Biology 30 - Diploma Review - All Units
What is the equation for recombination frequency?
# of recombinants / total # of offspring x 100.
What is the autonomic system, and what is it's function?
(Involuntary). Controls glandular secretions and the functioning of smooth and cardiac muscles. (Breathing, heart rate, etc).
What is the somatic system, and what is it's function?
(Voluntary). The somatic system consists of sensory receptors in the head and extremities, nerves that carry sensory information to the central nervous system, and nerves that carry instructions from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles. Its neurons service the head, trunk, and limbs. It's sensory neurons carry information about the receptors in the skin, tendons, and skeletal muscles. Its motor neurons carry information in the skeletal muscles.
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Draw an logistic growth graph.
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Draw how a growth curve in a closed population looks.
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Draw meiosis 1.
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Draw meiosis 2.
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Draw mitotic anaphase.
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Draw mitotic metaphase.
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Draw mitotic prophase.
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Draw mitotic telophase and cytokinesis.
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Draw out the divisions of the nervous system.
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Draw the feedback for the production of sperm.
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Draw the feedback for the production of testosterone.
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Draw the graph of an exponential graph?
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Draw the negative feedback for parturition.
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Draw the process of dehydration/blood is too concentrated?
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Draw the process of high blood sugar?
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Draw the process of high levels of calcium?
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Draw the process of long term stress response?
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Draw the process of low blood sugar?
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Draw the process of low levels of calcium?
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Draw the process of low sodium level?
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Draw the process of short term stress response?
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Draw the process of your metabolic rate being regulated?
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Draw what a boom-bust graph would look like?
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Label a sperm cell.
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Label both male system diagrams.
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Label the 3 different types of neurons.
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Label the action potential graph.
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Label the diagram of the cell leaving the ovary and fertilized and than implanted.
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Label the different regions of the brain.
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Label the endocrine system.
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Label the female reproductive system.
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Label the parts of the baby in the womb.
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Label the parts of the brain.
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Label the parts of the eye.
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Look at alternations of generations diagrams.
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Look at diagrams of chromosomes number changing.
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Look at reproductive strategies for asexual reproduction.
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Look at the different trimester developing times.
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Read over Gel Electrophoresis.
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How are identical twins made?
1 egg, 1 sperm. Cell divides.
What are the difference of names between: 1) DNA 2) mRNA 3) tRNA 4) Amino Acid
1) DNA triplet 2) Codons 3) Anticodon 4) Amino Acid
What are the 5 conditions of Hardy-Weinberg?
1. No mutations 2. Large population 3. No immigration or emmigration 4. Random mating 5. No natural selection
When is the nervous system formed in pregnancy?
1st trimester.
What does variable mean?
2 different things.
How are fraternal twins made?
2 eggs, 2 sperm.
How many homologous pairs does a male have?
22.
How many homologous pairs does a female have?
23 pairs.
On average how long does the menstrual cycle take?
28 days.
What is trisomy?
2n+1
What is down syndrome?
3 chromosomes at autosome 21.
When is lung development most critical?
3rd trimester. End of pregnancy.
How much light does the lens use when bending light or focusing?
40%
What is Chargaff's Rule?
50% adenine and thymine. and 50% Guanine and Cytosine.
What is the probability of having a girl or a boy?
50%.
How much light does the cornea use to bending light or focusing?
60%
If a percent is declining by 20% so much per year how much do you have left over?
80%
What is a mutation?
A change in the DNA sequence. It is the ultimate form of variation.
What is deletion?
A deletion changes the number of DNA bases because DNA is being removed. The deleted gene can alter the function of the protein.
What is neurilemma?
A delicate membrane of the peripheral nervous system neurons that promotes the regeneration of damaged axons.
What is a follicle?
A developing egg or ovum surrounded by Sertoli cells that later become the corpus luteum.
A cross that deals with two different traits is called what?
A dihybrid cross.
What kind of cell is formed when the nucleus of the cell is entered into the egg?
A diploid cell is formed. 2 haploid cells come together.
What is the difference between a diuretic and an antidiuretic?
A diuretic makes you urinate more, and an antidiuretic makes you urinate less.
In order for mutation to be passed on, what type of cell does it have to be in?
A gamete. It can't be in a somatic cell.
What is the function of the cochlea?
A hard snail-shaped device that identifies sound waves and converts them into action potentials.
What is a karyotype?
A karyotype is chromosomes arranged in homologous pairs.
What is predator/prey relationship?
A major interaction that tends to keep populations from exceeding their carrying capacity. Fluctuations in the prep populations may cause fluctuations in the predator populations.
What is acetylcholine?
A neuromuscular junction between a neuron and a muscle.
What is threshold potential?
A neuron either fires an impulse or doesn't. The level that this happens at determines the threshold potential (if the neuron fires an impulse) if there isn't an impulse than the action potential doesn't continue. If the stimulus is strong enough to cause depolarization to happen, the threshold potential has been met and the impulse with continue.
What is nonsense mutations?
A nonsense mutation is also a change in one DNA base pair. Instead of substituting one amino acid for another, the altered DNA sequence prematurely signals the cell to stop building proteins. This results in a shortened protein that may function improperly or not at all. Basically when a mutation makes the code stop.
What is genetic equilibrium?
A population in which the variability doesn't change (gene stability) over generation is not evolving and therefore in genetic equilibrium.
What is the function of the scrotum?
A sac highly elastic skin that holds the testes outside of the body for optimal sperm production. At a lower temperature than the body.
Shortly after fertilization what does the zygote undergo?
A series of cell divisions without growth (cleavage) so that it can start to differentiate in a process called morphogenesis.
What is the corpus callosum?
A series of nerve fibres that connect the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
What is a silent mutation?
A silent mutation alters DNA sequence, but has no apparent effect on the phenotype or a function. It is great for evolutionary studies. Usually the same amino acid can be coded for.
What is the founder effect?
A small number of individuals leave the original population and find a new locale. This new population will no represent the genetics of the original population because there are less of them.
What is a climax community?
A stable community.
What is action potential, what happens?
A stimulus changes the permeability of the cell membrane which alters the distribution of charge in the cell body. If the stimulus is big enough it triggers a signal called an action potential then moves down the axon.
What is a neuromuscular junction?
A synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle cell.
What is gel electrophoresis?
A technique used to separate fragments by size for the purpose of identification in paternal or criminal suits. (Whos the baby daddy).
What is chorionic villus sampling?
A test made in early pregnancy to detect congenital abnormalities in the fetus. A tiny tissue sample is taken from the villi of the chorion, which forms the fetal part of the placenta.
What is the lens?
A transparent, biconcave, soft, elastic disk. It changes shape to focus image on back of retina. Refracts light focussing it onto the retina.
What are Schwann cells?
A type of glial cell that forms the myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system.
What is the function of cortisol?
A type of glucocorticoid. Indirectly causes constriction of blood vessels, which slows blood loss and prevents tissue inflammation; short term stress response. It converts fats and proteins to glucose (raising blood sugar), and stress response. Cortisol promotes metabolism of fatty acids rather than carbohydrates, which spares glucose.
What are the blood types?
AB are co-dominant. A is dominant to O (i) and B is dominant to O (i).
What is the difference between ADH and aldosterone?
ADH cares about water balance and aldosterone cares a blood pressure.
What happens to the polar bodies in oogenesis?
ANSWER
How long is the gestational period?
About 39 weeks.
What is positive feedback?
Accumulation of a certain biochemical that maintains and enhances the hormone to be synthesized further until desired effect is achieved. (e.g giving birth). Result of hormone stimulate the gland to secrete more and more of the hormone thus enhancing the effect.
What is negative feedback?
Accumulation of a certain biochemical that switches off hormone synthesis to maintain homeostasis.
What are the two types of neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine and norepinephrine.
What are two well-known neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine and norepinephrine.
How does acetylcholine and acetylcholinesterase work?
Acetylcholine is an excitatory neurotransmitter which contracts an effector. The acetylcholinesterase breaks down the acetylcholine from the protein receptor allowing for the muscle to become unconstricted.
The parasympathetic system uses a neurotransmitter called ________________________? to do what?
Acetylcholine to control organ responses.
What are examples of excitatory neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine, adrenaline/ epinephrine which stimulate sympathetic neurons.
What is the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down.
Acetylcholine.
What neurotransmitter does the parasympathetic nervous system use?
Acetylcholine.
Normally an enzyme called __________________ is released into a synapse where is breaks down acetylcholine.
Acetylcholinesterase.
What does thymine pair with?
Adenine.
What does ACTH target?
Adrenal Cortex. Glucorticoids (cortisol), Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), and Gondaocorticoids.
What hormones are secreted in the adrenal medulla?
Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
What is the effects of thyroxine on target tissues/ organs?
Affects all tissues, increases metabolic rate and regulates growth and development.
What is the function of thyroxine?
Affects all tissues; increases metabolic rate and regulates growth and development.
What is aneuploidy?
After fertilization the resulting zygote will have an extra chromosome or a missing chromosome.
Explain a logistic curve.
After the initial lag phase, the biotic potential pushes the curve up resulting in a log phase of exponential growth but then the environmental resistance pushes it down leveling off the carrying capacity (k) if the stationary phase.
What is the function of the middle ear?
Air-filled cavity that amplifies the sound wave.
What is x-linked dominant in a pedigree?
All daughters of a male who has the trait will also have the trait. There is no male to male transmission. A female who has the trait may or may not pass the gene for that trait to her son or daughter.
What is a population?
All organisms of the same species occupying the same space at the same time.
What is a symbiotic relationship?
Allow organisms to exist in an environment that somehow limits the growth of a population. Symbiosis refers to a relationship in which two organisms live in close association.
What is binocular vision?
Allows to see 3D.
What is recombinant DNA?
Also called genetic engineering. It refers to the alternation of an organism's genome by selectively removing, adding, or modifying DNA. It requires an enzyme. The sequence originates from at least two sources.
What is base substitution?
Also called missense. This type of mutation is a change in one DNA base pair that results in the substitution of one amino acid for another in the protein made by a gene.
What is the main function of tRNA?
Also know as anticodons. In the cytoplasm to pick up amino acids.
What is heterozygous?
Also know as hybrids, "carriers."
What is cryptic colouration?
Also known as camouflage. Adaptations in form, shape or behaviour that better enables prey to blend in with the surroundings.
What is the function of adrenaline and noradrenaline?
Also known as epinephrine. Causes increased heart rate, breathing rate, blood glucose levels, and redirects blood flow to the brain and muscles. Norepinephrine causes a higher alert response.
What is a point mutation?
Alter a specific base pair.
What are gene mutations?
Alter more than a single base pair.
What is a frameshift mutation?
Altered, your reading of the frame changes. The resulting protein is usually dysfunctional.
What happens if cortisol is hypersecreted?
Amino acids turn to sugar which could be bad for the body. Too much sugar.
What is amniocentesis?
Amniocentesis is a medical procedure used in prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities and fetal infections, and also used for sex determination in which a small amount of amniotic fluid, which contains fetal tissues, is sampled from the amniotic sac surrounding a developing fetus, and the fetal DNA is examined for genetic abnormalities.
What is parasitism?
An association where one organism (the parasite) benefits and the other (the host) is harmed. Parasites don't kill immediately.
What is commensalism?
An association where one organism benefits and the other is neither benefitted or harmed.
What is cholinesterase?
An enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine.
What is insertion mutation?
An insertion changes the number of DNA bases in a gene by adding a piece of DNA. As a result, the protein made by the gene may not function properly.
What is the production in the testes and ovaries controlled by?
Anterior pituitary.
What are prostaglandins?
Are produced and affect locally. Can cause uterine contractions.
What are dendrites and what is their function?
Are short, branching terminals that receive nerve impulses from other neurons or sensory receptors, and relay the impulse to the cell body. The dendrites are numerous and highly branched, which increases the surface area available to receive information.
Neurotransmitters diffuse from?
Areas of high concentration to low concentration.
