Biology II Exam 2 Study Guide (28, 31, 33, 32, & 34).

The basidiospores are produced through MEIOSIS.

Through what process do basidia produce spores (basidiospores)? Mitosis, or Meiosis.

They belong the annelida phylum

To which phylum do leeches belong to?

The endoparasitic tapeworm belongs to the phylum platyhelminthes

To which phylum do tape worms belong to.

Incorporates FOReign dna from surrounding environ.

TransFORmation.

Movement of genes between bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria.

Transduction.

Those all have sacs known as alveoli beneath their plasma membranes.

What trait is common to the following: Carnivorous dinoglagellate, parasitic apicomplexans, and ciliates.

They have diverse life cycles, and they include the alternation of generations.

What traits distinguish red algae?

There is considerable evidence that protist diversity was the result of endosymbiosis.

What were the origins of protist diversity?

The diplomonads are a group of flagellates, most of which are parasitic. They include Giardia lamblia, which causes giardiasis in humans.

What's a Diplomonad?

In diploid organisms, cells contain the complete set of necessary chromosomes. Two copies of each chromosome.

Whats a diploid cell?

Mitosomes are reduced mitochondria, and they are present in diplomonad protists.

Where are mitosomes found, what are mitosomes?

Most fungi get their nutrition by decomposing non living organic matter

Where do fungi get their nutrition from?

it occurs when the nuclei of a dikaryotic cell fuse, otherwise known as karyogamy.

Where does fertilization occur in the mushroom life cylce?

The ectoprocts.

Which group has a coelom, a lophophore and no distinct head?

A distinctive feature of ciliates is the presence of two types of nuclei: tiny micronuclei and large macronuclei.

What is a distinctive feature of ciliates?

A mature haploid male or female germ cell that is able to unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.

What is a gamete?

Amoebocytes digest the food that sponges filter from water and choanocytes.

What role do amoebocytes play in sponges?

Is that they lack true tissues.

Distinctive trait of sponges.

NO, jellies do not hve bilateral symmetry. They exhibit RADIAL SYMMETRY

Do jellies have bilateral symmetry?

They both have a body cavity.

What trait do both protostomes, and deuterostomes share?

All fungi are heterotrophic.

All fungi share which characteristic? - Symbiotic - Flagellated - Pathogenic - Heterotrophic - All are decomposers

have a closed circulator system.

Cephalopods are the only molluscs to...

They have an extoderm, and an endoderm. They are diploblastic.

Charateristic of Cnidarians.

What are eucoelomates?

Eucoelomates are animals that have a body cavity. Greek "koîlos" meaning hollow, or body cavity.

- Sea anemones: Corals. They are solitary and occur only as POLYPS. Can form coral reefs, and often have symbiotic relationship with algae. They secrete a hard exoskeleton.

Examples of Anthozoa ( 1 of the 2 subgroups from Cnidaria).

This leads to the multicellular blastula

In animals cleavage leads to...

- Dominant stage of life is the haploid stage. - Spores germinate and mitotically divide -

Some statements about fungi.

They are hermaphroditic individuals that exchange sperm, they cross fertilize.

Typical earthworm reproductio.

Apicomplexans have this. The Apex of the sporozoite cell contains a complex of organelles specialized for penetrating host cells and tissues.

Which is a parasitic unicellular organism with a complex of organelles specialized for penetrating host cells and tissues?

Are all animals multi cellular?

Yes, they are all multicellular.

The apicoplast, a modified plastid, appears to be of red algal origin.

Apicomplexans are currently assigned to the chromalveolates because ...

Cnidarians are carnivores that use tentacles to capture prey. The tentacles are armed with cnidocytes that function for defense and capture of prey. Nematocyst is a stinging capsule with cnidocytes that are eject a stinging thread.

Carnivorous qualities of cnidarians.

The type of sexual structure they form

Classifying fungal species to a particular phyla depends on...

Engulfed a photosynthetic RED ALGA in a secondary endosymbiosis event.

Controversial, chromalveolates.

Mitosomes lack functional ETC, no cellular respiration.

Describe a modified mitochondria?

What is an example of an animal that lacks a body cavity?

Flatworms. Flatworms are acoelomates.

They use chemical signals to determine wheter a potential sexual partner is suitable for mating.

Fungal use of pheromones?

Chemoheterotrophic.

Fungi are ...

This a is a living organism that has both male and female sex organs

Hermaphrodite:

The molecular composition of the surface protein changes continually.

How do Trypanosomes evade detection from the hosts immune system?

They do so through conjugation. This is a sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid micronuclei.

How do ciliates generate genetic variation?

Osmoregulation.

In flat worms, flame cells are involved in what kind of proces?

- flatworms - rotifers - acanthocephalans - ectoprocts - brachiopods - molluscs - annelids

List the phyla in lophotrochozoans

They move as a plasmodium, ingest bacteria, and food, they stop growing when food is scarce and develop sporangia which produce haploid spores that are produce via meiosis.

More on Plasmodial slime molds.

B. Secondary endosymbiosis.

Plastids that are surrounded by more than two membranes are evidence of? A. origin of the plastids from archaea. B. secondary endosymbiosis. C. budding of the plastids from the nuclear envelope. D. fusion of plastids. E. evolution from mitochondria.

