BIOL228: Terrestrial Vertebrates

Give examples of caducibranch caudata.

"Caducus" = falling (gills are lost in late larval stage). Often terrestrial. Some may retain gill clefts, other completely lose. E.g.: Axolotl, Salamandra, triturus (crested newts - highly sexual dimorphic), Amphiuma (aquatic salamander - vesitigal legs, look like eels).

What are theories for the origin of flight?

"Ground up" (Cursorial) hypothesis: - Ground-dwelling runners with wings - Continued enlargement of the proto-wing enabled the running animal to flap in the air - Based on archaeopteryx evidence: strong, agile, biped. "Trees-down" (Arboreal) Hypothesis: - Arboreal animals that graduated from leaping, gliding to full flight? - Has little comparative support in biology as it requires climbing ability - not apparently present in theropod dinosaurs. Also an absence of large trees in the area Archaeopteryx was found. However, biomechanics reveals that wings may be used to climb and soar.

What different kinds of "hipped" dinosaurs are there?

"Lizard-hipped", means triradiate pelvis = Order Saurischia (Sauropoda - diplodocus, brontosaurus) (Saurischia - T rex, oviraptor) "Bird-hipped" dinosaurs, means complex tetraradiate pelvis = herbivorous dinos (Ornithischia - stegasaurs, triceratops)

What are the Enantiornithenes?

"Opposite birds" - two main groups that evolved from the Mesozoic. It is an extinct group of primitve birds. Almost all retained teeth and clawed fingers on each wing, but otherwise looked much like modern birds externally. They are thought to have left no living descendants. Called "opposite birds" because of a reversed fusion of the tarsal (lower leg) elements. E.g. Confuciusornis (diapsid primitive bird - claws till residual)

What is subclass Archosauria?

"Ruling reptiles" - includes crocodiles and birds.

What is subclass Lepidosauria?

"Scaly lizards". Contains Lizards and snakes, sphenodon and amphisbaenids.

What is "Archosauria"?

"The ruling reptiles". A major group of diapsids. Thought to be an ancestor to birds, but was dismissed.

What is Leiolopisma equivalent to?

(Genus) Oligosoma. (skinks)

What two other characteristics, besides hair, do mammals share?

- three middle-ear bones - Production of milk by mammory glands --> other taxa have similar inner ears (e.g. birds)

Describe metamorphosis in Anura.

-Generally tadpoles. = Long-finned, no legs, gills, mouthparts specialised for herbivory, specialised internal anatomy (very long spiral gut). -Undergo dramatic metamorphosis. -NO perennibranchiate forms

What are the main characters of NZ birds?

-High endemism (e.g. saddleback) -Diverse marine avifauna (e.g. storm petrel) -Double land invasions -Flightlessness & giantism, e.g. moa, Haasts eagle -Dullness and melanism (e.g. kiwi) -Bergmann's ruke: within species, individuals tend to be larger in cooler environments. -Communal breeding -Vulnerability

What is an amphibian? (Main features)

-Tetrapod invertebrate. -Ectothermic/poikilthermic -Respiring by lungs, gilld, the skin or lining of the mouth -Passing through a larval stage, either in water or largely within the egg in a moist situation -Skull incompletely ossified and possessing paired occipital condyles -Skin usually moist and containing mucous glands -Bony scales absent in most forms, except for traces in wormlike caecilians

How many fenestrae does a Euryapsid skull have?

1 fenestra high on cheek

How many fenestrae does a synsapsid skull have?

1 fenestra, low on cheek

What are 6 characteristics of mammals, excluding hair, mammory(+glands)?

1. Endothermic 2. Liver-bearers (except monotremes) 3. Internal fertilisation 4. 4-chambered heart 5. Extreme parental care - mostly maternal

What key physiological advances were found in reptiles?

1. Jaws for crushing, gripping 2. Kinetic skull (hinges) 3. Skin and scales (tough) 4.3-chambered heart, better circulatory system 5. More efficient respiration 6. Efficient water conservation (metanephric kidneys, uric acid) 7. Well ossified skeleton (ribs, sternum, atlas and axis, ONE occipital condyle) 8. Paired limbs, 5 toes or absent for specialisation 9. Complex nervous system 10. Temperature regulation - can control body temp. very accurately (ectotherms)

What are the TEN MAJOR characteristics of Class Amphibia?

1. Skeleton is mostly bony. 2. Body forms vary greatly. 3. Usually four limbs. 4. Skin is smooth and moist with many glands 5. Mouth usually large with small teeth 6. Respiration by lungs, skin and gills 7. 3-chambered hearts 8. Ectothermal 9. Separate sexes 10. Amphibian brain

What are the four main breeding strategies in frogs?

1. Specialised pouch 2. In back cavities 3. On back 4. Inside vocal pouch (mouth)

When did birds ancestor first took to the air?

150 mya

when did the birds oldest ancestor first take to the air?

150mya

What caused the mass extinction?

150mya later from the Triassic, and 66mya now, a 10km diameter asteroid collided with earth - to create a peninsular in Mexico. The asteroid impact and nuclear winter caused a mass extinction ecent.

How many extinct NZ orders of reptiles are there?

16 extinct orders. (includes dinos)

How many fenestra does a Diapsid skull have?

2 fenestrae (1 low, 1 high)

How many bones do amphibians have in their lower jaw?

2-5 bones.

When is tuatara known to have been around since?

220mya - survives only in NZ

When did tuatara originate, and how many species are limited to NZ?

230 mya and had worldwide distribution until 65 mya. 2 species limited to NZ, only present here.

__% of herpetofauns extinct on mainland?

32%

____% of birds extinct in human times?

40%

___% of extant herpetofauns survives mainly or entirely on isalnds?

41%

What is notable about bird mating systems?

90% of birds are monogamous. Sometimes for life, sometimes for seasons (more common).

What is perennibranch?

= fully aquatic with small or weak limbs - retains gills throughout life. Never metamorphose.

What type of skull does a tuatara have?

A fully diapsid skull.

What is Bergmann's rule?

A principle that correlates environment temperature with body mass in warm-blooded animals. It asserts that within a species, the body mass increases with latitude and colder climate. Among mammals and birds, individuals of a particular species in colder areas tend to have greater body mass than individuals in warmer areas. Land size and isolation (theory of island biogeography) is a factor influencing size too

What is the epipubic bone?

A vestige of therapsid skeleton - found in both males and females in monotremes, and retained in marsupials. It function as an attachment for pouch.

What types of parental care are there for chicks?

ALTRICIAL - e.g. song birds. Initially blind and naked, often with colourful gapes and helpless until fledged. CAlled "pullus" or "pulli". PRECOCCIAL - e.g. quails, ducks, seabirds These can run or swim as soon as dry. One extreme example of parental care avoidance is the cuckoo.

what kind of teeth do tuatara have?

Acrodont teeth - fused to jaw, not socketed.

Describe general Leiopelma physiology and behaviour.

