hormone, it is paracrine Testostrone/Estrogen - Steroid hormone - Originates from cholesterol - Puberty - the levels of these hormones increase dramatically - Increase in hormone levels stimulate growth spurt - Towards the end of puberty these hormones stop bone growth - Cause ossification of epiphyseal plates Thyroid Hormone: ● Role in linear bone growth and growth/development of the brain ● Stimulates the roles of HGH and IGF-1 to their maximum potentials. ● Extremely important in brain development from infancy to toddlerhood ● Adjusting metabolic rate

What kind of keratin accumulates in hair cells?

Hard and soft keratin (mostly hard)

What kind of keratin is deposited in cells of the nail?

Hard keratin

Know about hemothorax, pneumothorax (what might cause them to occur and how can they lead to a collapsed lung (What is a collapsed lung?) and what might be done to correct this?

Hemothorax: caused by a stab wound, blood collects in the pleural cavity. A chest tube is inserted through the chest wall between the ribs to drain the blood and air. It is left in place and attached to suction for several days to re-expand the lung Pneumothorax: air escapes the lung and collects outside of the lung and compresses the lung, so when taking a breath, it can't expand normally (collapsed lung) immediate needle decompression by inserting a large-bore (eg, 14- or 16-gauge) needle into the 2nd intercostal space in the midclavicular line. Air will usually gush out.

What is homeostasis? Understand its centrality for physiological control? Know critical variables of the body that are homeostatically regulated as per class discussion including ion levels mentioned.

Homeostasis: any self-regulating process by which biological systems tend to maintain stability while adjusting to conditions; cascading effect of abnormal levels - Many physiological variables must be kept within defined narrow limits enforced by physiological control systems. Ex: - pH of blood and other fluids: 7.38-7.4 pH of blood (<7 = death, 7.8 or higher = death) - Body temp.= 98.6 degrees fahrenheit is normal= 37 degrees celsius (centigrade; same thing); greater than 1 ̊ change = sick/illness - Blood glucose: abnormal levels of insulin → insufficient = diabetes - Blood gasses - Unconscious brain will send signals to conscious brain → cannot force body to pass out - Blood pressure = 120 (systolic/contraction)/80 (diastolic/relaxation) (mmHg) - Electrolytes (calcium, sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphate, bicarbonate) Psychological control systems - Endocrine system: hormone - Nervous system: impulse - Send out signal to interact with target tissue to cause physiological change

What soft tissue is the skeleton made of before ossification?

Hyaline cartilage surrounded by a perichondrium

Can this risk possibly be mitigated by the mode of delivery of the hormone? Explain.

Hydrophobic patch of estrogen

What is the major component that lends compression strength to bone?

Hydroxyapatite

Of the three hormones discussed, two are hypercalcemic and one is hypocalcemic?

Hypercalcemic = PTH, Calcitriol Hypocalcemic = Calcitonin

Understand the details of the negative feedback regulation of boosting calcium levels between meals (mediated by PTH) back to the set point.

Hypercalemic 1) Stimulate Osteoclasts 2) Pth slows calcium getting into urine, to allow calcium to build up in the bloodstream 3) Calcitriol will pull calcium from our diet into the bloodstream a. Pth gives permission for final production for calcidiol to form calcitriol

What would happen to the muscular system if calcium were to dip below a critical level and why would this eventually become fatal?

Hyperexcite muscular system and have convolsions and die

Of the above list, what do you think specifies a location in which dirt or grit might tend to accumulate if the free edge of the nail extends much beyond the end of the finger?

Hyponychiumatrix to break

For negative feedback, what is the significance of the set-point? How are negative feedback and homeostasis related?

If body varies from a set-point, there is a change in variable which results in a signalSet-points can be adjusted depending on physiological needs - Ex: blood pressureNeg. feedback is crucial in relations to homeostasis (maintaining balance). Ex: when blood pressure is too high (inbalance) neg feedback is able to diminish the variable until it goes back into the direction it should be at. Both neg, and pos feedback are a part of homeostasis

Can one examine the "compressive strength" component of bone by removing the "tensile strength" component? If so, how?

If you take a bone and put it in sulfuric acid the hydroxyapatite would be gone and it is not hard anymore. If you look at a bone from a coffin there is no collagen fiber it is really brittle.

Where does apoptosis occur?

In chondrocytes once the matrix is calcified in the zone of calcification

What is growth hormone inhibiting hormone and growth hormone releasing hormone; where are these hormones secreted, what is their target organ(s) and what are their effects?

