Biology Final Study Guide: Chp. 1, 15, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Light
1 type of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum; photon is a unit of light energy
Calvin Cycle Steps
1) Carbon Fixation: each of 3 CO2 molecules combines with a five-carbon molecule known as RuBP, a six-carbon molecule is then made which is very unstable so they split into 2 three-carbon molecules known as 3-PGA; 2) Carbon Fixation is catalyzed by the enzyme known as Rubisco; 3) Each molecule of 3-PGA (there are 6) is converted into another three-carbon molecule called G3P, this occurs by the 3-PGA molecule recieving a phosphate group from ATP, then the resulting compound receives an H+ proton from NADPH to then release a phosphate group creating 6 molecules of G3P; during this, ADP, NADP+, and the phosphate groups can be used again in light reactions; 4) One of the G3P molecules leaves the Calvin Cycle to be used to make organic compounds or carbohydrates while the others are converted back into RuBP by the addition of a phosphate from ATP; The cycle occurs again to create 1 full glucose molecule-it takes 6 CO2 to create it
5 Steps of 2nd part of Converting Light Energy to Chemical Energy
1) Light energy forces electrons to enter a higher energy level in 2 chlorophyll a molecules of photosystem 2, the electrons have enough energy to leave the chlorophyll a molecules; 2) The electrons are accepted to the primary electron acceptor (which is a molecule); 3) The primary electron acceptor donates the electrons to the electron transport chain and then to photosystem 1 and as the electrons move from molecule to molecule w/in the chain, they lose most of their energy, this lost energy is used to move (H+) protons into the thylakoid; 4) Light is absorbed by photosystem 1 (happens at same time that light is absorbed by photosystem2) causing electrons to ove to a pair of chlorophyll a molecules and then to a primary electron acceptor, the electrons lost by these chlorophyll a molecules are replaced by ones passed through the electron transport chain from photosystem 2; next the electrons are given to an electron transport chain that brings electrons to the outside of the thylakoid membrane; 5) The electrons combine with a proton and NADP+ causing it to be reduced to NADPH
Photosynthesis Basics
1) Water enters through roots and chlorophylls absorb sunlight 2) CO2 enters through stomata openings on underside of leaves 3) Water and CO2 move o chloroplasts 4) Chemical reactions in the chloroplasts produce O2 and sugars like glucose 5) Cells use the energy in the sugars to function
Krebs Cycle Steps
1. 2-C compound of Acetyl CoA combines w/ a 4-C compound, oxaloacetic acid to make a 6-C compound, citric acid, also regenerates CoA; 2. Citric acid releases a CO2 and a hydrogen atom to make a 5-C compound, citric acid is oxidized when it loses the H+ atom with its electron causing the electron to be transferred to NAD+ reducing it to NADH; 3. 5-C compound releases a CO2 and H+ forming, which go to the ATP Synthase, a 4-C compound, NAD+ is reduced to NADH, also, an ADP plus a phosphate combine to create ATP; 4. 4-C compound releases a H+ to form a 4-C compound, this H+is used to reduce FAD to FADH2; 5. 4-C compound releases a H+ to regenrate oxaloacetic acid to keep the Krebs cycle going, the e- from H+ reduces NAD+ to NADH
What are the 6 steps to the scientific method? Explain.
1. Ask a question/form a problem 2. Hypothesis (If...Then...) 3. Design an Experiment (Materials, procedures, groups and variables) 4. Collect and analyze data (Organizeinto charts, tables, or graphs) 5. Conclusion 6. Theory (Compare your data to another persons)
Steps of Cellular Respiration
1. Glycolysis *intermediary step - pyruvate to Acetyl CoA* 2. Kreb's Cycle (w/oxygen) or Fermentation (w/out oxygen) 3. Electron Transport Chain
Steps of Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis
1. NADH and FADH2 give up electrons to the ETC, NADH donates e- at the beginning and FADH2 donates them farther down the chain but at the same time, they also give up H+; 2. Electrons are passed down the chain, losing energy as they go from molecule to molecule; 3. Energy lost from electrons are used to pump protons from the matrix, building a high concentration gradient of protons between the inner and outer membranes as well as an electrical gradient due to the protons carrying a positive charge; 4. Concentration and electrical gradients of protons drives synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis where ATP is made by ADP and phosphate; 5. Oxygen is final acceptor of electrons that have passed down the chain and it also accepts protons of H+ supplied by NADH and FADH2; the protons, electrons, and oxygen combine to form H2O, O2 + 4e- + 4H+ > 2H2O
Glycolysis Steps
1. Two phosphate groups, provided by two ATP making 2 ADP, are attached to one molecule of glucose, forming a new six-carbon compound that has two phosphate groups; 2. Six-carbon compound is split into 2 three-carbon molecules of G3P; 3. 2 G3P molecules are oxidized and each gets a phosphate group creating 2 molecules of a new three-carbon compound, oxidation of G3P is accompanied by reduction of NAD+ to NADH; 4. Phosphate groups added in step 1 and 3 are removed from the three-carbon compounds producing 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, also producing ATP from addition of phosphate to ADP, produces 2 H2O
When were cells first seen and with what?
1665 with a microscope
How many ATP and NADPH are required to make 1 glucose?
18 ATP and 12 NADPH
List what and how many of each are produced during Glycolysis.
2 NADH, 2 ATP, and 2 H2O
How many total ATP are made during cellular respiration?
2 during glycolysis, 2 during the Krebs cycle, and 34 during ETC totaling 38 ATP
How many turns of the Krebs Cycle does it take to break down 1 glucose molecule? Why?
2 turns because 1 glucose molecules yields 2 pyruvic acids in glycolysis then makes 2 acetyl CoA so then the Krebs cycle has to turn twice
How many ATP does ETC and chemiosmosis produce?
34 ATP
Oxaloacetic Acid
4-C compound of Krebs cycle
Citric Acid
6-C compound formed in Krebs cycle
Acetyl CoA
A 2-C compound made from pyruvic acid and coenzyme A during the intermediary step
How would the loss of protons affect the production of ATP in aerobic respiration?
A loss of protons would decrease the production of ATP in aerobic respiration, This is because protons are used in the reaction as reactants in which are vital to the production of the product, ATP. If these protons are being lost, the amount of product would reduce compared to the amount of product produced when no protons are being lost.
Fitness
A measure of an individual's hereditary contribution to the next generation. How long a certain trait that allows a species to live longer is able to be passed down from offsprings to generation and generation.
What is the difference between compound and a molecule?
A molecule is formed when two or more atoms join chemically. A compound is a moleule that contains at least 2 different elements.
DNA
A molecule where hereditary information is stored
Enzyme
A protein or RNA molecule that speeds up metabolic reactions without being permanently changed or destroyed; Like a catalyst but only reduces the amount of activation energy for a metabolic reaction
Base
A solution that contains more hydroxide ions than hydronium ions; OH- ; Alkalinity is how basic substance is; pH of above 7; Strong base has a pH of 12-14; Weak base has pH of 8-9; Example: NaOH
Acid
A solution where the number of hydronium ions is greater than the number of hydroxide ions; H3O+; pH of below 7; Strong acid has pH of 1-2; Weak base has pH of 5-6; Example: HCl
Polarity
A substance's ability to be polar
Overview of Calvin Cycle
ATP made in the light reactions enters the stroma; a series of chemical reactions combine CO2 molecules to RuBP using energy from the ATP to create three-carbon molecules; to produce 1 final product of glucose, the cycle must input 6 CO2 molecules (cycle runs 2x): 6 CO2 > 1 glucose (C6H12O6)
Heretability
Ability of a trait to be passed down
Energy
Ability to do work; If there is a high amount of energy in a substance it is a liquid allowing its particles to move freely to confirm the shape of its container;If energy of a substance is low it is a solid making its particles tightly packed; If there is a really high amount of energy in a substance it is a gas allowing the particles to move rapidly and fill up the volume in which they are put in; When chemical bonds are broken, energy is absorbed and when chemical bonds are formed, energy is released; Occurs in several forms and can be converted from one to the other, forms of energy: Chemical, electrical, thermal, radiant, and mechanical; Cells convert the energy in food to thermal and mechnaical
Abiotic and Biotic
Abiotic: nonliving factors are the physical and chemical characteristics of the environment; Biotic: living componenets of the environment include all of the living things that affect the organisms
Chlorophyll b
Absorbs orange and blue wavelengths of light; assists chlorophyll a in capturing light energy and is an accesory pigment
Chlorophyll a
Absorbs red and violet wavelengths of light; directly involved in light reactions of photosynthesis
Primary Electron Acceptor
Acceptor of the electrons lost from chlorophyll a is a molecule in the thylakoid membrane
Carotenoids
Accessory pigments that pass light energy to chlorophyll a to make sugars during photosynthesis; yellow, orange, and brown
FAD
Acts as a hydrogen acceptor; accepts e- during redox reactions
Alkaline (basic)
Adjective for bases
Telophase of Mitosis
After chromosomes reach opposite ends of cell, spindle fibers disassemble and chromosomes return to less tightly coiled chromatin state; nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosome and nucleolus also forms
Explain how yeast and bread uses alcoholic fermentation.