Adapted to forest life, usually near creeks. Remain under rocks and logs in day, emerge in suitably humid conditions at night - otherwise dry out. Absorb water. Possess "tail-wagging" muscles in adult Have more vertebrae than "modern" frogs (9 pre-sacral v.) NO external tympanum, just simple chirps and yelps

How does the density difference between land and water create differences between terrestrial and aquatic animals?

Air is ~1000x less buoyant than water and ~50x less viscous. Terrestrial organisms need stronger skeletal support, but air offers less resistance to movement.

What are the Procellariiformes? Which is not?

Albatrosses, petrels and allies. Red-billed gull is in fact NOT. (instead in Charadriiformes). These are marine, and NZs most numerous birds. Have hooked beak and tubular nostrils. Albatrosses are the largest flying birds.

What distinguishes NZ geckos from other geckos?

All geckos, besides NZ geckos, are oviparous. They are also the most vocal reptile group, except not in NZ geckos.

Describe NZ skinks. Whats notable about taxonomy?

All have live bearing young, aside from two species. Habitat = terrestrial, open or forest, boulder beaches. Oligosoma (genus) in unique to NZ and in 1995, NZ skinks formly assigned to the genus LEIOLOPISMA were placed in Oligosoma.

What is a secondary palate? Where is it?

Allows animals to breath while handling food i.e. seals nose from mouth. Critical for suckling, links to glands and lactation. At top of trachea, back of throat/mouth cavity.

What belongs in Order Gymnophiona?

Also known as Apoda. Caecilians. Burrowing/aquatic Limbs and girdle absent

What is ANSP 23150?

An un-named but pivotal fossil of the humerus (upper arm), recently describe din Science (journal). It comes from a tetrapod, which probably had novel mix of primitive and derived characters. Also has shared characters and features to primitive fish (that gave rise to amphibians).

What distinguishes the Palaeognatahe?

Ancient palate structure much more similar to a reptilian palate than modern bird. (Refer to lab).

What is Paedomorphosis?

Another term for Neoteny. Retention of ancestral juvenile features into adulthood.

What order are waterfowl, such as ducks, geese, swans and screamers?

Anseriformes.

How do marine mammals differ from terrestrial mammals?

Anterior limbs moulded into flippers. Posterior limbs absent HAir limited to a few on muzzle No skin glands except mammary and eye No external ear Use sound, usually whistles and clicks for communication Evolved from terrestrial ancestors

Which order is the most species rich?

Anura (frogs and toads)

How does oxygen content differ between water and land, and what does this mean for animals?

Aquatic animals extract oxygen from a unidirectional flow of water across their gills, while terrestrial animals breathe air that they must pump in and out of sac-like lungs. Oxygen is 20x more abundant and easily obtained on land. = Terrestrial organisms can be more active.

Describe skin in Class Amphibia.

Aquatic larvae have skin similar to fish. Skin is thin, moist and loosely attached. The outer layer (epidermis) is periodically shed (contain keratin deposits). Mucous glands allow water-proofing Gas and ionic exchange across the skin (with help of the mucous). All amphibians have skin poison - some more toxic than others. Skin colour is produced by pigment cells (chromatophores) in dermis. This may be concentrated or dispersed to control colour pattern. This can be used for aposematic displays.

What species showed an intermediate between reptiles and birds? What features?

Archaeopteryx (the first "true bird"). Feathers, bird-like skull (fine, reduced) BUT with teeth. Clawed fingers and long, bony tail.

What extinct species has been confirmed to have had feathers?

Archeopteryx - bird-like skull (fine and reduced) but with teeth, clawed fingers and bony tail. I.e. a transitional stage between reptile and bird.

What is the origin of reptiles?

Arose in the late Carboniferous period (300mya). Insect orders had a boom, probably in response to increased vegetation. This provided a potential food source. However reptiles dominated the Jurassic to the Cretaceous.

What is a tympanum associated with and useful for?

Associated with hearing, helps to detect high frequency sounds.

Example of amphibians that are entirely aquatic?

Axolotls, clawed frog

What species of Suborder Ophidia is found in NZ?

Banded sea snake and yellow-bellied sea snake (both pelagic and can travel through open sea)

Describe down feathers and their use.

Barbules lack hooks, sit closest to the body and insulate to prevent loss of body heat. Most visible on newly hatched birds, aquatic birds and in nests to provide insulation for eggs and young.

Why did mammals, like the jurassic beaver, survive?

Better at escaping heat - also endothermic/homeothermic. The ability of small mammals to burrow allowed them to escape the heat. After the initial explosion, all plant material above ground was destroyed, so diet helped survival too. (Also intelligent and live young are less vulnerable than eggs) The lack of competition above ground, and the remaining aquatic and insect species provided mammals with the ability to flourish and diversify = vacant niches post-calamity.

What reptilian features do birds have?

Bipedal locomotion like many dinosaurs. Compound bones in the hind and fore limbs as in some dinosaurs. Cleidoic eggs - minimal water loss Heart & blood system like crocodiles (& archosaurs) Lungs with accessory air sacs (also in chamaeleons) Brain with corpus striatum (floor of forebrain) strongly developed.

What type of NZ gecko has the 'typical' foot shape (what is it?) and found on Stewart island?

Brown gecko (Hoplodactylus). Wide toes pads for climbing.

How are eutharians classified?

By feeding: Insectivores (small, sharp-snouted) feet are plantigrade E.g. bats, Herbivores - browsers, grazers, gnawers (rodents) (all 3 have diastema) = canines are reduced or absent.

Which amphibians do not possess a tympanum?

Caecilians and salamanders.

Describe physiology of Order Gymnophiona (Apoda)

Caecilians. - burrowing/aquatic - limbs and limb girdle absent - Solid skulls - small scales in skin of some - many vertebrae, long ribs, terminal anus - eyes covered by skin or even bone -Conspicuous dermal folds (annuli) - Sensory tentacles on snout - Eye muscles become the retractor muscle for the tentacle sheath - Feed on small elongate prey, e.g. termites, earthworms, larval and adult insects - internal fertilisation - Larvae have gills and tail fin - Some viviparous - Embryo initially fed by egg yolk

What is a difference between bird and reptile eggs?

Calcium composition. Birds have high calcium (hard, impermeable to water), while reptiles have low calcium (soft, flexible, permeable to water)

Early birds were ALL ________

Carnivorous. Primarily insectivores.

Which Order has a superficial reptile appearance?

Caudata(Urodela) - salamanders and newts

What is the probable reason for the Archey's frog decline?

Chytrid fungus - pathogen.

What classes of tetrapod vertebrates made it onto land? What time period did this occur in?

Class Amphibia - Devonian Class Reptilia - Carboniferous Mammalia - Triassic Aves - Jurassic

What are some possible reasons for decline in NZ frog. Which is probably the most damaging?