Inhibiting hormone and releasing hormone are secreted from the hypothalamus (brain). Their target organ is the pituitary gland

Compare and contrast the difference between adult and juvenile bones.

Juvenile bone is different from adult bone because it has the ability to grow. Juvenile bone has an epiphyseal growth plate that contains hyaline cartilage where adult bone does not have this and instead has epiphyseal line. The line suggests that growth has stopped.

Know about osteoporosis, 2. its clinical symptoms/warning signs

Left is osteoporosis Low Vitamin D and Calcium

What four macromolecule types are integral to the makeup of a cell?

Lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acid

What characteristics does a long bone have to have in order to be considered a "long bone"?

Longer than it is wide Long, straight, cylindrical middle portion (diaphysis, plural: diaphyses) At least one "swollen" or "knobby" end (epiphysis, plural: epiphyses)

What endows terminal hair with its natural color?

Melanin produced by melanocytes

What are melanosomes?

Melanocytes produce and package melanin into vesicles

Do all serous membranes contain mesenteries?

No, located within peritoneum only

Is secondary ossification completely finished at birth?

No, secondary ossification centers appear in the proximal epiphysis of the femur, humerus and tibia about 1 month before birth. At 18-20, the last secondary ossification center appears in the medial epiphysis of the clavicle . Events at secondary ossification centers are the same as those at primary ossification center, but spaces in the epiphyses do not turn unto a medullary cavity.

Is hypoderis part of skin?

No. But it connects the skin to underlying muscle/bone tissue. Also known as subcutaneous tissue

For each of these hormone therapies, describe the rationale of using them and the risk(s) if described in class.

Only talked about risk in estrogen replacement

Understand the components of the bone extracellular matrix (organic matrix) + (inorganic matrix).

Organic matrix: - Ground substance (proteoglycans, glycoproteins, etc) - Extracellular fibers (mainly type 1 collagens) Inorganic matrix: - Hydroxyapatite *Ca5(PO4)3OH, etc (also known as Calcium Phosphate Salt [Hydroxyapatite]: impervious to decay, does not decay by bacteria)

What is an organ in the context of an organ system in general?

Organs with a common goal/ function (collecting>storing>excreting) A discrete object made up of at least 2 tissues (2-4)

Specifically discuss the urinary bladder in the context of the urinary system? What synonymous phrase specifies the "urinary" system"?

Organs, such as the urinary bladder, kidneys, ureter, and urethra = make up the Excretory and Renal system.

How is this the opposite of bone cell deposition (Which cell specializes in deposition)?

Osteoblast

Know about osteoporosis, 1. primary cause and aggravating (exacerbating) factors if discussed

Osteoblast and osteoclasts are out of balance. More osteoclast activity, OC activity >> OB activity

If so, which cells and how so. Explain. What are the bone cells' relative size (and number of nuclei) and what is their physiological role?

Osteoclasts are much bigger and multinucleated because they are the fusion of other monocytes (WBC).

For the osteoclasts especially know to the extent discussed in class: how they develop, the uniqueness of their size and number of nuclei and what allows the development of these qualities.

Osteoclasts develop from the periosteum and endosteum. osteoclasts are the largest in size compared to OCP, osteoblasts, and osteocytes. Osteoclasts are multinucleated and monocytes (WBC) are precursors of these cells.

What is bone resorption and what cell performs this (Hint: resorption means the same as "reabsorption" especially regarding calcium and phosphate.

Osteoclasts reabsorb bone. In a process called transcytosis, the osteoclast moves material it just destroyed into the interstitial fluid and from there it gets into the bloodstream. If calcium is needed then osteoclasts will take away calcium from the bone matrix and place into the bloodstream.

What is an osteon, where are osteons located, and what is the role of osteons in the diaphysis of long bone?

Osteons are the chief structural unit of compact bone. It provides strength and structure to the bone.

Know the sites of synthesis, chemical nature if mentioned in class, and physiological function of parathyroid hormone, vitamin D (calcitriol) and know what I said in class about calcitonin. Which of these hormones is most critical and which is least important in day-to-day regulation of calcium blood levels in humans?