Diplomonads (parasitic, 2 nuclei) Parabasalids (parasitic/symbiotic, single nucleus) Both have a modified mitochondria, and lack plastids, most live in anaerobic environments.

Review Diplomonads, and Parabasalids (both are excavata).

Endospores are really tough structure produced by bacteria that has evolved to promote the survival of the bacteria under stressful conditions. An example would be tetanus, which can only be killed by extreme heat.

Review Endospores.

Stramenopiles, straw, have a hairy, and smooth flagellum. They include Diatoms, Golden algae, Brown algae. They are a very important photosynthetic organism on the planet. There are more than 25K known species.

Review Stramenopiles.

A body cavity lined with mesoderm

The definition of a true coelom.

What are the three layers of gastrulation? The three embryonic cell layers (germinal layers).

They are: Ectoderm, Mesoderm, Endoderm. Ectoderm - Nerve tissue, and epidermis. Greek "ektos" for outside. Outer layer Mesoderm - Muscle cells, and connective tissue. Greek "mesos" for middle. Middle layer. Endoderm - Columnar cells found in digestive system, and internal organs. Greek "endo" within. Inner layer.

What are Ectoprocts and brachiopods referred as?

They have a shared structure known as the lophophore which is a structure common to these two phyla that bear ciliated tentacles.

What is radial symmetry?

This pertains to symmetry around a central axis. Animals with radial symmetry have a top and bottom side, but they have NO back ends and NO left and right sides. NO FRONT/BACK & LEFT/RIGHT. Examples include, as in a starfish or a sea anemone.

They have flagellated spores called zoospores

What are chytrids?

Diploid Sporophytes produce Haploid zoospores. The Zoospores then develop into haploid male/female gametophytes which produce gametes. If these gametes are fertilized this will result in the formation of a diploid zygote which will grow into a new sporophyte.

A rough overview of the Alternation of Generations.

What does a land snail, a clam, and an octopus all have in common?

All three share a mantle.

Animals

Among the organisms listed here, which are thought to be the closest relatives of fungi? mosses animals slime molds vascular plants brown algae

What are acoelomates

An acoelomate is defined as an animal the does NOT have a body cavity.

The two nuclei are important, the MICROnucleus is important for reproduction (with out it it will reproduce asexually), the MACROnucleus divides by mitosis. Also has two vacuoles Food/Contractile.

An overview of Ciliates.

It is believed that animals and fungi evolved from a common ancestor.

Animals and fungi.

What characteristic is distinct to animals?

Animals lack cell walls.

What are some characteristics of annelids?

Annelids are also known as the ringed worms. They are coelomates with bodies composed of fused rings. They where originally divided into three phylum, but recent analyses indicates that they can be divided into two major clades: Errantia, & Sedentary. - Errantia - Errantia are mobile marine organisms. Many have a pair of paddle like structures called parapodia ('beside feet') on each body segment Each parapodium has numerous chaetae, bristles made of chitin (parapodia are not unique to this clade) - Sedentarians - Less mobile than errantians, some burrow into substrate or live in protective tubes. This clade contains leeches and earth worms. Cutaneous gas exchange respiration occurs across their skins.

C. Cyanobacterium Structural and molecular biological evidence supports the idea that endosymbiotic cyanobacteria gave rise to the chloroplasts found in red and green algae and land plants.

Archaeplastids, which include red and green algae and land plants, are thought to have descended from a heterotrophic protist that engulfed a ... ? A. slime mold B. alpha proteobacterium C. cyanobacterium D. apicomplexan E. archaean extremophile

open circulatory system

Blood :: closed circulatory as hemolyph :.

They are unicellular, and have 2 nuclei,. They lack a functional ETC, meaning no abilities for cellular respiration. They are often parasites, examples are Giardia Intestinalis, which causes the common water born disease giardiasis (beaver fever). Diplo (double) monas (units).

Brief description of DIPLOMONADS.

The distinguishing feature of euglenozoans is a spiral or crystalline rod within their flagella. The clade has two main categories, Euglenids and Kinetoplastids.

Brief description of EUGLENOZOANS.

They have a reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes, that generate some energy anaerobically. Examples include Trichomonas Vaginalis, an STD that infects 5 million people every year (1st world), some sources state (WHO) that even 160 million are afflicted every year (globally) making it one of the top STD agents worldwide.

Brief description of PARABASALIDS..

What is cephalization?

Cephalization is an evolutionary trend toward the concentration of sensory equipment at the anterior end. It is associated with bilateral symmetry. Concentration of sense organs, nervous control, etc. commonly forming a head and brain, both during evolution and in the course of an embryo's development. Greek "kephalikos" or pertaining to the head.

More characteristics of Cnidarians.

Cnidarians have diversified into a wide range of both 'sessile' and 'motile' forms including jellies, corals, and hydras. They exhibit a relatively simple diploblastic, radial body plan Their basic body structure is composed of two layers: outer Epidermis & inner Gastrodermis with gelatinous layer (Mesoglea) in between.