Alcoholic fermentation by yeast cells is used in wine and beer industry by yeast cells being supplied with foods that contain sugars in order to help them perform fermentation releasing ethyl alcohol and CO2; In wine, CO2 is allowed to escape but in champagne, CO2 is retained so it carbonates; Bread uses alcoholic fermentation by yeast cells in which CO2 is retained to make the bread rise by forming bubbles inside the dough while ethyl alcohol is evaporated during baking
How do biologists set up controlled experiments?
All factors remain constant except for the independent variable.
Diversity and Unity of Life
All life is diverse and have variety. Life also has unity which are characteristics all living things have in common.
Cell Theory
All living things are composed of one or more cells; Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism; Cells come only from the reproduction of existing cells
What is growth and development?
All living things grow/increase in size from division and enlargement of cells
Reproduction; Gene
All organisms produce new organisms like themselves; Short segment of DNA that contains instructions for a single trait
Activation Energy
Amount of energy needed to start a chemical reaction; Needed to break the reactant bonds unless particles can collide making the minimum amount of energy needed
Energy Yield
Amount of energy obtained from a molecule through a biological process
Concentration
Amount of solute dissolved in a fixed amount of the solution
What is an adaptation?
An adaptation is an inherited characteristic that increases an individual's chance of surviving/reproducing. These adaptations are ones that became favorable by natural selection to become more common in a population.
Chemical Equations
An equilibrium arrow shows that a reaction can be reversible; Reverse reactions are unlikely when one of the products is physically separated (ex.gas) so a single reaction arrow is used
What is the difference between an inherited trait and an aquired one?
An inherited trait is a characteristic an organism was given from its parent. An acquired trait is a characteristic that is applied to an organism based on the behavior and experiences during its lifetime.
What is the difference among cells and organisms?
An organism is made up of cells and those cells help perform the organism's life processes. This means an organism is a full living thing that can be part of a domain or kingdom but a cell is just an element of an organism.
Stimulus; Give example
Any physical/chemical change in internal/external environment; Internal- stomach growling External- temp.
Carcinogen
Anything that causes cancer; risk factors
Ion
Atom or molecule with an electrical charge
What is the order of the hierarchy of life?
Atom, Biological Molecule, Organelle, Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organism, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biosphere
Isotope
Atoms of the same element with smae number of protons but different number of neutrons.
Adhesion
Attractive force between two particles of different substances such as a water molecule and glass molecule
Cohesion
Attractive force that holds molecules of a single substance together; Cohesions allows liquids to form films and drops
Chemical Bond
Attractive forces that hold atoms together; Most elements interact with other atoms to form a chemical bond.
Atom Before and After Bonding
Before bonding the number of protons always equals the number of electrons which means it is neutral/has no charge; After bonding / during it is trying to become stable if no already
Electron Transport System of Light Reactions Steps(beginning)
Begins once accessory pigment molecules in both photosystems absorb light allowing them to acquire some energy; in each photosystme, this energy is passed quickly to the other pigment molecules until it reaches a specific pair of chlorophyll a molecules
Hydrophobic
Being non-polar making the subtance/molecule "fear" the water
Krebs Cycle
Biochemical pathway that breaks down acetyl CoA, producing CO2, hydrogen atoms, and ATP; in eukaryotes, it occurs in mitochondrial matrix; in prokaryotes, it takes place in the cytosol; Acetyl CoA > CO2 + (H+) + ATP
What are biological molecules used for?
Biological molecules from different organisms are used to be compared to each other in order to find similarities and differences among their data. The resulting data helps determine how related an organism is to a common ancestor.
Phylogenetic Tree or Evolutionary Tree
Branching diagram based upon similarities and differences in their physical and/or genetic characteristics
Cellular Respiration Equation
C8H12O6 + 6O2 > 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
What is carbon's structure and how does it bond?
Carbon has four electrons in its outermost energy level allowing it to form 4 covalent bonds; Carbon molecules always contain carbon and hydrogen but can also contain other elements; When carbon bonds with carbon they can form straight molecules, branched molecules, or ring molecules
Organs
Carry out specialized jobs within an organ system
What are 2 ideas about geology made by scientists that influenced ideas of evolution?
Catastrophism- sudden catastrophes caused extinctions and the shaping of the Earth over a short time period (volcanos, earthquakes, and floods); Uniformitariasism- the world was shaped by slow and gradual events (erosion)
Multicellular organisms has _____ _____.
Cell Differentiation
Describe the 3 checkpoints of cell division
Cell Growth (G1) Checkpoint: proteins control whether cell will divide based on if it is healthy to move on to DNA synthesis(S phase), cell cycle could stop if cell needs rest, they go to G0 phase; SNA Synthesis (G2) Checkpoint: DNA repair enzymes check results of DNA replication, if passed, proteins signal cell to begin mitosis; Mitosis Checkpoint: If passed, proteins signal cell to exit mitosis and enter G1 phase to start cell cycle again
Cell Shape
Cell shape depends on its function making it be complex or simple; Nerve cells have extensions to send and recieve impulses; Skin cells are flat to lay on the surface of the body; white blood cells change shape to attack certain bacteria like purple-stained bacteria
Cell Size
Cell size is diverse to perform many functions and is limited by ratio between outer surface area and inner volume; As cell grows its surface area may become too small to allow enough materials to pass through the membrane; Cell transport if cell is big its slow to get in if its small it fast; Natural Laws Limit Cell Size: Cells must be large enough to house parts it needs to survive and reproduces, size is limited by the amount of surface needed to obtain nutrients from the environment and dispose; Most cells are 10 to 50 um in diameter
Organelle
Cell structures that carry out particular functions
Cytolosis
Cell's bursting due to water gain; can be shown with blood cells, they will gain too much water and burst
Plasmolysis
Cell's shrinking due to water loss; why plants wilt when they don't receive enough water; can be shown in blood cells, in a hypertonic environment the cell looses its shape and becomes shriveled
Organization
Cells and groups of cells are organized by function
Diploid
Cells having two sets of chromosomes; have 2 autosomes for each homologous pair; also have 2 sex chromosome in animals and humans; all human cells except reproductive cells (sperm and egg) are normally diploid cells; abbreviated as 2n; the diploid number of chromosomes in humans is 46(2x23=46)
Endocytosis and the 2 types
Cells ingest external fluid, macromolecules, and large particles by folding around them and forming a pouch; The pouch pinches off and becomes a vesicle, some vesicles will fuse with lysosomes and their contents will be digested; Pinocytosis: transport of solutes or fluids; Phagocytosis: transport of large particles or whole cells (Way bacteria and viruses are ingested)
What happens to cells preparing and undergoing meiosis?
Cells preparing for meiosis undergo interphase so that the cell begins meiosis with a duplicate set of chromosomes (1 from each parent forming homologous chromosomes); cells undergoing meiosis divide twice so diploid cells that divide meiotically result in 4 haploid cells
How are the products of cellular respiration the reactants of photosynthesis? How are the products of photosynthesis the reactants of cellular respiration?
Cellular respiration produces CO2 and H2O which are reactants in photosynthesis. Photosynthesis produces organic compounds and oxygen which are reactants in cellular respiration.
Nucleus
Central region of an atom that makes up the bulk of the mass of the atoms and consists of 2 subatomic particle; Overall charge is positive; Contains protons and neutrons
What does change in temperature and pH do to enzymes?
Change in shape of enzyme or substrate; If this happens, the reaction that the enzyme would have catalyzed cannot occur
Who was Charles Darwin and why was he important?
Charles Darwin discovered that there are similarities and differences among many organisms while he was traveling the work during the 19th century and that they changed over time to be like that through evolution. He invesitigated by observing the distribution of organisms, structures of them, and the times they lived in. He also presented the idea of "descent with modification." He was important because he helped people understand how the species and organisms on the Earth came to be and how humans and animals are all related.