Parathyroid hormone: - site of synthesis: parathyroid glands - Protein Hormone ; Hypercalcemic (increases calcium blood levels) - Function: PTH interacts with bone to increase the activity level of osteoclasts. Broken down calcium is given to the blood stream therefore increases the blood calcium levels. Also decreases the amount of calcium that can be in the urine. Vitamin D (calcitriol): - function : extracts calcium from intestines to put into bloodstream Calcitonin: - Weakest hormones with minimal effect - Taking Ca2+ our of blood and putting it into bone - Hypocalcemic mechanism - Kidney interactions; stimulates kidney to increase calcium concentration in urine, further decreasing calcium levels in the blood Calcitonin is the least important in day to day regulation of calcium blood levels The most important is parathyroid hormone

Medical doctors who specialize in running laboratories for clinical application of histology are often called _____________.

Pathologists (histopathologist)

Any clinical conditions which they may be involved in (pericarditis, cardiac tamponade, pleurisy, pleuritis, peritonitis. etc). Furthermore know any pre-conditions (hint; appendicitis) that could lead to any of these conditions.

Pericarditis ( -itis, inflammation) is inflammation of the pericardium. (not a myocardial infarction) Cardiac tamponade - is a potentially fatal condition in which a large volume of fluid or blood accumulates in the pericardial cavity and compresses the heart from the outside.Pleurisy/pleuritis - is inflammation of the pleura. Visceral and parietal pleura start rubbing up against each other. - Can be heard on auscultation called pleural rubs due to the friction of the serous membranes rubbing up against each other Peritonitis - is inflammation of the peritoneum *Google: The main problem with appendicitis is the risk of a burst appendix.. A burst appendix can lead to infection in the belly, called peritonitis. *From class: If appendix bursts, the peritoneum becomes infected because of all the pus, which can lead to sepsis and/or death

Understand the composition and utility of melanin in the skin.

Pigment responsible for skin, hair, and eye color. Provides protection against UV

Know the names of the three types of serous membranes discussed and where they are located

Pleura - surrounds the lungs and pleural cavity Pericardium - surrounds the heart in the pericardial cavity Peritoneum - surrounds many structures in the abdominopelvic cavity like the colon and small intestine.

What is the predecessor cell for a given cell, if known?

Predecessor of Osteoblasts and Osteocytes = Osteochondroprogenitor cells Predecessor of Osteoclasts = Monocytes

What is calcitriol and what is the significance of the "triol' part of the name? What is the relationship between the secretion of PTH and the synthesis of calcitriol?

Pth gives permission for calcidiol to form into calcitriol in the kidney Starts of as Cholestrol → Calcidiol→ calcitriol Triol- three OH (hydroxyl group) are attached

Regarding the medullary cavity, what two tissues inhabit this cavity and when are "these tissues present? What are these tissues functions?

Red and yellow marrow inhabit the medullary cavity at different points of one's life. As a child, the medullary cavity is made more of red marrow and as you get older it transitions to yellow marrow

The title of BIOL 319/320 is Integrative Anatomy and Physiology I (319) and Integrative Anatomy and Physiology II (320). What does the "Integrative" mean in this context?

Related- structure matches with the function. ex: "steering wheel dovetails nicely with its function".

What is woven bone and how is it different from trabecular bone? What role do osteoclasts have in forming the medullary cavity? Woven bone should be in your answer to this last question.

Remodeling converts woven bone to lamellar bone and contributes to the final shape. Osteoclasts remove bone from the center of the diaphysis to form the cavity which contains cells that will form red bone marrow

Define retroperitoneal organs, Examples?

Retroperitoneal: behind the peritoneum, tightly adhered to the posterior body wall, only covered on their peritoneal surface. Example organs include: kidneys, ureters, adrenal glands, pancreas, part of large intestine, and urinary bladder.

Compare and contrast the cause, symptoms, physiological effects of rickets vs. osteomalacia?

Rickets: - Not enough Vitamin D/Calcium - osteoblast dont have enough to work with - soft bone - bone wont be hard/riged - Femur is weight bearing will break - Happens in children so there is a deficit in height Osteomalacia: - Happens in adults wont have deficit in height

Are there alternative(s) to estrogen replacement to avoid risks (hint: see above)?

SERMS, Bis-phosphates, Wolfs Law, Vitamin D and Calcium supplements

Can the periosteum be viewed as a "scaffolding"? If so, for what structures?

Scaffolding for all nerves and blood vessels. Protection from anything that penetrates the bone

What are, SERMS, bis-phosphates and how might they be useful in treating osteoporosis?

Selective estrogen receptor modulator. Enough like estrogen that it stimulates osetoblasts but doest lead to the bad sideeffects. Bis-phosphates- You can stimulate apoptosis of osteoclasts

For the last question, how does the urinary bladder fulfill the definition of an organ in specific terms?

