Biology Chapters 16-19

A type of speciation called ______ occurs when a single species quickly gives rise to many new species as they adapt to various ____ withing the environment.

Adaptive Radiation, Niches

Because of this, evolution is said to have occurred because the ___________________ of the population has changed.

Allele Frequency

In this process, _________ frequencies can either increase or decrease due to which members of a population die, ________, or reproduce.

Allele, Survive

Evolution is considered a change in the frequencies of _________ over generations.

Alleles

If the frequencies of _________ do not change from one generation to the next, __________________ has occurred.

Alleles, Genetic Equilibrium

If the frequencies of _______ has changed, the ___________ has occurred.

Alleles, Microevolution

By looking at the frequencies of ________ within a single _________ over a period of time, one can determine if __________ has occurred.

Alleles, Population, Microevolution

Microevolution is the change in frequencies of ________ in ________ from one generation to the next.

Alleles, Populations

Protein First Hypothesis

Amino Acids present in shallow puddles along ocean shores are heated by the sun to form proteinoids with catalytic properties.

Sickle cell is a(n) ___________ genetically inherited disorder that affects ________ molecules that carry _______ in the blood.

Autosomal Recessive, Hemoglobin, Oxygen

A ____________ effect occurs when populations are reduced following a major disaster, and the resulting change in allele frequencies is random.

Bottleneck

Theses changes are due to ______ rather than __________ in the environment.

Chance, Selection

When species evolve together such that one influences the other, _________ is said to have occurred.

Coevolution

For example, orchids _______ along with insects so that a single species of wasp is responsible for pollinating a single species of orchid.

Coevolved

When a similar biological trait evolves in two or more unrelated species due to similar environmental constraints, _________ is said to have occurred.

Convergent Evolution

These ____ gametes can fuse with normal ____ gametes, resulting in ___ organisms, or with other ____ gametes resulting in ___ organisms.

Diploid, Haploid, Triploid, Diploid, Tetraploid

Iron-Sulfur World Hypothesis

Dissolved gases such as carbon monoxide, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide emitted from thermal vents would pass over iron and nickel. The resulting sulfides act as catalysts to drive the evolution of organic molecules from inorganic molecules.

Because of this, these events ___________ necessarily lead to adaptations to the environment.

Do Not

According to this equation, the term P2, represents the frequency of homozygous ______ individuals within a population.

Dominant

This can also occur because of __________, or the removal of a _________, so that the species is able to make full use of all resources within its environment.

Ecological Release, Competitor

This allows chromosomes to pair up during meiosis, meaning that these organisms are ________.

Fertile

Because females produce _______ eggs compared to the ________ sperm that males produce, females choose a male with the best _________, or the ability to produce surviving young.

Few, Many, Fitness

If the frequency of an allele reaches 1.0, the allele is said to be ________.

Fixed

Sometimes a few individuals will colonize a new location, and the subsequent random change in allele frequences is called the _______ effect.

Founder

An example of genetic drift in which a small group of individuals establishes a larger population is called the ______________.

Founder Effect

A mutation that causes a change in a single nucleotide in DNA

changes the corresponding nucleotide in mRNA, resulting in a different codon.

Random changes in the allele frequencies of a gene pool are referred to as ___________.

Genetic Drift

_________ refers to changes in the allele frequencies of a gene pool due to chance.

Genetic Drift

Or, it's possible that females choose colorful males because the bright plumage indicates the male's health and vigor, consistent with the ___________ hypothesis.

Good Genes

The ____________ hypothesis suggest that females select males base on their traits that increase survival.

Good Genes

The ________ equation is used to calculate the genotype and allele frequencies of a population.

Hardy-Weinberg

Finally, the term 2pq represents the frequency of ___________ individuals withing a population.

Heterozygous

Therefore, individuals that are ________ carry an advantage, as they are resistant to malaria and do not have sickle cell disease.

Heterzygous

This is in contrast with ________ traits that do share common ancestor.

Homologous

Individuals that are ____________ have sickle cell disease, individuals that belong to the other two genotypes do not.

Homozygous Recessive

This provides the opportunity for populations to becomes specialized to newly acquired microhabitats, thereby __________ the chances of _________.

Increasing, Adaptive Radiation

For example, both butterflies and birds use wings to fly, although these evolved _________.

Independently

Similar traits that evolve _______ in unrelated species are called ______ traits.