The main morphological feature that distinguishes protists in this clade is the presence of a rod with either a spiral or a crystalline structure inside each of their flagella.

Concerning Euglenids, what is the morphological feature that distinguishes the protists in this clade.

One way genetic transfer, donor (fertility, F+ Factor) attaches to recipient by a pilus/ F+ can be found in gene sequence or plasmids, resistance abilities, and F+ can both be transferred.

Conjugation.

a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.

Define Meiosis?

A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.

Define Mitosis?

This group includes most amoeboid flagellated protist that feed using pseudopodia. Many are parasitic predators that are heterotrophic

Describe Cercozoans (rhizarians).

Euglenozoans are part of the Excavate group. They have two anterior unequal flagella, they also have contractile vacuoles that collect and pump out excess water. The contractile vacuoles help keep a balance of water. Can be a Heterotroph or a Mixotroph.

Describe Euglenozoans.

They are named so for their porous shells called tests. They form extensive fossil records such as the great White Cliffs of Dover.

Describe Forams, or Foraminiferans.

Phylum: Porifera Filter feeders, abundant in the deep ocean. Growth forms include: Larval (free swimming), and Adults (attached) They are multicellular, and most are hermaphrodites.

Describe Sponges

Gram -, Pink, THIN peptidoglycan, has a double layer. Polymyxin B is used to combat this type of bacteria.

Describe a Gram Negative Bacteria.

Gram +, Purple, THICK Peptidoglycan layer, Bacitracin is used to combat this type of bacteria.

Describe a Gram Positive Bacteria.

These have bilateral symmetry, body sgmenttion, a complete digestive system, and an open circulatory system. Exampl spiders

Describe arthropoda?

They are of the phylum, eumetazoans. All animals - except for a few, sponges - belong to the clade Eumetazoa.

Describe cnidarians

After the evolution of the mitochondria, the plastid lineage evolved form a photosynthetic cyanobacterium that was engulfed by a heterotrophic eukaryote.

Describe endosymbiosis and plastid (chloroplasts in plants) development.

Cleave: - Deuterostome, Radial Cleavage - Protostomes, SPIRAL Cleavage Fate of cells - (D), Indeterminate development - (P), Determinate development

Describe other differences between protostomes, and deuterostomes.

- (P) Mouth developes first. - (D) Anus developes first.

Describe protostomes, and deuterostome.

Radiolarians that live in oceans have delicate symmetrical internal skeletons that are made of silica. Used to engulf organisms through phagocytosis. Intricate mineral skeletons.

Describe radiolarians.

A sessile organism adheres to a substrate on the aboral end of its body. (POLYP) A motile one is bell shaped, and moves freely. (MEDUSA)

Describe sessile, and motile.

SAR stands for Stramenopiles, Alveolates, Rhizarians. CONTROVERSY. S - straw, A - cavity cell like, R - roots.

Describe the SAR clade?

It is basically a sac with central cavity for gastrovascular activity. This sac serves for digestion, waste disposal, and gas exchange. It all serves as a hydrostatic skeleton (gives it shape). The single opening serves as the anus and mouth.

Describe the basic body plan of a cnidarian.

This means that if a cell is excised or damaged in the embryonic process, development will be arrested. A PREDETERMINED FATE.

Describe the deteriminate development of protostomes.

If a cell is excised or damaged during the embryonic process, the development will NOT be arrested (Totipotent).

Describe the indeteriminate development of deuterostomes.

Nearly all animals do except for sponges and a few other groups. But for the most part yes all animals belong to the eumetazoa clade.

Do all animals belong to the clade Eumetazoa?

Reproduction does NOT take place during the process of conjugation.

Does reproduction take place during conjugation?

This one includes box jellies, they are highly toxic and one of the most deadliest known organisms. Case of the Thai box jelly death, occurs commonly in Australia too.

Examples of Medusozoa - Cubozoa.

The hydroids, hydras, like the Portuguese man of war. These alternate between poly and medusa stages. Only class with freshwater members.

Examples of Medusozoa: Hydrozoa

Common Jelly fish, they have a ring of muscle cells that allow them to contract for propulsion.

Examples of Medusozoa: Scyphozoa

All cnidarians that produce a medusa: - Cubozoans (box jellies) - Scyphozoans (jellies) - Hydrozoans (hydras)

Examples of Medusozoans (these are highly toxic!)

What is the process of gastrulation?

Gastrulation is an embryonic phase during which the single layered blastula develops into a three layered gastrula. Gastrulation takes place after cleavage. The cells in the blastula rearrange themselves spatially to form THREE layers of cells. The three layers are :-- the ectoderm, the mesoderm and the endoderm. These layers give rise to the internal structure of the organism. The ECTOderm gives rise to nervous system and epidermis. The MESOderm gives rise to muscle cells and connective tissues in the body. ENDOderm gives rise to columnar cells found in the digestive system and many internal organs.

Some forams derive nourishment from the symbiotic photosynthetic algae living in their shells.

How do some forams derive nourishment?

They do so by filtering small particles found in the water

How do sponges feed?

Relates to the cambrian explosion, this lead to the development of evolutionary flexiblity.