Climate change (e.g. droughts), predation (KIORE, rats) - but DISEASE, specifically Chytridiomycosis. Biocides, ecosystem disruption and other factors may also be effecting frog survival. These issues are exaggerated as the frogs are K-selected (low clutch size, parental care, slow maturity)

What characteristic do the monotremes retain from the therapsids?

Complex pectoral girdle (shoulder girdle), lays eggs, femur and humerus are held parallel to the ground and interclavicle on ventral surface, a cloaca. Also have EPIPUBIC BONE in males and females.

What extant animal is known to be the ariser of beaks?

Confuciusornis (chinese fossil)

Why do mammals have more ear bones than other taxa?

Contingency. Radical reduction in bone in birds, fish live in denser, more sound conducting media. Multiple ear bones are a possible by-product/expectation of radical reorganisation of skull in mammals with loss and reduction of jaw bones.

What types of feathers are there?

Contour feathers, semiplumes, filoplumes, primary wing feathers, tail feathers, powder-down feathers and down feathers.

What is Order Crocodilia, and when did it originate?

Crocodiles, alligators, gavials (3families). Emerged in the Jurassic period, and have existed til now. Largely unchanged since then.

What kind of respiration do amphibians largely depend on?

Cutaneous respiration. - Exchanges of O2 and CO2 through the skin is not necessarily equal.

Examples of "very" terrestrial amphibians?

Desert frog.

What type of skulls (though varying) do reptiles have?

Diapsid skull. = 2 fenestare (high and low) on each side of skull.

What types of skulls do reptiles and birds have? what are their chracteristics?

Diapsid. Also dinosaurs, lizards, snakes crocs... Two pairs of temporal openings.

Describe Green Geckos (Naultinus)

Diurnal, almost exclusively arboreal, slender toes for grasping foliage and unlikely to shed their tails. Common escape mechanism in other geckos.

Why do birds, despite 150mya of evolution, radiation and specialisation still have the same general body form (unlike mammals)?

Due to the demands of flight. There are four forces for flight: 1. Weight 2. drag 3. Lift 4. Thrust Flight requires a certain uniformity in structure to resist and battle these forces. The result is remarkable conservatism: - forelimbs modified into wings - Hindlimbs adapted for walking, swimming or climbing - horny beaks - oviparity Wings, bones, respiration, metabolism, digestion and senses have been altered also to accommodate flight

What is lek mating?

E.g. Kakapo. typically polygyny - Lek polygyny is defined by male display and strong female choice. Males form aggregates and perform mating calls to lure in females. Here females can judge males based on their sexual characteristics and displays. This creates a disproportionate mating preference for the "optimal" males.

Describe marsupials.

E.g. wallaby, kangaroo, wombat, opossum. Very early embryo is born and migrates to pouch where it feeds on milk from nipple. Occupy a diverse range of habitats: - temperate to tropical - low and high alt - arid and mesic environments they have a large diversity of social systems and feeding morphology with specialised apparatus: - tongue - teeth - jaw - olfactory sense

What is ovoviviparity?

Eggs are retained in oviduct, but are nutritionally self-contained (i.e. yolk sustains embryo, not mother though retained). Exchanges water and gas with mother. Born alive. Why? Better protection of clutch, allows specialised behaviour. In some lizards and snakes

Describe Order Crocodilia skull.

Elongated, robust skull with wide gape and secondary palate (= can breathe with a mouthful of water).

When was the mass extinction of reptiles?

End of the Mesozoic, ~65mya. Gave rise to birds and mammals, only snakes and lizards survived through.

What type of thermoregulation do birds have?

Endothermic - naturally higher than mammals at 40C. Hummingbirds may drop body temperature at night, especially when food supplies are low - this is a deliberate hypothermia to preserve energy and heat, known as TORPOR.

What is the use of flight (quill) feather?

Extend beyond the body, a part of wings and tails (remiges and retrices). Used for lift during takeoff, balance while perching and manoeuvring during flight.

What is notable about a birds heart?

Extremely fast heart beat., however not dissimilar from mammals (i.e. four chambered, systemic and pulmonary)

How can you differentiate between native frogs (leiopelma) and introduced frogs (litoria)?

Eyes and toes, tympanum behind the eye.

T or F: bird skull is euryapsid.

FALSE - it is DIAPSID.

T or F: mammals are very high in speciation and structural and functional diversity.

False. They do not have a particularly high speciation, but do have huge structural and functional diversity.

Beyond anything else, what is the most defining feature of a bird?

Feathers! If its living and has feathers, it is a bird. No other vertebrate group has such a dsitinctive character.

How are birds limbs adjusted for an improved center or gravity?

Feet are nearly devoid of muscles, while thighs have main leg musculature.

What features of frogs external anatomy indicate these different models of life?

Feet, body firm and size and shape of limbs

What did feathers evolve from?

Fibrous scales - when fluffed up, can insulate.

How are bird forelimbs a rearrangement of the basic tetrapod pentadactyl plan?

Forelimbs are modified into a wing for flight. Gain massive flight muscles (pectoralis to depress wing, supracoracoideus to raise wings). The hand is modified to a point - reduced posterior finger supports central finger. The main feather tracts relate back to arm bones.

How many living NZ orders of reptiles are there?

Four living orders: - tuatara (Sphenodon) - Squamata (geckos, skinks, sea snakes) - Marine turtles - Marine crocodiles

Describe pulmonary respiration in frogs.

Four stages: 1. Mouth filled as floor lowered 2. Air shunted to lungs by raising mouth floor 3. Lungs emptied 4. Mouth chamber is refilled

What are some core features of Order Anura?

Frogs and toads: - No tail in adult - Specialised for jumping (Order Salientia) - Head and trunk fused - Lungs - Large mouth - Approc. 3500 sp. - Mostly have tadpoles

What are caecilians?

From order Apoda (Gymnophiona), (subclass Lissamphibia) and are little wormy things with sharp backward facing teeth

Which of the lizards is strongly vocal?

Geckos. Other lizards have impertinent ears.

What two extant families exist under Suborder Lacertilia?

Gekkonidae (geckos) and Scincidae (skinks)

What characterises a bird?

General body form. This is evidence for extreme physical constraints. I.e.: - small heads - large body - thin stick-like legs and neck = central weight with small, peripheral body parts.

What are the four NZ endemic frogs? What Genus? What is notable about them?

Genus Leiopelma. They are the world's most primitive frogs. 1. Hochstetter's frog (Leiopelma hochstetteri) - semi-aquatic 2. Hamilton's frog (Leiopelma hamiltoni) 3. Archey's frog (Leiopelma archeyi) 4. Maud Island Frog (Leiopelma pakeka)

What is a contour feather for?

Gives the body its shape, allows flight and provides colour.

How is Rodentia specialised for feeding?

Gnawing - single pair (1/1) of incisors, a DIASTEMA and one or more molars or premolars but NO canines. incisors are rootless, grow continuously.

What 3 recognised orders are in Subclass Lissamphibia?