What is artificial insemination?
Artificial insemination is when sperm is collected before and than injected into the female.
How does the Hardy-Weinberg equation work?
As q increases p will decrease. As p increases q will decrease.
What is budding?
Asexual reproduction. A new individual develops from some generative anatomical point of the parent separation. The offspring doesn't always separate.
What is binary fission?
Asexual reproduction. Splitting of one cell into two.
What type of division happens in oogenesis and where does oogenesis happen?
Asymmetrical division results in 1 egg and 3 polar bodies. Meiosis 1 happens in the ovary and meiosis 2 happens in the fallopian tube if the egg is fertilized.
What is population genetics?
Attempts to show how genetic principles apply to an entire population. Population genetics study frequency with which alleles occur in the gene pool (all of the gametes/alleles that occur with a specific population.
Who was Mendel?
Austrian monk whose work with the common garden pea laid he foundation of genetic study. Mendel's experiments involved the crossing of pea plants with different traits to see what traits the offspring would have. By observing the visible characteristics of pea plant progeny. Mendel was able to establish the general principles of genetics, which would later become his laws of inheritance.
What is the autonomic nervous system?
Automatic. Part of the peripheral nervous system. Not under conscious control (involuntary).
What does autosomal dominant mean?
Autosomal dominant traits are not affected by sex and the individual must inherit only one dominant allele to express the trait.
What does polarized mean?
Axon at rest.
Describe the "all-or-none" response.
Based on the threshold level of a neuron, if the threshold level is reached an action potential occurs; and if it is not reached it doesn't occur. Neurons either generate an action potential or they don't. Speed and intensity of action potentials are identical. Frequency and number of neurons generating action potential can increase or decrease.
What are the adrenal glands?
Bean shaped glands that lay on top of the kidneys. They have an outer cortex region and an inner medulla region.
What part of the brain controls the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system?
Because, the autonomic system is controlled by the medulla oblongata and therefore the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are also controlled by the medulla oblongata.
Plants don't really have what type of adaptation?
Behavioral.
What is a interspecific relationship?
Between 2 different species for the same resource.
What is a intraspecific relationship?
Between 2 organisms of the same species for the same resource.
If there is no limiting factors, than?
Biotic potential (maximum number of offspring that can be produced under ideal conditions) could be reached.
What is the function of the birth control pill?
Birth control raises progesterone and estrogen levels which has a negative feedback on GnRH to be secreted and therefore FSH and LH won't be secreted and ovulation or development of a follicle is inhibited.
What does natality mean?
Birth.
What does parturition mean?
Birth.
What are some things that happen to the body when it needs a boost of energy and the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated?
Blood pressure increases, heart rate increases, pupils dilate, digestion is inhibited, bladder constricts, etc.
What regulates blood sugar?
Blood sugar is regulated by glucagon, insulin, adrenaline, cortisol, and thyroxine.
What happens to the blood and you skin when the parasympathetic system is triggered?
Blood travels to the skin.
What are proprioreceptors?
Body orientation. Detect position of parts of the body relative to the rest of the body and space.
What is co-dominance?
Both alleles are dominant and therefore the hybrid expresses both phenotypes.
What is mutualism?
Both organisms benefit.
When happens with low levels of cortisol?
Bronzing of the skin and mild infection can lead to death.
How does the hypothalamus regulate the adrenal medulla?
By direct nerve impulses.
How does the hypothalamus control the anterior pituitary?
By producing hypothalamic releasing hormones and hypothalamic inhibiting hormones.
What two hormones regulate blood calcium?
Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone.
What is cancer?
Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled cell division.
What are neurotransmitters?
Carry the neural signal from one neuron to another or carry the neural signal from a neuron to an effector, such as a gland or muscle fibre.
What is the fallopian tubes?
Carry the ovum towards the uterus.
How can astigmatism be described?
Causes by and uneven curvature of the cornea or lens. Creates blurred vision, headaches etc. Can also be described as spoon shaped.
What is speciation?
Causes evolution. New species are being formed.
What does grey matter contain?
Cell bodies, dendrites, and short, and unmyelinated axons (nerve fibres).
What is cytokinesis?
Cell division (cleavage) of the cytoplasm.
What are the two divisions of the nervous system?
Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
What happens in anaphase?
Centromeres divide and each sister chromatid (now a chromosome) is pulled to opposite poles. Also known as migrate (sister chromatids migrate to opposite poles.
Each half of the cerebrum consists of an internal mass of white matter and a thin, outer covering of grey matter, called the _____________________________.
Cerebral cortex.
The right and left halves of the cerebrum are called __________________________.
Cerebral hemispheres.
Circulating throughout the spaces, or ventricles, within the brain and spinal cord is the _______________________________.
Cerebrospinal fluid.
What is genetic drift?
Chance fluctuations will change allele frequencies, especially in small populations.
How is type 2 diabetes treated?
Change in diet.
How does the semicircular canals detect movement?
Change in position/motion causes the fluid filled sterocilia to bend which causes a nerve impulse to relay information to the brain (cerebellum) about the body position and motion.
What is the function of ciliary muscles?
Change the shape of the lens.
What is the function of the organ of corti?
Changes the vibrations to a nerve impulse.
What is the specific function of the organ of corti?
Changes the vibrations to a nerve impulse. (Organ of corti is in the cochlea so sometimes it is generalized as the cochlea).
What is the accommodation reflex?
Changing shape of the lens to focus light on the retina.
What are hormones?
Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine system glands. Hormones influence metabolism of cells, the growth and development of the body parts, and homeostasis.
What are chemoreceptors?
Chemicals. Taste and Smell.
What is cholinesterase?
Cholinesterase is one of the fastest acting enzymes. It breaks down acetylcholine so that it can be removed from the protein receptors, thus allowing the ion channels to close and the membrane to repolarize in a fraction of a second.
What happens in Anaphase 2?
Chromatids separate at the centromeres and move to opposite poles of the cell. Should be 23 single stranded chromosomes at each pole.
What are the 3 categories mutation can fall under?
Chromosomal mutations, gene mutation, and point mutations.
What happens in Telophase 2 and cytokinesis?
Chromosomes at opposite ends of cell-uncondense to form chromatin. Nuclear envelope reappears.
What happens in telophase and cytokinesis?
Chromosomes begin to decondense. Nuclear membrane reforms around each mass of chromatin. A cleavage furrow continues to form as the membrane pinches off in the centre.
What is the modern chromosome theory?
Chromosomes carry genes. Homologous chromosomes segregate during meiosis so that each gamete has half the number of chromosomes as the somatic parent cell. Chromosomes assort independently during meiosis (unless the genes are on the same chromosomes and therefore linked).
What happens in metaphase?
Chromosomes line up independently at the middle of the cell along the equatorial plate. Spindle fibres attache to each centromere.
What is a homologous pair or tetrads?
Chromosomes similar in length, location of centromere and order of genes, one coming from each parent. They line up on the equatorial plate.
What are examples of mechanoreceptors?
Cilia within the inner ear.
What is the cornea?
Clear portion of the sclera that covers the front of the eye; allows light to enter the eye. Refracts light towards the pupil.
What are the 3 main types of biotic factors/ relationships that have an effect on the growth rate of populations?
Competition, predator/prey relationship, and symbiotic relationships.
What are the two types of neural circuits?
Complicated neural circuits, involving conscious thought reflex arcs . Without brain coordination.
Axons of larger diameter do what?
Conduct impulses faster.
What is the function of motor neurons?
Conduct impulses from the interneurons to the effectors.
What is conduction deafness?
Conduction deafness is due to interference in the transfer of sound waves to the middle ear. Ex. ear wax.
What is the axon and what is it's function?
Conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body to the target cells.
What is the function of the medulla oblongata?
Connects the PNS and the CNS. It coordinates the functions of the autonomic nervous system, including heart rate, breathing movements, coughing, and aids the medulla in regulating respiration.
What parts of the body are in the central nervous system and what is their main function?
Consists of the brain and the spinal cord, integrates and processes information sent by nerves.
What are the effects of the parasympathetic system on the pupils?
Constrict them.
What is the cell body, and what is it's function?
Contains the nucleus and is the site of the cell's metabolic reactions. The cell body also processes input from the dendrites. If the input received is large enough, the cell body relays it to the axon, where an impulse is initiated. Contains cytoplasm.
What is oxytocin controlled by?
Controlled by positive feedback.
What is the ciliary muscles?
Controls the shape of the lens. Alters the shape of the lens to allow near and far focussing "accommodation."
What are the functions of the spinal cord?
Controls transmission of neural signals between (to and from) the brain and the rest of the body. Controls spinal reflexes.
What is the main function of mRNA?
Copy DNA.
The two hemispheres are connected by ___________________________.
Corpus callosum.
Long term stress is mostly controlled by what, and sometimes controlled by what?
Cortisol and aldosterone.
What is the difference between cortisol and epinephrine?
Cortisol is released by the adrenal cortex due to ACTH and is hormonal. Epinephrine is released by the adrenal medulla and is a response to the sympathetic nervous system.
What is the acrosome?
Covers the head like a cap, contains enzymes that help the sperm cell to penetrate the egg.
If linkage is further apart what are chromosomes more likely to do?
Cross over.
What is a testcross?
Crossing an individuals of an unknown dominant genotype (B__) with a homozygous recessive (bb) individual in order to determine genotype of unknown individual (parent) by observing the offspring.
What is crossing over?
Crossing over which is breaking and exchanging segments of nonsister chromatids may occur. This permits the exchange of genetic information between homologous pairs and increases variation among offspring.
What was guanine pair with?
Cytosine.
What are the differences between DNA and RNA?
DNA is double stranded and RNA is single stranded. DNA contains deoxyribose sugar and RNA contains ribose sugar. DNA contains bases C,G,T,A and in RNA uracil replaces thymine to bind with A (AUCG)
What are the steps to making a protein?
DNA replication Transcription Translation
What are genes made up of?
DNA.
How is type 1 diabetes treated?
Daily insulin injections.
When in ovulation?
Day 14.
What does mortality mean?
Death.
If an allele is selected against, it will?
Decrease in frequency.
What is the function of insulin?
Decreases blood glucose levels by facilitating uptake of blood glucose into cells and liver (glycogen stores) Produced by beta cells. Insulin makes cells more permeable to glucose.
What is the function of thyroxine in blood sugar regulation?
Decreases blood glucose levels by increasing metabolism so that more glucose is used due to increased cellular respiration.
What are the effects of the parasympathetic system on heart rate?
Decreases them.
What are the effects of the parasympathetic system on glucose?
Decreases.
What is a community?
Defined as all the species that co-exist in a specific ecological niche.
What happens when aldosterone is hyposecreted?
Dehydration can result.
What are the 4 parts of a neuron?
Dendrites, axon, cell body and branching ends.
What determines an environments carrying capacity?
Density-dependent factors and density-independent factors.
What is the structure of DNA?
Deoxyribose sugar and phosphate molecules make up the backbone. Paired nitrogen bases held together by hydrogen bonds make up the rungs (steps) of the ladder. The ladder twists to form a double helix.
What is depolarization, what happens?
Depolarization: The action potential moves along the axon by voltage gated channels exist across the membrane and they open and close depending on voltage change (when no nerve impulses are signalled the channels are closed) 1. A stimulus causes the Na+ voltage channel gate to open and causes the Na+ ions to rush into the axon 2. The cells is now positive on the inside and negative on the outside
Excitatory molecules will?
Depolarize.
What are cones?
Detect high intensity (bright) light; for colour vision. Concentrated on the fovea centralis.
What are rods?
Detect low intensity (dim) light. Assist in low light conditions (black and white) located on the periphery of the retina). Contains the pigment rhodopsin.
What is diabetes?
Diabetes is due to the failure of the pancreas to produce insulin or the inability of the body cells to take it up.
What is type 1 diabetes mellitus?
Diabetes mellitus is the inability of the body to make insulin. Treatments may include, insulin injections, insulin pump, pancreas transplant, Islet Transplantation.
