Britannica 1001-2000

aggressive behaviour

Introduction ------------ [![Photograph:A pair of red deer stags (Cervus elaphus) competing for possession of ...]] - A pair of red deer stags (*Cervus elaphus*) competing for possession of ... [animal behaviour] that involves actual or potential harm to another animal. Biologists commonly distinguish between two types of aggressive behaviour: [][predatory] or antipredatory aggression, in which animals prey upon or defend themselves from other animals of different species, and intraspecific aggression, in which animals attack members of their own species. Intraspecific aggression is widespread across the animal kingdom, being seen in creatures as diverse as sea anemones, rag worms, wolf spiders, field crickets, lobsters, salmon, tree frogs, lizards, songbirds, rats, and chimpanzees. Given that so many different kinds of animals []fight, aggression takes a variety of forms. Sea anemones lash at one another with tentacles armed with stinging cells, rag worms batter each other with the proboscises that they use for digging burrows, lobsters use their large claws for hitting and grasping, tree frogs wrestle, robins peck, red deer use their antlers to push and batter one another, and one chimpanzee, made famous through the work of British behavioral scientist Jane Goodall, intimidated rivals by banging two oilcans together. Usually just two or a few individuals participate in fights, but there are cases in which larger groups of animals are involved. Spectacular examples are the lethal fights that take place between neighbouring ant colonies in the spring and the killing raids by coalitions of male chimpanzees against smaller neighbouring groups. This article follows the common practice of biologists by considering only intraspecific attacks under the title aggressive behaviour. The emphasis here is on biological context—that is, the roots of aggression in competition for food and mates; the influences of the nervous system, hormones, genetics, and environment; and scientific models for analyzing the likely outcome of aggressive interactions. The nature of animal aggression {#258599.toc} -------------------------------

Advent

(from Latin *adventus,* "coming"), in the Christian church calendar, the period of preparation for the celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ at Christmas and also of preparation for the Second Coming of Christ. It begins on the Sunday nearest to November 30 (St. Andrew's Day) and is the beginning of the new church year. The date when the season was first observed is uncertain. Bishop Perpetuus of Tours (461-490) established a fast before Christmas that began on November 11 (St. Martin's Day), and the Council of Tours (567) mentioned an Advent season. Its liturgical meaning referred to the dual "coming" of Jesus—his incarnation in Bethlehem and his second coming as judge at the end of time. Together with Lent it was observed as a penitential season, though not with the same rigour as Lent. Consequently, Advent developed increasingly into the joyful anticipation of Jesus' birth. In many countries it is marked by a variety of popular observances, such as the lighting of Advent candles, one on each of the four Sundays before Christmas.

1st U.S. Army Report of Operations 20 Oct. 1943 - 1 Aug. 1944

*In its official "after-action" report on the conduct of the first phase of Operation Overlord (the code name for the Normandy Invasion), the U.S. First Army arrived at certain conclusions regarding the use of aerial bombardment in preparation for an advance of forces on the ground. Particularly in reference to the creation of a new type of "tank-air team" in the breakout near Saint-Lô at the end of July 1944, the report concluded that these two arms represented "an unbeatable combination."* Although normally it is a wasteful use of air power to bomb targets within range of supporting artillery in some cases a requirement exists for air support against targets within artillery range. The tremendous blast of the 500 lb and heavier bombs is very effective against highly organized defenses and casemated positions. Near hits may tip the casemates off level or pile dirt in front of the port thus neutralizing the gun and the blast effect may kill or stun the crews and damage fire control equipment. The guns will always be neutralized during the air attack, the accuracy of the bombing being the determining factor in the duration of the period of neutralization. The nature of the objective, not the ability of the artillery to reach it should determine whether air support is to be utilized. To secure the best results air bombardment should not take place at too great a distance from the attacking troops in order that the defensive positions can be reached before the defenders have had an opportunity to recover and to man their positions. Excellent results were obtained when air bombardment took place with the assaulting troops not more than 1000 yards from the target, prepared to move in rapidly upon completion of the bombardment. Since even this limited advance requires valuable time the target should be covered with artillery fire after the bombardment, lifted on call from forward observers or at a prearranged time as the infantry closes in. As a prelude to the penetration west of St. Lo in Operation "COBRA" heavy and medium bombers in conjunction with fighter-bombers and artillery fire were utilized in an elaborate prearranged fire plan . . . to pulverize the area selected for the breakthrough. This prearranged fire plan was highly successful and contributed in large measure to the success of the assault; however, certain features in connection with the use of heavy and medium bombers require further study. The bombing target consisted of an area three and one-half miles long and 2500 yards deep. The longer axis of the target was east and west and the area was bounded on the north by the straight, broad St. Lo - Perier Road. In addition the northern boundary was marked with red artillery smoke. The plan called for fighter-bombers to attack a 300 yard strip along the northern edge of the strip from H-75 minutes to H-60 minutes. From H-60 minutes to H Hour the entire area was bombed by heavy bombers. Following the heavy bomber attack the fighter bombers again attacked the forward edge of the area from H Hour to H plus 15 minutes followed by medium bombers which attacked the southern half of the target from H plus 30 minutes to H plus 75 minutes. The fighter-bombers approached the target from the east and flew parallel to the front during the attack whereas the heavy and medium bombers came in from the north and flew perpendicular to the front during the attack. Ground troops were withdrawn behind a line twelve hundred yards north of the target. However, some divisions suffered casualties from heavy and medium bombers dropping their bombs short.

Aetolian League

federal state or "sympolity" of Aetolia, in ancient Greece. Probably based on a looser tribal community, it was well-enough organized to conduct negotiations with Athens in 367 BC. It became by *c.* 340 one of the leading military powers in Greece. Having successfully resisted invasions by Macedonia in 322 and 314-311, the league rapidly grew in strength during the ensuing period of Macedonian weakness, expanding into Delphi (centre of the Amphictyonic Council) and allying with Boeotia (*c*. 300). It was mainly responsible for driving out a major Gallic invasion of Greece in 279. About 270 it gained an alliance with Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia, which lasted until his death (240 or 239). In 245 the league confirmed its influence in central Greece by the defeat of the Boeotians at Chaeronea. By the end of the 3rd century the league's power extended to Cephallenia and several Aegean islands; soon afterward, however, it lost ground to Macedonia. From 239 to 229 the league joined Achaea against Demetrius II of Macedonia, but the provinces of Thessaly that they seized on the death of Demetrius were promptly recovered by his successor, Antigonus Doson. Meanwhile, eastern Phocis and Boeotia detached themselves from the confederacy. Then Aetolian raids on Achaean territory (220) led to a war with [][Philip V] of Macedonia and many members of Antigonus Doson's Greek League. Philip expelled the Aetolians from the Peloponnese and marched into Aetolia, sacking the federal capital of Thermum. He made peace with Aetolia in 217, but in 211 and 200-197 the Aetolians fought with []Rome against Philip. When their cavalry prevailed at Cynoscephalae (197), the Romans handed over Dolopia, Phocis, and Eastern Locris to the Aetolians but withheld their former Thessalian possessions. Resentful, Aetolia attempted to fight Rome (192), soliciting the support of the Seleucid king Antiochus III; but Aetolian forces failed to hold Thermopylae and brought on the defeat of Antiochus at Magnesia. The Romans refused all compromises and in 189 BC restricted the league to Aetolia proper and assumed control of its foreign relations. The importance of the league as an independent state was at an end, and by the time of Sulla its functions were purely nominal. The federal constitution of Aetolia, probably a model for that of the Achaean League, provided for two main ruling bodies: a primary assembly, composed of all adult male citizens and presided over by the annually elected general (*[][stratēgos]*), which met at Thermum to elect officials and at various cities to transact other business; and a council (*boulē* or *synedrion*), to supervise administration, in which cities were represented in proportion to their populations. []*Apoklētoi,* a small group of at least 30 who were assigned essential duties in wartime, assisted the *stratēgos,* who had complete control in the field. Leadership within the league was always kept in Aetolian hands, since the more distant states, which were linked to the confederacy by isopolity (potential citizenship), had full civil, but no political, rights.

adobe

[![Photograph:Adobe house in Santa Fe, N.M.]] - Adobe house in Santa Fe, N.M. a heavy [][clay] soil used to make sun-dried bricks. The term, Spanish-Moorish in origin, also denotes the bricks themselves. Adobe is a mixture of clay, sand, and silt with good plastic qualities that will dry to a hard uniform mass. In areas with arid or semiarid climates, adobe construction dates back several millennia. This use of earth for building construction resulted partly from the scarcity of wood as a building medium, partly from the ease of such construction, and partly from its insulation value against both heat and cold. Adobe or sun-dried bricks are found in the Old World in the dry areas east of the Mediterranean Sea, in North Africa, and in southern Spain. In the Western Hemisphere adobe appears in many of the pre-Columbian sites from the American Southwest to Peru, always, again, in those regions with a dry climate. The [][American Indians] built walls by hand manipulation of the plastic clay into courses, allowing each course to dry before adding the next. In the 20th century, adobe also became a fashionable construction material in the American Southwest. Water and small amounts of straw or other fibrous material are mixed with a clay soil, which is then shaped into bricks in simple molds. Depending on intended use, the bricks range from 8 to 13 cm (3 to 5 inches) thick, 25 to 30 cm wide, and 35 to 50 cm long. Before they can be used, the bricks must be "air" cured, which usually takes at least two weeks in arid climates. The addition of fibre is solely to prevent the bricks from cracking during the curing process.

Albert II

On April 6, 2005, His Most Serene Highness Albert, hereditary prince of Monaco and marquis of Baux, ascended to the throne of the tiny Mediterranean principality upon the death of his father, [Prince Rainier III]. Albert had ruled as regent during the last week of his father's life, and on July 12 he was formally enthroned as Prince Albert II. Under Rainier, Monaco had become a prosperous centre for banking, manufacturing, and tourism. Many observers wondered, however, whether Albert would be able to ensure the continued stability and prosperity of his realm. Rainier himself had expressed concern that Albert did not possess "the necessary toughness" to rule. Although the new ruler was considered intelligent and well prepared for his new role, in May news of an illegitimate son revived memories of the romantic scandals that had marred the public careers of Albert's sisters, the Princesses Caroline and Stephanie. Days before he was enthroned, Albert acknowledged that he was the father of the two-year-old son of a French-Togolese woman after the magazine *Paris-Match* published an interview in which she identified the prince as the father. In officially recognizing his relationship to the boy, Albert made his son an heir to a fortune worth more than a billion dollars—but not to the throne. In 2002 Rainier had modified Monaco's constitution to restrict the succession to "direct and legitimate" heirs, leaving the unmarried Albert without a direct heir. Albert-Alexandre-Louis-Pierre de Grimaldi was born on March 14, 1958, in Monaco, the second child and only son of Prince Rainier III and Princess Grace. After his graduation with distinction from secondary school in 1976, Albert received training in the government of the principality. He graduated from Amherst (Mass.) College in 1981 with a B.A. in political science. Following a tour of duty with the French navy, he trained in business and in international law with firms in New York City and Paris. A lifelong sports enthusiast, Albert ran cross country while in college and attained a black belt in judo. He competed in the 1988, 1992, 1994, 1998, and 2002 Winter Olympics as a member of Monaco's bobsleigh team. Beginning in 1985 he served in various capacities with the International Olympic Committee, and in 1994 he became chairman of the Monegasque Olympic Committee. Albert also maintained an active involvement in humanitarian activities. In 1982 he was named chairman of the Monaco Red Cross, and he later founded the Monaco Aid and Presence Association to alleviate poverty in Africa and other less-developed areas. He served as president of Monaco's delegation to the United Nations from 1993, when the principality was first admitted to the UN, until his accession. Janet Moredock

Albany

city, capital (1797) of the state of [New York], U.S., and seat (1683) of [Albany] county. It lies along the [Hudson River], 143 miles (230 km) north of [New York City]. The heart of a metropolitan area that includes [Troy] and [Schenectady], it is a port city, the northern terminus of the deepwater Hudson River Channel, and a natural transshipment point between oceangoing vessels and the [New York State Canal System] routes to the [Great Lakes]. In 1609 the English explorer [Henry Hudson] anchored the *Half-Moon* in the shallows near the site while searching for the [Northwest Passage]. Fort Nassau, built in 1614 on Castle Island (now part of the Port of Albany), became a trading post for the New Netherland Company. A group of Walloon families built Fort Orange near the site in 1624 and began the first permanent settlement, known as Beverwyck. In 1629 the [Dutch West India Company] granted tracts along both sides of the river (including Beverwyck) to Kiliaen van Rensselaer, an Amsterdam merchant. Renamed Rensselaerswyck, the area attracted a sizable number of colonists, and in 1652 [Peter Stuyvesant], colonial governor for the Dutch West India Company, obtained independent status for the village of Beverwyck from the van Rensselaer family. When Fort Orange surrendered to the British (September 24, 1664), the village was renamed to honour James, duke of York and Albany (later King [James II]). It was granted a city charter by the British governor [Thomas Dongan] on July 22, 1686. Albany's strategic location and the construction of Fort Frederick made it a leading colonial city. Its population of 2,273 in 1703 increased to 3,498 in 1790 (the year of the first U.S. census) and to 50,763 by 1850. The Dutch heritage is reflected in many street names and in the annual Tulip Festival held in May in Washington Park. In 1689 one of the first intercolonial conventions was held at Albany to discuss a system of mutual defense. A more significant historical gathering was the [][Albany Congress], which took place in 1754. This meeting paved the way for the Congress of 1765 and the [][Continental Congress] of 1774. Migrating pioneers began to appear in Albany as early as 1783, and the city, a thriving fur-trading centre, became a major outfitting point for wagon trains going west. The opening of the [Erie Canal](1825) and the advent of the railroad (1831) increased the flow of traffic through the city, which became the hub of transportation to Michigan Territory (the upper Great Lakes). Politics remains a prevailing aspect of Albany. Its moderate industrial development includes the manufacture of paper, machine tools, clothing, industrial equipment, chemicals, electronics, and dental products. The city was one of the first in the country to establish a commercial airport (1919), and in 1932 the opening of the Port of Albany to oceangoing shipping made it a maritime centre.