Gymnophiona (Apoda) - caecilians. Urodela (Caudata) - salamanders and sirens. Anura (Salienta) - Frogs and toads (Anura greatly out-number other amphibians)

What is the single most ubiquitous and exclusive character of mammals?

Hair and its relationship with skin. Two layers to the skin: -epidermis -dermis Hair grows from a follicle, dies to become keratin and is periodically molted.

Whats notable about Ophidia skull?

Have highly kinetic skulls, with both arcades lost. Lost sternum, pectoral girdle and sacrum. Wide scales on ventral surface.

Describe bird bones.

Have internal air cavities (pneumatised bones). Skeleton weighs less than total weight of feathers in e.g. frigate-bird. Bipedal - usually the first toe (hallux) is backward, three toes forward. Hindlimbs are more of a major reduction than a modificaiton-addition seen in forelimbs (wings). (Massive reduction in musculature). the main leg muscle is in the thigh, feet are nearly devoid of muscles - improves center of gravity

Briefly describe hearing in Anurans.

Have middle ear and external tympanum (eardrum). Sounds are transmitted across tympanic cavity by the columella or stapes. Sound arrives by the tympanum bones and operculum. Some species have exaggerated tympanum. Good for mates, territory and species recognition (e.g. Litoria)

How is bird respiration significantly different from reptiles and mammals?

Have no diaphragm, bronchi are NOT sac-like, but instead tubular. Their elaborate 9 air-sac respiratory system extends form the lungs throughout the whole body = a unique "one-way breathing system", as it only takes 2 cycles for air to pass through body. This results in a continuous stream of oxygenated air.

How do sea birds deal with salt content?

Have salt glands that excrete concentrated NaCl

Describe a Synapsid skull

Have single lateral fenestra, low on cheek. Bounded above by squamosal and post-orbital bones All extinct - aside from mammals *refer to image

What is interesting about birds necks?

Head on flexible neck of 13-25 vertebrae. The skull articulates with single occiptal condyle. cervical vertebrae have saddle-shaped centra. Vertebrae fit tightly together.

Describe morphology and physiology of Order Testudines.

Heavy body armour. Carapace consists of osteoderms. Plastron (underplate) made up up of dermal ribs. Long mobile neck can be withdrawn into shell. rigid carapace prevents rib/thoracic respiratory movements, so breath by: - throat pumping - limb movements - or cloacal respiration (butt breathing) Low metabolism = long lived

Describe sight in birds.

Herbivores = lateral vision, e.g. waders, pigeons Predators = binocular vision, e.g. owl, hawk

Mammals are what kind of thermo regs?

Homeothermic - use energy from food to heat their bodies. Bodies and hair insulate against heat loss or gain

How do Ophidia hunt prey?

Hunt prey chemically - olfactory nose with Jacobson's organ in mouth. Flicking tongue transfers scent particles.

List the dental formula, and the "use" of the different teeth forms.

I/C/PM/M = e.g. I 3/3, C 1/1, PM 4/4, M 3/3 (left value = top palate, right value = bottom palate) Incisors - snipping and biting Canines - piercing Premolars - shearing Molars -crushing and grinding

What is the best known early tetrapod?

Icthyostega. Jointed limbs, strong backbone and musculature. Muscles to elevate head and advanced ear bones. Shortened snout and advanced olfactory senses.

How is the movement of fish still remnant in terrestrial locomotion?

In many modern amphibians (and reptiles) the pattern of progression still depends on the the pattern of LATERAL UNDULATORY LOCOMOTION seen in fishes.

Do reptiles have viviparous reproduction?

In some lizards and snakes. The shell never forms, eggs are retained in oviduct.

What was the major driving force for primate selection?

Increased intelligence.

Uses of hair?

Insulation, guard hair for protection, colouration (communication), vibrasse for tactility, spines.

What animals are the biggest contributors to lizard decline?

Introduced mammals - especially rats, cats, pigs.

All extant reptiles except tuatara have WHAT feature?

Intromittent organ.

Describe the morphology of a bird skull.

It is DIAPSID. Lightly built (0.21% body weight) Fused into one piece Large braincase and orbits. Their skull is so specialised that most traces of ancestral condition is lost.

What is Chytridiomycosis?

It is a Chytrid fungus that infects the epidermal layer of frogs. It has been associated with L. archeyi since 1999, and there have been progressive declines with the spreading of this pathogen.

what is sebum?

It is the cell lining that is excreted from a gland and is associated with follicles. Keeps hair pliable and glossy.

What characteristics do echidnas share with reptiles?

It lays eggs, carries hatched offspring for a period before depositing. It however feeds its young with milk from modified sweat glands (mammalian feature - though in mammals it is a mammory gland)

What was the largest mammal known to survive the mass extinction?

Jurassic Beaver.

What birds are in order Psittaciformes?

Kea, Kaka, Kakapo, Kakariki

What, besides fungus, attributed severe decline in NZ frogs?

Kiore (RATS) - survival on rat free islands as proof.

What were the earliest amphibians?

Labyrinthodonts and lepospondyls. Looked a lot like lungfishes and libe-finned fishes, and early reptiles.

What are some key features of order Passeriformes?

Largest order. (60% of all birds) Have a highly developed syrinx (singing) and may have melodious calls. Feet are adapted for perching on thin stems and twigs. Have altricial (reliant on parents) young.

What is caducibranch?

Larval gills are lost when the adult form takes up a terrestrial way of life. Metamorphose.

What main ways do amphibians respire?

Larval stage: mainly gills Adult: some still rely on gills, but mostly by lungs - though cutaneous and buccal respiration is also used.

Briefly describe the sequence of terrestrial locomotion (from primitive to "modern")

Legs usually low-slung and sprawled in early tetrapods - belly walking. Advances include bipod, tripod and lateral sequence gait. These gaits include significant longitudinal limb rotation.

Are mammals more or less speciate compared to other vertebrates?

Less. ~24600 fish, ~9000 bird, ~4450 mammal sp. May not be very speciate, but have extreme morpholigcal diversity and habitat occupancy (niche diversity) cf. other vertebrates.

What are the three major characteristics of feathers?

Lightweight, very strong and have high tensile strength.

Where did mammory glands evolve from?

Likely sweat glands.

Characters of therapsids?

Limbs beneath body Needs greater co-ordination brain takes on bigger role in locomotion Most therapsids died out from Permian too. Cynodonts were the last Therapsid to evolve and survived Permian-Turassic extinction event. Have high metabolic rate increased jaw musclature Skeletal changes for greater agility Secondary palate

What are the key characteristics of Caudata limbs?

Limbs set at right angles to the body, and fore and hind limbs are of equal size.

ALL living amphibian orders are in what subclass?

Lissamphibia.

What three species are Australian immigrants to NZ?

Litoria aurea, Litoria ewingi and Litoria raniformis. L. raniformis is endangered in Australia now. Both have loud species-specific breeding choruses.

Compare a bird skull to a lizard skull.