What is sexual recombination?
Different parents = different genes.
Where are taste buds located?
Different parts of the tongue.
Water-solube hormones, such as amino acids cannot do what?
Diffuse across the cell membrane.
Neurotransmitters move only by ____________, so synaptic transmission is MUCH slower than axonal transmission?
Diffusion.
What are the effects of the sympathetic system on the pupils?
Dilates them.
What are the similarities and differences between the cells that can go under mitosis and meiosis division?
Diploid and haploid cells undergo mitosis and only diploid cells undergo meiosis to form haploid cells. You can't divide haploid cells by meiosis.
What is mitosis?
Division of the nucleus (4 phases). It may be a function of growth, repair, or asexual reproduction. Ploidy remains constant.
What is the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic system?
Divisions of the automatic system often work in opposition to each other to regulate the involuntary processes of the body. Involuntary processes, such as heartbeat and peristalsis, are those that do not require or involved conscious control.
What does non-tropic mean?
Don't have endocrine glands as their target.
Sensory neurons enter the spine through __________________ and motor neurons leave the spine through ____________________.
Dorsol root, ventral root.
What happens in the ovulatory phase?
Due to the influence of LH, the egg ruptures from the ovary into the fallopian tube and the remaining follicular cells will develop into the corpus luteum.
What is law of segregation?
During anaphase one where homologous pairs or tetrads separate and the gametes receive one of each homologue.
Explain how chromatin because two "sister" chromatids?
During cell division, the double-stranded chromatin condenses into thick, shortened strands called chromosomes that consist of two "sister" chromatids joined by a centromere. By the end of cell division, the centromere divides and each sister chromatid moves to opposite sides of the cell.
What is independent assortment?
During metaphase 1, tetrads can line up two different ways before they separate. Lining up with different sides gives you different results.
What is gestational diabetes?
During pregnancy, mother develops symptoms- at a greater risk for type II later in life.
What does dynamic mean in terms of populations and communities?
Dynamic means that the actual changes in population size (change in number) are predominantly due to natality and immigration which increase population and mortality and emigration which decrease it.
Where does the first meiotic division happen in the female reproductive system and what is made?
Egg first divides in the ovary. There is one egg with 46 chromosomes that divides into 2 cells each with 23. One is an egg cell and the other is a polar body. Both are considered to be cells.
What is in vitro fertilization?
Egg is taken from mother and sperm is taken from father and reacted in glassware. After fertilization the fertilized egg is placed in the uterus.
Explain the chemical changes involved in an action potential.
Electrochemical when the impulse is coming into the terminal. Chemical when the neurotransmitter is released. Chemical when the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor protein on the postsynaptic neuron. Electrochemical when the impulse is carried on to the postsynaptic neuron or effector.
What follows after implantation?
Embryonic and fetal development.
What are factors that decrease population?
Emmigration and deaths.
What is the function of the terminal branches?
End with axon bulbs (synaptic knobs or end plates) that contain vesicles that secrete neurotransmitters.
What are endocrine glands?
Endocrine glands are ductless organs, producing hormones and secreting them directly into the bloodstream.
Both olfactory and taste senses are involved in what?
Enjoying food.
What is a goitre?
Enlargement of the thyroid gland. The pituitary gland secretes TSH, which causes the thyroid gland to get larger as it tries to produce more thyroxine. (if iodine is lacking). If the thyroid is overactive and exophthalmic goiter develops. (grave's disease).
Once a hormone's message has been delivered what happens?
Enzymes inactivate the hormone since any lingering effect could potentially be disruptive.
What hormones are secreted by the adrenal medulla?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine.
What is stationary phase in a closed population?
Equilibrium between natality and mortality. Abiotic factors become limited.
What does the ovaries produce?
Estrogen and progesterone.
What hormones are secreted in the ovaries?
Estrogen and progesterone.
What are the functions of estrogen and progesterone?
Estrogen initiates and progesterone maintains.
Why is estrogen released by the developing follicles secrete estrogen?
Estrogen initiates the development of the endometrium.
Explain when estrogen is secreted in pregnancy and why?
Estrogen is secreted in pregnancy slowly throughout the pregnancy but increases as the pregnancy approaches. Early in the pregnancy, estrogen is produced in the ovary by the corpus luteum but shifts to the placenta for the rest of the pregnancy.
The developing follicle secretes?
Estrogen.
What initiates the development of the endometrial lining?
Estrogen.
Under Hardy-Weinberg what cannot occur?
Evolution.
What are r-selected species?
Exploit rapdily changing environemts, short lived, population size is highly variable, density-independent mortality, competition low, single reproductive event at a young age, little or no parental care of young, very high numbers of young, tend to have a J-shaped population growth curve, small body size.
What happens in stage 2 of parturition?
Explusion stage. Forceful contractions push the baby through the cervix to the birth canal (vagina). As the baby moves through the canal, the head rotates, making it easier for the body to pass through the birth canal. This stage usually lasts from half and hour to 2 hours.
What is the eustachinan tube?
Extends from the middle of the mouth and nasal cavities, involved in equalizing pressure.
What is myopia?
Eyeball is too long. Nearsighted. Image focuses in front of the retina.
What is hypermyopia?
Eyeball is too short. Farsighted. Image focuses behind the retina.
What are the gonadotropic hormones?
FSH and LH.
What two hormones are controlled by GnRH?
FSH and LH.
How does FSH look on a graph in regards to the female reproductive system?
FSH has a increase at the very beginning of the cycle and usually has a smaller peak at ovulation than LH.
What are density dependent factors?
Factors that limit population size and growth due to the size of the population. Limited food supply or other shared resources, predation, parasitism, and competition. Biotic factors.
What are density independent factors?
Factors that limit population size and growth regardless of the population size. Natural disasters such as earthquakes, flood, fires, and hurricanes. These populations may never reach a carrying capacity and therefore could exhibit exponential growth. Abiotic factors.
More chromosomes or less affect?
Fertility.
What is this representation? 2n--> 4n
Fertilization.
A polar body could fuze to the egg and it could think it?
Fertilized.
What is the effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine on target tissue/organs?
Fight or flight hormones; raise blood glucose levels.
What is the semicircular canals?
Fluid filled structure providing information about body movement and position. Detect dynamic position - movement of body.
What is the function of the inner ear?
Fluid-filled chamber that sorts waves based on tone (frequency) and converts them to an action potential.
What is the lens?
Focusses light rays.
What is the refractory period?
For a few milliseconds after an action potential, the membrane cannot be stimulated to undergo another action potential.
What is the function of interneurons?
Found in the brain and spinal cord. Act as an integration centre.
What happens to inform the brain of the intensity of an impulse? What do all impulses have the same strength?
Frequency of firing is increased. The number of neurons that respond to the stimulus increases
Where does the auditory information go after it goes to the temporal lobe?
Frontal lobe
What does GOAT FLAP stand for?
G - Growth Hormone (hGH) O - Oxytocin (OTC) A - Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) T - Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) F - Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) L - Luteinizing Hormone (LH) A - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) P - Prolactin (PRL)
What hormones are secreted by the pituitary?
G - Growth Hormone (hGH) O - Oxytocin (OTC) A - Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) T - Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) F - Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) L - Luteinizing Hormone (LH) A - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) P - Prolactin (PRL)
What hormones in GOAT FLAP are in posterior and what hormones are in the anterior pituitary?
GT FLAP are in anterior. OA are in posterior.
What is a synapse?
Gap between pre-synaptic and post synaptic neurons.
What are the Nodes of Ranvier?
Gaps between the myelin sheath that increases the speed of the impulse via salutatory conduction, packed with ion channels to boost signal.
What is gene expression and protein synthesis?
Gene codes for the production (expression) of specific proteins (polypeptide chain). Expression (protein synthesis) can be split into two parts: transcription (making RNA) and translation (making proteins).
What is the law of independent assortment?
Genes for different traits will separate from each other independently during meiosis.
What does X linked mean?
Genes found on the X chromosome.
What does gamete formation ensures that?
Genetic code is passed on.
What are the two types of cells that make up the nervous system?
Glial cells and neurons.
What are glial cells?
Glial cells outnumber neurons and they account for about half of the volume of the nervous system. Glial cells nourish the neurons, remove their wastes, and defend against infection and provide supporting framework for all the nervous-system tissue.
What two hormones regulate blood sugar?
Glucagon and insulin.
What hormones does the adrenal cortex secrete?
Glucocorticoids (cortisol). Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone). Gonadocorticoids.
What hormones are secreted in the adrenal cortex?
Glucorticoids (cortisol), mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) and gonadocorticoids.
What is parthenogenesis?
Growth and development of an embryo without fertilization. Offspring are always female. You create an adult from a non-fertilized egg.
What type of graph can changed in populations over a specific length of time can be tabulated and graphed and it is called a __________.
Growth curve.
What does Cytosine pair with?
Guanine.
What is a gametophyte?
Haploid generation of a plant; produces male and female gametes that fuse at fertilization to form a diploid sporophyte.
What happens in the process of translation?
Happens in the cytoplasm at the ribosomes. The mRNA strands between the ribosome subunits. Once a start or initiator codon is recognized, translation begins. Transfer RNA (tRNA) contains an anticodon that is complementary to the codon on the mRNA strand. The tRNA carries the amino acid specified by the codon. When 2 tRNA molecules are attached to the mRNA, peptide bonds form between 2 amino acids. The ribosome then shifts one codon over and the next tRNA can attach. The process ends by the presence of a stop terminator. Connection of amino acids at the end of this process forms a polypeptide (proteins).
What is genetic equilibrium based on?
Hardy-Weinberg.
What is diabetes insipidus?
Has nothing to do with insulin, but ADH production in the pituitary. A tumor or injury causes a decrease in ADH or response to ADH causing frequent urination.
What are multiple alleles?
Having more than two alleles.
How does the vestibule detect balance?
Head movement causes the sterocilia to bend which causes an action potential sent via nerve to the brain which causes the body to adjust to maintain balance.
What are the two main functions of the ear?
Hearing and equilibrium (balance).
What is hyperglycemia?
High blood sugar. Need insulin. Diabetes mellitus. Caused by decrease in insulin levels. Urine output increases and glucose is present in the urine. Fatigue, weakness.
What does synapsis mean?
Homologous pairs are found - crossing over.
How is variation made in meiosis?
Homologue must line up with homologue. Makes variation.
Why do hormones work in small quantities?
Hormones work in small quantities because their effect is amplified by enzymes.
What is hCG?
Horomone secreted by the extra embryonic membrane (whatever isn't the blastocyst) at the time of implantation of the embryo; prevents degeneration of the corpus luteum. It has the same effect as luteinizing hormone.
What is the function of the cell body?
Houses the organelles and is the bridge between the dendrites and the axon.
What 2 hormones don't affect endocrine glands?
Human growth hormone (hGH) and prolactin.
Inhibitory molecules will?
Hyperpolarize.
What is hypersecretion?
Hypersecretion is "too much" secretion of substances.
What is hyposecretion?
Hyposecretion is "too little" secretion of substances.
Where is oxytocin made and found?
Hypothalamus and pituitary.
Where is gonadotropic hormone located (GnRH)?
Hypothalamus.
What does genetic continuity mean?
Identical.
If an image is near, what happens with the lens?
If an image is near the accommodation reflex causes the ciliary muscles to tighten and the ligaments to relax and therefore the lens becomes rounded.
If an image is far away what happens with the lens?
If an object is far away, the ciliary muscles relax and the ligaments tighten causing the lens to flatten.
What happens in flow phase?
If pregnancy did not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates and its secretions of estrogen and progesterone decrease resulting in uterine contractions and shedding of the endometrium.
What are factors that increase population?
Immigration and births.
What is gene flow?
Immigration and emmigration.
What is astigmatism?
Imperfection in the cornea or lens. Makes images appear fuzzy.
How does single-stranded chromatin becomes double-stranded chromatin?
In DNA replication.
What is competition?