Albanian literature

the body of written works produced in the [Albanian language]. The [][Ottoman Empire], which ruled Albania from the 15th to the early 20th century, prohibited publications in Albanian, an edict that became a serious obstacle to the development of literature in that language. Books in Albanian were rare until the late 19th century. The oldest example of writing in Albanian is a book-length manuscript on theology, philosophy, and history by []Teodor Shkodrani that dates from 1210; it was discovered in the late 1990s in the Vatican archives. Among other early examples of written Albanian are a baptismal formula (1462) and the book *Meshari* (1555; "The Liturgy," or "The Missal") by the Roman Catholic prelate Gjon Buzuku. The publication in 1635 of the first Albanian [][dictionary] was a milestone in the history of Albanian literature. The author of the *Dictionarium latino-epiroticum* ("Latin-Albanian Dictionary") was Frang Bardhi, a Catholic bishop. The earliest works of Albanian literature were written by Catholic clerics, whose ties with the Vatican enabled them to circumvent Turkish restrictions by publishing their works outside Albania, mostly in Rome. The earliest books, from the mid-16th to the mid-18th century, were mostly religious and didactic in character. A change occurred with the advent of [Romanticism] and the nationalist movements of the 18th and 19th centuries. The range of genres broadened to encompass folklore and linguistics, and books of a Romantic and patriotic nature also emerged. The first writers to cultivate the new genres were Albanians who had migrated centuries earlier to Sicily and southern Italy. The [Arbëresh] writers, as they are commonly called, profited from the absence of state-imposed restrictions in Italy and published freely to preserve and celebrate their ethnic Albanian heritage. (The term Arbëresh denotes both their dialect and their ethnic origins; it is derived from the word Arbëria, the name by which Albania was known during the Middle Ages.) Foremost among Arbëresh writers was []Jeronim (Girolamo) de Rada, regarded by some critics as the finest Romantic poet in the Albanian language. His major work, best known by its Albanian title *[]Këngët e Milosaos* (1836; "The Songs of Milosao"), is a Romantic ballad infused with patriotic sentiments. De Rada was also the founder of the first Albanian periodical, *[]Fiámuri Arbërit* ("The Albanian Flag"), which was published from 1883 to 1888. Other Arbëresh writers of note are Francesco Santori, a novelist, poet, and playwright; Dhimitër Kamarda (Demetrio Camarda), a philologist and folklorist; Zef (Giuseppe) Serembe, a poet; Gavril (Gabriele) Dara (the younger), a poet and savant; and Zef Skiroi (Giuseppe Schirò), a poet, publicist, and folklorist.

Aladura

(Yoruba: "Owners of Prayer"), religious movement among the Yoruba peoples of western Nigeria, embracing some of the independent prophet-healing churches of West Africa. The movement, which in the early 1970s had several hundred thousand adherents, began about 1918 among the younger elite in the well-established Christian community. They were dissatisfied with Western religious forms and lack of spiritual power and were influenced by literature from the small U.S. divine-healing Faith Tabernacle Church of Philadelphia. The 1918 world influenza epidemic precipitated the formation of a prayer group of Anglican laymen at Ijebu-Ode, Nigeria; the group emphasized divine healing, prayer protection, and a puritanical moral code. By 1922 divergences from Anglican practice forced the separation of a group that became known as the Faith Tabernacle, with several small congregations. The main expansion occurred when a prophet-healer, []Joseph Babalola (1906-59), became the centre of a mass divine-healing movement in 1930. Yoruba religion was rejected, and pentecostal features that had been suppressed under U.S. influence were restored. Opposition from traditional rulers, government, and mission churches led the movement to request help from the pentecostal Apostolic Church in Britain. Missionaries arrived in 1932, and the Aladura movement spread and consolidated as the Apostolic Church. Problems arose over the missionaries' use of Western medicines—clearly contrary to doctrines of divine healing—their exclusion of polygamists, and their assertion of full control over the movement. In 1938-41 the ablest leaders, including Babalola and Isaac B. []Akinyele (later Sir), formed their own []Christ Apostolic Church, which by the 1960s had 100,000 members and its own schools and had spread to Ghana. The Apostolic Church continued its connection with its British counterpart; other secessions produced further "apostolic" churches. The []Cherubim and Seraphim society is a distinct section of the Aladura founded by []Moses Orimolade Tunolase, a Yoruba prophet, and []Christiana Abiodun Akinsowon, an Anglican who had experienced visions and trances. In 1925-26 they formed the society, with doctrines of revelation and divine healing replacing traditional charms and medicine. They separated from the Anglican and other churches in 1928. In the same year the founders parted, and further divisions produced more than 10 major and many minor sections, which spread widely in Nigeria and to Benin (formerly Dahomey), Togo, and Ghana. The Church of the Lord (Aladura) was started by []Josiah Olunowo Oshitelu, an Anglican catechist and schoolteacher, whose unusual visions, fastings, and devotions led to his dismissal in 1926. By 1929 he was preaching judgment on idolatry and native charms and medicines, uttering prophecies, and healing through prayer, fasting, and holy water. The Church of the Lord (Aladura), which he founded at Ogere in 1930, spread to north and east Nigeria, Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and beyond Africa—New York City and London—where several other Aladura congregations also meet. The Aladura movement continues to grow and includes many small secessions, ephemeral groups, prophets with one or two congregations, and healing practitioners.

AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan is a landlocked Islamic state in central Asia. Area: 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 16,903,000 (excluding Afghan refugees estimated to number about 1.5 million in Pakistan and 1.8 million in Iran). Cap.: Kabul. Monetary unit: afghani, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 2,605 afghanis to U.S. \$1 (4,144 afghanis = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Burhanuddin Rabbani; prime minister to June 28, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar (term expired and not extended). Destructive and inconclusive fighting between forces loyal to Prime Minister Gulbuddin Hekmatyar and troops loyal to Pres. Burhanuddin Rabbani in 1994 resulted in the disintegration of central state authority and weakened the cohesion of the multinational state. On January 1 Hekmatyar's Hezb-i-Islami forces and those of Gen. 'Abd ar-Rashid Dostam coordinated an artillery and rocket assault on Kabul. The offensive represented a major realignment of forces vying for control of the government. Dostam had precipitated the surrender of Kabul to resistance forces in April 1992 by withdrawing his support from the Soviet-installed regime of Mohammad Najibullah. He placed the greater part of the communist army and air force under his command and assisted the new resistance government fighting Hekmatyar's forces. After intense but inconclusive fighting throughout the year, Kabul remained divided into zones controlled by rival groups. A blockade of Kabul led to fighting in northern Afghanistan over a tenuous road link to neighbouring Tajikistan. The prolonged bombardment reduced most of the Afghan capital to ruins and caused 75% of Kabul's population of two million to flee the area. Outside Kabul the central government's authority all but disappeared. Under the protection of Dostam, Mazar-i-Sharif, the largest industrial complex in Afghanistan, enjoyed relative stability. In Jalalabad local political groups and commanders cooperated to provide basic public services. In Kandahar local rivalries slowed reconstruction. Herat was generally peaceful and secure and began to reclaim its traditional role as commercial centre along trade routes with neighbouring Iran and Turkmenistan. In March United Nations Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali appointed former Tunisian foreign minister Mahmoud Mestiri head of a special peace commission. He met leaders inside and outside Afghanistan, but no formal UN peace plan was announced. In July Hamid al-Ghabid, secretary-general of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, led a peace effort, but individual OIC member states were unable to agree on an appropriate solution.

Agassi, Andre

For the first 10 years of his professional career, American tennis player Andre Agassi was the rock star of his sport. Besides racking up three Grand Slam titles and capturing the number one player ranking on several occasions, he charmed audiences with his flashy style and unusual antics, such as grabbing a fan's umbrella during a match in the rain. By 1997, however, a recurring wrist injury had begun to hamper his performances, and he saw his ranking plummet to 141. He set his sights on a comeback, and in 1999 he capped it in stirring fashion. He won the French Open in June after being down two sets to none against Andrey Medvedev of Ukraine in the final. He roared back to upend Medvedev 1-6, 2-6, 6-4, 6-3, 6-4 to become only the fifth men's player in history to win all four Grand Slam events—(Fred Perry of the U.K., Don Budge of the U.S., Rod Laver of Australia, and Roy Emerson, also of Australia, were the others) and the first to do it on three different surfaces. A strong showing at Wimbledon later in the year—Agassi made it to the finals, where he lost to arch rival Pete Sampras—and a title at the U.S. Open confirmed that he was indeed back in top form. His number one ranking at the end of the year provided conclusive proof. Agassi also topped the list of money winners. He earned \$4,269,265 during the 1999 tour. Agassi was born on April 29, 1970, in Las Vegas, Nev. By the age of two, he could serve a tennis ball on a full court. At 13 he was sent to a tennis academy in Bradenton, Fla., run by Nick Bolletieri, who later became his coach. In 1987 Agassi won his first professional tournament. With six tournament wins in 1988, the shaggy-haired right-hander with the powerful forehand began attracting attention. In 1992 he triumphed over Goran Ivanisevic of Croatia at Wimbledon to take his first Grand Slam title. In 1994, after being dropped by Bolletieri—who questioned Agassi's dedication to the sport—and falling out of the top 30 in the rankings, he returned with a new coach, Brad Gilbert, and a new, more focussed, game. He entered the 1994 U.S. Open unseeded; when he won there, it was the first time that an unseeded player had taken the U.S. Open since 1966. In January 1995 he claimed his third Grand Slam title at the Australian Open in his first participation in that event and held the number one ranking for 30 consecutive weeks later that year. A gold medal at the Olympic Games in Atlanta, Ga., marked Agassi's only notable victory in 1996. In 1997 Agassi, now sporting a shaved head, made headlines with his marriage to actress Brooke Shields, though his tennis continued to suffer. His attempt at a return to the top got a giant boost when he beat Sampras in February 1998 at a tournament in San Jose, Calif. Disappointing losses early in 1999—and a widely publicized split with Shields—failed to shake Agassi's concentration, and a win over Boris Becker in Hong Kong shortly before the French Open set the stage for his return to glory. By the end of 1999, Agassi—slim, fit, and still not yet 30—had amassed more than \$16 million in career prize money and had won more than 40 professional titles. Anthony G. Craine

Agrarian League

*German **Bund Der Landwirte** * extraparliamentary organization active under the German empire from 1893. Formed to combat the free-trade policies (initiated in 1892) of Chancellor [Leo, Graf (count) von Caprivi]%20von%20Caprivi#9020182.toc), the league worked for farmers' subsidies, import tariffs, and minimum prices. Caprivi's successor promised to increase wheat tariffs, but by 1900 the Agrarian League had increased to 250,000 members—50,000 more than its mid-1890s membership. By then it had largely captured the Conservative Party, which in the [Reichstag] (parliament) represented the economic self-interest of Germany's landed class. In 1902 another new chancellor restored agricultural tariffs (partly in return for support for legislation in naval expansion) to their 1892 levels, though this was insufficient for the league. In 1921 it became the Reichslandbund, or State Land League.