Lizard skulls (also diapsid) are robust, thick, mostly immobile and bony. They possess a heavy post-orbital bar, small fenestrae (isolated), complex occipital condyle, multiple palatines and a large, linked vomer. While a bird skull is diapsid, it is highly modified: they have lost the upper temporal aracde and post-orbital bar. the fenestrae have coalesced with the orbit. Possess a single occiptal condyle (hinge where skull meets spine), and palantines are extended posteriorly, making contact with base of the neurocranium. Vomer reduced and tapering to a point. The lower jaw has 5 elements, hinging on much reduced quadrate.

What is in Suborder Lacertilia, and what kind of skull do they have?

Lizards (geckos, iguanas, skinks, chameleons...) Infratemporal arcade from diapsid skull lost.

Do snakes or lizards have movable eyelids?

Lizards - NOT snakes

What belong under Order Squamata? What kind of skull and teeth do they have?

Lizards, snakes and worm lizards (amphisbaenids). They have a reduced diapsid skull that is kinetic. Teeth are pleurodont (no socket)

Describe dentition browsers and grazers.

Lophodont - molars are broad, ridge and crowned. Canines are reduced or absent. E.g. elephants, hoofed animals, even-toed animals (hippos)

What changes are associated with permanent life on land? (Reptiles)

Lungs and internal nostrils for breathing. Increased efficiency in vascular system. Loss of gills and opercular bones. Impermeable skin to avoid desiccation. Strengthened skeleton. Improved locomotory muscles. Limbs replace fins. Mobile neck.

What are the three major ear bones unique to mammals?

Malleus, incus and stapes.

What features typified early evolution of terrestrial vertebrates?

Many freshwater fishes surviving the Devonian period had a rudimentary lung as an outgrowth of the pharynx. Efficiency enhanced by improving vascualrity. Blood returned to the heart via a pulmonary vein - double circulation is characteristic of tetrapods.

How does the difference in habitat diversity between land and water effect organisms?

Marine environment is relatively homogenous. Shelter may be easier to obtain on land.

What are the three major characters of marsupials?

Marsupial shelf Fenestrated palate Epipubic bones

Describe fertilisation and habitat for Anura.

May lay eggs in variety of different situations - aquatic or terrestrial, adult may brood externally or internally. Wide variety of habitat too - though generally remain close to water (for aquatic repro. and water-permeable skin). Ectothermic - bars them from polar and antarctic regions.

Describe the axolotl.

Member of Order Caudata, is a tetrapod. Caducibranch. Reaches sexual maturity with larval morphology (= 3 pairs of gills, prominant dorsal and caudal fins, slender, fully developed limbs) May metamorphose to a terrestrial form when pond dries up (or under iodine treatment).

when were dinosaurs dominant?

Mesozoic period.

Describe Caudata breeding behaviour.

Metamorphic. Internal fertilisation - male produces sperm in spermatophore, places on leaf/stick, females walks over and recovers sperm in her vent. Aquatic sp. - clusters of eggs, larvae hatch in water with gills and finlike tail. IN TERRESTRIAL: - Some parental care (guarding) - Deposit eggs under logs or in soil (moist) - Direct development = mini adults ("pond" is inside the egg)

When did almost all mammalian features evolve?

Mid-triassic. This is when dinosaurs become diverse and abundant - all non-mammal synapsids become extinct.

Describe Reptilian reproduction.

Miniature adults born - often from Cleidoic (amniotic) egg.

What is rhino horn made out of?

Modified hair - hair-like filaments are cemented together.

Describe a typical gecko.

More common in warmer regions. Large eyes are covered with transparent scales, and lick their eyes instead of blinking. Head is often diamond shaped or boxier, with soft, loose skin and matte texture. Typically very vocal (NOT NZ species)

Examples of amphibians that return to the water to breed?

Most frogs.

what are some adaptations involved in behavioural thermoregulation?

Movement, choosing shade or sunlight, orientation (to sun), colour change.

Describe a progressive wing moult.

Must occur to help replace essential plumage. Flight and tail feathers are lost in exact pairs to maintain balance. There is a gradual loss from mid wing and mid tail typically.

Describe an amphibian egg.

NOT AMNIOTIC. Do not have amnion and allantois membranes around the embryo. (Do have yolk sac).

Give examples of perennibranch caudata

Necturus (mud puppy) and Siren.

What is a mud puppy?

Necturus - a Urodele that shows external and skeletal characteristics of Urodela. = perennibranch

What major differences are there between Urodela and Anura?

Necturus: - compressed tail (no fin rays) - No scales, but mucus glands - Paired, weak pectoral and pelvic limbs - pectoral limb = brachium, antebrachium and manus. (hand = carpus, metacarpus and digits) - pelvic limb = femur, crus and pes (foot = tarsus, metatarsus and digits) - thick lips - Paired nares (nostrils) - Small eyes, lack lids - 3 pairs of external gills Anura: - broad head - short trunk, NO tail - Paired appendages - pelvic limbs very strong - terminal mouth - Prominant eyes

Which is a more diverse Super-Order: Palaeognathae or Neognathae?

Neognathae (27-30 orders) Palaeognathae ("old jaws") contain the ratites and tinamous. (more ancient group)

Describe mouthes in Class Amphibia.

Newly evolved tongue. Modern amphibians are all carnivorous except for larval stages. Aquatic species suck in prey by enlarging the mouth cavity, as in fish. On land such suction is not possible - often sticky tongues attached at front of mouth cavity. In Leiopelma tongue attached at back of mouth cavity. May grab food with jaws. Teeth on the maxilla or vomer. Salamanders retain teeth on lower jaws, but frogs have lost them.

How do birds dispose of excretory products?

Nitrogenous wastes are excreted as uric acid (requires LESS water than urea to excrete). This crystallises out of solution, and may be stored in an eggshell.

How many fenestra does an anapsid skull have?

No fenestra. (ancestral condition) E.g. turtle

Are diurnal or nocturnal species more likely to go extinct? (reptiles)

Nocturnal - mammalian predators are typically nocturnal.

how many occipital condyles do reptiles have?

ONE.

Describe typical NZ lizard diets.

Omnivores - mainly arthropods. Also ingest significant quantities of fruits and nectars.

Do wing digits survive?

One bird still has claws on its limbs - at least in the chick (i.e. the Hoatzin)

What is a diapsid skull? Who has these?

One that possesses two fenetrae (high and low) on each side of skull. Birds, reptiles, dinosaurs, lizards. The horizontal bone below each fenestra is called an ARCADE. These are complete in crocodiles and tuatara (primitive). Lizards have lost the lower arcade. Snakes have lost both infratemporal and supratemporal arcades = mobile skull for feeding

What is unique about the Hoatzin?

Only living bird to retain digit-like claws on wings.

What order do frogs and toads belong to?

Order Anura.

What is Family Ranidae?

Order Anura. "True frogs"

What is Family Bufonidae?

Order Anura. "True toads" Short legs, stout bodies, thick skin, usually warts. A true toad is strictly a Bufo species. Term often loosely applied to more or less terrestrial members of several families.