In a community, every population will grow to the limits of its abiotic resources.
What is the function of Luteinizing hormone (LH)?
In females it stimulates ovulation and the production of progesterone and some estrogen. In males it stimulates the interstitial cells to produce testosterone.
What is the function of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)?
In females it stimulates the development of an egg. In males it stimulates the development of sperm.
Where are steroid hormones soluble?
In lipids.
What is the difference between the size of cells between oogenesis and spermatogenesis?
In oogenesis 4 cells are made but 1 is an egg and 3 are polar bodies. In spermatogenesis, 4 sperm cells are made. Both start out from one chromosome with 46 and divide by meiosis into 4 cells of 23.
What needs to happen for a target cell to respond to a hormone?
In order for a target cell to respond to a hormone, specific protein receptors must be present on the plasma membrane or in the cell interior, so that the hormone can attach to exert its action.
What happens in the follicular phase?
In response to FSH, the follicles within the ovary develop and secrete estrogen which is considered the first increase. Estrogen initiates the development of the endometrium.
What is even division?
In spermatogenesis all 4 sperm cells are even (symmetircal).
Where does DNA replication happen?
In synthesis of interphase in the nucleus.
What is the difference between what myelinated neurons form and what unmyelinated neurons form in the nervous system?
In the central nervous system, myelinated neurons form what is known as white matter, and unmyelinated neurons form the grey matter.
Where does translation happen?
In the cytoplasm.
Where is white matter found?
In the deep layer of the brain, and outer portion of the spinal cord.
Where does implantation occur?
In the endometrium lining of the uterus.
Where does fertilization happen?
In the fallopian tube.
Where does fertilization usually happen?
In the fallopian tubes.
Where is the olfactory lobe located?
In the forebrain.
Where are the chromosomes located?
In the head of the sperm cell.
Where is gonadotropic releasing hormone located?
In the hypothalamus.
Explain what happens in gene replication - DNA synthesis?
In the nucleus during interphase, starting at a specific nucleotide sequence, an enzyme snips the hydrogen bonds between the bases allowing them to separate. Separation of the bases makes the strand look like a fork which is called the replication fork. The parent or old strand remain intact and serve as a template determining the sequence of nucleotides to be added which is called semi-conservative replication. An enzyme (DNA polymerase) adds free floating nucleotides to the exposed nitrogen bases according to the base-pairing rule. Proof-reading enzymes check for mistakes. Ligase makes sure everything is glued together.
Where does transcription happen?
In the nucleus.
Where is DNA found?
In the nucleus.
Where is RNA found.
In the nucleus.
Where is mitochondrial DNA found?
In the nucleus.
Explain the process of transcription?
In the nucleus. Where DNA and RNA are found. DNA can't leave the nucleus. DNA unwinds and only one strand acts as a template. RNA polymerase which is an enzyme, adds nucleotides (adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil (instead of thymine). When an enzyme comes to a termination sequence (stop codon) the single-stranded mRNA separates from the DNA and leaves the nucleus. mRNA is the coding strand.
Where is prolactin made and found?
In the pituitary.
Where does implantation happen?
In the uterus.
Where does our genetics have to be in order to get passed on?
In your DNA.
What are neural circuits?
Includes neuronal and synaptic transmission.
If an allele is selected for, it will?
Increase in frequency.
What happens if a neurotransmitter is inhibitory?
Increase membrane permeability to K+; potassium channels open, and membrane becomes hyperpolarized which means it is more difficult to generate an action potential. The inside of the axon becomes even more negatively charged.
What happens if the neurotransmitter is excitatory?
Increase membrane permeability to Na+; sodium gates open and sodium ions rush into the axon; the membrane becomes depolarized; action potential generated.
What is the function of glucagon?
Increases blood glucose levels by stimulating the liver to break down glycogen to glucose, which is then released into the blood. Produced by the alpha cells. Glucagon causes the conversion of glycogen to glucose.
What are the effects of the sympathetic system on heart rate?
Increases heart rate.
What are the effects of the sympathetic system on blood glucose?
Increases.
Hyperpolarization makes a molecule?
Inhibitory.
What are the effects of the sympathetic system on digestion?
Inhibits it.
What is the function of progesterone?
Inhibits ovulation, inhibits uterine contraction, and maintains the endometrial lining.
What is the function of estrogen?
Inhibits the growth of facial hair, initiates secondary sex characteristics, and causes the thickening of the endometrial lining.
What hormones are secreted in the pancreas?
Insulin (beta cells) and glucagon (alpha cells).
What two hormones does the Islets of Langerhans produce?
Insulin and Glucagon.
What are the islets of langerhans?
Insulin and glucagon.
What is Maturity Onset Diabetes (type II)?
Insulin is produced, but the body;s cells can't use it, or insulin is unable to stimulate glucose transport. Caused by decreased insulin production, or too much glucose produced by the liver (not enough compensation by pancreas). Insulin resistance.
What are the 3 parts of the cell cycle?
Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis.
What is mimicry?
Involves the development of a similar colour pattern, behaviour, or shape of another organism that has a selective advantage.
What is ovulation?
Involves the release of an egg (secondary oocyte) from the follicles in response to LH from the pituitary on approximately day 14 of the menstrual cycle.
What is required to produce thyroxine?
Iodine.
What is acetylcholine? What is its function?
Is a neurotransmitter that crosses a neuromuscular junction. Acetylcholine excites the muscle cell membrane, causing depolarization and contraction of the muscle fibre.
What happens with chromosome number is meiosis?
Is decreases by a half.
If a mutation is present in the gametes what can happen?
It can be passed on.
What is, and what is the function of the thalamus?
It consists of neurons that provide connections between various parts of the brain. The connections are mainly between the forebrain and the hindbrain, and between areas of the sensory system (except for the sense of smell and cerebellum. The thalamus is often referred to as the "the great relay station of the brain."
What does white matter contain?
It contains myelinated axons that run together in tracts.
What happens to chromosome number when an egg is fertilized?
It doubles.
What is significant when looking at a female reproductive hormone graph in regards to estrogen?
It have 2 bumps.
Why is the spinal cord vital?
It is a vital communication link between the brain and the peripheral nervous system.
If fertilization doesn't occur, what happens to the cell that is suppose to go through its second meiotic division?
It is shed in menstration.
What happens if pregnancy doesn't occur in regards to the endometrium lining?
It is shed in menstration.
What is the placenta?
It is the site of gas, nutrient, mineral, hormone, antibody and waste exchange. It produces hormones (hCG, estrogen, and progesterone. It also acts as a barrier for teratogenic agents.
What happens to the blood and your skin when the sympathetic system is triggered?
It leaves the skin.
What is the function of prolactin in milk lactation?
It makes the milk.
What is, and what is the function of the midbrain?
It relays visual and auditory information between areas of the hindbrain and forebrain. It plays an important role in eye movement and control of skeletal muscles.
How does the hypothalamus use ACTH - releasing hormone?
It releases it to control the anterior pituitary secretion of ACTH that stimulates the adrenal cortex.
What is the function of oxytocin in milk lactation?
It releases the milk.
If you were to affect the RNA in an experiment what would happen to the organism?
It would be shorter lived. It would be more beneficial to affect the DNA.
What is exponential growth and what does it graph look like?
J-shaped curve which is assumed as a constant rapid growth rate.
What happens to your body when you have grave's disease?
Jittery, weight loss, fast heart rate, feel warm, moody, hair loss, bulging or eyes. (treated by removing a part of the thyroid).
How does LH look on a graph in regards to the female reproductive system?
LH is low at the beginning and usually has a great increase at ovulation on day 14.
What are the 4 tropic hormones (that have negative feedback loops)?
LH, FSH, ACTH, and TSH.
The Broca's area of the frontal lobes is associated with? Where is Broca's area?
Language use. Broca's area coordinates the muscles for speaking and tanslates thought into speech. Broca's area is located in the frontal lobe.
What are chromosomal mutations?
Large mutations that visibly affect the structure or number of chromosomes.
What is the retina?
Layer containing photoreceptors (rods and cones).
What is acromegaly?
Leads to the growth (usually in thickness) of some bones such as the eyebrow ridge, lower jaw, nose, hands and feet.
What is the eye stimulated by?
Light.
What is the function of the auditory canal?
Lined with course hairs and wax glands, which clean the air on its way to the eardrum.
What is sex linkage?
Linked genes are inherited together unless crossing over takes place. Linkage on the X or Y chromosome is referred to as sex-linkage.
What are hormones composed of?
Lipids or amino acids.
What do chemoreceptors require?
Liquid.
What are k-selected species?
Live in predictable, stable environments, long-lived, population size is stable, density-dependent mortality, competition intense, multiple reproductive events beginning later in life, prolonged parental care of young, modest numbers of offspring, tend to have an S-shaped population curve, large body size.
What are synaptic vesicles?
Located at the end of the neuron. Produce and store neurotransmitters, which are released into the synapse.
What is the organ of corti?
Located in the cochlea. Moves and responds to movements in the fluid.
What are olfactory receptor cells?
Located in the nasal cavity and are activated by chemicals binding due to specific shape.
What is the S-shape referred to?
Log phase.
What are the 2 functions of cortisol?
Long term stress response by the sympathetic nervous system. Reduce inflammation.
What is the function of aldosterone?
Long term stress response. A type of mineralocorticoid. Promote sodium reabsorption, When sodium is reabsorbed into the blood, water follows, so aldosterone inadvertently leads to water reabsorption and increased blood pressure. When blood sodium levels and blood pressure are low, the kidneys secrete renin; the effect of renin angiotensin in the aldosterone system is to raise blood pressure.
What is the effects of mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) on target tissues/organs?
Long term stress response. Promote the reabsorption of sodium and water by the kidney's.
What is hypoglycemia?
Low blood sugar. You need glucagon and glucose. Caused by an increase in insulin or a decrease in glucagon production. Can result in death.
Explain the whole menstrual cycle.
Low levels of progesterone and estorgen cause shedding of the endometrial lining. Increased FSH levels cause the follicle to develop in the follicular stage. As the follicle matures, estrogen and progesterone increase and are secreted to initiate and maintain the endometrial lining. The increased levels of estrogen cause the pituitary to inhibit the release of FSH while estorgen triggers the production of GnRH by the hypothalamus. This triggers an increase in LH production which triggers ovulation. Luteal stage is right after ovulation and the follicle develops into the corpus luetum. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estorgen. As hormone levels rise, FSH and LH are inhibited. The corpus luteum degernates which leads to a decrease in estrogen and progesterone. The low levels of progesterone and estrogen cause the endometrial lining to be stimulated and to shed, and the whole system starts again.
What is the effects of insulin on target tissues/organs?
Lowers blood glucose levels and promotes the formation of glycogen in the liver.
What is the function of insulin in blood sugar regulation?
Lowers blood sugar.
What are prostaglandins?
Made and used cells in a local area. prostaglandins cause uterine contractions and are involved in the pain of muscle cramps.
What are protein hormones or non-steroid hormones?
Made from amino acids. Insulin and epinephrine. They are derived from proteins and amino acids and are water soluble but are too large to pass directly through the membranes of their target cells. They are recognized by specific receptors on the cell membrane causing the production of a second messenger that activates a gene.
What happens in the integration stage of the transmission pathway?
Main function is to INTERPRET. Interneurons are found entirely within the central nervous system. They act as a link between the sensory and motor neurons. They process and integrate incoming sensory information, and rely outgoing motor information.
What is the vitreous humour?
Maintains the shape of the eyeball and allows the transmission of light.
What is the auditory canal?
Makes ear wax. Directs sound waves towards the tympanic membrane.
What person, male or female determines the sex of the child?
Male because they can either give and X or a Y.
What is autosomal recessive in a pedigree?
Males and females are equally likely to have the trait. Traits often skip generations. Only homozygous individuals have this trait. Traits may appear in siblings without appearing in their parents. If a parent has the trait, those offspring who do not have it are heterozygous carriers of the trait. 2 unaffected parents have an affected child.