Smooth muscle tissue (+ epithelium and connective tissue- supports bladder wall from rupturing and glues other tissues together) part of a muscular sac called the urinary bladder- that can be filled by urinary fluid, and at a certain point will contract and push out that fluid into another area of the body. From inner to outer: (transitional epithelium, connective tissue, smooth muscle tissue, nervous tissue) many tissues that make up the organ

Can one examine the "tensile strength component" in bone by removing the "compression strength component? If so, how?

Soak the bone in sulfuric acid to dissolve the salt and remove the hydroxyapatite.

Compare and contrast spongy bone vs. compact bone insofar as their presence and proportionality in the diaphysis vs. the epiphysis.

Spongy bone in the epiphysis and Compact bone are the walls of the diaphysis.

What is contained within the spaces of the spongy bone component of living bone?

Spongy bone is composed of cells called osteocytes that sit in small cavities known as lacunae. The lacunae and their accompanying osteocytes are housed in the trabeculae matrix of the bone along with the bone marrow.

How does this compare with cells of the stratum corneum of the epidermis?

Stratum corneum is also composed of dead squamous cells made of keratin.

The thickest layer of the epidermis, the thinnest layer of the epidermis and the thickness ranges of the other layers (figure 5.2)

Stratum corneum is the thickest(25 layers) . stratum basale is the most thin single layer of cells. Granulosum and lucidum (2-5 cells thick) is the 2nd thinnest layer. Spinosum (8-10 layers) Thickest to thinnest layers: Corneum, Spinosum, Lucidum, Granulosom, Basale

What component of the bone significantly diminishes its brittleness? Is there a construction engineering analogy that is an analogy to this? If so, explain.

Synergy- cooperation of two or more substances combine to form something greater. We need the hydroxyapatite and the collagen to make bones hard and have tensile strength. Concrete is hydroxyapatite, steel cable the collagen fibers. Both of these work great perfectly combined.

What mechanisms does the hypocalcemic hormone use to achieve its (relatively week) effects? I can think of two.

Takes calcium out of blood and puts it into the bone Kidney interaction: stimulates kidney to increase amount of calcium in urine, decreasing amount in blood

What does the clinical phrase "bruised bone" mean?

Tear or rupture of the periosteum that wasn't great enough to cause a crack in the bone

Given that siblings of the opposite sex have the same genetic background (except for one of the sex chromosomes) and are likely exposed to the same nutritional and environmental factors, what accounts for the general trend that brothers will tend to average a greater height as adults compared to their sisters?

Testosterone; slow to close the epiphyseal plate

For the second most important hypercalcemic hormone, its final production is dependent on the "most important" hormone.....Explain the details of this.

The PTH gives the kidney permission to do the final hydroxylation of caldidiol, making it calcitriol.

How does the organic matrix and the inorganic matrix (what term describes the major component of the inorganic matrix) combine "synergistically" or "emergently" to make the bone strong, both in term of "tensile strength" and "compression strength"?

The collagen fibers of the organic matrix make up the tensile strength. The hydroxyapatite of the inorganic matrix makes up the compression strength. Bone has both of these properties and is able to be hard with minimal amounts of brittleness.

What is the mesentery, where is it located, and what are (is) it's functions?

The mesentery is only located within the peritoneum where the abdominal organs are. It is a fusion of the parietal and visceral peritoneal membranes. It holds the organs such as the small intestine in place and connects them. Looks like purple sheets of folded membrane. Blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic use to progress to proper contact. It is a scaffolding tacked to the back of the abdominal wall.

For nails, know the anatomical location of: the nail root, nail matrix, nail body, nail bed, and hyponychium. Of the previous list, which do you think is most closely analogous to the physiological function of the hair matrix or stratum basale of the epidermis?

The nail matrix, it is where your fingernails and toenails start to grow. The matrix creates new skin cells, which pushes out the old, dead skin cells to make your nails. This is the same w hair matrix (produces hair & internal root sheath) & stratum basale (constantly dividing & making new cells to replace old epithelial cells)

How does the anatomy of a serous membrane dovetail with its function?

The serous membranes are named for the specific cavity and organs they are in contact with. For example, if we're talking about the pericardial cavity, the visceral membrane would be called the visceral pericardium. *Serous membranes are covered with Serous fluid (Anatomy), which provides lubrication against friction from other organs (Physiology)*

Why are ribs not long bones?

The shaft is not straight and there isn't at least one epiphysis. They are classified as flat bones.