What is Family Leiopelmatidae?

Order Anura. Most primitive family of living frogs. Comprises the NZ native and endemic frogs. (e.g. Maud Island Frog)

What is Family Pipidae?

Order Anura. Specialised aquatic forms of frogs. E.g. Clawed frog (Xenopus toad) Pipa Pipa - females has eggs and young in spongy back.

What is Family Hylidae?

Order Anura. Tree frogs. E.g. Litoria - introduced frog to NZ form Australia

What is the largest of all bird orders?

Order Passeriformes. (e.g. kokako, wrens, bellbirds, hihi, tui etc.)

What order do gannets, shags (cormorants), pelicans, tropicbirds and boobies belong in? What similarities do they share?

Order Pelecaniformes. Medium-sized and large waterbirds found worldwide. Diet of fish, squid or similar marine life. Colonial nesting, but monogamous pairs. ALL four toes are webbed.

What order do penguins belong in?

Order Sphenisciformes.

What is Order Squamata mean and what suborders fall under it?

Order Squamata = "scaled reptiles" Suborder Ophidia (snakes) Suborder Lacertilia (lizards)

Who are the ratites and what characterises them?

Ostrich, cassowary, emu and kiwi (flightless as well as ancient)

Describe fertilisation/breeding in birds.

Out of the breeding season, reproductive organs are significantly reduced. Usually there is no copulatory organ - fertilisation is effected by bringing cloacal surfaces into contact.

Most reptiles and all birds are WHAT pertaining to reproduction?

Oviparous.

Describe fertilisation in Order Testudines.

Oviparous. Internal fertilisation. Bladder stores water for depositing on eggs. Eggs are laid in a burrow.

Describe the overall differences faced between land and water.

Oxygen content - Pump thru lungs vs unidirectional flow over gills - O2 20x more abundant onland = more active terrestrials Density - air=1000x less buoyant, 50x less viscous -=strong skeletons - less resistance in air Temperature - fluctuates a lot on land - behavioural and physiological changes Water and ion balance - lose water via evaporation (land) - ion balance struggles with osmotic flow in marines Vision and sound - function differently (land vs. water) Habitat diversity - marine = homogenous - shelter easier on land

Types of Anuran vocals sacs?

Paired, single and bi-lobed. Only occur in males, and are invaginations of the pharynx.

What are the ancient orders of birds?

Palaeognathae, Tinamous and Ratites. (Ratites e.g. kiwi, ostrich and cassowary)

Describe some key features of Order Sphenisciformes.

Penguins - Are marine, found in southern latitudes and are web-footed. They are CARINATE (i.e. have a keel) and their limbs are secondarily adapted for swimming.

What is Order Passeriformes?

Perching songbirds and bush birds - e.g. kokako, rifleman, warblers, saddleback, wattlebirds, bellbirds, wrens etc. This is the LARGEST ORDER (60% of all birds)

Why are mammals such an evolutionary dynamic class?

Perhaps due to brain-behaviour complexity, plasticity in development and evolution of a few key morphologies (e.g. teeth) and release from constraints (i.e. homeothermy)

Why did feather develop?

Perhaps for insulation, perhaps to look larger (defence).

What major difference is there between monotreme platypus and echidna?

Platypus hatchlings have an "egg tooth".

Primary feathers are found on the _______, and secondary feathers are found on the _______

Primaries = carpometacarpus Secondaries = lower arm (ULNA)

If you found a feather and it was asymmetrical with an emarginated edge, what type would it be?

Primary wing feather.

What is the origin of feathers?

Probably evolved in Theropods before birds or flight. Probably evolved for thermoregulatory role. They are homologous with reptile scales and develop with the epidermis (went from hollow cylinder, to unbranched barbs in soft plume, to planar feather and/or barbs and barbules)

Describe bird digestion.

Progression of pharynx - musculae oesophagus -> crop (storage) -> stomach. Their proventriculus secretes gastric juice, and they have a muscualr gizzard muscular, lined with horny plates, birds also swallow stones to aid in their digestion.

What was the first dominant flying vertebrate? When did these become extinct?

Pterosaurs. Went extinct at the end of the Cretaceous.

What makes up a "contour" feather?

Quill, shaft and barbs (spread outwards to make up a vane). Overlapping barbules with tiny hooks between barbs.

Why do mammals have such wide morphological diversity and niche opportunity?

Released from environmental constraints due to: Homeothermy Brain, behaviour evolution and development. Key morphologies (e.g. teeth)

What were the first truly terrestrial vertebrates?

Reptiles.

What is the "beak" of an echidna and platypus called?

Rostrum. This is a behavioural specialisation for feeding (characteristic of mammals)

What distinguishes hectors dolphin fin form others?

Rounded and dark dorsal fin

What amphibian is a good example of mimicry and why?

Salamanders - specifically the red-spotted newt (unpalatable), dusky salamander (palatable) and red-backed salamander (palatable but has brown & red morphs). Birds did not eat the red efts, but did eat the palatable dusky salamanders. Birds also ate the striped morph of the red-backed salamander. Birds ate significantly fewer mimetic red morphs of red-backed salamander.

Over what temperature range are amphibians active?

Salamanders -8 to 27C Frogs are 3 to 37C - lower than reptiles

What is in order Caudata?

Salamanders and newts. = Urodeles

Describe Order Caudata (Urodela)

Salamanders, newts and allies. Typically: - body with head, trunk and tail - no scales - limbs are set at RIGHT ANGLES to their body - fore and hind limbs are equal size - Carnivorous -> Eat moving things - worms, small arthropods and molluscs (aside from pacific giant salamander - eats rodents) - Newts are sexually dimorphic - most salamanders are metamorphic = aquatic larvae, terrestrial adults - internal fertilisation -

Examples of amphibians that by-pass open water by breeding on land?

Salamanders, terrestrial NZ frogs.

Vision and sound are very different between water and land, explain how so.

Sensory systems like vision and sound work differently in water and air. Fewer wavelengths of light are absorbed by atmosphere than by water. Sound travels more slowly in air.

What are some key points about the male uro-genital system in amphibians?

Several genital duct configurations can occur, but in some archinephric ducts have both excretory and reproductive roles. In Necturus the archinephric duct transports both sperm and urine. -> seems to be a neotenous condition - also seen in larval forms of salamander. Otherwise, they may exlcusively be dedicated to sperm.

What components make up a reptile egg?

Shell, amnion (surrounding embryonic membrane), Chorion (exchanges gases, fused with allantois), Allantois (stores nitrogenous wastes) yolk (food), albumin (storage of water, growth factor and protection).

What is the amphibian brain similar to, and how much does it rely on it?

Similar to fish. Moderately developed, but cerebrum not as developed as mammals. NOT a dominant role in behaviour (locomotion and grasping mates = spinal reflec) Major sensory is instead olfactory

Describe semiplumes and their use.