Hox gene

Out of which of the following are humans more closely related to: Earth worms Jellies Sea stars Ants Snails

Humans are more closely related to Sea stars because we both belong to the deuterostomes, a subtaxon of the Bilateria branch of the subkingdom Eumetazoa.

They are a paraphyletic group, has two main groups Chlorophytes (complex life cycles, most live in freshwater),and Charophytes.

Important points for Green Algae.

Ciliates feature Nuclear dimorphism - two morphological/functionally different types of nucleii. Reproduction. Ciliates reproduce asexually, by various kinds of fission. During fission, the micronucleus undergoes mitosis and the macronucleus elongates and undergoes amitosis (except among the Karyorelictean ciliates, whose macronuclei do not divide). Nuclear dimorphism is almost unique to ciliates. One other group, among the Foraminifera, shows nuclear dimorphism. In this case, the macronuclei do not divide, but can only be produced from micronuclei. This feature is also found in a primitive group of ciliates known as karyorelictid ciliates.) Spasmonemes and myonemes . Contractile organelles, with very fast contraction energized by calcium ion binding, not by ATP hydrolysis. (Probably related to contractile protein filaments in dinoflagellate flagella and in rootlets of other flagella--centrins, caltractins ?. But use as a primary contractile system is unique to ciliates.) Infraciliature . A special kind of cytoskeleton that provides a scaffolding for the cilia and determines the form of the body.

Important points on Ciliates.

Through mitosis to form mycellium.

In fungi how do spores divide, meiotically, or mitotically?

Conidiophores

In fungi which structures are responsible for asexual reproduction?

The sexual processes of karyogamy and meiosis generate extensive genetic variation, a prerequisite for natural selection.

In fungi, haploid hyphae fuse to produce dikaryotic and then diploid nuclei, only to restore the haploid condition by meiosis before the growth of new hyphae. What is the significance of a transient diploid state in fungi?

It comes from the tests (mineral skeletons, shells) of dead radiolarians.

In the ocean depths that are places where there is an ooze hundreds of feet thick, where does this come from?

NO, the origin of eukaryotes is not yet known

Is the origin of Eukaryotes known?

Describe the water vascular system of echinoderms.

It is a network of hydraulic canals unique to echinoderms that branches into extensions called tube feet. Functions in LOCOMOTION, respiration, FEEDING and waste transportation.

What is a blastula?

It is an animal embryo at the early stage of development when it is a hollow ball of cells. Greek "blastos" for sprout.

What does diploblastic mean?

It pertains to having a body derived from only two embryonic cell layers (ectoderm and endoderm, NO mesoderm), as in sponges and coelenterates.

A variety of life cycles have evolved among multicellualr algae. The most complex includes Alternation of Generations, this is when there is a fluctuation of life stages between DIPLOID (2 copies),and HAPLOID (1 copy).

Life cycles of multi cellular algae.

Plasmogamy, karyogamy, meisis, germination

List the correct order of fungal sexual reproduction.

Zygot, blastula, grastrula, larva

List the order of embryonic stagees:

Haustoria, these are the modified hyphae of prasitic fungi.

Name of modified fungi that ised to penetrate and absorb nutrients from host tissue.

All animals can trace their lineage to a common ancestor that lived during the ...

Neoproterozoic age. The common ancestor is likely to have been a protist.

- Parasitic - Mutualistic

Out of the three which kind of fungi receive their nutrients from living organisms? - Parasitic - Mutualistic - Decomposer

The animal phylum most like the protists that gave rise to the animal kingdom is?

PROIFERA. Evidence that supports this includes the lack of true tissue in sponges and the close similarity between choanocytes and choanoflagellates.

What is parthenogenesis?

Parthenogenesis describes reproduction from an ovum without fertilization, especially as a normal process in some invertebrates and lower plants.

Mitochondria arose through a proteobacterium that was engulfed by a cell from an archaeal lineage.

Review endosymbiosis and mitochondria development.

An organism containing an endosymbiont is engulfed by another organism and becomes an endosymbiont. In many cases secondary endosymbionts are surrounded four membranes.

Secondary endosymbiosis.

Slime molds are divided into two groups, Plasmodial, and Cellular. Plasmodial slime molds are huge, single celled multinucleuated oozing mass called plasmodium. Cellular slime molds are multicellular, and can form a sluglike aggregate that works like a unit.

Slime molds.

The excavata super group is distinguished by its feeding GROOVE - escarvar, to dig, a groove. The protist group has a modified mitochondria, and a unique flagella. Group includes DIPLOMONADS, PARABASALIDS, & EUGLENOZOANS.

Some key points on Excavata super group.

What are rotifers, and describe their reproduction process?

Some species are only female. An example of this are Rotifers. They reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis, females produce offspring from unfertilized eggs. They lay unfertilized eggs that develop into females.

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of all animals?

That all have tissues, organs, and organ systems. Sponges are animals but they lack these levels of complexity.

Spreads Trypanosoma curzi, Chagas Disease. This bug bites, and defecates around region. The victim then scratches itchy bite in effect spreading the feces into entry bite.

The Cone nose bug, vector of what kinetoplastid parasite?