Polar Covalent Bond
Chemical bond where a pair of electrons is shared unequally between two atoms
Biological Molecules
Chemical compounds that provide physical structure and bring movement, energy use, and other functions.
Condensation Reaction; Dehydration Reaction
Chemical reaction where monomers link to form polymer with the release of a water molecule
Describe the making of ATP in light reactions through chemiosmosis and the ATP Synthase
Chemiosmosis relies on the concentration gradient of protons across the thylakoid membrane. These protons are either created by the splitting of water or pumped from the stroma. The energy pumping these electrons is provided by the excited electrons moving across the thylakoid membrane. The concentration gradient of protons represents potential energy which is harnessed by the ATP synthase. The ATP synthase is driven by the protons that pass through the ATP synthase which then causes the ADP molecule and phos[hate group to attach to the synthase where they bond together to form ATP. This concludes that ATP synthase converts potential energy of the proton concentration gradient into chemical energy stored in ATP as well as NADPH.
Describe the role of chlorophylls in the biochemical pathways of photosynthesis.
Chlorophylls help absorb the light from the sun that will then be used as a product from absorbing to then a reactant to create chemical energy for the rest of photosysthesis
Anaphase of Mitosis
Chromatids of each chromosome separate at centromere and slowly move, centromere first, toward opposite poles of cell; after chromatid separate, it is considered individual chromosomes
Anaphase 2 of Meiosis 2
Chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell
Metaphase 2 of Meiosis 2
Chromosomes move to midline of dividing cell with each chromatid facing opposite poles; mitotic spindle attaches itself to each of the chromatids
Telophase 1 of Meiosis 1
Chromosomes reach opposite ends of cell; newly forming cells contain a haploid number of chromosomes; nuclear membrane reforms; cleavage furrow forms
Sex Chromosomes
Chromosomes that determine the sex of the organism, and they may also carry genes for other characteristics; For humans, they are either X or Y: females have 2 X chromosomes and males have an X and a Y chromosome; they make up 1 out of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans; 2 out of the 46 chromosomes in humans
Autosomes
Chromosomes that do not determine the sex of an individual; 22 out of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans; 44 out of the 46 chromosomes in humans
Cilia and Flagella: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Cilia Location: Animal cells and Protozoans; Flagella Location: Bacterial cells and Protozoans; Structure/Description: Hairlike structures that extend from the surface of the cell; Have membrane on outer surface and internal of 9 pairs of microtubules around 2 central tubules; Cilia Structure: Short and numerous; Flagella Structure: Long and few in number; Overall Function: Assists in movement; Cilia Function: propel cell along and move materials over cell surface; Flagella Function: propel cells through the environment
Cytokinesis 2
Cleavage furrow forms and dividing cell pulls apart to create 4 new cells, each of which contains half of the original cell's number of chromosomes
Cytokinesis 1 of Meiosis 1
Cleavage furrow splits cell and cell pulls itself apart resulting in 2 new daughter cells wich contain a haploid number of chromosomes
Photosystem
Cluster of pigment molecules and the proteins that pigment molecules are embedded in; 2 photosystems both contain similar pigments but have different roles
Describe how water behaves at its surface and how hydrogen bonding plays a role.
Cohesive forces of water resulting from hydrogen bonds can cause the molecules at the surface of water to be pulled downward into the liquid.
Fermentation
Combination of glycolysis and additional pathways which regenerate NAD+; does not produce ATP from the additional energy in pyruvic acid but recycles NAD+ from NADH so glycolysis does not use up all of the NAD+ in the cell
What is the energy efficiency of glycolysis?
Complete oxidation of a standard amount of glucose = 686 kcal; Production of standard amount of ATP from ADP = 7kcal; 2 ATP molecules made by every one glucose; 2 x 7 divided by 686 x 100% = 2%
Eukaryotes
Complex cells, can be single-celled or multicellular, has a membrane-bound nucleus, DNA arranged in separate strands, membrane-bound organelles, found in Animal, Plant, Protists, and Fungi kingdoms, large; Nuclear membrane has a double membrane of phospholipids
Polysaccharide
Complex molecule composed of three or more monosaccharides
Carbohydrates: Function, examples, draw the monomer, elements, structure, and components
Components: Monosaccharide, disaccharide, polysaccharide; Examples: Glucose, galactose(milk sugar), fructose(fruit), maltose, lactose, sucrose(table sugar), glycogen(animal muscle tissue), amd cellulose (plant tissue); Elements: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen in 1:2:1 ratio; Monomer is a single simple sugar ring; Functions: Major source of short term energy storage like glycogen, starch, and cellulose
Pigments
Compounds that absorb light waves
DNA in Prokaryotes
Consists of only one chromosome which is attached to the inside of the cell membrane; circular DNA molecule
Dynamic Equilibrium
Continued movement of molecules with no net chnage in concentration; when bith sides of the cell embrane are equal in molecule concentration
What are the groups and variables presented when performing an experiment?
Control group is the object staying the same or affected with a normal thing; Independent variable is the variable manipulated on purpose; Dependent variable is what is being measured and the result of what is being manipulated; Experimental grouphas the independent and manipulated variable.
Photosynthesis; Equation
Converts light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds, mainly carbohydrates; 6 CO2 + 6 H2O > C6H12O6 + 6 O2: 6 carbon dioxide plus 6 waters yield through help of light energy to make glucose and 6 oxygen
How does a peer review prevent dishonesty in scientists?
Creates objectives by other scientists evaluating and reading the work of others due to them not having bias.
Prophase 1 of Meiosis 1
DNA coils tightly into chromosomes and spindle fibers appear; nucleolus and nuclear membrane disassemble; every chromosome lines up next to its homologue; Synapsis occurs which is the pairing of homologous chromosomes, during this, chromatids twist around one another; portions of chromatids may break off and attach to adjacent chromatids on the homologous chromosome which is crossing-over; this results in genetic recombination
Concentration Gradient
Difference in concentration of moelcules across a distance
What are several inferences about evolution that are supported by geologic/fossil evidence?
Different organisms lived at different times, organisms from past are different from the ones today, fossils in adjacent layers are more similar to each other than ones in higher/lower layers so organisms that lived in the same times are more alike, and that by comparing rocks and fossils from different places on Earth, you can conclude where and when each organism existed.
Natural Selection; What are its 4 principles?
Differential success in survival and reproduction of individuals w/ different phenotypes resulting from interactions w/ their environment; Genetic Variation, Overproduction, Adaptation, and Differential Reproduction (Descent with Modification)
Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion of molecules across a membrane when they are not soluble in lipids (ex, ions) or too large (ex, glucose) to pass through pores in membrane; Molecule will bind to a carrier protein on one side of the cell membrane , then the carrier protein will change its shape, it will then release the molecule to the other side of the membrane to then return to its original shape; Example is of glucose: many cells depend on glucose for their energy needs, when the level of glucse within the cell is lower than the level outside the cell, carrier proteins help transport glucose into the cell; The carrier proteins within the cell membrane are each for a specific type of molecule
Osmosis
Diffusion of water across a membrane; Net direction of osmosis is determined by the relative solute concentrations on the two sides of the membrane; The direction depends on if the concentration is hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic; For example, water moves into plant cells by osmosis swelling up the cell; Sometimes the water leaves causing the cell to shrink
Biodiversity
Directly related to a number of species present in a particular area
Wavelength
Distance between wave crests; light w/ shorter wavelengths=greater energy; light w/ longer wavelengths=less energy
What are the 3 themes of biology?
Diversity and Unity of Life, Interdepndence of Organisms, and Evolution
Binary Fission
Division of a prokaryotic cell into 2 offspring cells; this is asexual reproduction; DNA is copied resulting in 2 identical chromosomes attached to the inner cell membrane; new cell membrane begins to develop; cell grows until it is twice the size it was originally; cell splits in 2
Cytokinesis of Mitosis
Division of cytoplasm to form 2 separate cells; In Animal Cells: begins with pinching of cell membrane, area of cell membrane that pinches in and eventually separates dividing cell is called cleavage furrow, cleavage furrow pinches the cell into 2 cells through the action of microfilaments; In Plant Cells: vesicles from Golgi apparatus join together a midline of cell to form a cell plate, cell wall eventually forms from cell plate dividing cell into 2 cells
What are the 3 domains of life and what kingdoms are in them?