Independently, Analogous

Since the two populations of squirrels cannot _________, adaptations favored in one population are not shared with the other population's _________.

Interbreed, Gene Pool

A population exhibiting this effect is normally __________ from a general population.

Isolated

While the populations independently evolved on separate sides of the river, allopatric speciation occurred, which is a _____________ event.

Microevolutionary

Generation after generation, through multiple _________ events, the two populations become _____ genetically similar.

Microevolutionary, Less

These events can include __________, disease, or famine.

Natural Disasters

one of the tenants of _________ is that within populations, _________ exists amongst the individuals.

Natural Selection, Variation

Iron-Sulfur World Hypothesis

Organic molecules react with iron and nickel sulfides at thermal vents to produce peptides.

When natural selection favors the ratio two or more __________ over multiple generations, it is called __________.

Phenotypes, Balanced Polymorphism

Because only alleles that are ____________ expressed are subject to the pressures of _______________, heterozygotes can be protectors of ______________ alleles that could possibly be lost otherwise.

Phenotypically, Natural Selection, Recessive

A type of ________ called ________ results when two related species hybridize, causing chromosome numbers to _______.

Polyploidy, Alloploidy, Double

Another type of _____ called _____ results when a diploid organisms produces _____ gametes because of _____.

Polyploidy, Autoploidy, Diploid, Nondisjunction

This type of _______ is common in _________ and results in new species.

Polyploidy, Plants

Secondly, the term ___ represents the frequency of homozygous recessive individuals within a population.

Q2

In the founding individuals of the population, _____ alleles can be present.

Rare

These _______ alleles may be at a ___________ frequency in the founder population than they were in the original population.

Rare, Higher

As long as the heterzygote survives, so do _________ alleles and their corresponding __________, which could possibly have greater fitness in a changing environment.

Recessive, Phenotypes

Individuals that carry an allele for sickle cell also carry a resistance to malaria, as the sickle-shaped ______________ lack _______ and malarial parasites die.

Red Blood Cells, Potassium

It's possible that females choose colorful males because their choice indicates the increased potential for their offspring to be chosen by females, thus passing on their genes, consistent with the _______ hypothesis.

Runaway

The ________ hypothesis suggests that females choose males based on appearance alone.

Runaway

A melting glacier creates a river that splits a population of squirrels in half. Resources, predators, and other ___________ vary slightly between the two sides of the river.

Selective Forces

An example of the runaway hypothesis is that cardinals exhibit _________________, meaning that males are large and colorful, whereas females are smaller and less colorful.

Sexual Dimorphism

The process that drives adaptive changes between males and females and leads to an increased ability to attract a mate are referred to as ______________.

Sexual Selection

Although genetic drift can occur in populations of all sizes, the effects are more drastic in ________ populations.

Small

The effect of genetic drift is much more significant in ________ populations.

Small

Although genetic drift occurs in populations of all sizes, the effect on the frequencies of alleles is greatest in _______ populations.

Smaller

Oftentimes, this type of speciation also involves _______ speciation, especially following a change in environment.

Sympatric

Often, ___ speciation can involve ___, or extra sets of chromosomes.

Sympatric, Polyploidy

This _________ is generation through ____________, recombination, independent assortment, and gene flow.

Variation, Mutation

Origin of Life Stage 3

1. Protocells make their appearance 2. Organic polymers become enclosed within a membrane

Microevolution Characteristics

1. Refers to changes in allele frequencies within a population 2. Within a population of butterflies, the percentage of blue butterflies begin to outnumber the percentage of yellow butterflies 3. Results from genetic drift, natural selection, mutation, and migration

Microevolutionary Characteristics

1. Refers to the evolution of new species 2. Includes the history of life on Earth 3. Demonstrates shared ancestry of life on Earth 4. Results from genetic drift, natural selection, mutation, and migration

Biological Species Concept Characteristics

1. Relies on reproductive isolation to identify different species. 2. Cannot be tested in nature.

Nonrandom Mating

1. Self-fertilization by plants. 2. Assortative Mating

Allopatric Speciation Characteristics

1. Suggests that new species evolve when a population of an existing species moves into a new habitat. 2. A city is built in the valley between 2 hillsides and as a result, the population of either hillside rarely interbreed with each other. Over time, enough genetic differences accumulate so that a new species is formed. 3. Considered to be the most common way new species form.

Stabilizing Selection Examples

1. Very large and very small newborns are more likely to suffer serious health problems. 2. Bird clutch sizes consisting of 4-5 eggs are more likely to hatch than larger or smaller clutches.