An extensive surface area well suited for invasive growth and absorptive nutrition

The adaptive advantage associated with the filamentous nature of fungal mycelia is primarily related to

What are the best known rhabditophorans?

The best known are planarians. They have only one opening to the digestive cavity, and they lack a circulatory system. Also some particles digested extracellularly by phagocytosis. Their thin body allows for gas exchange with environment.

cnidarian. Both of these function in the role of obtaining food. Choanocytes: Sponges: trap food particles Nematocysts: Cnidarian: Used to catch prety

The choanocyte of a sponge, is the the nematocyst to a ...

Multicellularity PROBABLY arose independently in fungi and animals.

The development of multicellularity in fungi and animals.

It is shortest in fungus.

The diploid phase of the life cycle is shortest in which of the following?

Which of the following is a characteristic of cnidarians?

The gastrovascular cavity, characterized by a single opening, is the digestive compartment of cnidarians. The single opening functions as both the mouth and anus.

Which phylum is characterized by animals that have a segmented body?

The phylum is Arthropoda. An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton, a SEGMENTED body, and paired jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Euarthropoda, which includes insects, arachnids, myriapods, and crustaceans.

Plants depend on fungi as mutualistic symbionts. Plants are harmed by fungal pathogens.

The relationship between plants and fungi.

Asexual = Polyp Sexual = Medusa

The sexuality of polyps, and medusa stages?

What structure is responsible for gas exchange in most spiders?

The structure responsible for Gas exchange in spiders is also called book lungs

Epidermal layer, the water comes through the Ostia (pores) into the spongocoel (central cavity) and exits by the way of the Osculum.

The three layers of sponges: Outer

Two major categories of Cnidarians:

They are Sessile (Polyp), and Motile (Medusae): Sessile - A polyp (sessile) that adheres to the substrate by the aboral (end that is furthest from the mouth) end of its body. Motile - medusa (motile) has a bell-shaped body with its mouth on the underside, Medusae do not attach to the substrate they move freely.

What are the two lineages of the flatworm family?

They are divided into two basic groups: - Catenulida: AKA chain worms, reproduce asexually by budding. Greek "caten" for chain, as in cadena. - Rhabditophora: Includes both free-living (ex., planarians) & parasitic species. Greek "rhabado" meaning wand, or rod.

What are some characteristic of the phylum Platyhelminthes?

They are generally called Flatworms, and they are dorsoventrally flattened.

Choanocytes or collar cells. Flagellated, contribute to water circulation Engulf food by phagocytosis from passing water.

Three layers of sponges: Inner

The middle layer is a gelatinous matrix. Ameobocytes carry nutrients totipotent Spicules- needles of calcium carbonate or silica Spongin- Tough protein fibers

Three layers of sponges: Mesohyl

Tubulinids are amoebozoans that are tube shaped. They are unicellular and found all over the place, soil, water, sea. They are heterotrophic and actively consume bacteria and other protists.

Tubulinids.

Closely related to fungi and animals. The supergroup includes animals fungi,and some protists. Has two clades Amoebozoans Opisthokonts

Unikonts.

They are a group within the SAR category. They have a membrane enclosed sac (alveoli) just under the plasma membrane. Alveolates are made up by. Dinoflagellates - Flagellates Apicomplexans - Parasites Ciliates - Move using cilia

What are Alveolates?

They are stramenopiles that are found in salt waters. Include seaweeds, they are the largest, and most complex (multicellular) type of algae. Holdfast (roots) Stipe (stem) Blades (leafs).

What are Brown Algae?

Ciliates belong to the Alveolates group (SAR). Most are predators that move. They have 2 NUCLEI, one large the other small. Genetic variation results from conjugation.

What are Ciliates?

Diatoms belong to the Stramenopiles group. They are a very common type of phytoplankton. They are a unicellualr algae with a two part glass like wall made of silicon dioxide. Diatoms can capture CO2 and when they die they sink to the bottom of the ocean floor taking the gas with them.

What are Diatoms?

These type of stramenopiles are commonly found in bodies of freshwater. Their name comes from the caratenoids (plant pigements) that makes them yellow and brown. Their cells are typically biflagellated with both near one end. They can form colonies, and protective cysts.

What are Golden Algae?

Most have bilateral symmetry and triploblastic development. Most have a coelom, and a digest tract with two openings (mouth/anus). Some develop a lophophore for feeding. Greek "lophos" meaning crest, and Greek " trokhos", meaning wheel.

What are Lophotrochozoans?

Amoebozoans belong to unikonts, and move by tube shaped pseudopodia. They serve for extension and pulling, and for engulfing food particles. Amoebas that belong to Entamoeba are parasitic. Examples include Acanthamoeba which enters the body through a wound and it can cross the blood brain barrier. Another example is Entamoeba Histolytica which causes intestinal illness, and over 100K deaths per year.

What are amoebozoans.

They have an apical complex structure which helps them PENETRATE host cells. Most are parasitic, and can cause serious human diseases. They spread through sporozoites (infectious cells).

What are apicomplexans?

These are the tips of glomromycete hyphae that invade plant roots and branch into tree like strucutres within root cells.