What could nonrandom mating cause?
May cause allels to occur more of less frequency.
Explain the process of hearing.
Mechanoreceptors in the inner ear convert the energy waves into electrochemical energy. The auditory canal amplifies sound waves. When sound waves push the tympanum, its vibration are passed on and amplified by neighboring ossicles. It is within the structures of the cochlea that the mechanical energy of sound is converted into the electrochemical impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The middle chamber of the cochlea contains the organ of corti (organ of hearing). Along the base of the corti is the basilar membrane, where sensory mechanoreceptors are attached. The hair cells have thin projections called sterocilia, which stick out at the top of the cells. The pressure waves make the basilar membrane move up and down, which causes the sterocilia of the hair cells to bend against the tectorial membrane (connected by the sterocilia). The hair cells sense the bending and send it to the nerves which sends the info to the brain.
What is meiosis?
Meiosis is a two-step process in which the nuclei and cell divide twice, to produce gametes with a haploid number of chromosomes.
What is the name for making human sex cells (gametes)?
Meiosis.
What is this representation of? 4n --> 2n
Meiosis.
What is basilar membrane?
Membrane embedded in the organ of Corti. Where stereocilia are embedded. Vibrations from sound waves cause stereocilia to bend. Bending creates an action potential which is conveyed to the cochlear nerve.
What is the choroid layer?
Middle layer between the sclera and retina. It is vascular (full of blood vessels to nourish the retina), and it contains melanin (black to prevent light from scattering.
What is this representation of? 2n --> 2n
Mitosis.
What are osmoreceptors?
Monitor osmolarity of body fluids. (Thirst)
What are mechanoreceptors?
Monitors blood pressure, involved in hearing, touch and pressure.
What is the function of ADH (antidiuretic hormone)?
More water is removed from the urine, so the urine produced is more concentrated and blood pressure is raised. This promotes retention of water by the kidneys. ADH is secreted when you're dehydrated bring more water back into the bloodstream.
What is morphogenesis?
Morphogenesis is when the cell divides (cleavage) and the cells start to differentiate.
What is the death phase?
Mortality exceed natality because of insufficient abiotic factors.
What is autosomal dominant in a pedigree?
Most likely what they're going to use on the diploma. Males and females equally are likely to have the trait. Traits do not skip generations (generally). There is male to male transmission. 2 affected parents have an unaffected child.
What is the fovea centralis?
Most sensetive area of the retina. It only contains cones. It is surrounded by the periphery of rods.
What happens in the motor output stage of the transmission pathway?
Motor neurons transmit information from the central nervous system to the muscles, glands, and other organs (effectors).
Explain the pathway of sound?
Moving air sound waves enter the ear and vibration of the oval window set the liquid into motion that in turn causes the hair cells od the organ of corti to move
What is the function of the effectors?
Muscles, glands, and other organs that respond to impulses from the motor neurons.
What is the cervix?
Muscular opening into the uterus from the vagina which holds the developing fetus in place and dilates during birth. It also prevents pathogens from entering where the baby is developing which could possibly harm the baby.
What is the vagina?
Muscular/elastic canal used for intercourse, menstruation and birthing.
What does induce mutations mean?
Mutagens or mutagenic agents.
What does it mean for a mutation to be spontaneous?
Mutations can be spontaneous where the DNA replication makes a mistake.
What is white matter?
Myelinated neurons.
Can DNA leave the nucleus?
NO.
What is the function of the frontal lobes?
Named for their location at the front of the cerebrum. The frontal lobes integrate information from other parts of the brain and control reasoning, critical thinking, memory, and personality. The frontal lobes also contain motor areas that control various aspects of precise, voluntary motor movement, such as playing piano. Associated with conscious thought, intelligence, memory, and personality; control voluntary muscle movements.
What is hormone secretion controlled by?
Negative feedback loop and antagonistic (working in opposition to what is happening) hormones. They oppose each other's actions (homeostasis).
What is ADH regulated by?
Negative feedback.
What are the charges of the axon at polarization?
Negative on the inside and positive on the outside.
What is the function of a nerve?
Nerves extend neurons throughout the peripheral nervous system.
What are neurons?
Neurons are basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. They are specialized to respond to physical and chemical stimuli to conduct electrochemical signals, and to release chemicals that regulate various body processes.
What does no mutation mean in Hardy-Weinberg?
No formation of new alleles.
What does no natural selection mean in Hardy-Weinberg?
No genes are selected for or against.
What does isolated population mean in Hardy-Weinberg?
No immigration of emmigration.
What does random mating mean in Hardy-Weinberg?
No mating preferences. Anyone and anything.
Does the cell increase in size when cleavage happens?
No, it only increases in size when the blastocyst is implanted in the endometrium.
In myelinated neurons, where does the action potential reaction occur and what is this called?
Nodes of Ranvier. Saltatory conduction.
What is nondisjunction?
Nondisjunction is when both homologous chromosomes move to the same pole during anaphase 1, or both sister chromatids moves to the same pole during anaphase 2.
What neurotransmitter does the sympathetic system release?
Norepinephrine, which has an excitatory effect on muscles.
What chemical is a neurotransmitter and a hormone?
Norepinephrine.
Where does protein synthesis happen (transcription)?
Nucleus
How do we calculate the life of a cell?
Number of cells in that phase/total number of cells x length of cell cycle.
What is a boom-bust population?
Occasionally populations overshoot their carrying capacity, followed by a drop in population.
What is secondary succession?
Occurs in an area following the partial or complete destruction of a community the leftover organism inhabit. ex. forest fire.
What is primary succession?
Occurs in an area that has not been previously occupies by a community, starting with a pioneer species or community. Nothing has been there before.
What is clumped distribution?
Occurs when the individuals are grouped in patches; organisms are distributed according to a certain abiotic factor such as a water hole or sunlight.
What is uniform distribution?
Occurs when there is an orderly distribution due to competition for natural resources.
What is random distribution?
Occurs when there is neither attraction nor repulsion of individuals.
What are examples of chemocreceptors?
Olfactory receptors and taste buds.
What is the blind spot?
On the retina where the optic nerve inserts; no photoreceptors present.
What is all or none response?
Once a threshold level has been reached, an action potential will occur regardless of the degree the threshold is exceeded. You get the same response once you reach threshold level.
What does semi-conservative mean?
One half is old and the other half is new.
What is law of dominance?
Only with complete dominance, the dominant form of a trait prevents or masks the expression of the recessive form.
What is Juvenile Diabetes (type 1)?
Onset before age 20. Usually caused by degeneration of beta cells. Found in genetically susceptible to individuals. Occurs when the pancreas does not produce insulin and the patient requires insulin injections.
What is oogenesis?
Oogenesis is the production of eggs or ova in response to FSH from the pituitary. The asymmetrical form of meiosis starts within the ovarian follicles and continues in the fallopian tubes following fertilization.
What are centrioles?
Organelles that provide attachment for spindle fibres.
What is the sclera?
Outer layer of the eyeball. Supports it.
Where does ovulation happen?
Ovaries.
What is the acronym for mitosis?
PMAT.
What are Nocireceptors?
Pain.
What are the 3 general types of symbiotic relationships?
Parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism.
What hormones are secreted by the parathyroid?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH).
What is the somatic nervous system?
Part of the peripheral nervous system. Under conscious control (voluntary).
What is parturition?
Parturition is delivery/giving birth/birth process.
What is pedigree analysis?
Pedigree analysis is used to outline the genealogy of a family. Pedigree charts are useful in showing how a particular trait is passed on through the generations.
What is gigantism?
Person becomes extremely tall, but body proportions are normal.
What are photoreceptors?
Photons. Rods and Cones.
What is a mutagen?
Physical or chemical. Physical agents include X-rays, ultraviolet light, cosmic rays and virus. Chemical agents include carcinogens, mustard gas and poor nutrition.
How do the mechanoreceptors of the ear pick up sensory information i.e. sound?
Pick up sensory information in the form of sound waves, movement, body position, balance; they move and generate an action potential in sensory neurons.
What is the iris?
Pigmented smooth muscle, controls the pupil size. Controls the amount of light entering the eye.
What is the pathway of sound?
Pinna --> auditory canal --> tympani membrane --> ossicles --> oval window --> cochlea (organ of corti) --> auditory nerve --> brain --> the temporal lobe.
Where is FSH and LH secreted?
Pituitary gland.
Where is the site of exchange for maternal and embryonic blood?
Placenta.
What does ploidy mean?
Ploidy is a term used to describe the number of chromosome sets in a nucleus.
Individuals do not evolve but ___________________ do?
Populations.
What are the charges of the axon at depolarization?
Positive on the inside and negative on the outside.
What are the charges of the axon during repolarization?
Positive on the outside and negative on the inside.
What happens in prophase 1?
Preparation. Similar to mitosis, however homologous chromosomes move together in a process called synapsis to for chromosomal pairs called tetrads. Crossing over happens here.
What happens in prophase of mitosis?
Preperation. Double stranded chromatin condenses into down stranded chromosomes. The nuclear membrane dissolves. Centrioles (organelles that provided attachment to spindle fibres) move to opposite poles.
What is glaucoma?
Pressure build up in anterior cavity.
What is a retreating glacier considered to be?
Primary succession.
What is natural selection?
Probably the greatest effect on allele frequencies. Occurs when the environment conditions affect the ability of individuals to survive or reproduce.
What is the cerebral cortex responsible for?
Processing information.
What is the function of the ovaries?
Produce an egg or ovum within the follicles in response to FSH.
What is the seminal vesicles?
Produce fructose (sugar) solution which nourishes the sperm and increases their motility. Prostaglandins stimulate the female uterus to contract to aid the movement of sperm cells.
What is the function of the testes?
Produce sperm by spermatogenesis, in the seminiferous tubules in response to FSH. Testosterone is produced in the interstitial cells in response to LH.
What are exocrine glands?
Produce their chemicals and excrete them into a duct.
What is the function of the prostate gland?
Produces an alkaline (basic) mucus to protect the sperm from the acidity of the vagina and increases their motility. Mucus is what the prostate gland liquid is called that contributes to semen can be called.
What is the function of Cowper's gland?
Produces an alkaline mucus that cleans the urethra before ejaculation. Mucus is what the cowper's gland liquid is called that contributes to semen.
What is the function the of Anterior Pituitary Lobe?
Produces and secretes hormone, regulated by the hypothalamus via releasing hormones.
What is the function of the adrenal cortex?
Produces glucocorticoids similar to cortisol and mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) to regulate salt and water balance. Also secretes both male and female sex hormones. Long term stress response.
What is the function of parathyroid gland?
Produces parathyroid gland hormone (PTH). PTH acts on the bones; raising blood calcium levels. Stimulates calcium to be released from the bones and secreted back into the bloodstream. It is embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. The Parathyroid gland and parathyroid gland hormone raises blood calcium when it is insufficient and decreases blood phosphate level.
What is the function of the hypothalamus?
Produces releasing hormones that control secretion of hormones secreted from the anterior pituitary gland. Produces ADH and Oxytocin, which are stored in the posterior pituitary and secreted to the body as required. The hypothalamus also regulates internal environment through the autonomic system. It controls body temperature and allows us to feel hunger, thirst, aggression, rage, pleasure, and sexual desires.
What does the corpus luteum secrete in the ovaries?
Progesterone and estrogen.
Explain when progesterone is secreted in pregnancy and why?
Progesterone increases throughout the entire pregnancy and levels off by parturition. It is secreted by the corpus luteum early in the pregnancy and then the placenta for the rest of the pregnancy.
What maintains the endometrial lining?
Progesterone.
What is the effects of gonadocorticoids on target tissues/organs?
Promote secondary sexual characteristics.
What is the effects of progesterone on target tissues/organs?
Promotes growth of the uterine lining and prevents uterine muscle contractions.
What is the effect of antidiuretic hormone on target tissues/organs?
Promotes retention of water by kidneys. Secreted during dehydration, causes more water to be reabsorbed by the kidney's.