Which organ initiates vitamin D synthesis and which organ completes it? What organ converts vitamin D "precursor 1" to vitamin D "precursor 2".

The skin initatates the synthesis of Vitamin DLiver makes precruor 1 Kidney makes precursor 2UV → Skin→ Liver → prec. calcidiol → calcitriol(what is needed to get calcium to the blood)

Define histology.

The study of the structure of tissues in which you have to study under a microscope. Microscopic examination of tissues can identify abnormalities, including cancer, resulting from changes in a tissue

What are the common anatomical features of all serous membranes? I can think of three, can you?

The walls of the body cavities and the surface of internal organs are in contact with membranes called serous (SEER-us) membranes. These membranes are double layered. The layer that lines the walls of the cavities is called the parietal (pa-RYE-ee-tal; wall) serous membrane. The layer covering the internal organs (the viscera) is the visceral serous membrane. Interstitial fluid is one of the three and the other two are the parietal and visceral membranes.^ In between both membranes there's a fluid called serous fluid ( like raw egg, slippery), called serous fluid.

Does the nervous system and cardiovascular system infiltrate bone? If so, explain the significance of this infiltration.

There are blood vessels and nerves that infiltrate the bone and are scaffolded by the periosteum.

Aside from long bones, what other types of bones are there?

There are short, flat, sesamoid and irregular bones

Which layer appears in thick skin and what the phrase "thick skin" means? Do you think the term "thick skin" as described on page 163 is actually a bit of a misnomer? If so, how so.

Thin skin ● Skin over most of the body, usually without a stratum lucidum; has fewer layers of cells than thick skin. Example: stratum granulosum Thick skin(thick epidermis) ● Areas subjected to pressure of friction. Skin in the palms, soles, and tips of the digits; has all five epidermal strata. The entire skin, including both the epidermis and the dermis, varies in thickness from 0.5 mm in the eyelids to 5.0 mm to the back and shoulders.

Do you think this muscle is cardiac?...skeletal?....smooth (Hint: would you say you have conscious control of initiating goose bumps or stopping them once they occur?

This is smooth muscle. No conscious control of it.

Can/have hormone therapies been used to treat osteoporosis? I can think of three hormones, one of which was the most logical but that has come under scrutiny because evidence of a risk benefit ratio that has been deemed unacceptable by some studies? What are the risks that have been associated with this hormone?

Three hormones are estrogen, calcitonin, PTH. Estrogen seems like it would be the perfect answer however studies showed that it would increase risk of hearattack, stroke, breast cancer, and uterus cancer.

What are other phrases that are synonymous with the phrase spongy bone? I can think of two.

Trabecular bone and cancellous bone

Which effect of which hormone can be pharmacologically utilized to medically treat someone with acromegaly and or gigantism?

Treat them with growth hormone inhibiting treatment

Based on what you know, can someone suffering from either of these conditions be treated? If so, how so?

Treatment is just Vitamin D or Calcium supplementation

What is the most prominent molecule of the body by mass?

Water

Does this molecule consist of an atomic makeup of one or more of the four most prominent elements mentioned above? Which ones?

Water involves 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom

Compare and contrast the regional vs. the systemic approach. What approach(es) are used in BIOL 319? Hint: we mainly use one, but it also could be argued that (especially in the lab) we use within one approach, some of the other (in other words a "nested" approach or blended approach) Explain this, by thinking about how you are approaching the study of the skeleton in lab this semester. A special shout out to the term "histology"! And so what is a concise definition of histology?

We are using a systemic approach but in lab we blend in regionality; systems of grouped structures (muscular, skeletal...);Histology: study of tissues; tissues are collections of identical cells that aggregate together in sheets/lumps groups. Their aggregation allows them to contribute to the function of an organ.

In order for Wolff's law to have an effect, how might you hypothesize the balance of osteoblasts and osteoclasts change during bone's exposure to mechanical stress?

When you put the bone under mechanical stress you stimulate and overdrive in the production of osteoblasts. This can possibly lead to the balance of osteobasts and osteoclasts which would help you if you have osteoporosis.

What is Wolff's law? How does Wolff's law figure into managing osteoporosis decades before its onset and even after diagnosis? Can one increase the thickness of bone throughout life? How does this relate to Wolff's law?

Wolffs law: correlation between increase in fitness and the subsequent increase in bone density and fitness. Says that bone tends to get thicker and denser in that very area that experiences stress. Increase in exercise increases bone density and strength... if osteoporosis runs in the family, you can start working out at a younger age to build that bone

Know about osteoporosis, 3. who is most at risk if discussed and why, and what preventative measures or treatments are preferred if mentioned, and what technique is used to diagnose.