What are arbuscual mycorrhizae?

they are a flagellated cell with a collar of protoplasm at the base of the flagellum, numbers of which line the internal chambers of sponges.

What are choanocytes?

CONIDIOPHORES, (Konis, greek for dust) sometimes termed ASEXUAL chlamydospores or chlamydoconidia, are ASEXUAL. They are fungal spores generated through mitosis. The two new haploid cells are genetically identical to the haploid parent, and can develop into new organisms if conditions are favorable, and serve in biological dispersal. Asexual reproduction in ascomycetes (the phylum Ascomycota) is by the formation of conidia, which are borne on specialized stalks called conidiophores. The morphology of these specialized conidiophores is often distinctive of a specific species and can therefore be used in identification of the species.

What are conidiophores?

They have 2 flagella in grooves and the cell is reinforced by cellulose plates. They are components of phytoplankton. They exhibit great diversity. They cause toxic red tides.

What are dinoflagellates?

These are genes exhibited only in animals that regulate the development of body form.

What are hox genes?

Kinetoplastids are one of the two subgroups that make up euglenozoans. Many are parasitic, and extremely detrimental to humans. Distinguishing features: - Contain a single large mitochondrion that holds a mass of DNA called a kinetoplast. - They are difficult to kill because their surface proteins can evolve and evade detection.

What are kinetoplastids?

The plastid is a double membrane organelle found in the cells of plants, algae, and some other eukaryotic organisms. Plastids are the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical compounds used by the cell (ex. chloroplasts). Greek "plastós" meaning, formed, molded. Plastids are organelles found in photosynthetic protists.

What are plastids, where are they found?

Many of rhizarians are amoebas, which move and feed by using pseudopodia. Rhizarian amoebas are unique from other amoebas because they have threadlike pseudopodia. The group is made up of: Radiolarians Forams Cercozoans

What are rhizarians?

They are predatorial, and participate in decomposition.

What are roles that are played by at least some fungi?

Trypanosomes (trypo- greek borer, screw, drill) are kinetoplastids. - African trypanosomiasis, African Sleeping Sickness. Transmitted by the Tsetse (setsi) fly. - Leishmaniasis (lesh muniasis) spread by sand flies. A neglected disease. - Chagas Disease Trypanosoma cruzi, spread by the cone nose bug. Common in S. America.

What are some example of parasitic kinetoplastids?

Excavata SAR Clade (Stramenopiles Alveolates Rhizaria) Archaeplastida Unikonta

What are the 4 Eukaryotic Super Groups?

Their closest relatives are red/green algae. Plants are descended from green algae. They are all part of the super group ARCHAEPLASTID which contain red/green algae, and land plants.

What are the closest relative of land plants? What does the Archaeplastid group contain?

The rhodophytes are the red algae they are the most abundant large algae in the warm coastal waters of tropical oceans.

What are the most abundant algae in the warm coastal regions of tropical oceans?

They are called Conidia, they are asexual.

What are the spores produced by Ascomycota called?

They are called cnidocytes.

What are the stinging cells found in the tentacles of some cnidrians called?

- Epidermis (outer) - Mesohyl (Middle) - Choanocytes (collar cells)

What are the three layers of a sponge?

The two are: - Chlorophytes (over 7K species, most live in fresh water) - Charophytes (closely related to land plants). Greek "chloros" meaning green.

What are the two divisions of green algae?

They are Medusozoa and Anthozoa.

What are the two major groups of the phylum Cnidaria?

- Protostome - Deuterostome These pertain to the cleavage patterns, and fate of embryonic cells, coelom formation, and blastopore fate.

What are the two modes of development that animals can fall under?

Vector are organisms that transmit pathogens. Typically a stinging/biting insect like a tick, or mosquito.

What are vectors?

Phytophthora infestans is a protist that causes late blight of potatoes and was responsible for the Irish potato famine of the 19th century.

What caused the Irish potato famine in the 1800's?

Mycorrhizae interact in a mutualistic method with the roots of plants, they enhance the absorption of nutrients.

What do mycorrhizae do in their association with fungi and plants?

- True tissues - A complete digestive tract - A nervous system - The ability to make organic compounds from CO2 and water

What do sponges lack?

It has a radial cleavage, and it is a deuterostome.

What does an animal with a true coelom have?

They are hypermastigotes.

What endosymbionts live in the guts of termites?

Protist are members of an informal grouping, they are not considered animals, plants or fungi. They are a collection of eukaryotic single celled organisms that do not fit into any other category. The group of Protista is not monophyletic, the group also has the most structural/functional diversity of any other eukaryotes. DIVERSITY. They can be sexual, and asexual.

What exactly are protists? Why is an informal group?