Albertina Graphics Collection

*German **Graphische Sammlung Albertina,** * compilation of graphic arts in the Hofburg, or Imperial Palace, of Vienna, Austria. It is important for its comprehensive collection of prints, drawings, sketchbooks, and miniatures assembled in the 18th century by Albert Kasimir, Duke of Saxe-Teschen, and cataloged by Adam von Bartsch. The extraordinary quantity and quality of prints in this collection induced Bartsch to go one step further and establish *oeuvre* catalogs (inventories of works produced by an artist) of the masters of printmaking. The collection was administered and enlarged by Albert's successors until 1920, when it was taken over by the government of Austria. The collection centres on European drawings and prints from the 15th to the 20th century.

alba

*(Provençal: "dawn"),French **Aube, or Aubade,** * in the music of the [][troubadour]s (*q.v.*), the 11th- and 12th-century poet-musicians of southern France, a song of lovers' parting at dawn or of a watchman's warning to lovers at dawn. It sometimes takes the form of a dialogue between watchman and lover. Examples for which music also survives include []"Reis glorios" by Guiraut de Bornelh and the anonymous []"Gaite de la tor." The German counterparts of the troubadours, the [][minnesingers], also used the form, calling it *[][Tagelied]* ("day song").

Adcock, Joseph Wilbur

***"Joe"** * American baseball player who hit 336 home runs in a 17-year career in the major leagues; although he once hit four home runs in a single game and established the major league record for total bases (18), his most famous hit came on May 26, 1959, when, playing for the Milwaukee Braves, he ended the game in which the Pittsburgh Pirates' Harvey Haddix had pitched 12 perfect innings (b. Oct. 30, 1927, Coushatta, La.—d. May 3, 1999, Coushatta).

Āl Wahībah Dunes

*Arabic **Ramlat Āl Wahībah,** * sandy desert, east-central Oman. It fronts the Arabian Sea on the southeast and stretches along the coast for more than 100 miles (160 km). The desert consists of honey-coloured dunes that are dark red at their base and rise to heights of 230 feet (70 m). The sands are crisscrossed with tracks and routes for vehicles. There is very little surface water, but underground water traditionally is tapped by tunneling into the earth at a shallow angle until the water table is reached. The region is solely inhabited by Yal Wahībah nomads.

Adria

*Latin **Atria, or Hadria,** * town and episcopal see in the [Veneto] *regione* of northern Italy, on the Bianco Canal just east of Rovigo. Founded by the Etruscans or the Veneti of northeastern Italy, it later became a Roman town and was a flourishing port on the Adriatic Sea (to which it gave its name) until the silting up of the Po and Adige deltas caused the sea (now 13.5 miles [22 km] east) to recede from the town. It has a fine museum of antiques and an 18th-century cathedral. It is now an agricultural and commercial centre of the Polesine (delta district), with diversified manufactures. Pop. (2006 est.) mun., 20,538.

Aesir

*Old Norse **Æsir** , singular **Áss** * in Scandinavian mythology, either of two main groups of deities, four of whom were common to the Germanic nations: [][Odin] (*q.v.*), chief of the Aesir; [][Frigg] (*q.v.*), Odin's wife; [Tyr] (*q.v.*), god of war; and [Thor] (*q.v.*), whose name was the Teutonic word for thunder. Some of the other important Aesir were [Balder], [Jörd], [Heimdall], and [Loki] (*qq.v.*).

Alamo

*Spanish"Cottonwood"* [![Photograph:The Alamo, San Antonio, Texas.]] - The Alamo, San Antonio, Texas. 18th-century Franciscan mission in San Antonio, Texas, U.S., that was the site of a historic resistance effort by a small group of determined fighters for Texan independence (1836) from Mexico. The building was originally the chapel of the [Mission San Antonio de Valero], which had been founded between 1716 and 1718 by Franciscans. Before the end of the century the mission was abandoned and the buildings had fallen into partial ruin. After 1801 the chapel was occupied sporadically by Spanish troops. Apparently it was during this period that the old chapel became popularly known as "the Alamo" from the grove of cottonwood trees in which it stood.

Albert I

*also called **Albert the Bear** , German **Albrecht der Bär** * born *c.* 1100 died Nov. 18, 1170 the first margrave of Brandenburg and founder of the [Ascanian dynasties]. He was one of the main leaders of 12th-century German expansion into eastern Europe. In 1123 Albert inherited Saxon estates between the Harz Mountains and the middle reaches of the Elbe River from his father, Otto the Rich. After his mother's death in 1142, he received the central German possessions of the Billung dynasty, but he was unsuccessful in his attempts to win the Saxon duchy.

afterripening

*also called **Dormancy,** * complex enzymatic and biochemical process that certain plant embryos must undergo before they will []germinate. It results at least in part from rapid and extensive water loss because of the conversion of soluble nutrients to their stored forms. This interruption of growth, or the lack of it in the seeds of many tropical plants, may be an adaptation to seasonal and climatic changes. Afterripening provides for germination at the most favourable time, when conditions of moisture, temperature, and day length are most conducive to plant growth. Many cereals and grasses require afterripening, which prevents them from germinating in the ear under moist conditions. *See also* [germination].

affricate

*also called **semiplosive** * a consonant sound that begins as a stop (sound with complete obstruction of the breath stream) and concludes with a [][fricative] (sound with incomplete closure and a sound of friction). Examples of affricates are the *ch* sound in English chair, which may be represented phonetically as a *t* sound followed by *sh*; the *j* in English jaw (a *d* followed by the *zh* sound heard in French *jour* or in English azure); and the *ts* sound often heard in German and spelled with *z* as in *zehn*, meaning ten.

Agaja

*also spelled **Agadja** * born *c.* 1673 died 1740, Allada, Dahomey [now Benin] third ruler of the West African kingdom of [][Dahomey] (1708-40), who was able to extend his kingdom southward to the coast and who consolidated and centralized it through important administrative reforms. The first part of Agaja's reign was by far the more successful. From 1708 to 1727 he carried out a series of expansionist wars, culminating in the takeover of the kingdom of Allada in 1724 and of the important coastal trading state of Whydah (Ouïdah) in 1727. In the second half of his reign, however, he was subject to the invasions of the powerful [][Oyo] kingdom to the northeast.

Aginskoye

*also spelled **Aginskoje,** * administrative centre of Aga-Buryat autonomous *okrug* (district), Chita *oblast* (province), Russia, in the Aga River valley. The village was founded in 1811. It has small food-processing industries. Pop. (1994 est.) 9,300.

Aethelwulf

*also spelled **Ethelwulf** * died 858 [![Photograph:Aethelwulf, coin, 9th century; in the British Museum]] - Aethelwulf, coin, 9th century; in the British Museum Anglo-Saxon king in England, the father of King Alfred the Great. As ruler of the West Saxons from 839 to 856, he allied his kingdom of Wessex with Mercia and thereby withstood invasions by Danish Vikings.

Agoult, Marie de Flavigny, comtesse d' (countess of)

*in full **Marie-Catherine-Sophie de Flavigny, comtesse d'Agoult** , pseudonym **Daniel Stern** * born Dec. 31, 1805, Frankfurt am Main [Germany] died March 5, 1876, Paris, France [![Photograph:Madame d'Agoult, detail of a portrait by Henri Lehmann; in a private collection]] - Madame d'Agoult, detail of a portrait by Henri Lehmann; in a private collection writer known for her role in and descriptions of Parisian society in the 1840s.

Adler, Mortimer J.

*in full **Mortimer Jerome Adler** * born Dec. 28, 1902, New York, New York, U.S. died June 28, 2001, San Mateo, California [![Photograph:Mortimer Adler,1989]] - Mortimer Adler,1989 American philosopher, educator, editor, and advocate of adult and general education by study of the great writings of the Western world.

Akhmatova, Anna

*pseudonym of **Anna Andreyevna Gorenko** * born June 11 [June 23, New Style], 1889, Bolshoy Fontan, near Odessa, Ukraine, Russian Empire died March 5, 1966, Domodedovo, near Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R. [![Photograph:Anna Akhmatova.]] - Anna Akhmatova. Russian poet recognized at her death as the greatest woman poet in Russian literature.

Adults 'Toon In

By 1998 [television] [cartoons] aimed primarily at adults had reached an unprecedented popularity. Fox Broadcasting's "[]The Simpsons" not only was the longest-running animated program on TV but, after the show's ninth season on the air, had become the longest continually running prime-time series still releasing new episodes. The Cartoon Network was perhaps the most successful new cable channel. Another cable network, Comedy Central, attracted huge audiences and wowed critics with such animated hits as "South Park," "Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist," and the British-made "Bob and Margaret." At a time when the preponderance of television sitcoms featured generic characters, canned laughter, and pat story lines, adult viewers in search of intelligent humour and genuine, compelling characters were, ironically, turning increasingly to cartoons. Adult-oriented TV cartoons had come a long way since 1960, when "The Flintstones" and "Mr. Magoo," the first prime-time animated programs, made their debuts. "The Flintstones" was based in part on Jackie Gleason's classic sitcom "The Honeymooners," and the antics of the nearsighted, crotchety Mr. Magoo recalled the comedy of W.C. Fields. These and other early animated shows, such as the popular "Peanuts" television specials, could be enjoyed equally by children and adults. By and large they avoided social and political criticism and, some would say, reflected a more wholesome era than today. The cartoon landscape changed dramatically in 1990 with the appearance of "The Simpsons," the first animated prime-time series in two decades. Created by comic-strip artist Matt Groening, the show depicted the misadventures of the Simpson family, focusing particularly on Homer, the bickering, ineffectual husband and father, and Bart, the sly, sarcastic 10-year-old son. A de facto revolt against idealized images of the American family promulgated by such well-known sitcoms as "Father Knows Best" and "The Cosby Show," "The Simpsons" instantly struck a chord with viewers and cleared the way for other adult-oriented cartoons. "King of the Hill," developed by Fox as a companion show to "The Simpsons," debuted in 1997. Set in a Texas suburb and featuring another beleaguered working-class family, the cartoon was one of television's most successful new shows. Other prime-time cartoons stirred controversy. MTV's "Beavis and Butt-head" and Nickelodeon's "Ren and Stimpy" tried hard to be obnoxious, but perhaps the most outrageous cartoon of all was "South Park." Although the series centred on the lives of four young boys, it carried a "mature audiences" rating for its liberal doses of profane language, gross humour, and graphic violence (one character, Kenny, was killed in almost every episode, sometimes more than once). Described by one critic as "Peanuts on acid," the cartoon's deadly satire helped it become the highest-rated show on cable. Like "The Simpsons," "South Park" also strove for an element of realism. "Most kids on TV are just projections of what adults think kids should be like," observed "South Park" cocreator Matt Stone. "Kids are not sweet and innocent. They're mean and vindictive . . . and that's what makes them so funny."

African American literature

Introduction ------------ body of literature written by Americans of African descent. Beginning in the pre-Revolutionary War period, African American writers have engaged in a creative, if often contentious, dialogue with American letters. The result is a literature rich in expressive subtlety and social insight, offering illuminating assessments of American identities and history. Although since 1970 African American writers, led by Toni Morrison, have earned widespread critical acclaim, this literature has been recognized internationally as well as nationally since its inception in the late 18th century. Antebellum literature {#232345.toc} --------------------- African Americans launched their literature in North America during the second half of the 18th century, joining the war of words between England and its rebellious colonies with a special sense of mission. The earliest African American writers sought to demonstrate that the proposition "all men are created equal" in the [Declaration of Independence] required that black Americans be extended the same human rights as those claimed by white Americans. Couching a social justice argument in the Christian gospel of the universal brotherhood of humanity, African-born [][Phillis Wheatley], [][enslaved] in Boston, dedicated her *[]Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral* (1773), the first African American book, to proving that "Negros, black as Cain," were not inherently inferior to whites in matters of the spirit and thus could "join th' angelic train" as spiritual equals to whites. Composing poems in a wide range of classical genres, Wheatley was determined to show by her mastery of form and metre, as well as by her pious and learned subjects, that a black poet was as capable of artistic expression as a white poet. *Poems on Various Subjects* provided a powerful argument against the proslavery contention that the failure of African peoples to write serious literature was proof of their intellectual inadequacies and their fitness for enslavement. The poetry and sermons of the Connecticut slave Jupiter Hammon (1711-1806?), though their major theme is the urgency of Christian conversion, buttressed the demand of early African American writers for literary recognition. [![Photograph:Title page from the first edition of The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah ...]] - Title page from the first edition of *The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah* ... In 1789 [][Olaudah Equiano], Wheatley's most famous black literary contemporary, published his two-volume autobiography, *[The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano; or, Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself]*. A British citizen who had experienced enslavement in the Americas, Equiano has been traditionally regarded, along with Wheatley, as the founder of African literature in English by virtue of his having pioneered the [][slave narrative], a firsthand literary testimony against slavery which, by the early 19th century, earned for African American literature a burgeoning readership in Britain as well as in the United States. One of the most remarkable features of Equiano's story is his use of African origins to establish his credibility as a critic of European imperialism in Africa. Recent research, however, has raised questions about whether Equiano was born an Igbo (Ibo) in Africa, as he claims in his autobiography. His baptismal record in Westminster, England, lists him on February 9, 1759, as "Gustavus Vassa a Black born in Carolina 12 years old." Scholars have also debated whether Equiano's account of Igbo life in his autobiography is based on reading rather than memory. In the absence of scholarly consensus on these controversial matters, *The Interesting Narrative* remains a pivotal text in portraying Africa as neither morally benighted nor culturally backward but rather as a model of social harmony defiled by Euro-American greed.