Domain Bacteria: Kingdom Bacteria (Eubacteria) Domain Archaea: Kingdom Archaea (Archaebacteria) Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Anamalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista
What is a domain and a kingdom?
Domains are the three main branches of the "Tree of Life." Kingdoms are apart of a grouping system of organisms into 6 major catergories.
Anaphase 1 of Meiosis 1
Each homologous chromosome (2 chromatids attached by a centromere) moves to an opposite pole of the dividing cell; this random separation of homologous chromosomes occurs through independent assortment
Chromatid
Each identical half of a chromosome; they form when DNA makes a copy of itself before cell division; when cell divides, each new cell receives one chromatid from each chromosome
Tetrad
Each pair of homologous chromosomes; in each tetrad, chromatids of the homologous chromosomes are aligned lengthwise so that the genes on one chromosome are adjacent to the corresponding genes on the other chromosome
Chromosome Number
Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell; humans have 46; some species can have the same number
What two terms are included in Interdependence of organisms? Explain.
Ecology- studies organisms interacting with each other and the environment; Ecosystem- communities of living species and their physical environment; Depend on each other for materials, nutrients, water, gas, heat, and other elements from the physical environment which helps maintain the ecosystem.
Electron Transport Chain
Electron transport chain and ATP synthase embedded in folds of mitochondria called cristae which provide more surface area for reactions to take place in eukaryotes; in prokaryotes, its in the cell membrane; ATP is produced when NADH and FADH2 release H+ atoms, regenerating NAD+ and FAD
Energy Efficiency
Energy yield divided by the amount of energy contained in the original molecule
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Enzyme converts pyruvic acid into another three-carbon compound called lactic acid; NADH, which also has a free proton H+, is oxidized to form NAD+ which is used in glycolysis; 1 glucose creates 2 lactic acid
Rubisco
Enzyme that puts CO2 and RuBP together to make PGA
What 2 principles make the scientific method a unique process?
Events in a natural world obtain natural causes; Uniformity which is at all times, the fundamental laws of nature are functioning at all places in the same way.
How does evolution help the diversity of life?
Evolution is the process in which the inherited characteristics within populations change over generations, such that genetically distant populations and new species can develop.
What are two types of scientific models?
Exponential- assumes there are unlimited resources; Logistic- realistic with limits
C4 Plants
Fixes CO2 or carbon into four-carbon compounds; uses C4 Pathway to do this; During hottest part of day, they have their stomata partially closed; An enzyme fixes CO2 into four-carbon compounds even when CO2 level is low and O2 level is high; These compounds are then transported to other cells, where CO2 is released and enters the Calvin cycle; Lose half as much water as C3 plants when they produce same amount of carbohydrates; These plant evolved in tropical climates
Hydrogen Bond
Force of attraction between a hydrogen molecule with a partial positive charge and another atom or molecule with a partial or full negative charge; Hydrogen bonds in water use an attractive force strong enough so that water "clings" to itself and sometimes other substances
Cell Division
Formation of two new cells from an existing cell
Covalent Bond
Forms when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons; Example: Hydrogen needs 2 electrons to become stable so it bonds with itself to create H2.
Is glycolysis efficient at producing ATP?
Glycolysis only produces a little bit of ATP from glucose because most of the energy in glucose was held in pyruvic acid which did not release any more energy during fermentation
Genetic Code
Governs how cells use hereditary information in DNA
Organ System
Group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions (nervous system)
Tissues
Groups of cells that have similar abilities and that allow the organ to function
Hydronium Ion
H3O+; When more are added to a solution the pH drops to become more acidic
Gametes
Haploid reproductive cells; human gametes are sperm and egg cells; fusion of the sperm and egg cell results in a zygote; participates in fertilization
Cell differentiation
Has a specific purpose
Transitional Species
Have features that are intermediate between those of hypothesized ancestors and later descendant species.
Compare homologous structures, analogous structures, and vestigial structures.
Homologous structures are anatomical structures that occur in different species and that originated by hereditary from a structure in the latest common ancestor of the species. The organs of these structures are related in structure but their functions do differ between species. Analogous structures have closely related functions but do not have the same ancestral structure. Vestigial structures seem to serve no function but resemble structures with functional roles in related organisms.
What was Robert Hooke's contribution to the cell theory?
Hooke examined a piece of cork wood and noticed it was divided into little squares resemblimg prison cells; He named those squares cells. He used a light microscope to examine these dead plant cells.
What are the 4 main elements all living things are composed of?
Hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen
Superposition
If the rock strata at a location have not been disturbed, the lowest stratum was formed before the strata above it.
When does meiosis 2 occur?
In some species, meiosis 2 begins after nuclear membrane reforms in the new cells but in others it begins immediately following meiosis 1
Splitting of Water Molecules
In step 4 of the light reactions, electrons from chlorophyll molecules in photosystem 2 replace electrons that leave chlorophyll molecules in photosystem 1; this replacement allows the electron transport chains to continue and photosynthesis to occur; The replacement of these electron are provided by the splitting of a water molecule; an enzyme inside the thylakoid splits water molecules into protons, electrons, and oxygen; for every 2 molecules of water split, 4 electrons become available to replace; the protons are left inside the thylakoid and the oxygen diffuses out of the chloroplast to then leave the plant; Equation: 2 H2O > 4H+ + 4e- + O2
To increase the amount of solute that can be dissolved in the solvent what do you do? List 3 ways.
Increase the temperature or the solvent, add more solvent, and increasing the pressure.
Accessory Pigments
Indirectly assist other pigments by absorbing more light energy
What are the specific types of proteins in the cell membrane and what do they do? How do they help the membrane be selectively permeable?
Integral Proteins: includes receptor and transport proteins which extend across cell membrane and are exposed to the cell's interior and exterior environment; They are able to detect environmental signals and transmit them toinside of cells; They often have carbohydrates attatched which act as labels on cell surface; They help the cell in transporting molecules inside; they can act as channels or pores to allow certainsubstances to pass; some can bind to molecules outside cell and transport it through membrane; Peripheral Proteins: ones like enzymes that lie on only 1 side of the membrane and are not embedded in it
Steps of Aerobic Respiration
Intermediary step: conversion of pyruvic acid from cytosol diffusing into mitochondria matrix to Acetyl CoA; Krebs Cycle: produces CO2, hydrogen atoms, and ATP; ETC and Chemiosmosis: produce most of ATP
Thermal Energy
Internal energy of an object due to the kinetic activity of its atoms or molecules
Community
Interracting group of various species in one common location
Passive Transport
Involves the movement of molecules across the cell membrane without energy from areas of high to low concentration; Types of passive transport includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion; goes w/ the flow of the cell membrane
Secondary Cell Wall
Is made when a cell stops growing between the primary cell wall and plasma membrane; Is very strong but can't expand
Why is oxygen important in the ETC?
It is the last acceptor of electrons and protons and if those particles were not accepted, it would build up bringing the ETC to a halt; it allows additional electrons to pass through the chain
How does the fluid mosaic model describe the cell membrane?
It states that the phospholipid bilayer behaves like a fluid more than it behaves as a solid; The membrane's lipids and proteiens can move side to side within the bilayer like a boat, this side to side movement results in the pattern or "mosaic" of lipids and proteins in the cell membrane constantly changing
How many ATP are used and produced in glycolysis?
It takes 2 ATP to start (input) and results in 4 ATP being produced creating a net yield of 2 ATP
Metaphase of Mitosis
Kinetochore fibers move chromosomes to center of cell; each chromosome is held in place by kinetochore fibers; full mitotic spindle is formed
List and explain the 3 limiting factors of photosynthesis.
Lack of CO2: if no CO2 is available, RuBP can't be converted into PGA causing RuBP to build up and no glucose to be produced; Temperature: if the temp is low then photosynthesis would be reduced since the enzymes controlling the reactions are below their favorable temp, if the temperature is too high then the rate of photosynthesis would decrease but if a specific temperature is reached, then the enzymes will work properly; Light Intensity: if there is an absence of light, neither ATP or NADPH will be produced so PGA can't be converted into glucose, but if the electrons in photosynthesis are already excited then the rate of photosynthesis is already at it maximum so more light would not increase it
Lipids: Functionns, examples, draw the monomer of a lipid, components, and elements.