Women are more at risk → estrogen supports osteoblasts and women lose the amount of estrogen production earlier than man. Women on average have less thick/dense bones

Is are there any other anatomical factor(s) that make women more vulnerable to osteoporosis then men? Explain.

Women's bone thickness/density are less than mens on average.

Are nail cells dead by the time they emerge as part of the lunula?

Yes

Does the physiology of the epiphyseal plate after birth match a general theme seen in the development of the skeleton before birth?

Yes --> new cartilage turns into bone

Are there cells that can be viewed as actually "the same cell" but at different stages of their "life history"?

Yes OCP eventually turns into osteoblasts and then osteocytes. But not osteoclasts. Those originate from monocytes in bone marrow

So would you consider hair follicles essentially, "mini organs"?

Yes because they are composed of two tissue types (epithelial and connective)

Can histology be defined as a sub-classification of anatomy? If so, how so?

Yes, histology is a sub-classification of anatomy because histology (tissues) is a part of the structure of the body. Tissues work together all throughout the body and work in every system. Ex: connective tissue: everywhere in your body Knowledge of tissue structure and function is important in understanding organs, organ systems, and the complete organisms. When there is a loss of one vital tissue through disease or injury can lead to organ failure and death

Are any of these homeostatically regulated variables electrolyte levels?

Yes, important for keeping the body hydrated, controlling blood pH and ensuring the proper function of muscle and nerves.

Are hair cells dead by the time they emerge above the skin as part of the shaft?

Yes, they are composed entirely of keratin.

Are "structure" (anatomy) and "function (physiology) linked? How so? Can the two be studied separately or together?

Yes, they are linked. They influence each other heavily. "Structure dictates function" Can be studied together

Do they cooperate with one another?

Yes, they must always cooperate with each other

Each of the tissue types can be considered sheets or lumps _____ composed of identical cells.

aggregation (sheets, ropes, layers, bumps)

What is "osteoid"? - translates to "like bone"

an unmineralized organic tissue(made of type 1 collagen) that eventually undergoes calcification and is deposited as lamellae or layers in the bone matrix. Osteoblasts secrete osteoid.

Define the term "gross" as defined in the term "gross anatomy"?

large body structures that can be seen with the naked eye (big picture)

What is physiology?

scientific study of the function of the body

What is anatomy?

scientific study of the structure (size, shape, properties, location, weight) in the body

What is histopathology?

the study of the signs of the disease using the microscopic examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen that is processed and fixed onto glass slides

Know what each letter of ABCDE screening rule stands for?

● Asymmetry - lesion is asymmetrical ● Border irregularity - edges are ragged, notched or blurred ● Color - pigmentation is not uniform ● Diameter - greater than 6mm ● Evolving - lesion changes over time (change in size, shape, elevation, color, bleeding, crust, itching, tenderness)

What are the names of the 3 types of skin cancer, where do they originate and which is the most common vs. least common?

● Basal cell carcinoma ○ Most common, affects cells in stratum basale ● Squamous cell carcinoma ○ Second most common, affects cells in stratum spinosum ● Melanoma ○ Least common, arises from melanocytes ○ ABCDE rule

Where hemidesmosomes/desmosomes are formed and the extent of their presence throughout the layers.

● Found in the stratum basale, the epidermis is anchored to the basement membrane by the hemidesmosomes. ● Desmosome hold the keratinocytes together, allow epithelial cells to hold onto their neighbors ● The connection formed by the hemidesmosomes and desmosomes provide structural strength to the epidermis

You should know how the following impact bone growth: genetics, protein nutrition, stress, calcium supply, vitamin D supply/production and vitamin C supply.

● Genetics play an important role in determining the size and shape of your bone. ● Cortisol: released when stressed ○ will diminish ability of bone to grow ● Vitamin D (Calcitriol) ○ precursor - cholesterol Hydroxyl groups add to cholesterol Goes to liver becomes calcidiol then to bloodstream then kidney and calcitriol Now mature hormone Steroid hormone ○ Physiological change is that it induces columnar epithelial cells to take up calcium into the blood from lumen ○ Diet to bloodstream then deposited into bone. Need ● Vitamin C ○ Important for collagen synthesis by osteoblasts ○ Collagen is part of the organic matrix in bones ○ Wound healing is hindered ○ Scurvy caused by inadequate vitamin C

What is a hair follicle? Is it made of more than one tissue type? If so, which types?