Agaricales

[![Photograph:(Top to bottom) Cortinarius cinnamomeus occurs singly or in small ...]] - (Top to bottom) *Cortinarius cinnamomeus* occurs singly or in small ... order of fungi in the class Agaricomycetes (phylum Basidiomycota, kingdom Fungi). Traditionally, agarics were classified based on the presence of gills (thin sheets of spore-bearing cells, or basidia) and mushroom-shaped fruiting bodies. Today, agarics are classified based on genetic relatedness, and thus they may or may not have gills, and fruiting bodies may or may not be mushroom-shaped. The best known family, [Agaricaceae], has basidia located on gills. The familiar commercially grown [][mushroom] is a representative example: its fruiting structure (the mushroom proper) typically consists of a stalk (stipe) and a cap (pileus), which bears the gills on its underside. Best known of the agarics is the genus *Agaricus*, with more than 200 species (*see* [mushroom]). The most prominent of the agarics are the edible meadow or field mushroom *A. campestris* and the common cultivated mushroom *A. bisporus*. The family Pluteaceae ([]Amanitaceae) contains many species that are poisonous (*see* [Amanita]). [![Photograph:(Top to bottom) A mushroom growing in groups or tufts, Mycena leaiana has a sticky cap and ...]] - (Top to bottom) A mushroom growing in groups or tufts, *Mycena leaiana* has a sticky cap and ... Among the remaining families, the following members are of interest. *[]Clitocybe* is a cosmopolitan genus and contains the poisonous *C. illudens,* the [jack-o-lantern], which glows in the dark. This orange-yellow fungus of woods and stumps resembles the sought after edible species of *Cantharellus*, the [chanterelle]; the similarity emphasizes the need for careful identification by the mushroom gatherer. *Russula* has about 750 species, many with caps of red, orange, yellow, or green. *[]Lactarius* has milky (hence the name) or bluish juice; the genus contains the edible *[]L. deliciosus* as well as several poisonous species. *[][Coprinus],* the ink caps, characteristically grow in clumps at the sides of roads and at the base of old stumps. They are characterized by bullet-shaped caps, black spores (which make the gills appear black), and their habit of liquefying when mature, leaving an inky mass. The majority are edible, a few are somewhat poisonous, and some are mildly toxic only when alcoholic beverages are consumed with the mushrooms. [![Photograph:Scaly pholiota (Pholiota squarrosa)]] - Scaly pholiota (*Pholiota squarrosa*) *Armillaria* is a genus of about 35 cosmopolitan species. *A. mellea,* the edible [honey mushroom], causes root rot in trees. Its yellowish clusters are often found at the bases of trees and stumps, and black shoe-stringlike fungal filaments can be found in the decaying wood. *[]Armillaria ponderosa*, an edible mushroom with an interesting cinnamon flavor, is found in Northwest coastal forests; it is avidly collected by Japanese-Americans, who call it []matsutake, after the matsutake of Japan (*Tricholoma matsutake*). *[]Tricholoma* also contains a number of inedible forms, including the very poisonous *[]T. pardinium.* *Pholiota* is found almost exclusively on wood. Some species are known to cause heartwood rot in trees. The cap and stalk of *P. squarrosa*, an edible mushroom, are covered with dense, dry scales (*see* [photograph]). Among the shelf or bracket fungi growing from tree trunks is the []oyster cap, *Pleurotus ostreatus,* so called because of its appearance. It is edible when young, but, as with most shelf and bracket fungi, it tends to become hard or leathery with age. The small *Marasmius oreades* appears frequently in lawns (*see* [fairy ring]).

Akita

[![Photograph:Young men balancing the kantō, bamboo frames hung with paper lanterns, during the ...]] - Young men balancing the *kantō,* bamboo frames hung with paper lanterns, during the ... *ken* (prefecture), northwestern Honshu, Japan, on the Sea of Japan coast. Its area of 4,483 square miles (11,612 square km) is divided between lowlands (west) and a plateau region (east). The []Hachiman Plateau is dotted with volcanoes such as []Mount Komaga (5,371 feet [1,637 m]), near the eastern border with Iwate prefecture. The plateau is covered with white fir trees and alpine plants that grow amid fissures yielding steam, smoke, and boiling mud. In the extreme northeast, on the border with Aomori prefecture, is Towada Lake, which is the central feature of Towada-Hachimantai National Park. Akita Plain, west of the Ōu and Dewa mountain ranges, is crossed by rivers flowing into the Sea of Japan. Chief among them are the Yoneshiro River (north), the Omono River (central), and the Ishizawa River (south). []Hachirō Lagoon, on the Oga Peninsula, was once the second largest body of water in Japan after Lake Biwa and was about 50 miles (80 km) in circumference, but it was almost totally reclaimed for rice cultivation during the 10-year period after 1958. Lumbering is also important in the prefecture. Mineral wealth includes deposits of copper, sulfur, lead, and manganese. Before and immediately after World War II, oil refineries were operated in Akita, along the Sea of Japan, but as crude-oil imports rose sharply, the oil refineries moved to the Pacific coast for convenience of importing. Akita city, the prefecture capital and major city, still produces some petroleum products and chemicals; it is served by the outport of Tsuchizakiminato. Akita University, founded in 1949, is located there. Noshiro is known for its wood products. Other important towns are Honjō, Oga, Yokote, and Ōdate. Pop. (1990) city, 302,359; prefecture, 1,227,491.

Agustini, Delmira

born , Oct. 24, 1886, Montevideo, Uruguay died July 6, 1914, Montevideo one of the most important poets of South America. Agustini was the first woman in Latin-American literature to deal boldly with the themes of sensuality and passion, and her poems have a force lacking from most Modernist poetry of the period. Her life ended tragically when she was murdered by her estranged husband. Her chief works are *El libro blanco* (1907; "The White Book"), *Cantos de la mañana* (1910; "Morning Songs"), *Los cálices vacíos* (1913; "Empty Chalices"), *El rosarío del Eros* (1924; "Eros' Rosary"), and *Obras completas* (1924; "Complete Works").

Agapetus I, Saint

born , Rome died April 22, 536, Constantinople [now Istanbul, Tur.]; feast days April 22, September 20 pope from 535 to 536. Of noble birth, he was an archdeacon at the time of his election (May 13, 535). At the urging of the Ostrogothic king Theodahad, he headed an unsuccessful mission to Constantinople to deter the emperor Justinian I from his plans to reconquer Italy. While there he secured the election of, and consecrated, Mennas as successor to the patriarch [][Anthimus I], whom he deposed for his Monophysite beliefs (that Christ had but one nature). Agapetus' remains were brought back from Constantinople, where he died, and were buried in Rome.

Agricola, Alexander

born 1446, Flanders died 1506, Valladolid, Spain composer of the late Burgundian polyphonic school. Agricola was educated in the Netherlands and entered the service of Charles VII of France. He later went to Milan and in 1474 was at the court of Lorenzo de' Medici. The same year he returned to the Netherlands. In 1500 he became chaplain and chanter to Philip the Fair of Burgundy, whom he accompanied to Spain. His works appear widely in contemporary printed music books and are noted for their rhythmic ingenuity. They include masses, motets, French chansons, and Italian carnival songs.

Aenesidemus

born 1st century BC, , Knossos, Crete philosopher and dialectician of the Greek Academy who revived the Pyrrhonian principle of "suspended judgment" (*[][epoche]*) as a practical solution to the vexing and "insoluble" problem of knowledge. In his *[]Pyrrhonian Discourses* Aenesidemus formulated 10 tropes in defense of Skepticism, four suggesting arguments that arise from the nature of the perceiver, two dealing with the thing perceived, and four concerning the relationship between the perceiver and the thing perceived.

Agis I

flourished 11th century BC? early Spartan king, traditionally held to be the son of Eurysthenes (in legend, one of the twins who founded Sparta). Because the Agiad line of kings was named after him, Agis was perhaps a historical figure. The 4th-century-BC Greek historian Ephorus attributes to Agis the capture of the city of Helos in Laconia and the reduction of its people to helot (serf) status.

advection

in atmospheric science, change in a property of a moving mass of air because the mass moves to a region where the property has a different value (*e.g.,* the change in temperature when a warm air mass moves into a cool region). Advection can refer to either the horizontal or vertical components of the motion.

Adullamite

member of a group of English politicians who rebelled against their leaders in the Liberal Party and defeated the Reform Bill of 1866. Their name was derived from the biblical reference to the caves of ʿAdullam (1 Samuel 22:1), which served as a refuge for the discontented. The Liberal politician John Bright applied the term to party rebels who opposed the extension of the franchise proposed by W.E. Gladstone and John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, in 1866. Some of the group of about 40 members of Parliament acted out of fear of losing their seats, but most agreed with their leader Robert []Lowe (later Viscount Sherbrooke) in his fear of the effects of democracy.

Advent Christian Church

one of several Adventist churches that evolved from the teachings in the late 1840s of William Miller. It was organized in 1860. Doctrinal emphasis is placed on the anticipated Second Coming of Christ and on the Last Judgment, after which the wicked will be destroyed and the chosen will be resurrected to live in a restored paradise on Earth. The church is congregational in polity and, unlike the Seventh-day Adventists, holds services on Sunday. In 1964 the former Life and Advent Union merged with the Advent Christian Church.

Admiralty Inlet

passage of water located between Brodeur and Borden peninsulas and indenting for 230 miles (370 km) the northwest coast of [Baffin Island] in the [Baffin] region of [Nunavut] territory, [Canada]. The inlet, leading southward from Lancaster Sound of Baffin Bay, is 2 to 20 miles (3 to 32 km) wide, with a shoreline that rises abruptly about 1,000 to 1,500 feet (300 to 460 metres). []Arctic Bay (Ikpiarjuk; pop. [2006] 690), a mineral exploration and hunting base, is on its northeastern shore.

Alabama State University

public, coeducational institution of higher learning in [Montgomery], Alabama, U.S. It is a historically black school, and its enrollment is predominantly [African American]. Alabama State offers bachelor's and master's degree programs in the schools of Music and Graduate Studies and colleges of Business Administration, Education, and Arts and Sciences. An educational specialist degree is available. University College provides academic services and a basic program of study to prepare new students for degree programs. Total enrollment is more than 5,600. Alabama State University began in 1867 as the Lincoln Normal School, a private school for African Americans in Marion. In 1874 the school was reorganized as a state-supported college. It moved to Montgomery in 1887. After years of steady growth and a series of name changes, Alabama State achieved university status in 1969. Among its graduates was civil rights leader [Ralph Abernathy], cofounder of the [Southern Christian Leadership Conference].

Agalega Islands

two-island dependency of Mauritius, in the western Indian Ocean. It consists of North Island and South Island. They lie about 600 miles (1,000 km) north of Mauritius and have a total land area of 27 square miles (70 square km). Copra and coconut oil are produced and exported, and some poultry and cattle are raised and vegetables grown for subsistence. The principal villages are Vingt Cinq on North Island and Sainte Rita on South Island. There are some roads but few motor vehicles. Pop. (2003 est.) 300.

Aḥad Haʿam

*(Hebrew: "One of the People"),original name **Asher Ginzberg** * born Aug. 18, 1856, Skvira, near Kiev, Russian Empire [now in Ukraine] died Jan. 2, 1927, Tel Aviv, Palestine [now in Israel] [![Photograph:Aḥad Haʿam]] - Aḥad Haʿam []Zionist leader whose concepts of Hebrew culture had a definitive influence on the objectives of the early Jewish settlement in Palestine.