What is the effects of testosterone on target tissues/organs?
Promotes sperm formation and development of the male secondary sex characteristics.
What is the function of LH in the male reproductive system?
Promotes the production of testosterone by the interstitial cells.
What is the action of protein hormones?
Protein hormones are usually received by a hormone receptor protein located in plasma membrane. The reception of a peptide hormone leads to activation of an enzyme that changes ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP). cAMP is a second messenger that activates an enzyme cascade.
What is another name for translation?
Protein synthesis.
Hormones can be classified as either?
Proteins (peptides) or steroids.
What are chromosomes made up of?
Proteins and DNA.
What is the function of the pancreas?
Provides digestive juices and endocrine functions.
What is the aqueous humour?
Provides nourishment and is involved in focusing the image. Provides nutrients to the cornea and helps to refract light.
What is homozygous?
Purebreds.
What is the effects of parathyroid hormone on target tissues/organs?
Raises blood calcium levels by stimulating the bone cells to release calcium, the intestine to absorb calcium from food, and the kidneys to reabsorb calcium. Acts by stimulating the activity of osteoclasts, thus releasing calcium from bone, and stimulates the reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys and intestine. Insufficient amounts will cause serious loss of blood calcium and cause tetany.
What is the effects of glucagon on target tissues/organs?
Raises blood glucose levels.
What is the function of glucagon in blood sugar regulation?
Raises blood sugar (causes glucose to leave the liver).
What is the function of cortisol in blood sugar regulation?
Raises blood sugar levels.
What is the function of adrenaline in blood sugar regulation?
Raises blood sugar.
What is the function of the occipital lobes?
Receive and analyze visual information.
What is the function of sensory receptors?
Receive stimuli and form a nerve impulse.
What is the function of the outer ear? (pinna and auditory canal)?
Receives and channels the sound waves.
What is the postsynaptic neuron?
Receives information.
What is the function of the cerebellum?
Recieves sensory information to control muscle coordination and balance.
Wha is environmental resistance?
Refers to all factors that tend to limit or reduce population size, both abiotic and biotic.
What is a haploid cell?
Refers to one set of chromosomes (half-complement) and is found in gametes.
What is biotechnology?
Refers to the use of organisms or biological products for commercial and/or industrial processes.
What is a diploid cell?
Refers to two sets of chromosomes (full-component) and is found in body cells.
What is the pathway of light entering the eye?
Reflected light Cornea Aqueous Humour Pupil Lens Vitreous Humor Cones and Rods Optic Nerve Occipital Lobe
What are reflex arcs, and what is the function of the reflex arc?
Reflex arcs are simple connections of neurons that explain reflexive behaviours. Involuntary responses to certain stimuli are called reflexes. Reflex arcs use very few neurons to transmit messages, therefore reflexes can be very rapid. The reflex arc moves directly to and from the brain or spinal cord, before the brain centres involved with voluntary control have time to process the sensory information.
Repolarization + hyperpolarization + back to resting potential =
Refraction.
What is the ejaculatory duct.
Regulates movement of sperm into the urethra.
Where is relaxin from and why is it made?
Relaxin is produced by the placenta prior to labour and it causes the relaxation of the pelvic ligaments.
What is the functions of the pons?
Relay station between the two hemispheres and between the cerebellum and the medulla, and aids the medulla in regulating respiration.
What are the two essential function of DNA?
Replication and expression.
What is the diploma's refractory period considered to be?
Repolarization and hyperpolarization of the action potential.
What is repolarization, what happens?
Repolarization: The Na+ voltage channel gate closes and the K+ voltage channel gate opens and the K+ ions move outside of the axon.
Explain the process of recombinant DNA?
Restriction enzymes cut the bonds in the middle of the DNA at specific sequences called recognition sites. The enzyme ligase acts like a biological "glue" and splices/fuses the segments of DNA together. CUT, CUT, GLUE. A restriction enzyme cuts a piece of DNA from the first DNA strand and then the same restriction enzyme cuts a piece of DNA from the second DNA strand and then the first cut out strand is inserted into the space of the second DNA strand and ligase glues it together.
What is type 2 diabetes?
Results from the receptors not responding to insulin. Causes obesity and lack of exercise. Treatment involves diet, exercise and drugs.
What is non-dominance (intermediate inheritance)?
Results when neither allele is dominant. Therefore, the hybrid phenotype is bend or mixture of two phenotypes.
If a question says directly, where is it refering to?
Right above on the negative feedback chart.
What are examples of photoreceptors?
Rods and Cones.
What 4 tastes can humans detect?
Salty, sweet, bitter, and sour.
What is the function of calcitonin?
Secreted by the thyroid gland. Results in the absorption of calcium ions into the bones. Lowers blood calcium levels. The primary effect of calcitonin is to bring about the deposit of calcium in the bones; it does this by temporarily reducing the activity and number of osteoclasts.
How do hormones travel?
Secreted into the bloodstream; travel via the circulatory system to target cell.
What is the function of the thyroid gland?
Secretes thyroxine when stimulated by TSH (from pituitary). Secretes calcitonin when levels of calcium are high in the bloodstream.
What two parts of the ear don't have to do with sound?
Semicircular canals and Eustachian tube.
What is the pathway for sperm?
Seminiferous tubules Epididymis Vas deferens Ejaculatory duct Urethra
What is the presynaptic neuron?
Sends information.
What is sensorineural deafness?
Sensorineural deafness is due to the inability to convert the sound waves to an impulse that reaches the brain. Ex. severed or damaged nerve.
A stimulus is detected by what?
Sensory Receptors.
The transmission pathway of the nervous system consists of which three functions?
Sensory input, integration, and motor output.
What happens in the sensory input stage of the transmission pathway?
Sensory neurons gather information from the sensory receptors (senses) and transmit these impulses to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
What are the two different groups branched under the peripheral nervous system?
Sensory pathways and motor pathways.
What is the function of the tympanic membrane?
Separates the middle and outer ear. This thin and transparent membrane vibrates freely when struck by sound.
What is the oval window?
Separates the middle ear and the inner ear.
What are Sertoli cells stimulated by?
Sertoli cells are stimulated by FSH to promote spermatogenesis.
What is the function of the temporal lobes?
Share in processing of visual information, although their main function is auditory reception. These lobes are also linked to understanding speech and retrieving visual and verbal memories. Involved in auditory reception.
What was Franklins role in DNA structure?
She figured out the DNA structure using x-ray diffraction to come up with the shape.
What is the function of the adrenal medulla and what hormones does it secrete?
Short term stress response. Epinephrine and Norepinephrine.
What happens in meiosis 2?
Similar to mitosis in that the cells undergo prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase but now these cells are turning into haploid cells.
What is metaphase 1?
Similar to mitosis, however tetrad alignment on the equatorial plate is dependent (homologue facing homologue). This alignment can also increase variation (independent assortment).
What happens in anaphase 1?
Similar to mitosis, however, tetrads separate and homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles in a process called segregation.
What happens in telophase 1 and cytokinesis?
Similar to mitosis, however, the two cells produced are haploid but their chromosomes are still double stranded.
What is the effects of glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol) on target tissues/organs?
Simulates tissues to raise blood glucose and break down protein to amino acids; the liver then breaks down amino acids to glucose.
What happens in Metaphase 2?
Sister chromatids line up at the centre. Spindle fibres attach to the centromeres.
What is the function of the epididymis?
Site of sperm maturation (development of flagellum) and storage.
What are the ossicles?
Smallest bones in the body. Vibration of sound strengthens as they pass through the 3 bones.
What is olfaction?
Smell.
Why do you want progesterone and estrogen to be kept secreting during pregnancy?
So the endometrium doesn't shed and the pregnancy can be kept. Wants to prevent menstruation.
What is the round window?
Soft membrane on the cochlea that stops wave motion.
What "unwanted" substances can pass through he blood-brain barrier?
Soluble lipid substances. i.e. drugs, caffeine.
What are the different groups branched under the motor pathways?
Somatic and autonomic nervous system.
What is the cochlea?
Sound detection organ. Snail shaped. Fluid filled. Identifies sound and converts them to nerve impulses.
What is Islets of Langerhans?
Special hormone producing cells within the pancreas.
The seminiferous tubules make ___________ and the interstital cells make ___________.
Sperm and testosterone.
Explain the process of making sperm cells in spermatogenesis. `
Sperm is made in the seminiferous tubules in the testes. You have a potential sperm cell which is just a body cell with 46 chromosomes. This cell undergoes its first meiotic division and now is 2 cells with 23 chromosomes each. The 2 cells with 23 chromosomes than go through another meiotic division and 4 sperm cells are made. Sperm is made in the seminiferous tubules and surrounding the space outside of the seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells where testosterone is made. The sperm matures in the epididymis. The Sertoli cells are surrounding the developing sperm cell
What two cells are produce endlessly?
Sperm production cells and cancer cells.
What is spermatogenesis?
Spermatogenesis is the production of sperm in response to FSH from the pituitary. The symmetrical form of meiosis takes place within the seminiferous tubules of the testes. Support cells called Sertoli cells (located in the seminiferous tubules) nourish the developing sperm cells since they have little cytoplasm.
What are spindle fibres?
Spindle fibres form from the centrioles.
Negative feedback cause _____________, and positive feedback causes ____________.
Stability, non-stability.
What are the 3 stages of parturition?
Stage 1) Dilation Stage 2) Baby Stage 3) Afterbirth
What is Gause's principle?
States that if two populations occupy the same niche, one will be eliminated.
What happens with chromosome number is mitosis?
Stays the same.
What is the inside of the semicircular canals embedded with?
Sterocilia.
What are steroid hormones?
Steroid hormones are made of fat. Estrogen and testosterone. They are fat soluble and therefore can pass easily through the cell and bind to the nucleus and nuclear membranes to combine with receptors inside the nucleus that activate genes.
What is the action of steroid hormones?
Steroid hormones enter the nucleus and combine with receptor protein, and the hormone receptor complex attaches to DNA and activates certain genes. The hormones trigger changes in their target cells when they bind to the receptor proteins on or within cells.
What is the function of growth hormone?
Stimulates growth, especially bones and muscles; increases metabolic functions. Very important for normal development of young children.
What are the effects of the parasympathetic system on digestion?
Stimulates it.
What is the effect of prolactin on target tissues/organs?
Stimulates milk production from mammary glands.
What is the function of prolactin?
Stimulates milk production; released when nerve impulses stimulate hypothalamus/ pituitary complex when infant suckles.
What is the function of testosterone in the male reproductive system?
Stimulates spermatogenesis. Promotes and regulates the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Associated with sex drive levels.
What is the function of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucorticoids.
What is the function of human growth hormone?
Stimulates the general growth of bones, muscles, and organs by increasing the uptake of amino acids, the metabolism of fats, and rate of cell division. Increased cell division is key.
What is the function of FSH in the male reproductive system?
Stimulates the production of sperm cells in the seminiferous tubules.
What is the function of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?
Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine.
What is the function of oxytocin?
Stimulates uterine contractions and release of milk by the mammary glands.
What is the effects of estrogen on target tissues/organs?
Stimulates uterine lining growth and promotes development of the female secondary sex characteristics.
What is the effect of oxytocin (OTC) on target tissues/organs?
Stimulates uterine muscle contractions and release of milk by mammary glands.
What is the pathway of nervous control involving conscious thought.
Stimulus Receptor Sensory Neuron Interneuron Brain Interneuron Motor Neuron Effector Response.
What is the pathway for reflex arcs?
Stimulus Receptor Sensory Neuron Interneuron (spinal cord) Motor Neuron Effector Response. *Doesn't involve the brain only spinal cord*
What is the function of the Posterior Pituitary Lobe?
Stores and secretes hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus; secretion stimulated via nerves. The posterior pituitary stores and releases antidiuretic (ADH) and oxytocin produced by the hypothalamus.
What is population ecology?
Studies of organisms from the point of view of the size and structure of their populations.