Large non-polar organic molecules; Functions: Long term energy storage, insultaion, protection, biological membrane; Examples: Fats, oils, cholesterol, waxes-bee hives, seroids-horomones, butter, and vegetable oil; Monomer: fatty acids and glycerol; Components: Trigycerides, phospholipids, waxes, steroids, chain of fatty acids and glycerol; Elements: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
What was Anton van Leeuwenhoek's contribution to the cell theory?
Leeuwenhoek in 1680 discovered blood cells, bacteria, and other single-celled organisms in which he named "animacules"; He made lenses and microscopesin which allowed him to see really tiny things; He tesred pond water and saw little organisms moving around; He was the first to see living cells; His lenese were ground by him with a strong magnification; Animacules are now known as protists
Chromatin
Less tightly coiled DNA-protein complex; DNA takes this form between cell divisions so they can be read and information can be used to direct activities of the cell
Light Reactions
Light energy absorbed from the sun is converted to chemical energy which is temporarity stored in ATP and the energy carrier molecule NADPH
What do plants use to make organic compounds?
Light, carbon dioxide, and water
Nucleus: Location, Structure, Function
Location: All cells except prokaryotes; Structure/Description: Membrane-bound organelle that is the control center of the cell; Made of nucleolus, nuclear membrane, filled with nucleoplasm, contains DNA in form of chromatin or chromosomes; Function: Houses/protects cell's DNA, controls activities and functions, controls processes lie growth, reproduction, metabolism, location where DNA is made into RNA
Golgi Apparatus: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: All cells except prokaryotes; Structure/Description: System of flattened membranous sacs; stacks of flattened sacs, has a cis and trans face at each end; Function: Sacs near nucleus receive vesicles from ER with proteins and lipids, modifies vesicle contents, modifies proteins made by call, pacages and exports proteins
Mitochondria: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: All cells except prokaryotes; Structure/Description: Tiny organelles that transfer energy from organic molecules into ATP; peanut shape, double membrane, smooth outer membrane separating from cytosol, inner membrane has folds called cristae with proteins to carry out energy chemical reactions; Function: Carry out energy-harvesting chemical reactions, break down sugar molecules to release energy, site of aerobic cellular respiration, powers cell and allows to be active
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: All cells except prokaryotes; Structure/Description: system of membranous tubes and sacs called cisternae; netwrok of tubes and membranes, connects to nuclear envelope and cell membrane, Smooth ER has no ribosomes and Rough ER has ribosomes; Function: Rugh ER produces phosphlipids and proteins, Smooth ER produces lipids; Carries materials through cell, aids in protein making, acts as an intracellular highway
Cell Membrane: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: All cells; Structure/Description: Cell outer boundary that acts as a barrier; In Animals it is made of cholesterol, double phospholipid bilayer made of proteins, lipids inbetween tails are sterols, different protein types like integral, peripheral, transport, receptor, and enzyme, cell surface marker; Function: Provides protection/support, controls movement and detects what is allowed to come in and out of cell, barrier between cell and environment, maintains homeosasis, separates internal metabolic reactions from external environment, allows cells to dispose waste
Ribosome: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: All cells; Structure/Description: Small organelles of protein and RNA; Spherical, no membrane, made of RNA and protein, can be free in cytosol or attatched to ER, joined with 1 small subunit and 1 large subunit, has a strand of mRNA; Function: Helps with protein synthesis, assembly of ribosomes start in nucleus and ends in cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: All cells; Structure/Description: network of thin tubes/filaments that crisscross the cytosol; made of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments; Function: Strengthen cell and maintain shape, moves organelles with in cell, system of internal tracks,functions based on structural elements, supports and shapes cell
Cytoplasm: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: All cells; Structure/Description: region of cell that holds fluids, cytoskeleton, and all organelles except the nucleus; Made of cytosol which includes the molecule and particles but no organelles, holds all structures of cell besides nucleus, gel like substance; Function: Home for organelles, ontains cytosol, filaments, proteins, ions, the cytoskeleton, and other macromolecular structures; gets rid of waste through cell membrane, gives cell shape, where most important activities occur
Nuclear Membrane/Envelope: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: Animal cells, plant cells, and eukaryotic cells; Structure/Description: Double membrane surrounding the nucleus; Made of 2 phospholipid bilayers, has ribosomes, has an outer and inner membrane, nuclear pores; Function: Provides barrier between nuclear contents and cytosol, pores provide passageways for RNA, selects certain materials to leave and enter, support for nucleus, controls DNA movement
Centrioles: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: Eukaryotic cells, animals cells, lack in plant cells; Structure/Description: consists of microtubules in the cytoplasm near the nuclear envelope; 2 short cylinders of microtubules at right angles to each other; Function: Organizes microtubules of the cytoskeleton during cell division
Microtubule: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: Eukaryotic cells; Structure/Description: Hollow tubes in the cytoskeleton; hollow tubes of coiled protein, made of tubulin(protein) with 2 subunits; Function: Maintain cell shapes, hold organelles in shape, guides organelles and molecules as they move, helps with chromosome movement
Microfilament: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: Eukaryotic cells; Structure/Description: Long threads of actin linked together in 2 twisted strands; Made of beadlike protein actin linked end to end to each other with 2 strands of intertwined protein; Function: Helps maintain and change cell shape, muscle contraction, movement of cytoplasm, cell movement, cell division
Nucleolus: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: Eukaryotic cells; Structure/Description: center of nucleus; dense area, sits in nucleus, amde of protein and RNA; Function: Where DNA is concentrated when its in the process of making ribosomal RNA, rewrites rRNA and combines it with protein, plays role in protein synthesis by assembling the subunits
Chloroplast: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: PLant cells and eukaryotic Algae cells; Structure/Description: organelles that use light energy to make carbs from carbon dioxide and water; green oval with chlorophyll(green pigment), double membrane with inner membrane holding sacs called thylakids; Grana-stacks of sacs that are interconnected; Stroma-inner gel; Function: Uses energy from cell to make food, where photosynthesis occurs, realeases oxygen, absorbs light and captures energy
Vacuole: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: Plant cells have 1 central and large vacuole and animal cells have small vacuoles; Structure/Description: large or small, fluid filled organelle tha stores materials; Fluid filled sacs, largest organelle in plant cells; Function: Stores food, water, metabolic and toxic wastes, and more; stpre large amounts of food/sugars in planrs, lets plants stand upright when water is provided
Chromosome: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: Plant cells, animal cells, eukaryotic cells; Structure/Description: condensed form of chromatin that DNA holds when cell is in division; condensed of DNA and protein; Function: Allow DNA to stay intact and keep in distribution throughout cell during cell division, protects gentic info
Chromatin: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: Plant cells, animal cells, eukaryotic cells; Structure/Description: form that DNA holds when cell isn't dividing; threadlike strands of DNA; Function: Package DNA into small volume to fit inside nucleus, protect DNA structure and sequence
Nuclear Pores: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: Plant cells, animal cells, eukaryotic cells; Structure/Description: tiny holes on nuclear envelope; tiny and protein lined; Function: Provide passageways for RNA and other materials to enter/leave nucleus
Cell Wall: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: Plant, Bacteria, and Fungi cells; Structure/Description: Rigid outside layer of cell membrane; Rigid and strong, made of cellulose, has a primary and secondary wall; Function: Support for things to grow tall, protection, allows molecules to go in and out of cell
Lysosome: Location, Structure/Description, Function
Location: Uncommon in plant cells and common in animal cells; Structure/Description: Vesicles that bud from the Golgi apparatus and contains digestive enzymes; small and round, single membrane; Function: Breaks down large food molecules into smaller molecules, digests old cell parts that do not function properly which helps maintain cell's health
Primary Cell Wall
Made of cellulose and growth of this wall occurs in one diretion based on the orientation of microtubules
Compound
Made up of atoms or two or more elements in fixed proportions; Example: NaCl
Homeostasis; What functions?
Maintenance of a stable level of internal conditions while the environment is constantly changing. Has systems that control temp, cell's uptake of nutrients, and water content.
How are observations used to form a hypothesis?
Makes you ask the question, Does that always hold true? in which the hypothesis will answer.
Atomic Mass
Mass of one isotope multiplied by the abundance of other isotopes
Who were the 3 scientists that provided evidence for the cell theory and what did they do?
Matthias Schleiden in 1838 theorized all plants were made of cells; Theodor Schwann in 1839 theorized all animals are made of cells; Rudolph Virchow in 1855 stated all living cells come from already existing cells
How are metabolism and homeostasis interrelated?