Agrippina, Julia

*also called **Agrippina the Younger** * born AD 15 died 59 [![Photograph:Agrippina the Younger, bust by an unknown artist; in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples]] - Agrippina the Younger, bust by an unknown artist; in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples mother of the Roman emperor [][Nero] and a powerful influence on him during the early years of his reign (54-68).

air space

*also spelled **Airspace,** * in international law, the space above a particular national territory, treated as belonging to the government controlling the territory. It does not include outer space, which, under the [][Outer Space Treaty] of 1967, is declared to be free and not subject to national appropriation. The treaty, however, did not define the altitude at which outer space begins and air space ends.

Akebono

In the ancient Japanese sport of sumo, no foreigner had ever been elevated to *yokozuna* (grand champion) until Hawaiian-born Chadwick Haheo Rowan, known professionally as Akebono, was promoted to that rank in January 1993. Rowan was born near Honolulu on May 8, 1969, and entered college on a basketball scholarship. In less than a year he had dropped out of school because he had arguments with his coach and found his classes boring. Setting aside a natural interest in language and culture, he finally took his father's advice and agreed to meet fellow Hawaiian Jesse Kuhaulua, who had become a sumo stablemaster in Japan. Before retiring in 1984, he was known as Takamiyama and had set a series of virtually unbeatable records as a junior champion. He persuaded Rowan to join his stable. During his first six months in Japan, Rowan was so homesick that he cried almost every night. His Japanese was so poor he could not mix easily with his stablemates. During practice, however, Rowan showed amazing strength, but he had difficulty maintaining his balance because of his towering height (204 cm [6 ft 8 in]) and incredible weight (211 kg [466 lb]). With persistence he gradually developed the techniques and skills required for his professional debut as Akebono in March 1988. He breezed through sumo's lower ranks and junior division, setting all-time records along the way. As he worked his way up in the senior division, successes were mixed with failures. In May 1992 Akebono won his first tournament championship, a feat no one before him had ever accomplished in just 30 competitions. In time, Akebono was awarded five Emperor's Cups, four Outstanding Performance prizes, two Fighting Spirit prizes, and 487 special monetary prizes. He ended the season by winning his third consecutive, and sixth over-all, championship in the November tournament. And somewhere along the road that leads to eventual retirement, Akebono hoped to capture the elusive *zenski-yusho,* a perfect record of 15 victories in a single tournament. Fame did not significantly alter Akebono's lifestyle. He continued to like popular and classical music, watch samurai movies, and shy away from crowds whenever possible. He knew, however, that he had to maintain the dignity and decorum expected of a *yokozuna.* Akebono still expressed pride in being an American, but he expected to reside in Japan when his career came to an end. Meanwhile, especially after the death of his father in July, he took good care of his mother and other family members in Hawaii. As he looked back on the years of rigorous training and the success that followed, Akebono knew he made the right decision. If he had stayed home, he said, he would now probably be "a bum on a beach somewhere in Hawaii." (KAY K. TATEISHI)

aerobatics

Introduction ------------ maneuvers in which an [][aircraft] is flown under precise control in unusual attitudes (the position of an aircraft determined by the relationship between its axes and a reference such as the horizon). A myriad of aerobatic maneuvers exist, some of the better-known being rolls, loops, stall turns (hammerheads), and tailslides. The term *aerobatics* came into use in early 1914 after being suggested in the British magazine *The Aeroplane* and was originally synonymous with [stunt flying]. However, although it is still loosely used to describe many such types of aerobatic performance, it has gradually acquired a more specific meaning since the development of the organized sport of aerobatics, wherein the term has come to denote the precise and accurate execution of defined maneuvers of varying difficulty. History of aerobatics {#218451.toc} --------------------- Essential to aerobatic technique is the ability to fly an aircraft inverted (upside down), which was first demonstrated on September 1, 1913, by the Frenchman Adolphe Pégoud, test pilot for aviator [Louis Blériot]. Pégoud also flew other advanced maneuvers as part of a research program. Other aerobatic innovators include the Russian military pilot Petr Nesterov, who was the first pilot to "loop the loop," on September 9 (August 27, Old Style), 1913. At the outbreak of World War I, military pilots were used mainly for reconnaissance work and were not expected to possess any knowledge of aerobatics. It was not until the development of successful [fighter aircraft] in 1915 that pilots began to engage in serious aerial combat, discovering in the process that aerobatic skills could give them a significant advantage in a [dogfight]. With this realization and with the aid of aircraft manufactured with enhanced aerobatic capabilities, pilots began to develop a growing range of aerobatic maneuvers, principally for evading enemy airplanes. Such skills were entirely self-taught or acquired from comrades in arms, and only late in 1916 were the first tentative steps taken toward the systematic teaching of aerobatic techniques, which had hitherto been discouraged (or even prohibited) in military flight training.

Āl Bū Saʿīd dynasty

Muslim dynasty of [][Oman], in southeastern Arabia (*c.* 1749 to the present), and of [][Zanzibar], in East Africa (*c.* 1749-1964). [Aḥmad ibn Saʿīd], who had been governor of Ṣuḥār, Oman, in the 1740s under the Persian Yaʿrubids, managed to displace the Yaʿrubids by about 1749 and become imam of Oman and of Zanzibar, Pemba, and Kilwa in East Africa. His successors—known as sayyids or, later, as sultans—expanded their possessions in the late 18th century to include Bahrain in the Persian Gulf and Bandar-e ʿAbbās, Hormuz, and Qeshm (all in Iran). In 1798 the threat of the militant [][Wahhābī]s (a fundamentalist Islamic sect in central Arabia) caused [Sulṭān ibn Aḥmad] (reigned 1792-1804) to conclude a treaty with the [][East India Company] that would assure a British presence in [][Muscat] (Masqaṭ), the Āl Bū Saʿīdī capital, which was an important port on the trade route to India. Under [][Saʿīd ibn Sulṭān] (reigned 1806-56), the Āl Bū Saʿīd family reached the peak of its influence. Saʿīd established treaties with the United States (1833) and France (1844), strengthened his ties with Great Britain, and placed the East African Arab and Swahili colonies from Mogadishu (Muqdisho) to Cape Delgado under his suzerainty. The equilibrium of the sultanate was still threatened by Wahhābī attacks and tribal unrest in the mountains, but, with British aid, Saʿīd kept them in check. In 1854, out of gratitude for such support, the sayyid gave Great Britain the [][Khurīyā Murīyā] Islands. On Saʿīd's death in 1856, the Āl Bū Saʿīdī dominions were divided by the British between Saʿīd's two sons: Oman came under []Thuwaynī's rule (1856-66), while Zanzibar went to [Mājid] (reigned 1856-70). In Zanzibar the Āl Bū Saʿīd family remained in power even under the British protectorate (1890-1963) but were overthrown in 1964 when Zanzibar was incorporated into Tanzania.

Aerosmith

The year 2001 was one of the highest peaks in the roller-coaster career of hard-rock survivors Aerosmith; the group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and enjoyed the runaway success of its first self-produced album, *Just Push Play.* Overcoming the legendary excess that had brought its career to a screeching halt in the early 1980s, Aerosmith returned with even greater popularity than it had enjoyed as one of the biggest arena rockers of the '70s. In the process the group passed the 50-million mark in album sales to become the 10th best-selling act in recording history. Aerosmith was formed in 1970 in New Hampshire by vocalist-drummer-harmonicist Steven Tyler (born Steven Tallarico on March 26, 1948, in New York City), guitar wizard Joe Perry (born Sept. 10, 1950, in Boston), and bassist Tom Hamilton (born Dec. 31, 1951, in Colorado Springs, Colo.). After the addition of guitarist Brad Whitford (born Feb. 23, 1952, in Winchester, Mass.) and drummer Joey Kramer (born June 21, 1950, in New York City), Tyler became a full-time front man. Relocating to Boston, Aerosmith honed its mixture of blues-based heavy metal and Rolling Stones-styled rock before signing with Columbia Records in 1972. Touring nearly nonstop in support of its first two albums, *Aerosmith* (1973) and *Get Your Wings* (1974), the band won an enthusiastic following before releasing the multimillion-selling *Toys in the Attic* (1975)—featuring "Walk This Way" and "Sweet Emotion"—and *Rocks* (1976). The band's rerelease of "Dream On" in 1976 also became a huge hit, one of rock's first power ballads. In leotards and flowing scarves, Tyler, who resembled the Stones' Mick Jagger, exuded sex both in the band's raucous live shows and in the clever, libidinous lyrics that earned him the nickname the "Shakespeare of the salacious." The group's sex-and-drugs lifestyle took a heavy toll, however; alcohol, cocaine, and barbiturate abuse—and ultimately the heroin addiction of the "toxic twins" (Tyler and Perry)—resulted in rapidly declining creativity and erratic live shows. Perry went solo in 1979, following the release of the uninspired *Night in Ruts,* and Whitford followed. The band pushed on with new guitarists, but by the time *Rock in a Hard Place* (1982) appeared, Tyler was passing out onstage. In 1984, however, the original members regrouped, and in 1986 Perry and Tyler guested on Run DMC's hip-hop remake of "Walk This Way." Soon after, the band committed to sobriety. As daily workouts replaced all-night parties, Aerosmith found a new generation of fans on MTV with a series of suggestive music videos, charting singles, and hit albums. Hit songs included "Dude (Looks like a Lady)" from *Permanent Vacation* (1987), "Janie's Got a Gun" from *Pump* (1989), and "Cryin'" from *Get a Grip* (1994); the latter album, like the follow-up *Nine Lives* (1997), reached number one. The group garnered Grammy Awards in 1990, 1993, and 1994. Jeff Wallenfeldt

Ahtisaari, Martti

On June 2, 1999, the president of Finland, Martti Ahtisaari, and Russian envoy Viktor Chernomyrdin met with Pres. Slobodan Milosevic of Yugoslavia in Belgrade and presented him with an offer he could not refuse: accept an agreement to end the conflict in Kosovo between Serbian troops and the ethnic Albanian Kosovo Liberation Army, or face continued NATO bombing. The next day Milosevic agreed to the conditions of the accord, which included a joint NATO-Russian peacekeeping force in Kosovo. The diplomatic skill of Ahtisaari, a veteran mediator who as senior UN envoy during the 1992-93 Bosnia and Herzegovina peace talks had become experienced in dealing with Milosevic, was crucial to the negotiation of a peace accord. During a 10-hour meeting in May at Finland's presidential palace, Chernomyrdin and U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbott had attempted to recruit Ahtisaari for the peace mission to Belgrade. Ahtisaari did not agree to participate until Russia and NATO decided on a definite plan to present to Milosevic. In Belgrade, Ahtisaari's calm insistence that the plan was a one-time-only, nonnegotiable offer forced Milosevic finally to capitulate. As a longtime UN negotiator and president of a small neutral European country, Ahtisaari had rare experience in reconciling differences. He was born on June 23, 1937, in Viipuri, Fin. (now Vyborg, Russia). He graduated from the University of Oulu, Fin., in 1959 and in the early 1960s worked in Pakistan on an educational project for the Swedish Agency for International Development. Returning to Finland, he joined the Foreign Affairs Ministry in 1965 and was appointed ambassador to Tanzania in 1973, a post he held until 1976. He faced the first major test of his diplomatic skills in 1977-81 as UN commissioner for Namibia, where conflict between SWAPO (South West Africa People's Organization), the Namibian independence movement, and South African colonial forces had erupted into a protracted war. Ahtisaari continued to represent the UN in Namibia during the 1980s while serving in Finnish Foreign Ministry posts, and he led the UN team that supervised Namibia's transition to independence in 1989-90. His vision of Finland as an important player in international affairs was a large selling point in his only campaign for elective office, his successful run for the presidency in 1994. He urged his nation's entry into the European Union (EU), and for the last half of 1999, Finland assumed the EU's rotating presidency. Although he also supported NATO and favoured further expansion of the EU, a majority in Finland's Parliament preferred a more cautious policy, and Ahtisaari's own party, the Social Democrats, abandoned him, nominating his foreign minister, Tarja Halonen, as its presidential candidate in the 2000 elections. John Litweiler

Aeterni Patris

an encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII on Aug. 4, 1879, which strengthened the position of the philosophical system of the medieval Scholastic philosopher-theologian St. Thomas Aquinas and soon made [][Thomism] the dominant philosophical viewpoint in Roman Catholicism.