Sit inbetween the contour feathers and insulate, and provide form.

What general adaptions to terrestrial life do all amphibians have?

Skeletal strengthening. Shift from reliance on lateral line system to odour and smell.

Describe a typical skink.

Skin is firm and tight. Scales are flat, shiny and overlapping. Eyes are small and can blink. (Lower eyelid moveable). Head is not differentiated from body. (No neck).

What is a Euryapsid skull? who has these?

Skull that has one fenestra high on cheek. Found in extinct marine reptiles. E.g. plesiosaur.

Why do birds not fossilise as well as other vertebrates?

Small, light bones.

What is suborder Ophidia? When are they known from?

Snakes. Cretaceous period.

Anuran adaptations for cutaneous respiration.

Some frogs have special adaptations for cutaneous respiration. E.g. Hairy frog (hair-like papillae during breeding season form a supplementary respiratory organ on sides and hindlimbs) Lake Titicaca frog (Prominent loose skin folds on back and limbs to extend body surface area).

What is the use of filoplume feathers?

Some may be sensory.

What is "tyranny of size"?

Species-area relationships for bird species in the New guinea region on oceanic islands, land-bridge islands, and New Guinea mainland.

What is the one living species of tuatara left?

Sphenodon punctatus

how can lizards live in arid environments?

Store fat in tail, behavioural thermoregulation.

What is Ornithology?

Study of birds

What gave rise to modern amphibians?

Subclass Labyrinthodonts.

Which group was ancestral to the first tetrapods?

Subclass Sarcopterygii. Could be one of two orders (Dipnoi (lungfish) or Crossopterygians (lobe-finned fish).

What subclass and type of animal has a Synapsid skull?

Subclass Synapsida. Mammals.

Within class Mammalia, what two subclasses are there and what define them?

Subclasses: - Prototheria - egg-laying monotremes - Theria - marsupial and placental mammals.

What order are birds descended from?

Suborder Theropoda (T rex, oviraptor)

What two types of glands are there in mammals?

Sweat (eccrine - evaporative cooling - and apocrine glands) Territorial marking/warning and defence (e.g. anal scent glands in skunk) Also MAMMORY glands for milk

Which type of skull is ancestral in mammals? What are their characteristics?

Synapsid. Temporal openings in skull are associated with attachment of jaw muscles. Reptilian synapsids are the ancestor of mammals.

What produces sound in birds?

Syrinx (voice box)

What were the first true mammals and when did they occur?

TRiassic. Small, mouse, shrew-like with enlarged cranium, shearing jaws, teeth replaced (once), endothermic. they had hair for insulation and probably mammary glands.

What sites in the coromandel were studied for the conservation of NZ frog species?

Tapu, Tokatea, Moehau.

Temperature on land and in water is very different, what does this mean for terrestrial and aquatic organisms?

Temperature fluctuates in air more rapidly and widely than in water. Terrestrial organisms must develop behavioural and physiological mechanisms.

What does recent palaeontological evidence suggest? (in relation to birds)

That the birds closest phylogenetic affinity is to dinosaurs (Theropods).

In what time period is it thought that the earliest terrestrial vertebrates emerged?

The Devonian period (400mya).

what group of synapsids survived into the Mesozoic period?

The Therapsids. Mammals are the only surviving lineage of synapsids and originate from the Therapsids.

What key step allowed reptiles to be independent of water for reproduction?

The cleidoic (amniotic) egg. It prevented desiccation, exchanged respiratory gases and disposed of excretory products.

What bird species practices brood parasitism?

The cuckoos.

What is diastema?

The gap between the incisors and the molars. Found in Order Rodentia, horses.

What is an arcade?

The horizontal bone beneath each fenestra, on skull.

What does "topography" refer to in birds?

The major parts of a birds plumage.

What is Herpetology?

The study of amphibians and reptiles. Literally means "crawling thing"

Why was the work "Phylogeny and Classification of Birds" (by Sibley & Ahlquist) an advance in the scientific community? Why were previous taxonomies so wrong?

The work was an advance as it used DNA hybridisation techniques. Birds experience morphological conservatism (all have similar form in body, wings, legs, beaks, eye placement etc.), but also have extreme speciation. This meant morphological traits were an unreliable way to classify evolutionary relationships in birds. This work sequenced the molecular evolution, thus understanding avian linkages and taxonomy on a genetic level.

What kind of skulls, teeth and reproduction did subclass Archosauria have?

Thecodont teeth in some, horny beaks in others. All were complete diapsid, with no lost arcades. Often have an extra fenestrae. Oviparous.

What kind of skeleton do Class amphibia have?

Their skeletons are mostly bony. The skull is broad and flat, and is incompletely ossified and possesses paired occipital condyles. They have increased flexibility of the spine (in some) and mobility of the head is increased. Vertebral column = supporting beam transferring weight to ground through girdles and appendages. Have short ribs.

What types of Lacertilia are present in NZ and what is notable about them?

There are 100 extant NZ species of geckos and skinks, and have very high diversity and local density, and high habitat diversity. Genetic data indicates long history in NZ. Were once widespread throughout NZ, now are typically limited to islands (result of rats).

What features of the devonian period "allowed" invasion into the terrestrial world?

There were mild temperatures, alternating droughts and floods. Freshwater habitats were unstable, as pools and streams evaporated. The terrerstrial environment became favourable as primitive plants onshore created cover and invertebrates on land became abundant

List 3 uses of feathers:

Thermodynamics, flying and sexual selection.

Why are birds such a well-known and popularised class?

They are diurnal, aerial (thus visible) and audible. Found in our backyards, and incredibly diverse. they are more watched and studied than any other class.

Describe temperature and control of temperature in amphibians.

They are ectothermic. Internal temperatures vary with ambient (environmental) temperature. Some control temp. with behaviour: - alter positions during day/night - it takes larger amphibians longer time to equilibrate their body temperatures, depending on surface-mass ratio. Temperature tied in with water-balance and colour. - can increase or decrease the rate of evaporative water lowering technique - Can also change skin colour to increase or decrease the amount of solar radiation absorption or reflection

Describe mammal niches.

They are highly diverse, partly due to homeothermy. May be predators, herbivores, live in arboreal, aerial or aquatic environments. May be terrestrial, above or below ground and range form very small to the largest (blue whale) the fastest (cheetah). Ecological niches are defined by behaviour (e.g. complex social systems) as well as morphology.

How do bird, fish and reptile dentition compare to mammals?

They are homodont, whereas mammals have differentiated teeth - canines, molars, incisors, premolars i.e. HETERODONT.

Describe the circulatory system in frogs.

They have a three-chambered heart. - Right and left atria - Ventricle lacks subdivision - unique among air-breathing vertebrates in lacking internal division of the ventricle HEART and CIRCULATION --> in amphibians: "Figure of eight" - LUNG (oxygenates -> pulmonary vein) -> HEART (left atrium -> conus/spiral valve) -> BODY. (Depletion of oxygen -> systemic circulation) -> HEART (sinus venosus/right atrium -> pulmonary circulation) -> LUNG again.

how has bird pectoral girdles been adapted?