Mitosis is used to make cells that are identical to each other. Mitosis refers to activity in the nucleus and DNA during cell division. Before mitosis even starts the DNA replicates or makes a copy of itself. The two copies are attached at a place called the "centromere". During mitosis, the nuclear membrane (that holds the DNA trapped in the cell) disappears and the chromosomes (tightly coiled packages of DNA) move to the middle or "equator" of the cell and line up. They then split at the centromere and the copies move to opposite sides of the cell. This way each new cell gets a nucleus with all the DNA that was found in the original cell. Meiosis is similar to mitosis but has a different purpose - to make eggs and sperm. Why do eggs and sperm need a different type of cell division to be made? Well, it has to do with sexual reproduction. If we did not use sex to reproduce, then we could simply make a copy of one of our cells by mitosis and have that cell (with all our DNA) grow into a new person. Actually, some living things do just that. However, we use sex to reproduce, which means that there are two parents, each providing half the genetic information. So meiosis has one big function - to make eggs and sperm (gametes) with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cells. In humans, the cells in our bodies have 46 chromosomes, so our eggs and sperm cells have 23 chromosomes each. That way, when fertilization happens 23 + 23 = 46. It is of course, not as simple as randomly splitting the number of chromosomes in half. If that was the case, some chromosomes (with vital information) may go to some of the gametes and not others. Every gamete needs to get one of each chromosome. Let me explain about chromosomes. We have 46 chromosomes, but more accurately, we actually have 23 pairs. We have two copies of each type of chromosome (like pairs of shoes) one of each pair came from our mother and one came from our father. The chromosome pairs are called "homologous chromosomes". Homologous chromosomes are structurally identical (they look the same and have the same types of genes) but are genetically different since the genes for say eye colour from mom might differ from the gene for eye colour from dad. So when making gametes, it is important that we get one of each pair (one of each type of shoe). During meiosis each egg or sperm cell get one of each type of chromosome. To make sure this happens, the first step of meiosis requires the pairs to find each other (a process called synapsis) so they can line up in pairs in the middle and be separated. Unlike mitosis where making identical cells is important, meiosis makes gametes that are genetically different from each other. This happens because since each gamete only gets half the chromosomes, the possible chromosome combinations are over 8.3 million. Also, when the chromosomes pair up, they randomly exchange pieces (a process called crossing over) to further shuffle the genes. This is why siblings are not genetically identical even though they share the same parents.

What exactly is mitosis?

This is the era where flight evolved among vetebrates

What happned in the mesozoic era?

Sponges are this animal. They belong to the phylum Porifera.

What is a basal animal that lacks definite symmetry?

A cell containing half the number of chromosomes of a somatic cell and able to unite with one from the opposite sex to form a new individual; a gamete.

What is a germ cell?

Haploid describes a cell that contains a single set of chromosomes. The term haploid can also refer to the number of chromosomes in egg or sperm cells, which are also called GAMETES. In humans, gametes are haploid cells that contain 23 chromosomes. One copy of each chromosome.

What is a haploid cell?

An organism that absorbs organic molecules, heterotrophs derive their energy requirements from complex organic substances.

What is a heterotroph?

The daughter cell of a protozoan parasite. Result from asexual reproduction. In Malaria (SAR> Alveolates> Ciliates) the spores infect red blood cells, and reproduce asexually.

What is a merozoite?

A mixotroph can combine, photosynthesis with heterotrophic nutrition.

What is a mixotroph?

This is when the cavity is lined by the mesoderm, and endoderm.

What is a pseudocoelom.?

A sporozoite is the tiny infectious cell stage of apicomplexan protists such as plasmodium (malaria causer).

What is a sporozoite?

This is a cell that is capable of giving rise to several cell types.

What is a totipotent cell?

They secrete a stiff exterman skeleton that must be shed to permit growth.

What is a trait of Ecdysozoa?

It has many medicinal applications. It used to make medicines, to lower cholesterol levels, and to reduce the amount of heavy chemicals that are taken up by the body.

What is algin used for?

They have a tub within a tube type of digestive system, they are ringed worms

What is an annelid?

A sac like structure containing spores.

What is an ascus?

Plasmodium is an infamous apicomplexan that causes Malaria. Plasmodium Falciparum (vector, Anopheles mosquito) is the one that causes the most deaths. Similar to trypanosomes, Plasmodium have the ability to alter surface proteins, over 600K humans die from this disease every year.

What is an infamous apicomplexan?

This is when blood flows through a hemocoel with the blood diffusing back to the circulatory system between cells.

What is an open circulatory system?

They both lack plastids.

What is characteristic shared by Diplomonads, and parabasalids?

Conjugation is a sexual process in which two individuals fuse and exchange haploid micronuclei, which result from the meiosis of diploid micronuclei. After the cells swap one micronucleus, the genetically distinct micronuclei now possessed by each individual fuse and then divide by mitosis. This interaction constitutes an exchange of genetic material but is not associated with reproduction, which occurs by binary fission.

What is conjugation?

When an organism lives inside another.

What is endosymbiosis?

Two Haploid Nuclei Fuse.

What is karyogamy?

This is one of the main constituents of wood, and it is broken down by members of basidiomycota.

What is ligin

This is when certain organisms must shed their hard exo skeleton to grow.

What is molting?

This is reproduction from an ovum without fertilization.

What is parthenogenesis?

Plasmogamy is a stage in the sexual reproduction of fungi, in which the cytoplasm of two parent cells (usually from the mycelia) fuses together without the fusion of nuclei, effectively bringing two haploid nuclei close together in the same cell. Two Haploid Cytoplasm Fuse.