Agobard, Saint

born 769/779, Spain died June 6, 840, Lyon; feast day June 6 archbishop of Lyon from 816, who was active in political and ecclesiastical affairs during the reign of the emperor [][Louis I] the Pious. He also wrote theological and liturgical treatises. He probably traveled from the former Visigothic strip of southern Gaul (Septimania) to Frankish Gaul in 782 and then to Lyon in 792. He was ordained a priest in 804. As archbishop, he was frequently in conflict with the secular powers, attempting to free church lands from lay control. Having written a public justification of the deposition of Louis the Pious in 833, he lost his see when Louis was restored to his throne, but was reinstated at Lyon in 838. Agobard wrote against the [Adoptionist] heresy (that Jesus was not the son of God by nature but by adoption) of [][Felix of Urgel] (who was confined at Lyon from 800 to 818), against contemporary superstitions, and against the Jews. His zeal for reform led him to attack trial by ordeal and image worship and, more generally, to promote the unity of the Carolingian empire and its legal system.

Aitken, John

born Sept. 18, 1839, Falkirk, Stirlingshire, Scot. died Nov. 14, 1919, Falkirk Scottish physicist and meteorologist who, through a series of experiments and observations in which he used apparatus of his own design, elucidated the crucial role that microscopic particles, now called [Aitken nuclei], play in the condensation of atmospheric water vapour in clouds and fogs. Ill health prevented Aitken from holding any official position; he worked instead in the laboratory in his home in Falkirk. Much of his work was published in the journals of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of which he was a member.

Aksakov, Sergey Timofeyevich

born Sept. 20 [Oct. 1, New Style], 1791, Ufa, Russia died April 30 [May 12], 1859, Moscow novelist noted for his realistic and comic narratives and for his introduction of a new genre, a cross between memoir and novel, into Russian literature. Brought up in a strongly patriarchal family, Aksakov was educated in the pseudoclassical tradition at home, at school, and at the newly founded university in Kazan. He became a translator in the legislative commission of the civil service, served in the militia in the struggle against Napoleon in 1812, married in 1815, and in 1816 retired to the family estate. After a decade as a sporting country squire, he returned to the civil service in Moscow and became literary censor, inspector, and, later, director of the college of land surveying. Inheriting money, he retired in 1839 and lived in and near Moscow, entertaining his friends—mainly writers and Slavophiles. Before 1834, when his successful *Buran* ("Blizzard") was published, Aksakov's writings reflected outmoded literary tastes: translations of Nicolas Boileau and Molière, undistinguished verse, and articles on the theatre. But then he was inspired—by his love of rural Russia in the days of serfdom, by his Slavophile sons Ivan and Konstantin, and by his admiration of the novelist Nikolay Gogol—to set down the story of his grandfather, his parents, and his own childhood, transposed into realistic fiction. This effort resulted in three books that have become classics: *Semeynaya khronika* (1856; *[]The Family Chronicle*), *Vospominaniya* (1856; "Reminiscences"; Eng. trans. *A Russian Schoolboy*), and *Detskie gody Bagrova-vnuka* (1858; *Childhood Years of Grandson Bagrov*). Aksakov unfolds his chronicles objectively in an unaffected style with simple language. Their interest lies in the illusion of reality and intimacy created by his vivid remembrance of his own and his forebears' past. These works, blending personal reminiscence with the techniques of the novelist, brought Aksakov fame. The finest book of the trilogy, *The Family Chronicle,* also shows a remarkable understanding of family psychology.

Adur

district, administrative county of [West Sussex], historic county of [Sussex], England. It is named for the River Adur, which cuts through the chalk ridge of the South Downs via an impressive water gap before entering the English Channel at Shoreham-by-Sea. The district is small and occupies the lower valley of the river between the urban areas of Worthing to the west and Brighton-Hove to the east. Area 16 square miles (42 square km). Pop. (2001) 59,625.

Alban, Saint

flourished 3rd century AD, , traditionally at Verulamium, Britain; feast day June 22 first British martyr. According to the historian Bede, he served in the Roman army and was converted to Christianity by a fugitive priest whom he sheltered and with whom he exchanged clothes, so that he was martyred in the priest's place (*c.* 304; other dates suggested by scholars are *c.* 254 or *c.* 209). His feast day is commemorated on June 17 in the Church of England, apparently because of misreading of the Roman numerals XXII. His tomb was venerated, and a church had been built on the site as early as 429. Later, the Abbey of St. Albans was founded there, and around it grew the town of St. Albans.

affirmation

in law, a promise by a witness concerning testimony allowed in place of an [oath] to those who cannot, because of conscience, swear an oath. For example, members of the [][Society of Friends] (Quakers), [][Jehovah's Witnesses], and other persons who have objections against taking an oath are allowed to make affirmation in any manner they may declare to be binding upon their consciences in confirmation of the truth of their testimony.

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ *Bird flu* reached Europe and Africa, and concerns over *BSE* continued to disrupt trade in beef. An international *vault* for seeds was under construction on an *Arctic* island. *Stocks* of important food-fish species were reported under threat. Agricultural Production and Aid {#258107.toc} ------------------------------- ### Food Production. {#258108.toc}

Ağrı

*formerly **Karaköse** * city, in the highlands of eastern Turkey. It lies 5,380 feet (1,640 metres) above sea level in the valley of the [Murat River], a tributary of the [Euphrates River]. The town is a centre for trade in livestock and livestock products and is a transit station on the main highway from Turkey to Iran. []Ağrı is named after Mount Ararat (Turkish: Ağrı Dağı), situated to the east near the frontier with Iran. Stock raising and agriculture are the main activities of the region. Kurds constitute a large proportion of the population of the countryside. Pop. (1997) 69,384.

Advances in Battlefield Medicine

by [Peter Saracino] Studies of historical casualty rates have shown that about one-half of [military] personnel killed in action died from the loss of blood and that up to 80% of those died within the first hour of injury on the battlefield. This time period has been dubbed the "golden hour," when prompt treatment of bleeding has the best chance of preventing death. Recent developments in military [medicine] have focused on treatment to stop bleeding quickly and the provision of prompt medical care. In the wars being fought in Afghanistan and [Iraq], these developments, together with the use of advanced body armour and helmets, have led to survival rates of coalition troops higher than survival rates in previous wars. Through mid-2007 about 40% of coalition casualties in Iraq had been caused by improvised explosive devices, such as explosive vests used by suicide bombers, hand grenades rigged with trip wires, and sophisticated roadside bombs detonated by remote control. Another 30% of casualties had been caused by gunfire. The remaining 30% of casualties had various causes such as mortar attacks, vehicle crashes, and stabbings. Modern body armour and helmets have reduced the incidence of lethal penetrating wounds to the torso and head. As a result, however, more casualties have survived with debilitating injuries, such as the loss of one or more limbs. All troops are trained in the basics of first aid, including how to stop bleeding, splint fractures, dress wounds and burns, and administer pain medication. Combat troops are issued a first-aid kit that includes a tourniquet that can be applied with one hand. (Though the use of tourniquets was previously considered undesirable, the military now regards them as lifesaving tools for severe limb wounds.) Also, new pressure dressings have been issued that can clot severe bleeding within seconds of being applied. These dressings include HemCon, which is made with chitosan (an extract from shrimp shells), and QuikClot, which is made with inorganic zeolite granules. [![Photograph:Combat medic trainees at the Medical Simulation Training Center at Fort Drum, New York, practice ...]] - Combat medic trainees at the Medical Simulation Training Center at Fort Drum, New York, practice ... Within every military unit, there are personnel specially trained to provide medical assistance to the wounded in order to stabilize their condition until they can be treated by a physician. For example, a typical [U.S. Army] battalion of 650-690 combat soldiers has 20-30 such medics (called corpsmen in the U.S. Marines), who are trained in the identification and assessment of different types of wounds as well as in advanced first aid, such as administering intravenous fluids and inserting breathing tubes. Modern medic training makes use of sophisticated lifelike mannequins programmed to simulate various injuries and to respond to treatment. Some training can also involve the use of mammals anesthetized under the supervision of veterinarians so that the medic gains experience with real injuries on live tissue.

agora

[![Photograph:Plaster model of the Agora, Athens, as it might have appeared in the 2nd century ]] - Plaster model of the Agora, Athens, as it might have appeared in the 2nd century AD in ancient [Greek] cities, an open space that served as a meeting ground for various activities of the citizens. The name, first found in the works of Homer, connotes both the assembly of the people as well as the physical setting; it was applied by the classical Greeks of the 5th century BC to what they regarded as a typical feature of their life: their daily religious, political, judicial, social, and commercial activity. The agora was located either in the middle of the city or near the harbour, which was surrounded by public buildings and by temples. [][Colonnades], sometimes containing shops, or stoae, often enclosed the space, and statues, altars, trees, and fountains adorned it. The general trend at this time was to isolate the agora from the rest of the town. Earlier stages in the evolution of the agora have been sought in the East and, with better results, in Minoan Crete (for instance, at Ayiá Triádha) and in Mycenaean Greece (for instance, at Tiryns). In the 5th and 4th centuries BC two kinds of agora existed. Pausanias, writing in the 2nd century AD, calls one type archaic and the other Ionic. He mentions the agora of Elis (built after 470 BC) as an example of the archaic type, in which colonnades and other buildings were not coordinated; the general impression created was one of disorder. The agora of Athens was rebuilt to this type of design after the Persian Wars (490-449 BC). The Ionic type was more symmetrical, often combining colonnades to form either three sides of a rectangle or a regular square; Miletus, Priene, and Magnesia ad Maeandrum, cities in Asia Minor, provide early examples. This type prevailed and was further developed in Hellenistic and Roman times. In this later period the agora influenced the development of the Roman [][forum] and was, in turn, influenced by it. The forum, however, was conceived in a more rigid manner than the agora and became a specific, regular, open area surrounded by planned architecture. The use of the agora varied at different periods. Even in classical times the space did not always remain the place for popular assemblies. In Athens the ecclesia, or assembly, was moved to the Pnyx (a hill to the west of the Acropolis), though the meetings devoted to ostracism were still held in the agora, where the main tribunal remained.

ALBANIA

Area: 28,748 sq km (11,100 sq mi) Population (1998 est.): 3,331,000 Capital: Tiranë Chief of state: President Rexhep Mejdani

Albania

Area: 28,748 sq km (11,100 sq mi) Population (1999 est.): 3,365,000

Albania

Area: 28,748 sq km (11,100 sq mi) Population (2000 est.): 3,490,000 (not including about 650,000 Albanians living abroad)

AFRICAN AFFAIRS

Introduction ------------ The subcontinent's 48 states experienced a year of promise and disappointment. A new state, Eritrea, was born in May; three serious violent conflicts were halted with cease-fire agreements (Rwanda, Liberia, and Mozambique); but three others (Somalia, Angola, and The Sudan) saw an intensification of fighting. The movement toward democracy kept up its momentum but with only four changes of government (Lesotho, Madagascar, Central African Republic, and, briefly, Burundi). Despite grave violence, South Africa's negotiations for a postapartheid society stayed on course with agreement on an interim government and elections based on a universal franchise, but countries like Zaire and Togo remained bogged down in controversy. Good rains broke the century's severest drought and promised hope for economic recovery, but this was slowed down by the international economic recession. In many East African and Sahelian countries, a serious plague of locusts destroyed new crops. Political Developments. {#91205.toc} ----------------------- Despite setbacks and growing violence, South Africa's two major political forces, the ruling National Party of Pres. F.W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela's African National Congress, accepted the principles for a democratic constitution and agreed to hold the country's first-ever national elections in April 1994. (*See* [NOBEL PRIZES].) The international sanctions against South Africa were ended in October. Rwanda made uneasy progress toward breaking centuries of ethnic conflict between the minority Tutsi and the majority Hutu. A military challenge by a Tutsi-led rebellion was checked by a cease-fire and an agreement to hold multiparty elections. Following the elections Burundi witnessed a bloody Tutsi-led reaction, however, and the country's first Hutu president, Melchior Ndadaye (*see* [OBITUARIES]), was killed in a coup attempt in October. Military rule ended in Lesotho, and elections resulted in a landslide victory for the veteran radical Ntsu Mokhehle. In the Central African Republic, the military-led regime was defeated in free elections. A return to multiparty elections in Kenya saw the reelection of Pres. Daniel arap Moi's party. Under international pressure, Malawi's president for life, Hastings Kamuzu Banda, agreed to abandon his single-party rule. The promised ending of military rule in Nigeria ended in anticlimax when the junta refused to accept the choice of a new civilian president, MKO Abiola; their refusal plunged the country into a crisis that was only partly eased by the resignation of Pres. Ibrahim Babangida. One of Africa's elder statesmen, Pres. Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Côte d'Ivoire, died in December. (*See* [OBITUARIES].) Persistent Conflicts. {#91206.toc} --------------------- The nearly 20-year civil war in Angola continued with increased violence after Jonas Savimbi, leader of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), rejected the election results that had ended in victory for Pres. José Eduardo dos Santos' Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola. The United Nations condemned UNITA's action, declared military and economic sanctions against it, and called on Savimbi to end the fighting and accept the election results. A cease-fire in the other former Portuguese colony, Mozambique, was arranged between the government and its challenger, the Mozambique National Resistance. Arrangements were made for free elections and the disarming of both armies under UN military supervision.