They have become highly specialised for flight. Possess powerful flight muscles and keel (carina) on sternum.

Amphibians are tetrapods. What does this mean?

They have four limbs adapted to locomotion on land. Their five digit limbs are similar to the limbs of early lobe-finned fishes (Crossoptergii).

Do salamanders have teeth? Do frogs?

They have retained the teeth on the bottom of their jaws. Frogs have no teeth.

how have pigeons and doves specialised digestion?

They produce a lipid and protein rich "milk"- this is fed to young by both parents

How do body forms vary in Class Amphibia?

They vary greatly from an elongated trunk with distinct neck and tail to a compact, depressed body with fused head and trunk, with no intervening neck.

What is the use of powder-down feathers?

Tips disintegrate releasing a talc-like powder that helps to waterproof the feathers.

How do Ophidia breathe when consuming prey?

Trachea can extrude from mouth to breath while swallowing. They have only one lung.

T or F: Echidna and platypus are living descendents of reptilian ancestors that evolved when Australia was wetter

True - approx. 100mya.

T or F: Echidna spines are hair.

True - these are compacted

T or T: Lizard (Lacertilia) diversity is equal to endemic bird diversity in NZ.

True!

T or F: Almost half of the living (extant) orders (11) are cosmopolitan (excluding Antarctica).

True. The 6 species that breed on every continent (bar Antarctica): Barn owl Osprey Peregrine falcon Great egret Cattle egret Glossy ibis

What is Order Testudines?

Turtles and tortoises. Found from triassic to present ("living fossils"). Horny beak with no teeth.

What animal is typical of an anapsid skull?

Turtles.

Caudata is typically what size? Are there exceptions?

Typically small (~15cm) though Megalobatrachus (japanese giant salamander can be over 1.5m)

Describe limb rotation.

Unlike fish, terrestrial gaits include significant longitudinal limb rotation. This generates pulling and pushing forces against the ground. Frogs developed a jumping gait with anatomical modification. Skeleton shows fusion and modification.

terrestrial locomotion

Various gaits (low-slung in early tetrapods, advanced into bi- & tripod and lateral sequence) Limbs the means of movement (not fins) Limb rotation

Describe Ophidia venom.

Venom is produced from a modified salivary gland. Venom may be a neurotoxin, haemorrhagin or coagulant.

What size disparity is there in Anura?

Very wide. Largest = West African Goliath frog (30cm) Smallest = Brazilian toad (<1cm) (can fit on a coin)

Describe limbs (in general) in Class Amphibia.

Webbed feet are often present, with FOUR limbs. Forelimb usually has FOUR digits, with the hindlimbs have FIVE digits (pentadactyl).

What parts of a birds nervous system are well developed? Which are not?

Well-developed cerebrum, cerebellum and optic lobes. Taste and smell are poorly developed.

What is the "Long standing" theory of evolution of terrestrial vertebrates?

When Devonian freshwater pools evaporated, aquatic vertebrates forced to move to other pools OR burrow into remaining damp mud OR stalk prey in shallow water, with occasional forays onto land. The consensus is that legs developed in the aqautic animals that they then moved onto land, for some unknown reason.

Briefly describe bird morphology.

Wide distribution - due to flying ability, are highly mobile and have a high dispersal potential. Wide habitat range - Forest, desert, alpine, lowland, marine and North Pole and South Pole.

What "changes" have birds made to adapt for flight?

Wings (support, propulsion), bones (rigid yet light), respiration (must be efficient to meet intense metabolic demands of flight), metabolism (high metabolic rate), digestion (rapid and efficient, process energy-rich diet), senses (finely tuned - need to cope with complex problems of head first, high velocity flight).

What is Suborder Amphisbaenia?

Worm lizards. Part of Subclass Lepidosauria. They are highly specialised burrowers that lack external limbs. Have solid skull for digging and feed on invertebrates.

Do salamanders undergo any kind of morphosis?

Yes they are metamorphic. = Aquatic larvae, terrestrial adults.

Is there sexual dimorphism in newts?

Yes. Males are highly dimorphic for display, females basic bitches.

Do birds moult?

Yes. Plumage is subject to wear and so feathers must be replaced through a moult. A full moult is a major and physiologically demanding phase of the bird life-cycle. Typically birds will hide during a moult to avoid predation and use up energy. Progressive moult is much more common.

Do amphibians still have a reliance on water?

Yes. Typically have aquatic larvae. Eggs are prone to desiccation. Most need to maintain a moist skin for respiration.

What issues are faced by aquatic and terrestrial organisms in their differing water and ion balances?

aquatic animals face problems of water and ion balance as the result of osmotic flow. Terrestrial animals lose water by evaporation. Water is less abundant in terrestrial environments.

Extant birds range over a large size (e.g. 5cm hummingbird vs. 2.75m Ostrich). This size range is heavily reduced if you remove flightless birds. Why?

due to the constraints involved in flying: They must be lightweight, and energy efficient as flying is demanding. Flightless birds would be sturdier, adapted for running or climbing.

when did Archosauria dominate the world?

during the Mesozoic - "the age of reptiles" Many were large and bipedal.

What kind of heart does Order Crocodilia have?

four-chambered heart.

Difference between herbivore and carnivore gut?

herbivores often have a partitioned (four chambered) stomach. They need this to digest cellulose, with the aid of a caecum (harbours beneficial bacteria). They ruminate - often also chew cud. Carnivores often have a "short" gut. Teeth tear most food up. Energy must be prioritised to the hunt, not digestion.

Within subclass Theria, what infraclasses are there?

infraclasses: Metatheria - viviparous and pouched (Marsuplia) Eutheria - viviparous and placental

Mammal taxonomy is foundered on what? What are these?

on what they eat: -insectivores -herbivores -carnivores Some are highly selective, others are generalistic or opportunisitic.

Characteristics of synapsids?

polyphyletic group (similar chacraters, not inherited from a common ancestor) Temporal openings in theskull - associated with attachments of jaw muscle. As synapsids evolved, the jaw bones of the lower jaw reduced in size - either lost or gradually moved into the ear - forming the MALLEUS. The INCUS is derived from the QUADRATE (a cranial bone). The mandible, or lower jaw, is a single bone in mammals called the DENTARY (makes up many smaller bones in reptiles). - differentiated teeth = canines, molar, incisors. Synapsids both herbivorous and carnivorous.

What is "tyranny of distance?"

the decline in the occurance of families and subfamilies of breeding land-birds from New Guinea eastwards on various pacific islands, including NZ.

Which bird has teeth?

the horny egg-tooth - the only bird with teeth.

What is Mammology/Theriology?

the study of mammals.

What is the major morphological difference between tinamous and ratites?

tinamous = keeled sternum Ratites = unkeeled sternum these both share a common ancestor, and belong in the paleognathous