● Hair follicle is a tubelike invagination of the epidermis that extends into the dermis ● It is made of a dermal root sheath (connective tissue) and an epithelial root sheath (epithelial tissue)

Can you see at least two physiological commonalities between the hair matrix and the stratum basale?

● Hair matrix and stratum basale are similar because ○ Both are undifferentiated stem cells that produce cells for the growth of the tissue (epidermis/hair) ○ Both have melanocytes to add pigment to the tissue

What are the 3 types of injection, which layers are targeted for each type and know an example of what kind of material is injected for each type?

● Intradermal - targets the dermis, used for tuberculin skin test ● Subcutaneous - extends into subcutaneous (hypodermis), used for insulin injection ● Intramuscular - extends into muscle deep to hypodermis, used for most vaccines and certain antibiotics

Know how one would recognize jaundice and cyanosis?

● Jaundice is recognizable based on yellowing skin ○ Signifies excess bile pigments accumulating in the blood. Usually signifies damage to the liver ● Cyanosis is recognizable because there is a bluish color to the skin ○ Signifies there is decreased blood O2 content

What are the 3 types of hair and where and what life stage are they present?

● Lanugo - delicate and unpigmented hair that covers the fetus, 5-6th month of development ● Vellus - short, fine, usually unpigmented, replace lanugo on the rest of body near time of birth ● Terminal - At birth, terminal hairs replace lanugo of the scalp, eyelids and eyebrows. At puberty, the vellus hair of the pubic, axillary, and face (males) is replaced by terminal hair

What is the relationship between the degree of melanin deposition and the risk of skin cancer?

● Less melanin increases the risk of cancer compared to individuals with more melanin

Regarding seriousness, which is the most serious and which is the least serious?

● Melanoma most deadly, 77% of skin cancer deaths in US ● Basal cell carcinoma is least serious

Under what conditions does the arrector pili muscle contract?

● Muscle contracts in cold temperatures and strong emotional responses. In other animals its important for warmth and communication of aggression or fear

Regarding osteoclasts, what are the two "solutions" they secrete and how does each contribute to resorbing bone extracellular matrix?

● One is aimed at getting rid of the hydroxyapatite. One secretion increases the hydronium ion concentration which makes an acidic secretion on the bone. The acid withdraws the hydroxyapatite ● One is aimed at the ground substance. Which is an enzyme that speeds up the cutting of peptide bonds.

The most important of these hormones is hypercalcemic in 3 independent ways. 2 of these independent ways are mediated by one type of organ, and 1 of these independent ways are mediated by the organs of an organ system. Explain the details of this (referring to the previous 2 statements).

● PTH is hypercalcemic in 3 independent ways ○ 2 of the ways are mediated by the kidney (vitamin D synthesis and controlling the amount of calcium in the urine) ○ 1 of the ways is to stimulate osteoclast activity to break down bone and release calcium back to the blood

I can think of two types of tissues mentioned in class, one a precursor of flat bones (especially of the skull and clavicle) and one much more wide ranging and typified by development in long bones. I spent quite a bit of time lecturing on the progression of endochondral ossification. Know and understand this progression to the extent discussed in class. While going through it you should use the phrases (not necessarily entirely in the order listed here), cartilaginous precursor, perichondrium, periosteum, bone collar, chondrocyte induced calcification, chondrocyte apoptosis, woven bone deposition, woven bone destruction/reabsorption, primary ossification, medullary cavity formation, periosteal bud(s) secondary ossification.

● Precursor to flat bone- embryonic mesenchyme membrane ● Precursor to the long bone- hyaline cartilage Endochondral Ossification ● Takes place within the cartilaginous precursor of what will (mostly) become bone ● Steps: ○ Chondrocytes in the diaphysis produce cartilage that is surrounded by perichondrium (fibrous connective tissue) ○ The perichondrium of the diaphysis becomes periosteum, meaning osteoblasts are produced. Chondrocytes hypertrophy, meaning they increase in size until they eventually undergo apoptosis (@5 weeks fetal development) and calcified cartilage forms ○ As they hypertrophy, chondrocytes catalyze the crystallization of calcium and phosphate around themselves (analogy: building a coffin around themselves). At the same time, osteoblasts lay down bone matrix on top of the coffin made by chondrocytes, making woven bone (this is trabecular bone that does not have concentric lamellae so technically not actually trabeculae) ○ The woven bone goes away and osteoblasts form a medullary cavity; this ONLY happens in the diaphysis because in the epiphysis it stays as woven bone that later becomes trabeculae ○ When you are born, the diaphysis is ossified but the epiphysis is still undergoing secondary ossification that does not completely finish until late teens for females or early 20's for males ○ In a mature bone, the epiphyseal plate becomes the epiphyseal line; only cartilage remaining in the epiphysis of a MATURE bone is articular cartilage

Some of the previous term phrases apply to both primary ossification and secondary ossification and some do not.