Ageo

city, [Saitama] *ken* (prefecture), Honshu, Japan. Ageo lies on the terrace between the Ara River (west) and the Ayase River (east). A former post town between Tokyo and Maebashi, it was connected to Tokyo (25 miles [40 km] southeast) in 1883. Ageo remained the market centre of the neighbouring agricultural region until 1955, when machinery, rubber, and metallurgy industries were developed in the city. Pop. (2005) 220,232.

Alberti, Rafael

Spanish poet and playwright (b. Dec. 16, 1902, Puerto de Santa María, Spain—d. Oct. 28, 1999, Puerto de Santa María), was regarded as one of the leading poets of the 20th century; his oeuvre also included essays, plays, and works of prose. Alberti, who was born to a family of prosperous wine merchants, studied art in Madrid and achieved some success as a painter before he began to write poetry in 1923. His first book of verse, *Marinero en tierra* (1925), winner of the 1925 Spanish National Prize for Literature, recalled the sea of the Cádiz region of his youth. In 1927 Alberti joined the so-called Generation of 1927, a group of Spanish poets and artists who came together in Seville to celebrate the tercentenary of the death of poet Luis de Góngora y Argote. In the 1930s Alberti devoted his time to political activities—he became a member of the Spanish Communist Party and was heavily involved in leftist politics. He visited the Soviet Union and started the revolutionary magazine *Octubre* in 1934, fought on the Republican side of the 1936-39 Spanish Civil War, organized the Second International Congress of Writers in 1938, and became one of the leading figures in the Alianza de Intelectuales Antifascistas (Alliance of Antifascist Intellectuals). After Gen. Francisco Franco's Nationalist troops won the civil war, Alberti fled (1939) to France, where he worked as a radio announcer, then to Argentina, where he published his most lauded work, *La arboleda perdida* (1942; *The Lost Grove,*1976), and later to Rome. He returned to Spain in 1977, two years after the death of Franco, at which time he said, "I left with my fist closed and return with my hand open as a symbol of peace and brotherhood among all Spaniards." Soon after his return, Alberti was elected a member of the Cortes (parliament) as a Communist and represented Cádiz, but he resigned his post after four months to devote his time to poetry readings. He won the Cervantes Prize in 1983.

Alagna, Roberto, and Gheorghiu, Angela

[] In 1996 French-born tenor Roberto Alagna and Romanian soprano Angela Gheorghiu created their own personal operatic libretto with a highly publicized romance that resulted in marriage in May. The pair first met in 1992 while appearing opposite each other as Rodolfo and Mimi in Giacomo Puccini's *La Bohème* with the Royal Opera, Covent Garden, London, and they fell in love two years later while Gheorghiu sang the role of Violetta in Sir Georg Solti's 1994 production of Giuseppe Verdi's *La traviata* at Covent Garden. Alagna was born to Sicilian parents in a suburb of Paris on June 7, 1963, and was discovered while he was singing for tips in a Paris pizzeria. Although he was mostly self-taught, his first audition in 1988 resulted in the tenor lead as Alfredo in Glyndebourne's touring production of *La traviata.* Alagna went on to enter the 1988 Luciano Pavarotti International Competition and won. In 1990 he reprised the role of Alfredo for La Scala in Milan. He overcame personal tragedy to sing a highly acclaimed Romeo in the Royal Opera's 1994 production of Charles Gounod's *Roméo et Juliette* only a few weeks after his wife succumbed to a brain tumour, leaving him with a four-year-old daughter. While Alagna was considered a consummate performer, with a strong physical stage presence, some critics questioned whether he was overstraining his voice, especially since he had had no formal training. As the first genuine lyric tenor to appear in many years, however, Alagna was continually hailed as the "fourth tenor." He shrugged off all comparisons to the famed trio of Pavarotti, Placido Domingo, and José Carreras, claiming he wanted to establish his own style. Gheorghiu, two years Alagna's junior, had a much more traditional background. She was born in Adjud, Rom., where her father worked for the railroad. Gheorghiu realized her love for singing early and was supported by her family in her desire for a career in opera. She left home at age 14 to study at the Academy of Music in Bucharest and made her debut in 1992 as Zerlina in Mozart's *Don Giovanni* at Covent Garden. Gheorghiu, an elegant and compelling artist, was praised in London as one of the great Violettas. Her performance in *La Bohème* for the New York City Metropolitan Opera in early 1996--a production that marked the U.S. debut for both her and Alagna--was described as "ideal." Like Alagna, she did not work with a teacher, subscribing to their shared philosophy of self-reliance. Gheorghiu had less pressure on her than Alagna, but she did not welcome the comparisons to Maria Callas, preferring to be recognized for her own voice.

Adams, Hannah

born Oct. 2, 1755, Medfield, Mass. [U.S.] died Dec. 15, 1831, Brookline, Mass. American compiler of historical information in the study of religion. Adams was the daughter of a notably eccentric bibliophile father whose lack of business acumen kept the large family in poverty. She inherited his love of books and his remarkable memory, and, although she received no formal schooling, she was well tutored by divinity students boarding in her home. One of these students introduced her to the Reverend Thomas Broughton's *Historical Dictionary of All Religions,* which prompted her to read widely and keep voluminous notes in the field of religions. Her notes were published in 1784 as *An Alphabetical Compendium of the Various Sects Which Have Appeared from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Present Day.* The book was well received, saw three more American editions and three in London, and brought its author a modest financial return. Determined to earn her living in this way, she set to work on *A Summary History of New-England,* which appeared in 1799. By the time of publication of her *History,* Adams's eyesight had been affected by her constant work. While preparing an abridged version of her work for the use of teachers, she learned that the Reverend [][Jedidiah Morse], a staunchly conservative Calvinist, was engaged in a similar project. Morse's book appeared first, and the sale of Adams's book apparently suffered as a result. A number of Boston intellectuals, motivated by both admiration for Adams and antipathy to Morse, precipitated a public controversy over the matter, in which Morse conducted himself so clumsily as to lose all public support. Adams herself took little part in the celebrated controversy. Several of her Boston supporters established an annuity for her, and the rest of her days were devoted to the compilation of data. She published *The Truth and Excellence of the Christian Religion Exhibited* (1804), *History of the Jews* (1812), and *Letters on the Gospels* (1824). *A Memoir of Miss Hannah Adams, Written by Herself* appeared the year after her death.

Afghan War

in the history of [Afghanistan], the internal conflict (1978-92) between anticommunist [][Muslim] guerrillas and the Afghan communist government (aided in 1979-89 by Soviet troops). More broadly, the term also encompasses military activity within Afghanistan since 1992 involving domestic and foreign forces. The roots of the war lay in the overthrow of the centrist government of President [Mohammad Daud Khan] in April 1978 by left-wing military officers led by [Nur Mohammad Taraki]. Power was thereafter shared by two Marxist-Leninist political groups, the [People's (Khalq) Party] and the [Banner (Parcham) Party], which had earlier emerged from a single organization, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan, and had reunited in an uneasy coalition shortly before the coup. The new government, which had little popular support, forged close ties with the [][Soviet Union], launched ruthless purges of all domestic opposition, and began extensive land and social reforms that were bitterly resented by the devoutly Muslim and largely anticommunist population. Insurgencies arose against the government among both tribal and urban groups, and all of these—known collectively as the [mujahideen] (Arabic: *mujāhidūn*, "those who engage in [jihad]")—were Islamic in orientation. These uprisings, along with internal fighting and coups within the government between the People's and Banner factions, prompted the Soviets to invade the country in December 1979, sending in some 30,000 troops and toppling the short-lived presidency of People's leader [Hafizullah Amin]. The aim of the Soviet operation was to prop up their new but faltering client state, now headed by Banner leader [Babrak Karmal], but the mujahideen rebellion grew in response, spreading to all parts of the country. The Soviets initially left the suppression of the rebellion to the Afghan army, but the latter was beset by mass desertions and remained largely ineffective throughout the war. The Afghan War quickly settled down into a stalemate, with about 100,000 Soviet troops controlling the cities, larger towns, and major garrisons and the mujahideen moving with relative freedom throughout the countryside. Soviet troops tried to crush the insurgency by various tactics, but the guerrillas generally eluded their attacks. The Soviets then attempted to eliminate the mujahideen's civilian support by bombing and depopulating the rural areas. These tactics sparked a massive flight from the countryside; by 1982 some 2.8 million Afghans had sought asylum in [Pakistan], and another 1.5 million had fled to [Iran]. The mujahideen were eventually able to neutralize Soviet air power through the use of shoulder-fired antiaircraft missiles supplied by the Soviet Union's [Cold War] adversary, the [United States]. The mujahideen were fragmented politically into a handful of independent groups, and their military efforts remained uncoordinated throughout the war. The quality of their arms and combat organization gradually improved, however, owing to experience and to the large quantity of arms and other war matériel shipped to the rebels, via Pakistan, by the United States and other countries and by sympathetic Muslims from throughout the world. In addition, an indeterminate number of Muslim volunteers—popularly termed "Afghan-Arabs," regardless of their ethnicity—traveled from all parts of the world to join the opposition.

Aguirre, Lope de

born *c.* 1518, , Oñate, Spain died Oct. 27, 1561, El Tocuyo, Viceroyalty of Peru [now in Venezuela] Spanish adventurer whose name practically became synonymous with cruelty and treachery in colonial Spanish America. Nothing is known of Aguirre's life prior to 1544, when he arrived in Peru and took part in the Spanish suppression of Indian rebellions and in the wars that continually broke out between the Spanish conquerors. On Sept. 26, 1560, he joined an expedition led by []Pedro de Ursúa to find the legendary kingdom of Eldorado, which was thought to be located at the headwaters of the Amazon River. Upon reaching the headwaters, Aguirre incited a rebellion in which Ursúa was killed. He then killed []Fernando de Guzmán, who had succeeded Ursúa, and took command of the expedition. Aguirre was considered to be a thoroughly disreputable character. It was said that Aguirre had all those members of the expedition who had opposed his plans, including several priests, put to death. He is then thought to have raided several towns in what is now Venezuela before he was finally caught and executed by the Spaniards. It is also believed that he killed his own daughter immediately prior to his capture. Aguirre's story is recounted with much poetic license in Werner Herzog's film *Aguirre, the Wrath of God* (1972).

Alberti, Domenico

born *c.* 1710, Venice [Italy] died 1740, Formia or Rome Venetian composer whose harpsichord sonatas depend heavily on an accompaniment pattern of broken, or arpeggiated, chords known as the []Alberti bass. Alberti studied under the composer Antonio Lotti and was known in Rome as a singer and harpsichordist. Although he probably did not originate the Alberti bass, he consistently used it. This accompaniment pattern sets the melody against a gently moving harmonic background, satisfying the contemporary aesthetic taste for melodic predominance. It was frequently used by Joseph Haydn, Ludwig van Beethoven, and W.A. Mozart (an example is the first movement of Mozart's *Piano Sonata in C Major,* K 279) and also appears in 19th-century compositions. Alberti's sonatas were plagiarized by the singer and harpsichordist Giuseppe Jozzi, who had been Alberti's pupil.

Albertosaurus (genus Albertosaurus)

*usually subsumes ***Gorgosaurus*** * [![Photograph:Albertosaurus.]] - *Albertosaurus*. large carnivorous dinosaurs of the Late [Cretaceous Period] (99 million to 65 million years ago) found as fossils in North America and eastern Asia. Albertosaurs are an early subgroup of [tyrannosaurs], which appear to have evolved from them. In structure and presumed habits, *Albertosaurus* was similar to *Tyrannosaurus* in many respects; both had reduced forelimbs and a large skull and jaws, although *Albertosaurus* was somewhat smaller. *Albertosaurus* was about 9 metres (30 feet) long, and the head was held 3.5 metres off the ground. The hands were similar to those of tyrannosaurs in being reduced to the first two fingers and a mere rudiment of the third. The jaws of *Albertosaurus* possessed numerous large, sharp teeth, which were recurved and serrated. As in tyrannosaurs, the teeth were larger and fewer than in other carnivorous dinosaurs, and, rather than being flattened and bladelike in cross-section, the teeth were nearly round—an efficient shape for puncturing flesh and bone. Like nearly all large carnivores, it is possible that *Albertosaurus* was at least in part a scavenger, feeding upon dead or dying carcasses of other reptiles or scaring other predators away from their kills.