Metabolism has to function in order for homeostasis to work correctly.
Solution
Mixture in hich one or miore substances are uniformly distributed in another substance
Polymer
Molecule that consists of repeated, linked units of monomers; large polymers are macromolecules
Fatty Acids
Monomer of Lipid; Unbranched carbon chains that make up most lipids; Long carbon chain with a carboxyl group- COOH which is polar and the hydrogen end is non polar
Monosaccharide
Monomer of carbohydrates that is a simple sugar
Nucleotides
Monomer of nucleic acids that is made up of 5-C Sugar, Phosphate group, and Nitrogenous base
Is cellular respiration more or less efficient than fermentation?
More efficient because it creates 38 ATP while fermentation helps create 2 ATP for glycolysis
Diffusion
Movement of molecules from area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration, driven by the molecules' kinetic energy until a state of dynamic equilibrium is reached
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Moves Na+ ions out of the cells for every K+ ions it moves into the cytosol; Animal cells have a higher concentration of Na+ ions outside the cell and a higher concentration of K+ ions inside the cell; ATP supplies the energy that drives the pump; The exchange of the ions create an electrical gradient across the cell membrane, so the outsde becomes positively charged relative to the inside which becomes negative; difference in electrical charge is important for the conduction of electrical impulses along nerve cells; STEPS: 1) the Na+ ions bind to the carrier protein 2) phosphate group is removed from the ATP and bound to the carrier protein 3) binding of phosphate group chnages the shape of the carrier protein allowing the Na+ ions to be rekeased into the cell's environment 4) K+ ions bind to the carrier protein 5) the phosphate group is released, restoring the shape of the protein 6) K+ ions are released into the cytosol
Active Transport
Moves molecules across the cell membrane from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration; Requires the cell to expend energy, ATP; some types are performed by carrier proteins called cell membrane pumps
ATP Synthase
Multifunctional protein serving as an enzyme and carrier protein
Explain how lactic acid fermentation is involved when you are active.
Muscles use up most oxygen available signaling the switch from cellular respiration to lactic acid fermentation; this makes the cells' cytosol more acidic reducing cells; ability to contract often causing muscle fatigue, pain, and cramps; lactic acid eventually diffuses into blood stream and transported to the liver to be converted back into pyruvic acid
Electron
Negative charge; e- ; Located outside the nucleus in energy levels and orbitals of the electron cloud
Anion
Negative ion
Neutron
Neutral/ do not have charge; n ; located in nucleus
Product
New compounds formed from the chemical reaction and are shown on the right side.
Genetic Recombination
New mixture of genetic material is created
Prophase 2 of Meiosis 2
Nuclear membrane disassembles and chromosomes are released; spindle fibers for and begin to move chromosomes toward midline of the dividing cell
Telophase 2
Nuclear membrane forms around chromosomes in each of the 4 newly forming cells
Atomic Number
Number of protons in an atom; Appears directly above the symbol
Hydroxide Ion
OH-; When more added to solution the pH increases to become more basic
Intermediary Step
Occurs in mitochondrial matrix; after glycolysis and before Krebs cycle; pyruvic acid diffuses into mitochondria by crossing both membranes; pyruvic acid reacts with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA; Carbon atom lost by pyruvic acid(3-C compound) is released in a CO2 molecules; reduces NAD+ to NADH; Pyruvic Acid + Coenzyme A > Acetyl CoA
Anaerobic Respiration
Occurs when there is no presence of oxygen; the processes of glycolysis and anaerobic pathways called fermentation; sufficient for single-celled organisms but does not produce enough energy for multicellular
Chemical Reaction
One or more substances change to produce one or more different substances; Energy is absorbed or released when bonds are broken or formed; Chemical bonds are broken then atoms are rearranged and new bonds are formed
Cell Division
One phase of the cell cycle; chromosomes and cytoplasm are equally divided among 2 offspring cells; consists of mitosis and cytokinesis
Haploid
One set of chromosomes; they include sperm and egg cells; have one autosome for each homologous pair and only one sex chromosome so there is 23 total in humans; when a haploid sperm and a haploid egg cell combine to create the first cell of a new organism, it forms a diploid
Solar Radiation
Only natural source of light for all organisms
Plastids
Organelles that are surrounded by a double membrane and contain their own DNA; There are several types including chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and leucoplasts
Contractile Vescicles
Organelles that remove water; collect access water and the contract, pumping the water out of the cell; this is not a form of passive transport because it requires energy
Glycolysis
Organic compounds are converted into three-carbon molecules of pyruvic acid, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH; occurs in the cytosol
Calvin Cycle
Organic compounds are formed using CO2 and the chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH; series of enzyme-assisted chemical reactions that produces a three-carbon sugar
Proteins: Functions, examples, draw the monomer, components, and elements
Organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; Functions: Control reactions, regulate cell functions, form bones and muscles, fight disease, transport substances; Examples: Muscle, skin, hair, enzymes, antibodies; Monomer: Amino acids; Components: Amino acids- amino group, carboxyl group, r-group, and hydrogen; Elements: Nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Relate the roles pf adaptation and fitness in the theory of natural selection.
Organisms that have adapted have better fitness that allows them to survive longer and they then go through the process of natural slection.
Heterotroph
Organisms that must get energy from food instead of directly from sunlight or inorganic substances
Heterotrophs
Organisms that must get energy from food instead of directly from sunlight or inorganic substances
Autotroph
Organisms that use energy from sunlight or from chemical bonds in inorganic substances to make organic compounds
Autotrophs
Organisms that use energy from sunlight or from chemical bonds in inorganic substances to make organic compounds
What are the 7 characteristics of life?
Organization and cells, response to stumili, homeostasis, metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and change through time.
Living Organisms (how are they organized)
Organized at molecular and cellular levels
What happens at the end of Meiosis 1?
Original cell produces 2 new cells containing one chromosome from each homologous pair; new cells contain half the number of chromosomes of the original cell; each new cell contains two copies (as chromatids) because the original cell copied its DNA before meiosis 1
What is overproduction?
Overproduction is when an organism produces more offspring than are able to survive to maturity. This is because individuals have to compete for limited resources like food, water, and shelter and they are also exposed to diseases and predators.
What are the 2 phases of glycolysis?
Phase 1 is the Energy Investment Phase with the input of glucose and 2 ATP; Phase 2 is the Energy Payoff Phase which is when 4 ATP and 2 NADH are made as well as 2 pyruvate molecules
Karyotype
Photomicrograph of the chromosomes in a normal dividing cell found in humans; 46 chromosomes exist as 22 homologous pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes
Chlorophyll
Pigments that absorb violet, blue, and red and reflect green
What are the differences between plant cells and animal cells?
Plant cells have a cell wall, large central vacuole, and plastids unlike an animal cell
What are the 3 basic parts of a cell?
Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus
Explain change through time.
Populations of organisms evolve/change through time to better adapt to changing conditions
Crossing-Over
Portions of chromatids may break off and attach to adjacent chromatids on the homologous chromosome
Proton
Positive charge; p+ ; located in nucleus
Cation
Positive ion
Capillary Action
Powered by adhesion and cohesion; Water molecules move upward through the stem of a plant due to the attraction of water to the stem and the uplift of water through their attraction to each molecule of itself
Development
Process by which an organism becomes a mature adult; involves cell division and cell specialiazation
Cellular Respiration
Process by which cells make ATP by breaking down organic compounds; takes O2 and glucose and turns it into ATP; products are CO2 and H2O with addition of ATP
Photosynthesis
Process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen.
Evolution
Process in which the inherited characteristics within populations change over generations, such that genetically distinct populations and new species can develop.
Meiosis
Process of nuclear division that reduces the number of chromosomes in new cells to half the number in the original cell; results in the production of sex cells
Aerobic Respiration
Process that occurs when oxygen is present in the cell's environment in which pyruvic acid is broken down and NADH is used to make a large amount of ATP; occurs in the mitochondria; two major stafes: Krebs Cycle and electron transport chain
Chemiosmosis
Process that sythesizes ATP
Alcoholic Fermentation
Process used by some plants and unicellular organisms like yeast to convert pyruvic acid into ethyl alcohol; first, a CO2 is removed from pyruvic acid forming a two-carbon compound, next two hydrogen atoms are added to the two-carbon compound to form ethyl alcohol; these hydrogen atoms come from NADH and H+ creating NAD+ for glycolysis
Oogenesis
Production of mature egg cells by meiosis occurring in the ovaries: diploid reproductive cell divides meiotically to produce one mature egg cell, during cytokinesis 1 and 2 of oogenesis, cytoplasm is split unevenly between new cells so only one develops into a mature cell, the other are polar bodies which will degenerate
Spermatogenesis
Production of sperm cells by meiosis occurring in the testes: diploid reproductive cells divide meiotically to form 4 haploid cells called spermatids
What are the differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?