What is summation?
Summation is all of the neurons firing. The different combinations of neurons firing change what the graph and if an action potential will happen.
Where is grey matter found?
Surface layer of the brain, centre of the spinal cord.
What is the fimbriae?
Sweep the ovum into the fallopian tube following ovulation.
The formation of gametes is _______________________ in males (spermatogenesis) and __________________________ in females (oogenesis).
Symmetrical and asymmetrical.
What type of division happens in spermatogenesis and where does spermatogenesis happen?
Symmetrical division results in 4 sperm and takes place in the seminiferous tubules (both meiosis and meiosis 2).
What are the two different parts of the autonomic system?
Sympathetic (stress - fight or flight) and parasympathetic (cool down - relief - rest and digest).
Certain drugs can act as either stimulants or depressants by directly affecting the.
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
What is the gap between the neurons called?
Synaptic cleft.
An impulse travels the length of the axon until it reaches the far end, called the _________________?
Synaptic terminal.
What is the function of the parietal lobes?
TTTPP. Receive and process sensory information from the skin. The primary sensory areas extend in a band from the right and left side of the cerebrum. The proportion of a parietal lobe devoted to a particular part of the body is related to the importance of sensory information for this part of the body. The highest concentration of sensory receptors occur in the face, hands, genitals, making these areas of the body highly sensitive. The parietal lobes also help to process information about the body's position and orientation.
What is the effects of calcitonin of target tissues/ organs?
Targets bones and kidneys to lower blood calcium from bone and reabsorption of calcium by kidneys.
What does tropic mean?
Targets other endocrine glands.
What are the 5 special senses?
Taste, smell, vision, hearing, and balance.
What is TTTPP and where does is it located?
Taste, temperature, touch, pain, pressure. it is located in the parietal lobes.
What are telomeres?
Telomeres are the end caps of chromosomes, shorten every division. When the telomere is gone, the cell dies. Only 2 human cells can divide endlessly.
What are thermoreceptors?
Temperature.
What are teratogenic agents or teratogens?
Teratogens are environmental agents that induce developmental abnormalities such as drugs and medications.
What is alternation of generations?
Term describing the life cycle of a plant that alternates between a diploid sporophyte generation and a haploid gametophyte generation.
What does your body think you have a lot of if you take steroids?
Testosterone and therefore there is a negative feedback to the pituitary to stop the secretion of a releasing hormone to stimulate the secretion of LH and make testosterone in the interstitial cells of the seminiferous tubules.
What does the testes produce?
Testosterone.
What hormones are secreted in the testes?
Testosterone.
What is the law of segregation?
Tetrads separate and homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles.
In order for cells to divide, what needs to happen first?
The DNA needs to be replicated.
What does the nucleus of the sperm cell contain?
The DNA.
What is a logistic growth and what does the graph look like?
The S-shaped curve. Assumes that the growth rate decreases as population increases.
Define resistance.
The ability not to be affected by something, especially adversely.
What is the allantois?
The allantois gives rise to the umbilical cord.
What is the amnion?
The amnion is filled with amniotic fluid which prevents shock to the embryo, helps regulate body temperature, prevents infection, and allows movement.
Implantation of the blastocyst happens where and when?
The blastocyst gets implanted into the endometrium (uterus lining) on about day 6.
What are the 3 general regions of the brain?
The brain can be subdivided into three general regions: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.
What isn't involved in calcium loops?
The brain.
What isn't involved in the control of sugar levels in your body?
The brain.
What is the function of the pinna?
The cartilaginous flap of skin on the side of the head that collects sound.
What happens in prophase 2?
The cell moves directly to metaphase since there is no DNA replication and no formal organization of nucleus.
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid?
The cerebrospinal fluid transports hormones, white blood cells, and nutrients across the blood-brain barrier for cells of the brain and spinal cord. It also circulates between two layers of the meninges, the arachnoid and pia mater, and therefore acts as a shock absorber to cushion the brain.
What is, and what is the function of the cerebrum?
The cerebrum is divided into right and left cerebral hemispheres, which contain the centres for intellect, memory, consciousness, and language: it interprets and controls the response to sensory information.
What is the function of the chorion?
The chorion is the embryonic portion of the placenta. The chorion secretes hCG (human chorionic gonadotroptic hormone). It is the embryos contribution to the placenta.
What is a genotype?
The combination of genes that determine the phenotype.
What is the difference between the cornea and lens when light is coming into the eye?
The cornea refracts light onto the pupil and the lens refracts light onto the retina.
What is the function of the corpus callosum?
The corpus callosum sends messages from one cerebral hemisphere to the other, telling each half of the brain what the other half is doing.
What happens in the luteal phase?
The corpus luteum produces estrogen and progesterone for the maintenance of the endometirum.
What is the tissues of the spinal cord protected by?
The delicate tissues of the spinal cord are protected by cerebrospinal fluid, soft tissue layers, and the spinal column, a series of backbones (vertebrae).
What is dynamic equilibrium?
The ecosystem has reached a steady state.
What is the ectoderm?
The ectoderm is the outer layer that gives rise to the epidermis and the nervous system.
What does voltage (mV) measure?
The electrical potential difference between the inside and the outside of the axon.
What does the blastocyst form?
The embryo.
What is the endoderm?
The endoderm gives rise to the lining of the digestive and respiratory tracts and the endocrine glands.
What is the function of the penis?
The erectile tissue of the penis is controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system however the actual ejaculation is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system.
How does specialization work in the trimesters?
The fetus specializes more and more as the trimesters go on.
What is sensory adaptation?
The filtering by the brain of redundant, insignificant sensory information. I.e. when you no longer notice socks on your feet.
What is colostrum?
The first breast milk that contains sugar and proteins and special antibodies, but not fat.
What is meiosis 1?
The first division, is a reduction division because the chromosome number is reduced in half when the homologous chromosomes segregate (separate).
What is a pioneer species?
The first species to appear on an area.
What is secreting estrogen in the female reproductive system?
The follicle.
What is succession?
The gradual, orderly changes in the vegetation, called seral stages, or an area as it develops toward a final stable community called a climax community.
What is the experimental group?
The group you change.
What can the hair cells in the organ of Corti do?
The hair cells of the organ of Corti are able to distinguish both the frequency and amplitude of sound waves.
What do the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata control?
The hypothalamus and medulla oblongata control the autonomic system, which has neurons that are bundled together with the somatic neurons in the cranial and spinal nerves.
What controls the autonomic system?
The hypothalamus and medulla oblongata.
Membranes will become hyperpolarized when exposed to inhibitory neurotransmitters, why?
The inhibitory neurotransmitter causes the K+ channels to open hyperpolarizing the membrane, preventing an action potential from being from being initiated.
What do the inner cells of the blastocyst form?
The inner mass of cells in the blastocyst will form the embryo and the outer cells will form the extra-embryonic membranes.
Once the blastocyst is implanted into the endometrial lining, what happens with the inner mass?
The inner mass of the blastocyst develops into a three layered disc called a gastrula through a process called gastrulation.
The size of the pupil is determined by what?
The iris.
What is incomplete dominance?
The lack of a dominant gene. There are two types. Incomplete dominance and co-dominance.
The right side of the brain controls what?
The left side of the body.
What is the left cerebral hemisphere associated with?
The left-brain or the left cerebral hemisphere, is linked to segmental, sequential, and logical ways of linking, and to linguistic and mathematical skills.
How do the hormones change in parturition?
The levels of progesterone and estrogen decrease but levels of oxytocin, relaxin, and prostaglandins increase.
What is gene locus?
The location of a gene on a chromosome.
What is carrying capacity (K)?
The maximum number of organisms that can be supported in a particular environment. The carrying capacity is determined by the environments abiotic factors and can fluctuate.
What is, and what is the function of the medulla oblongata?
The medulla oblongata contains centres that control automatic, involuntary responses, such as heart rate, constriction or dilation of blood vessels to control blood pressure, and the rate and depth of breathing, swallowing, and coughing.
What is the mesoderm?
The middle layer that gives rise to the skeleton, muscles, and reproductive structures.
What is the midpiece?
The midpiece is where the mitochondria is located to power the rest of the sperm cell. Your mitochondria DNA comes from the egg because the sperms mitochonria in the midpiece isn't injected into the egg.
The closer the niches of each population mean what?
The more competition there will be for the resources.
What is the myelin sheath?
The myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system is composed of Schwann cells that form neurilemma.
What is the relationship between the nervous system and the endocrine system?
The nervous system is faster than the endocrine system.
What does the nervous system do in regards to homeostasis?
The nervous system regulates body structures and processes to maintain homeostasis despite fluctuations in the internal and external environment.
What does the very top layer of the blastocyst give rise to?
The neural tube.
Loudness is interpreted by?
The number of sensory neurons that respond to the stimulus.
What do the outer cells of the blastocyst form?
The outer cells of the blastocyst form the extra-embryonic membranes that surround and support the embryo tissues of the embryo.
What carries the information to the effectors?
The parasympathetic and sympathetic systems carry information to the effectors.
What is the function of the urethra?
The passage way for both semen and urine.
What is gestation?
The period from fertilization to parturition.
What is the peripheral nervous system divided into?
The peripheral nervous system is further divided into the somatic system and the autonomic system.
Explain the process of lactation?
The pituitary releases prolactin and prolactin stimulates milk production. The suckling of the baby stimulates the pituitary to release oxytocin. Oxytocin causes muscle contractions that force milk into milk ducts, so the baby can nurse.
When is the placenta usually formed by?
The placenta is usually fully formed by the end of the second month.
What happens in stage 3 of parturition?
The placental stage. About 10 to 15 minutes after the baby is born, the placenta and umbilical cord are expelled from the uterus. The expelled placenta is called the afterbirth.
What is, and what is the function of the pons?
The pons serves as a relay centre between the neurons of the right and left halves of the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the rest of the brain.
What is the bottleneck effect?
The population is reduced in size by some non-evolutionary means like a natural disaster and the population starts out as being very small.
What must happen for it to be a predator/prey relationship?
The prey must die.
What is the product rule?
The probability of an event occurring is affected by previous events. Ex. The possibility of have three girls in a row is 50% x 50% x 50%.
What is the rule of independent events?
The probability of any event occurring is not affected by previous events. Ex. The possibility of your fourth child being a girl is 50% just like the possibility of your first child being a girl is 50%.
What is gene therapy?
The process of changing the function of a gene in order to treat or prevent a genetic disorder.
Not all DNA codes for what?
The production of proteins.
What does the refractory period ensure?
The refractory period ensures that the action potential will not move backwards.
What happens with calcitonin when blood level of calcium is returned to normal?
The release of calcitonin is inhibited.
What does the remaining follicular cells develop into and where?
The remaining follicular cells (Sertoli cells) develop into the corpus luteum in the ovaries.
The left side of the brain controls what?
The right side of the body.
What is the right cerebral hemisphere associated with?
The right-brain or the right cerebral hemisphere, is associated with holistic and intuitive thinking, visual-spatial skills, and artistic abilities?
Where does the second meiotic division of oogenesis happen?
The second division happens in the fallopian tube AFTER fertilization has occurred.
What is meiosis 2?
The second division, involves the separation of the sister chromatids. Interphase during meiosis is the same as with mitosis and occurs prior to meiosis 1 (and not before meiosis 2).
What is the function of the semicircular canals?
The semicircular canals are responsible for detecting motion changes (dynamic equlibrium). Cilia attached to hair receptors respond to the movement of fluid in the canals. Unusual stimulation like spinning can lead to motion sickness. The liquid and hairs move in the semicircular canal which is how balance is detected.
What is chromatin called when DNA is replicating?
The single-stranded chromatin becomes double-stranded chromatin.
What is the site of ovulation and what stimulates ovulation?
The site of ovulation is the ovaries in response to LH.
What is the function of the ossicles?
The smallest bones in your body that link you eardrum to inner ear and amplify vibration. AMPLIFY.
What does the sodium potassium pump do?