What is plasmogamy?

Plasmogamy is the fusion of cytoplasm from different individuals.

What is plasmogamy?

This sessile stage is known as the polyp form. - Sessile (polyp) - Motile (medusa)

What is the attached life stage of a cnidarian called?

The kinetoplastids are a group of euglenozoans that have a single large mitochondrion that contains an organized mass of DNA called a kinetoplast.

What is the distinguishing feature of kinetoplastids?

The dominant stage in fungi is the Haploid stage.

What is the dominant stage of life in fungi?

Ciliates reproduce asexually. In ciliates this undergoes mitosis. while in most ciliates the macronucleus simply pinches apart into two. This process is shown in the drawing above. However, ciliates also reproduce sexually, through a process known as conjugation.

What is the function of the MICROnucleus in ciliates?

Coenocytic, these have not cytoplasmic divisions.

What is the fungi whose cells form a countinuous network of nuclei?

It is known as a planula.

What is the larval stage of a cnidarian known as?

The larval stage of cnidarians are called Planula.

What is the name of the larval stage in the cnidarian group?

Hydrogenosomes are the reduced mitochondria in parabasalid protists.

What is the name of the reduced mitochondria in parabasalid protists?

It is called a radula.

What is the name of the tongue like organ foound in many mollusks?

Plasmogamy, Karyogamy, Meiosis, Germination

What is the order of fungal sexual reproduction?

Mycelium is in charge of obtaining food.

What is the role of mycelium?

Invertebrates make up more than 95% of known animal species

What percentage do invertebrates account in the animal kingdom?

A hefty chunk of the worlds photosynthesis is done by protists, the figure is about 30%.

What percentage of the worlds photosynthesis is produced by protists?

Through meiosis they produce basidiospores

What role do Basidia play?

Heterocysts are important for nitrogen fixation.

What role do Heterocysts play?

The process is known as karyogamy and meiosis.

What sexual processes in fungi generates genetic variation?

The ciliates. They have a micro & macro nucleus.

Which group is characterized by having more than one nucleus?

C. Ciliates Single-celled protists are justifiably considered the simplest eukaryotes, but at the cellular level, many protists are very complex. For example, the single cell of a ciliate such as Paramecium is much more complex than any one cell in your body. Read about structural and functional diversity in protists. CILIATES = COMPLEX

Which group of organisms (ciliates, animals, or plants) has the most complex cells? A. Animals B. Plants C. Ciliates

The cercozoans are a large group of amoeboid and flagellated protists that feed using threadlike pseudopodia. Latin "cercar" for surround, or "circa" meaning around.

Which kind of protists feed using threadlike pseudopodia?

Brachiopods have a lophophore, this is a horse shoe shaped structure that is used for feeding.

Which lophotrochozoans have a lophophore?

B. Mitochondria Scientists used to think that some groups of protists lacked mitochondria, but they have since discovered that many of these protists have at least modified mitochondria. Read about the diplomonads and parabasalids.

Which of the features below are found in all protist lineages? A. Organelles that arose by secondary endosymbiosis. B. Mitochondria C. Plastids

E. Diplomonads and Parabasalids These groups are known for their modified mitochondria.

Which of the following are two groups that are adapted to anaerobic conditions and contain modified mitochondria that lack DNA? A. dinoflagellates and diatoms B. chlorophytes and radiolarians C. apicomplexans and forams D. gymnamoebas and slime molds E. diplomonads and parabasalids

Sporozoite, this is not a cellular organelle possessed by a protist. Rather, a sporozoite is the tiny, infectious cell stage of apicomplexan protists such as the Plasmodium species that cause malaria. Nearly all apicomplexans are parasites of animals and have intricate life cycles. In addition to the sporozoite stage, Plasmodium also has a merozoite stage that penetrates and reproduces asexually in red blood cells.

Which of the following is not a cellular organelle possessed by a protist?

C. Each mitochondrion has its own DNA molecule. The fact that mitochondria have their own DNA provides strong support for the hypothesis of an endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria.

Which of the following statements supports the hypothesis of an endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria? A. Some algae contain plastids surrounded by four membranes. B. Diplomonads have modified mitochondria called mitosomes. C. Each mitochondrion has its own DNA molecule.

Brown algae have a gel forming substance in their cell walls.

Which organisms is commercially exploited to extract algin from their cell walls?

Diplomonads, and parabasalids, both belong to excavata group.

Which two groups are known for their modified mitochondria?

They are green algae, more specifically Charophytes.

Which type of algae is most closely related to land plants?

They are assigned to this clade because their modified plastid that appears to be of red algal origin.

Why are ampicomplexans assigned to the SAR clade?

They are red due to a protein/pigment of reddish color called phycoerythrin. Red algae come in filamentous form, leafy form; they both have many uses.

Why are red algae (rhodophytes) red? Some qualities of red algae.

Evidence indicates that the kingdom Protista can NOT be monophyletic (meaning descending from a single common ancestor).

Why did the placement of protists in one kingdom cause controversy?

Would a doughnut have radial symmetry?

Yes because doughnuts lack a front, back, and left, right.