Prokaryotic cells are more smaller and simpler unlike the large and complex eukaryotic cells; prokaryotic cells do not have a membrane-bound nucleus or organelles like a eukaryotic cell does; Eukaryotic cells are not always single-celled like prokaryotic cells; The DNA in prokaryotes is in 1 single loop and in eukaryotes it is in many separate strands; Eukaryotic cells are found in animal, plant, protists, and fungi kingdoms; Prokarotic cells are found in bacteria and archaebacteria kingdoms
Amino Acids
Protein's monomer
What type of molecule controls the cell cycle?
Proteins control the cell cycle signaling when a phase of it can occur and begin
Histones
Proteins that DNA wraps tightly around; they help maintain shape of chromosomes and help with the tight packing of DNA
Ion Channels
Proteins, or groups of proteins, that provide small passageways across the cell membrane through which specific ions can diffuse; Ions important to cell function include sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca+), and chloride (Cl-); ions not soluble in lipids; each channel is each for a specific type of ion; some are open while some have "gates" in response to stimuli, the stretching of the cell membrane, electrical signals, or chemicals in the cytosol or external environment
Enthalpy
Quantity used to measure the internal chemical energy content of chemical substances; Measures changes in heat; Enthalpy change for an exothermic reaction has a negative values, (^H<0); Enthalpy change for an endothermic reaction has a positive value, (^H>0)
Endothermic
Reaction where energy is absorbed
Exothermic
Reaction where energy is released
Hydrolysis
Reaction where water is used to break down a polymer and other complex molecules; Water molecule breaks the bond linking each monomer; reverse of condensation reaction
Angiogenesis
Recruitment of blood vessels from the network of neighboring tissues
Catalyst
Reduces the amount of activation energy needed for a reaction to take place; Just a little amount of energy added by a catalyst will speed it up
Phylogeny
Relationships by ancestry among groups of organisms
Cell Cycle
Repeating set of events in the life of a cell; Consists of Interphase (G1, S, and G2), Cell division: Mitosis (Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase), and cytokinesis
Mitosis
Results in new cells with genetic material that is identical to the genetic material of the original cell; occurs in organisms undergoing growth, development, repair, or asexual reproduction; results in two offspring cells genetically identical to the parent cell and each other; organized distribution of a cell's coppied DNA to offspring cells
RuBP
Ribulose biphosphate; five-carbon molecule
Chromosome
Rod-shaped structures made of DNA and proteins; coiled up DNA
What are the two states lipids are found in?
Saturated: straight chain and all single carbon bonds, hard to break down, solid at room temp, "bad" fats, found in butter, animal fats, and waxes; Unsaturated: 2 or more carbon to carbon double bonds, easy to break down, liquid at room temp, "healthy" fats, found in membranes-phospholipids make up bilayer, and vegetable oils
pH Scale
Scale of 0-14 to compare the relative concentrations of hydronium ions and hydroxide ions in a solution; pH of 7 is neutral
Biochemical Pathway
Series of linked chemical reactions, in which the product of one reaction is consumed (used as the reactant) in the next reaction
Electron Transport Chain
Series of molecules loacted in the thylakoid membrane that transfer electrons from one molecule to the next
What are the 2 types of reproduction?
Sexual Reproduction - hereditary information combines from 2 organisms of same species; Asexual Reproduction- hereditary informatiom from 1 organisms, new organisms are exactly the same
Prophase of Mitosis
Shortening and tight coiling of DNA into chromosomes; nucleolus and nuclear membrane break down; centrosomes appear next to disappearing nucleus, each in which contains centrioles, they move to opposite poles of the cell; spindle fibers start to form radiating from centrosomes creating a mitotic spindle which divides chromatids; kinetochore fibers attach to disk protein called kinetochore located at centromere of one of the chromosomes; polar fibers extend from centrosome to centrosome
How does the "tree of life" describe unity and diversity?
Shows that all organisms possess a genetic DNA code and how many different organisms are present.
Molecule
Simpelest part of a substance that retains all of the properties of that substance and can exist in a free state; 2 or more atoms held together by a covalent bond; Example: O2 molecule of compound H2O
List what and how many of each are produced during the Krebs cycle.
Six NADH (continues to ETC), two FADH2 (continues to ETC), two ATP which is used for energy, and four CO2 which are given off as waste by the organism
Stomata
Small holes located on the undersurface of the leaves; open to let in CO2 and let out water; plants reduce water loss in hot and dry air by closing the stomata
Monomer
Smaller, simpler molecules that build up many carbon compounds and join to form polymers through a condensation reaction.
Saturate solution/ Unsaturated solution
Solution where the maximum amount of solute is disolved in a solvent; Solution where more solute can be added to dissolve in a solvent.
Aqueous Solution
Solutions where water is the solvent
Why do most eukaryotic cells produce fewer than 38 ATP molecules for every glucose molecule that is oxidized by cellular respiration?
Some of the NADH made during glycolysis cannot diffuse through the inner membrane of the mitochondria making it be actively transported into the mitochondrial matrix using up ATP
Mitochondrial Matrix
Space inside the inner membrane of a mitochondrion; contains enzymes needed to catalyze the reactions of the Krebs cycle
Mestasis
Spread of cancer cells to distinct parts of the body through the lymph system or blood stream
Ecology;Ecosystems
Study of how organisms interact with each other and the environment; Communities of living species and their physical environments
Biogeography
Study of locations of organisms around the world
Reactant
Substance that will undergo the chemical reaction and are shown on the left side of the equation
Element; Why are they pure substances?
Substances that can not be broken down chemically into simpler kinds of matter; Pure substances because it only contains one type of atom
"Tree of Life"
Suggests all living things have descended w/ modification from a single common ancestor; all life is connected
Metabolism; How does it help/functions?
Sum of all the chemical reactions that take in and transform energy and materials from the environment. Helps with processes that require energy and how much needs to be taken in for repair, movement, reproduction, growth, and more.
Metaphase 1 of Meiosis 1
Tetrads line up randomly along the midline of the dividing cell; orientation of pair of chromosomes is random with respect to the poles of the cell; Spindle fiber from one pole attach to the centromere of one homologous chromosome; spindle fibers from opposite pole attach to other homologous chromosome of the pair
Draw the structure of an Amino Acid; How does it change each protein?
The R-group differentiates in each amino acid of a protein and it determines the shape and functions of the protein.
In animal, what cells divide by meiosis?
The cells that produce gametes within the reproductive organs
Surface Tension
The cohesive forces in water resulting from hydrogen bonds cause the molecules at the surface of the water to be pulled down into the liquid creating a thin "skin" on its surface; It allows small objects and insects to run across its surface and allows less dense things to float on the surface; The surface tension is broken once another substance, detergent, comes into play and breaks the hydrogen bonds.
What industries is lactic acid fermentation used in?
The dairy industry with cheese, milk, sour cream, yogurt, buttermilk, and more. Fermentation is used in a controlled manner to produce these things with the use of harmless microorganisms
What evidence supports the hypothesis of modern whales being evolved from land-dwelling mammals?
The evidence is shown by comparing the fossils of a modern day whale and some ancient land-dwelling mammals. Once these were compared it was shown that there are a sequence of differences in the structure of the hind limbs, forelimbs, vertabrae, and skull of each species. These are described as adaptations for living in water especially during the time of the Ice Age.
Active Site
The folds in the enzymes that allows the substrate to fit in
What happens inside the plant while the stomata is closed?
The level of CO2 in the plant lowers because it is being consumed in the Calvin cycle and the level of O2 hightens because of light reactions generating it
Visible Spectrum
The light shown through a prism creating a rainbow of violet at one end and red at the other(the colors we can see)
Why are reproductive cells not diploid?
The new cell would have too many chromosomes and would not be functional
How are the organelles of a single cell like the organs of a multicellular organism?
The organelles of a single cell can perform specific functions like the organs of a multicellular organism.