Natural Selection Examples

1. White fur in a snowy environment. 2. Survival of bacteria resistant to antibiotics.

Fertilization Events

1. Zygote Mortality 2. Hybrid Sterility 3. F2 Fitness

Founder Effect Scenarios

1. A highway is built through a pristine forest, splitting the deer population in half. The associated development around the highway prevents the two halves from interacting. 2. A hive of bees is overcrowded and half the population swarms to form a new hive elsewhere.

Bottleneck Effect Scenarios

1. A hurricane destroys 1/4 of the bird population in southern Florida. 2. An apartment complex is built on a wetland, reducing the wetland habitat by over 75% and the fish population by close to 60%.

Gene Flow Scenarios

1. A single frog is removed from its habitat for a school project and is returned to a different watershed where it joins another population. 2. Pollen from a genetically engineered wheat crop pollinates a population of native wheat plants nearby.

Mutation Examples

1. Change in DNA nucleotide sequence. 2. Nucleotide deletion.

Gradualistic Equilibrium

1. Changes accrue very slowly over long periods of time. 2. Evolution begins with isolated populations where both populations slowly evolve into different species. 3. Evolution includes so many transitional forms that the moment of speciation is difficult to identify.

Punctuated Equilibrium

1. Changes occur in rapid spurts in an otherwise unchanging timeline. 2. Transitional fossils are difficult to find.

Morphological Species Concept Characteristics

1. Distinguishes species with diagnostic traits: distinct characteristics. 2. Not useful for microorganisms or cryptic species.

Examples that might be evidence of sexual selection.

1. Elaborate and large sets of antlers have evolved in the males of a deer species. 2. A bird displays showy feathers to females. 3. Mates are selected based on nest-building ability. 4. Male elephant seals fight to gain access to females.

Genetic Drift Examples

1. Founder effect. 2.Loss in genetic variability due to bottleneck effect.

Premating Events

1. Habitat Isolation 2. Temporal Isolation 3. Behavioral Isolation

Phylogenic Species Concept Characteristics

1. Identifies species based on a common ancestor. 2. Does not rely on morphological traits; useful for microorganisms and cryptic species.

Disruptive Selection Examples

1. Individuals in one population of finches occupy different niches and eventually evolve to have different beak sizes. 2. British land snails compromise two very different phenotype, as they are both adapted to different habitats.

Origin of Life Stage One

1. Inorganic compounds evolve into organic monomers. 2. Nucleotides and amino acids make their appearance

Evolutionary Species Concept Characteristics

1. It was proposed to explain speciation in the fossil record. 2. Requires shared evolutionary pathways.

Directional Selection Examples

1. Many antibiotics are no longer effective against bacteria because the bacteria have evolved resistance against them. 2. A new flu vaccine is needed every year because the flu virus evolves resistance to our immune system cells created by the old vaccine.

Mating Events

1. Mechanical Isolation 2. Gemete Isolation

Migration Examples

1. Movement of flower pollen between two populations. 2. Transfer of a gene from one bacteria species to another.

Ways that diversity is maintained withing a population.

1. Mutations create new alleles 2. The presence of subspecies 3. Occasional interbreeding between adjacent populations 4. Sexual reproduction

Sympatric Speciation Characteristics

1. New species can evolve from a population of an existing species if a chromosome mutation, such as polyploidy, in one population prevents interbreeding with the other. 2. Black mussels in a pond occupy rocky shoreline. Mutation in this population introduces a white mussel that occupies sandy shoreline. Over time. the white mussel does not breed with black mussels and evolves into a new species. 3. No physical barrier prevents mating between populations.

What conditions are necessary for the maintenance of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

1. No new mutations are introduced within a population 2. No members of a population leave no new members enter a population. 3. All genotypes within a population have an equal chance at reproduction. 4. Individuals mate at random. 5. The population and therefore the gene pool are very large.

Origin of Life Stage 2

1. Organic polymers evolve 2. DNA, RNA, and proteins make their appearance

Origin of Life Stage 4

1. Probionts evolve the ability to self-replicate

Those with an odd number of chromosomes, such as __________, are sterile, while those with an even number of chromosomes, such as _________, are fertile.

Triploid, Tetraploid

A mutation that changes a single nucleotide can result in a different amino acid being added into a protein.

True

DNA mutations are passed on to a cell's progency.

True