● Primary ossification happens in the diaphysis (complete at bith) ● Secondary Ossification happens in the epiphyses (complete after growing)

Know the characteristics of the other bone types to the extent discussed in class along with examples of each type.

● Short Bones ○ Short and square ○ Example: Carpal Bones ● Flat bones: ○ Flat, thin bones ○ Examples: Cranial bones, sternum, scapula ○ Flat bones have red bone marrow = making red blood cells ● Irregular Bones ○ Irregular shaped, don't fit into any other category ○ Example: Hip/pelvis, vertebrae, sphenoid bone ● Sesamoid Bones ○ Seed shaped small bones ○ Example: Patella

When and where the keratohyalin granules and the lamellar bodies appear and their function.

● Stratum granulosum is when keratohyalin granules appear. Stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum are where lamellar bodies appear ● Keratohyalin granules form the protective skin barrier ● Lamellar bodies are secreted from keratinocytes and form an impermeable membrane that serves as a water barrier

Know surface anatomy to the extent discussed in class and know how/why, the surface anatomy derives its name if I discussed this for a particular body surface?

● Surface named after structure underneath it ○ Frontal region (forehead) ■ Frontal cranial bone that makes up the skull ○ Cervical region ■ 7 cervical vertebrae that make up the neck ○ Clavicular region (collar bone) ■ Clavicle bones deep to region ○ Thoracic region -chest ○ Pectoral region (chest) ■ Pectoralis major ○ Sternal region (breastbone) ■ Sternum ○ Mental region (chin) ■ Mentalis muscle used to frown; wrinkle the chin ○ Carpal region ■ Carpals ○ Manual region (palmar and digital) ■ Manual = labor by hand ○ Femoral region ■ Ventral or dorsal depending on side ○ Talus region ■ Talus bone (ankle) ○ Pedal region ■ Foot (talus, dorsum- top of foot, digital) ○ Patellar region ■ Patella underneath on ventral side ■ (kneecap) ○ Crural ■ Leg ● Dorsal side vocabulary ○ Occipital region ■ Occipital cranial bone deep ○ Nuchal ■ Back of neck ○ Scapular region ■ Scapula (shoulder blade) ○ Acromial region ■ Acromial process on shoulder ○ Popliteal region - (Back of knee) ○ Sural (calf) ○ Calcaneal region (heel of foot) ■ Calcaneus bone ○ Plantar region ■ Bottom of foot; to plant the foot ● Region called different names depending on side (ventral/dorsal) ○ Bend in elbow on ventral ■ Antecubital region ○ Elbow on dorsal side ■ Olecranon ● Olecranon process ○ Back of hand ■ Dorsum ○ Front of hand ■ Manual

Know the different zones within the epiphyseal plate that can be differentially stained by a professional histologist.

● zone of reserve cartilage: cartilaginous stem cells ○ when they divide they form a functional chondroblast(chondrocyte precursor cells)-- no choice but to move down ○ Slowly dividing chondrocytes ● zone of proliferation/growth or zone of hyperplasia ○ undergoing mitosis ○ Chondrocytes divide and form "stacks of coins" ○ Produce new cartilage through interstitial growth ● zone of hypertrophy (zone 2): ○ makes cell bigger chondrocytes get mature and enlarge which are precursor to cell killing themself Cells near epiphysis=younger Cells closer to diaphysis= older and undergoing hypertrophy ● zone of calcification (zone 3): ○ cells encased in calcified matrix and hypertrophied chondrocytes, dead cells taking up space ○ Blood vessels from diaphysis grow into area ■ CT tissue around vessels contain osteoblasts from endosteum ● zone of ossification ○ osteoblasts migrating up and building new bone on top of the calcified "graveyard" ○ epiphyseal plate is never going to thicken ○ epiphyseal growth plate is sitting on top of fresh bone and continues to move upward toward diaphysis ○ underneath every epiphyseal plate you are increasing length of diaphysis ○ thinning of epiphyseal plate→ epiphysis touches diaphysis plate turns into line different long bones get epiphyseal lines at different times