The sodium-potassium pump restores the concentrations of sodium and potassium, shuttling using ATP 3Na+ out and 2K+ in.
What is genetics?
The study of hereditary. The traits that are passed on from generation to generation.
What is probability?
The study of outcomes or occurrences.
The sympathetic nerves trigger adrenal glands to release what? What is their functions?
The sympathetic nerves trigger the adrenal glands to release epinephrine and norepinephrine, both of which also function as hormones that activate the stress response.
What is norepinephrine?
The sympathetic neurons release a neurotransmitter called norepinephrine, which has an excitatory effect on its target muscles.
How does the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems change when you're exercising?
The sympathetic system increases and the parasympathetic system decreases.
What is the flagellum or tail?
The tail of the sperm cell has a whiplike motion so the sperm can move.
What is x-linked recessive?
The trait is far more common in males than in females. All daughters of a male who has the trait are heterozygous carriers. The son of a female carrier has 50% of having the trait. There is no male to male transmission. Daughters of female carriers have a 50% chance of being carriers.
What is the umbilical cord?
The umbilical cord is used to transport nutrients and develops from the allantois.
Where is the endometrium lining?
The uterus.
What is cut in a vasectomy?
The vas deferens.
What is the yolk sac?
The yolk sac is the site of early red blood cells formation. There is no nutritional value to the yolk sac.
When looking at a graph, what does progesterone look at in regards to the female reproductive system?
There is one peak after ovulation on day 14.
What does large population mean in Hardy-Weinberg?
There needs to be a large population so therefore no sampling errors and no genetic drift.
What are Gonadotropic Hormones?
They affect the ovaries and testes, stimulating the release of sex hormones, and the development of the gonads and secondary sex characteristics.
What are the cerebral hemispheres linked together by?
They are linked by a bundle of white matter called the corpus callosum.
What is oogenesis and spermatogenesis making in regards to change in number of chromosomes.
They are reducing the chromosome number by half because they're making sex cell. They're reducing the chromosome number my MEIOSIS from 46 to 2 cells of 23 and than 2 more cells of 23.
How do water-soluble hormones get to the target cell?
They bind to a receptor protein on the cell membrane and this starts a cascade of reactions inside the target cell.
What was Watson and Cricks role in DNA structure?
They figured out the backbone (deoxyribose sugar and phosphates, rungs of the two nitrogens attached in the middle, and that its a double helix.
What is polyploidy?
They possess more than two complete sets of chromosomes.
Where do cancer cells most of their time and the least amount of time in their cell cycle?
They spend most of their time in mitosis dividing and least amount of their time in interphase because they're not doing their job.
What is the tympanic membrane (eardrum).
Thin membrane that converts sound waves into mechanical motion, and transmits sound to the middle of the ear (through the ear bones to the oval window of the cochlea). Causes the ossicles to vibrate.
What is, and what is the function of the cerebellum?
This part of the brain is involved in the unconscious coordination of posture, reflexes, and body movements, as well as fine, voluntary motor skills. The cerebellum receives information from specialized sensors, called proprioceptors, located within skeletal muscles and joints.
What is the blood-brain barrier?
This separation of the blood and central nervous system is called the blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain barrier both protects the brain and supplies the brain with nutrients and oxygen. Some substances such as oxygen and glucose, can still pass through the barrier by special transport mechanisms.
What is the meninges?
Three layers of tough, elastic tissue within the skull and spinal column, directly enclose the brain and spinal cord.
What does adenine pair with?
Thymine.
What is hypothyroidism?
Thyroid doesn't work and your metabolic rate isn't normal. Ex. cretinism (children) and myxedema (adults).
What hormones are secreted in the thyroid?
Thyroxine and calcitonin.
What controls metabolic rate?
Thyroxine.
What happens in interphase?
Time between divisons when the cell performs the majority of its purposes including preparation for cell division (DNA replication), proteins are made, carries out normal metabolic actions.
What mechanoreceptors are located in the hear?
Tiny hairs located in the inner ear.
What are individual neurons organized into?
Tissues called nerves.
What is the function of the eustachian tube?
To equalize pressure by allowing air to pass from the middle ear to the back of the throat.
What is aldosterone's goal?
To increase blood pressure not water intake.
What is the sodium-potassium exchange pump?
To re-establish resting potential and move the excess ions across the membrane the sodium ion pump shuttles 3Na+ ions out of the axon and 2K+ ions inside of the axon using ATP to restore the ion concentration.
What is the goal of ADH.
To retain water.
Why does the growing follicle secrete mostly estrogen?
To stimulate LH secretion.
What is the function of gonadotropic hormone (GnRH)?
To stimulate the secretion of FSH and LH.
What is the main purpose in transcription?
To take DNA and change it to mRNA.
What is the main purpose in translation?
To take mRNA and change it into amino acids to make a polypeptide chain which are proteins.
Where are stimulus that are converted to nerve impulses sent?
To the central nervous system (CNS) for interpretation.
Where does auditory information first go?
To the temporal lobe.
What does the two parts of the nervous system collectively control?
Together, the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system control sensory input, integration, and motor output.
What is law of unit characteristics?
Traits are controlled by genes, which occur in pairs (one pair from each parent).
What does autosomal recessive mean?
Traits are not affected by sex and the individual must inherit both recessive alleles to express the trait.
What is the optic nerve?
Transmits electrical impulses from the retina to the brain. Collects information from the rods and cones, sending it to the thalamus and occipital lobe.
What is the function of sensory neurons?
Transmits impulses from the sensory receptors to the interneurons.
What is the auditory nerve?
Transmits nerve impulses to the auditory area (temporal lobe).
True or False? Nondisjunction can happen in autosomes and sex chromosomes?
True.
What is the function of the vas deferens?
Tubes that carry sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.
What does the overall process of mitosis produce?
Two daughter cells that are genetically identical.
What are alleles?
Two or more alternate forms of a gene.
What is tubal ligation?
Tying of the fallopian tubes.
What are genes?
Units of instruction, located on chromosomes, which produce or influence a specific trait.
What is grey matter?
Unmyelinated neurons.
When the RNA is being added to the DNA triplets what is replaced instead of thymine?
Uracil.
Who was Thomas Morgan?
Used fruit flies to study Mendel's work of inheritance. He figured out that there is a different pattern of inheritance between males and females. He discovered that linked genes do not assort independently and therefore, the phenotypic ratio of a cross between two heterozygous individuals will deviate from the classic 9:3:3:1 ratio.
How did Watson and Crick model the DNA ladder?
Using information from X-ray diffraction.
What happens in stage 1 of parturition?
Uterine contractions and oxytocin cause the cervix to open, or dilate. During this stage, the amniotic sac breaks and the amniotic fluid is released through the vagina. The dilation stage usually lasts from 2 to 20 hours.
What is the vestibule.
Utricle and Saccule. Movement. Detect static position: position of head, movement along one plane (horizontal or vertical). 2 fluid filled sacs with stereocilia embedded.
What is photoreception?
Vision requires coordination of the eyes and brain. The eye is stimulated by light (photons)
What are the two types of sensory systems?
Visual system (photoreceptors) and Auditory System (Mechanoreceptors).
What is Wernicke's area? Where is Wenicke's area?
Wernicke's area stores information involved in language comprehension. Wernicke's area is part of the temporal lobe.
What is a phenotype?
What is actually expressed.
What was the manipulated variable?
What is the one thing that was changed between the two experiments. Conditions that were deliberately changed by the experimenter.
What is the pinna?
What is the pinna? Finnel light flap of skin, collects sound waves, directing them into the auditory canals.
What is the controlled variable?
What was kept the same between the two experiments. Conditions that could of changed but did not, because of the intervention of the experimenter.
What is the responding variable.
What was observed when comparing the thing that was changed between the two experiments. Conditions that changed in response to the change in the manipulated variables.
What is chromatin?
When a cell is not dividing, the genetic material can be seen as a collection of long, thin, (decondensed), single strands and proteins.
What are recombinants?
When crossing over creates new combinations. Crossover frequency.
What is the stationary phase in an open population?
When growth rate is kept constant because environmental resistance is leveling off the carrying capacity
What is resting potential, what happens?
When the axon isn't conducting a nerve impulse the inside of the axon is a negative charge of (-70mV) with potassium (K+) and the outside has a positive charge of (+40mV) with sodium (Na+). The reason that it is more negative inside of the axon as it is outside is because the K+ ions are free to move in and out where as Na+ ions cannot move freely. Also there are negatively large proteins which are inside of the axon contributing to the negative charge.
When does the embryo get considered a fetus?
When the bone cells begin to form and become identifiable features.
What is complete dominance?
When the dominant gene completely covers up the recessive allele.
What are the events involved in an impulse transmission from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron?
When the impulse reaches the end plates or the axon terminal or the synaptic terminal, the presynaptic vesicles bind and fuse to the presynaptic membrane. The neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis. The neurotransmitters bind to a receptor protein on the postsynaptic neuron. If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the impulse won't continue and there won't be another action potential, but if the neurotransmitter is exhibitory the impulse will continue and there will be another action potential. Once the reaction is done, the neurotransmitters leave the receptors and enzymes break them down and the components will be reabsorbed into the presynaptic membrane.
What is saltatory conduction?
When the impulses "jump" from node to node of the Nodes of Ranvier.
What is gastrulation?
When the inner mass of the blastocyst develops into a three-layered disc called a gastrula.
What is a blastocyst?
When the mass of cells that have been fertilized and have divided to form cleavage become a hollow ball.
What is lag phase?
When the organisms are getting used to their environment.
What is hyperpolarization?
When the repolarization overshoots (the potassium gates stay open for too long), and the sodium-potassium exchange pump brings this back to resting.
When does evolution occur?
When there is a change in allele frequencies.
What is the uterus?
Where implantation of the fertilized ovum happens onto the endometrium.
What happens with the buildup of acetylcholine?
With the build-up of acetylcholine critical muscles, such as the heat and diaphragm enter a state of constant contraction or paralysis.
What are antagonistic hormones?
Work opposite each other.
What is Turners Syndrome
X
What chromosomes determine if its female?
XX
What is Klinedelter?
XXY
What chromosomes determine if its a male?
XY
Can mutations be positive and negative?
Yes.
Can predators be herbivory?
Yes. They eat grass including the roots and than its a predator prey relationship. But if they eat the grass and the grass can grow back then its parasitism.
What happens if aldosterone is hypersecreted?
You body could go into overdrive and you could have a stroke or a heart attack.
If your eyeball is short, what does that mean?
You're far sighted and only far objects will focus.
What is monosomy?
You're missing one chromosome. 2n(normal chromosome number) - 1 (So you have one less)
If your eyeball is long what does that mean?
You're nearsighted and only close objects will focus.
What type of mitochondrial DNA is susceptible to mutations and disorders?
Your mitochondrial DNA from your mom.
Who does your mitochondrial DNA come from?
Your mom.
Explain when hCG is secreted in pregnancy and why?
hCG is secreted during the first trimester (first 3 months) to keep the corpus luteum from degenerating and therefore keeping progesterone and estorgen hormone levels high to maintain the endometrial lining. hCG lowers its secretion levels in the second trimester for the rest of the pregnancy.
When and what hormones change locations in pregnancy?
hCG, progesterone, and estrogen are secreted from various sources during pregnancy. Early in pregnancy, estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the corpus luteum. During mid-pregnancy the hormones shift towards being secreted by the placenta. Late in the pregnancy these hormones are just secreted by the placenta.
What is the pathway of light into the eye?
light through the eye to the cornea --> aqueous humor --> through pupil --> lens --> vitreous humor --> retina --> optic nerve --> brain --> the occipital lobe.
What are the 2 types of RNA?
mRNA and tRNA.
Most neurons in the peripheral nervous system are _______________.
myelinated.
In Hardy-Weinberg and you're trying to figure out the dominant phenotypes what parts of the equation do you use?
p+2pq.
Not all cells that have the same DNA produce the same ______________?
proteins.