Synapsis
The pairing of homologous chromosomes; during this, the chromatids within a homologous pair twist around one another
Turgor Pressure
The pressure that water molecules exert against the cell wall when water is entering the cell
What causes cancer?
The proteins that regulate cell growth and division are coded for by genes so if a mutation occurs in one of these genes, the proteins may not function properly causing cell division and growth to be disrupted. These lead to cancer which is the uncontrolled growth of cells. Cancer does not respond normally to the body's control mechanisms. These cancerous cells soon overcrowd normal cells and spread to other parts of the body that it did not originate in
Independent Assortment
The random separation of the homologous chromosomes; results in genetic variation; genes separate independently of one another
Substrate
The reactant being catalyzed that the enzyme depends on for a specific shape to carry out an enzyme reaction
Atom
The simplest particle of an element that retains all of the properties of that element
When a spherical cell increases in diameter from 2 um to 20 um, by what factor does its surface area change? By what factor does its volume change?
The surface area changes by a factor of 100 and the volume changes by a factor of 1,000
Carbon Fixation
The synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide, such as in photosyntheis
What state of energy are the electrons contained in NADH and FADH2 in when entering the ETC?
They are at a high energy level allowing them to be passed along a series of molecules embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane
How are mitochondria and chloroplasts similar?
They have their own DNA, they have double membranes, they provide the cell with energy to allow cell activities to occur, and they are involved in making proteins and helping in respirations/synthesis
Explain the evidence of evolution presented by the mammals of Australia. Native Australian animals resemble wolves, cat, mice, moles, or anteaters. However, most of the Australian mammals are marsupials.
This example shows a pattern of distribution in which the native animals of Australia seem to be related to the marsupials but were seperate in different environments/regions while evolving in Australia. This can mean that they evolved in isolation in Australia.
What is differential reporduction or "Descent with Modification" mean?
This is when populations start to adapt to a different environment which leads to new traits that pass through to an organism's species."Descent with modification' is when living species today are descended w/ modifications from common ancestral species that lived in the past. Characteristics of fit indiciduals will increase while the less favorable characteristics are lost in the gene pool.
Give an example of one of Darwin's observations on the Galapagos Islands.
This island has 13 similar species of finches. Each of the species has a beak that has adapted for a certain kind of food. Darwin suspected that all 13 species descended from and diverged from a couple of ancestral finches. he believed these ancestors flew to the island from somewhere else.
G3P
Three-carbon molecule; PGA molecule converts into this by providing a phosphate group from ATP and a H+ proton from NADPH
PGA
Three-carbon molecules made from the six-carbon molecules originally from RuBP and CO2 combining
Interphase
Time between cell divisions where most of the lifetime of a cell is spent; when cell carries out its functions and normal activities; G1 Phase: offspring cells grow to mature size; S Phase: Cell's DNA is copied, each chromosome consists of 2 chromatids attached at a centromere; G2 Phase: cell prepares for cell division, preparations for nucleus to divide; Cells can exit cell cycle and go into G0 Phase which is when cells do not copy their DNA and do not prepare for cell division. these cells are normally fully developed cells like nervous system cells
Geologic Time Scale; How do you measure relative and absolute age?
Timeline that shows the order for the times that different groups of rocks and fossils were formed. To measure relative age you refer to the geologic time scale and the records of known fossils. To measure absolute age, scientists use radiometric dating.
Ionic Bond
Transfer (giving/receiving) of electrons; when positive and negative charges attracting each other and joining together; Steps: Transfer of e-, ions created, ionic bond holds ions together; Example: NaCl, Na is positive and Cl is negative
Homologous Chromosomes
Two copies of each autosome in every cell of an organism produced by sexual reproduction; the organism receives one copy of each autosome from each parent; homologous chromosomes are the same size and shape and carry genes for the same traits; so if one chromosome in a pair of homologues contains a gene for eye color so will the other chromosome in the homologous pair
What is the final product of division?
Two identical offspring cells approximately equal in size; each offspring cell receives identical copy of original cell's chromosomes and one half of the original cell's cytoplasm and organelles
Disaccharide
Two monosaccharides combined to form a double sugar through a condensation reaction
Carcinomas
Type of cancer that originates in the body's epithelial tissues
Peptide Bond
Type of covalent bond that holds amino acids together to form a protein during a condensation reaction; Dipepetide bond is 2 amino acids joined by a peptide bond
Life has ___. What is it?
Unity- features all living things have in common
CAM Plants
Use CAM pathway to fix carbon; open their stomata at night and close during the day; At night, CAM plants take in CO2 and fix it into a variety of organic compounds; during day, CO2 is released from these compounds and then enters the Calvin cycle; Grow slowly but conserve water more
C3 Plants
Use only the Calvin Cycle for carbon fixation; produce 3-carbon compounds
Energy Levels/ Valence Shells and OCTET Rule
Valence shell is outermost shell/energy level; OCTET: 2-8-8 Rule; maximum # of electrons need in each orbital in order to be stable except hydrogen and helium; 1st orbital- 2 electrons 3nd orbital- 8 electrons3rd orbital- 8 electrons; Example: Chlorine has 7 valence electrons and needs one more to become stable so it bonds w/ sodium
What is variation? What is its importance? Explain two ways genetic variation happens.
Variation is when there are a variety of forms of traits/phenotypes in a population. It is important because the environment changes and the more variation in a species, the more likely it will survive. Genetic variation can occur through mutations which are changes in DNA sequence that result in new traits. Sexual reproducyion is when new combinations of traits can be created in gametes during meiosis.
Nucleic Acids: Functions, examples, draw the monomer, components, elements
Very large and complex organic molecules that store and transfer important information to the cell; Functions: found in all living things, store, transmit, and transfer genetic code, responsible for making/coding for all proteins; Examples: DNA and RNA; Monomer: Nucleotides and ATP; Components: Nucleotides- 5-C Sugar, Phosphate, and Nitrogen Base, ATP; Elements: Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus
Prokaryotes
Very simple cells, small, always single-celled, no nucleus, DNA arranged in 1 single loop, found only in Bacteria and Archaebacteria, DNA not in nucles, no membrane-cound organelles or true nucleus, outer layer is heat resistant, has plasma membrane and sometimes cell wall,
Exocytosis
Vesicles made by the cell fuse with the cell membrane and release their contents into the external environment; Used to release large molecules like proteins, waste products, or toxins that would damage the cell if they were released within the cytosol
What happens when water ionizes?
Water can ionize in 2 ways. The first way is when the water molecules has a hydrogen pulled off becoming a negatively charged hydroxide ion. the other way is that the water molecule can be the one who pulls a hydrogen from another water molecule making it a positively charged hydronium ion.
In terms of dissolving, what is unique about water?
Water is the universal solvent which means it can dissolve more substances than any other substance. It also can dissolve any polar substance but not nonpolar substances. Example: NaCl
Solute
What is being dissolved in a solvent
Solvent
What is doing the dissolving
Hypertonic
When the solute concentration outside the cell is higher than that in the cytosol; the solution outside is hypertonic (more solute, less water) to the cytosol and the water will diffuse out of the cell; cell will shrivel and shrink
Hypotonic
When the solute concentration outside the cell is lower than that in the cytosol; the solution outside is hypotonic (less solute, more water) to the cytosol and water will diffuse into the cell; plant cells take in water and expand until the cell mebrane is pressed up against the cell wall
Isotonic
When the solute concentrations outside and inside the cell are equal (same solute, same water) and there will be no net movement of water; can be shown in red blood cells, it will keep its normal shape, round and dimple
Centromere
Where two chromatids of a chromosome attatch; it holds the two chromatids together until they separate during cell division; important for movement of chromosomes during cell division
How do you determine the energy efficiency of glycolysis?
You need to compare the amount of energy available in glucose with the amount of energy contained in the ATP that is produced by glycolysis
Organelles that are surrounded by 2 membranes and contain DNA are the...
nucleus, chlorplasts, and mitochondria
Cellular respiration uses ___ to make ATP in the mitochondria. Byproducts of cellular respiration are ___ and ___.
oxygen; carbon dioxide, water
Why is pH important to the body? How do buffers neutralize body fluids?
pH is important to the body because it is important to measure the acidity and alkalinity of a body due to it only being able to tolerate a certain amount to function and that is why buffers are used in many medicines. Buffers maintain the pH values for a healthy body. Stomach acid is already very acidic so adding another acidic subtance could cause a risk.
Cells are limited in size by the...
rate at which substance needed by the cell can enter the cell through its surface