Albania

Area: 28,703 sq km (11,082 sq mi) Population (2006 est.): 3,161,000

Afrocentrism

Introduction ------------ *also called **Africentrism** * cultural and political movement whose mainly African American adherents regard themselves and all other blacks as syncretic Africans and believe that their worldview should positively reflect traditional African values. The terms Afrocentrism, Afrocology, and Afrocentricity were coined in the 1980s by the African American scholar and activist []Molefi Asante. Beliefs {#224977.toc} ------- Afrocentrism argues that for centuries Africans and other nonwhites have been dominated, through slavery and colonization, by Europeans, and that European culture is at best irrelevant—and at worst diametrically opposed—to efforts by non-Europeans to achieve self-determination. For this reason, according to Afrocentrism, people of African descent need to develop an appreciation of the achievements of traditional African civilizations; indeed, they need to articulate their own history and their own system of values.

Agriculture and Fisheries

Introduction ------------ National and International Issues {#222657.toc} --------------------------------- ### Food Production. {#222658.toc} [![Table]]Total agricultural and food production increased slightly in 2001, while global per capita food production was 1.1% lower. (*See* [Table].) Taken together, less-developed countries increased output, while production in developed countries was slightly lower; per capita food production in both regions fell.

Airedale terrier

[![Photograph:Airedale terrier.]] - Airedale terrier. the largest of the terriers, probably descended from the [otterhound] and an extinct broken-haired [][dog], the black-and-tan Old English terrier. It is named for the Aire valley, or Airedale, in Yorkshire. Intelligent and courageous, powerful and affectionate, though reserved with strangers, it has been used as a wartime dispatch carrier, police dog, guard, and big-game hunter. It is nicknamed "king of the terriers." The Airedale stands about 23 inches (58 cm) and usually weighs from 40 to 50 pounds (18 to 23 kg). It has a boxy appearance, with a long, squared muzzle; in profile, the line of the forehead extends straight to the nose. Its coat is dense and wiry, with a black saddle and with tan legs, muzzle, and underparts. [![table]]*See* the [table] of selected breeds of terriers for further information.

Afrikaner

a South African of European descent whose native language is Afrikaans. They are descendants of the Boers. *See* [Boer].

aerophone

any of a class of musical instruments in which a vibrating mass of air produces the initial sound. The basic types include woodwind, brass, and free-reed instruments, as well as instruments that fall into none of these groups, such as the bull-roarer and the siren. Bagpipes and organs are hybrids with different kinds of pipes. The word aerophone replaces the term wind instrument when an acoustically based classification is desired. This classification also includes the [][chordophone] (in which the initial sound is produced by vibration of a stretched string), the [][membranophone] (produced by the vibration of a stretched membrane), the [][idiophone] (produced by the vibration of a resonant solid material), and [][electrophone] (produced or amplified by electronic means).

Agathias

born *c.* 536, Myrina, Aeolis, Asia Minor died *c.* 582 Byzantine historian and poet of part of Justinian I's reign. After studying law at Alexandria, he completed his training at Constantinople and practiced in the courts as an advocate. He wrote a number of short love poems in epic metre, called *Daphniaca*, and compiled an anthology of epigrams by earlier and contemporary poets, including his own. About 100 epigrams by Agathias have been preserved in the *Greek Anthology.* After the death of Justinian I (565), he began a history of his own times. This unfinished work in five books continues the work of Procopius, the Byzantine historian and statesman, and stands as the chief authority for the period 552-558.

Ahmadu Seku

died 1898, Sokoto, Northern Nigeria second and last ruler of the [][Tukulor empire] in West Africa, celebrated for his resistance to the French occupation. Succeeding his father, al-Ḥājj ʿUmar, in 1864, Ahmadu ruled over a great empire centred on the ancient Bambara kingdom of Segu, in present Mali. By the Treaty of Nango (1881) he granted France most-favoured-nation status. After the advance of the French to Kita and Bamako, he abandoned Segu as his capital and accepted a French protectorate (Treaty of Gouri, May 12, 1887). But Col. []Louis Archinard took the offensive against him in 1888 and by 1891 had seized most of his strongholds.

adaptive radiation

evolution of an animal or plant group into a wide variety of types adapted to specialized modes of life. A striking example is the radiation, beginning in the Tertiary period (beginning 66.4 million years ago), of basal mammalian stock into forms adapted to running, leaping, climbing, swimming, and flying.

Advocates, Faculty of

the members of the bar of Scotland. Barristers are the comparable group in England. The faculty grew out of the []Scots Act of 1532, which established the Court of Session in Scotland. The advocates had, and still have, the sole right of audience in the Court of Session and High Court of Justiciary. They constitute a self-governing faculty under annually elected officers. When properly instructed by an agency of the law, an advocate is bound and entitled to plead in any court in Scotland and also before the House of Lords, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, and committees of Parliament.

agouti (genus Dasyprocta)

[![Photograph:Agouti (Dasyprocta).]] - Agouti (*Dasyprocta*). any of about a dozen species of tropical American [rodents] resembling the small forest-dwelling hoofed animals of tropical Africa and Asia (see [chevrotain]; [duiker]; [royal antelope]). Agoutis weigh up to 6 kg (13 pounds), with an elongated body measuring up to 76 cm (2.5 feet) long. They have a large head and rump but slender legs, comparatively small ears, and a tiny, inconspicuous, bald tail. The hind feet have only three toes and hooflike claws. The agouti's coarse, glossy fur ranges from pale orange through shades of brown to blackish, with individual hairs having alternating black and buff bands referred to as an agouti pattern. Coloration of the underparts ranges from whitish to buff. Agoutis are generally wary, and most species are difficult to see or approach in their native habitats. They walk, trot, or gallop on their digits, traveling swiftly when pursued or threatened, and are capable of leaping vertically to 2 metres (6.5 feet) from a standing position. Agoutis are terrestrial, denning at night in [][burrows] among boulders, tree roots, hollow logs, or brushy tangles on the forest floor. Although litters of up to four young have been recorded, two is usual. The agouti's diet consists primarily of fruit, nuts, and seeds, but some species also eat fungi, flowers, leaves, and insects. They bury nuts in the ground for times when food becomes scarce, and, as a result, agoutis are one of the most important mammalian seed dispersers for many species of tropical trees (see Sidebar: [No rainforest, no Brazil nuts]). All agouti species are intensively hunted because their flesh is prized as food by indigenous peoples. Agoutis are found from southern Mexico southward to Ecuador and east of the Andes throughout the Amazon River basin. Although most agouti species live in lowland and montane tropical rainforests, []Azara's agouti (*Dasyprocta azarae*) also inhabits the drier *cerrado* (savanna and scrub) and [*chaco*] environments south of the Amazon basin into Paraguay and northeastern Argentina. Three different agoutis have been introduced into the West Indies, presumably by native Caribbean tribes: *[]D. mexicana* in Cuba, *[]D. punctata* in Cuba and the Cayman Islands, and *[]D. leporina* in the Virgin Islands and the [Lesser Antilles].

Africa

in ancient []Roman history, the first North African territory of Rome, at times roughly corresponding to modern Tunisia. It was acquired in 146 BC after the destruction of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War. Initially, the province comprised the territory that had been subject to Carthage in 149 BC; this was an area of about 5,000 square miles (13,000 square km), divided from the kingdom of Numidia in the west by a ditch and embankment running southeast from Thabraca (modern Ṭabarqah) to Thaenae (modern Thīnah). About 100 BC the province's boundary was extended farther westward, almost as far as the present Algerian-Tunisian border. The province grew in importance during the 1st century BC, when Julius Caesar and, later, the emperor [][Augustus] founded a total of 19 colonies in it. Most notable among these was the new Carthage, which the Romans called Colonia Julia Carthago; it rapidly became the second city in the Western Roman Empire. Augustus extended Africa's borders southward as far as the Sahara and eastward to include Arae Philaenorum, at the southernmost point of the Gulf of Sidra. In the west he combined the old province of []Africa Vetus ("Old Africa") with what Caesar had designated as [Africa Nova] ("New Africa")—the old kingdoms of Numidia and Mauretania—so that the province's western boundary was the Ampsaga (modern Rhumel) River in modern northeastern Algeria. The province generally retained those dimensions until the late 2nd century AD, when a new province of [][Numidia], created in the western end of Africa, was formally constituted under the emperor Septimius Severus. A century later Diocletian, in his reorganization of the empire, formed two provinces, [Byzacena] and [][Tripolitania], from the southern and eastern parts of the old province. The original territory annexed by Rome was populated by indigenous [Libyans] who lived in small villages and had a relatively simple culture. In 122 BC, however, an abortive attempt by Gaius Sempronius Gracchus to colonize Africa aroused the interest of Roman farmers and investors. In the 1st century BC Roman colonization, coupled with Augustus' successful quieting of hostile nomadic movements in the area, created conditions that led to four centuries of prosperity. Between the 1st and 3rd century AD, private estates of considerable size appeared, many public buildings were erected, and an export industry in cereals, olives, fruit, and hides flourished. Substantial elements of the urban Libyan population became Romanized, and many communities received Roman citizenship long before it was extended to the whole empire (AD 212). Africans increasingly entered the imperial administration, and the area even produced an emperor, Septimius Severus (reigned AD 193-211). The province also claimed an important Christian church, which had more than 100 bishops by AD 256 and produced such luminaries as the Church Fathers Tertullian, Cyprian, and St. Augustine of Hippo. The numerous and magnificent Roman ruins at various sites in Tunisia and Libya bear witness to the region's prosperity under Roman rule.

Aeolus

in Greek mythology, mythical king of Magnesia in Thessaly, the son of Hellen (the eponymous ancestor of the true Greeks, or Hellenes) and father of Sisyphus (the "most crafty of men"). Aeolus gave his name to Aeolis, a territory on the western coast of Asia Minor (in present-day Turkey).

Albert, Eugen d'

*in full **Eugen Francis Charles d'Albert,** Eugen also spelled **Eugène** * born April 10, 1864, Glasgow, Scot. died March 3, 1932, Riga, Latvia naturalized German composer and piano virtuoso best remembered for his opera *[]Tiefland* (1903) and his arrangements and transcriptions of the music of [][Johann Sebastian Bach]. After receiving his basic musical training in London, where he enjoyed his first triumphs as a pianist, d'Albert went for further study to Vienna, where he became a friend of [Franz Liszt]. D'Albert toured widely and successfully and taught for many years in Berlin, but his chief interest lay in composition. He wrote 21 operas, 2 piano concerti, chamber music, lieder, piano pieces, and a few orchestral works.

Albania

Area: 28,703 sq km (11,082 sq mi) Population (2007 est.): 3,176,000

Akṣobhya

in Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna (Tantric) Buddhism, one of the five "self-born" Buddhas. *See* [Dhyāni-Buddha].

Agapitus II

born , Rome died December 955, Rome pope from 946 to 955. Elected on May 10, 946, with the support of Alberic II, he was a wise and pious administrator who endeavoured to restore ecclesiastical discipline. The chief events of his pontificate included the spread of Christianity in Denmark, the settlement of the dispute over the see of Reims, and the German king Otto I's first success in Italy (951). Toward the end of his pontificate, Alberic had the dying pope swear his support for Octavian, Alberic's son, as next pope. Octavian was elected and took the name John XII.

Aḥmad Sirhindī, Shaykh

born 1564?, Sirhind, Patiāla, India died 1624, Sirhind Indian mystic and theologian who was largely responsible for the reassertion and revival in India of orthodox Sunnite Islam as a reaction against the syncretistic religious tendencies prevalent during the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar. Shaykh Aḥmad, who through his paternal line traced his descent from the caliph ʿUmar I (the second caliph of Islam), received a traditional Islamic education at home and later at Siālkot (now in Pakistan). He reached maturity when Akbar, the renowned Mughal emperor, attempted to unify his empire by forming a new syncretistic faith (Dīn-e-Ilāhī), which sought to combine the various mystical forms of belief and religious practices of the many communities making up his empire. Shaykh Aḥmad joined the mystical order [Naqshbandīyah], the most important of the Indian Sufi orders, in 1593-94. He spent his life preaching against the inclination of Akbar and his successor, Jahāngīr (ruled 1605-27), toward pantheism and Shīʿite Islam (one of that religion's two major branches). Of his several written works, the most famous is *[]Maktūbāt* ("Letters"), a compilation of his letters written in Persian to his friends in India and the region north of the Amu Darya (river). Through these letters Shaykh Aḥmad's major contribution to Islamic thought can be traced. In refuting the Naqshbandīyah order's extreme monistic position of *[waḥdat al-wujūd]* (the concept of divine existential unity of God and the world, and hence man), he instead advanced the notion of *[]waḥdat ash-shuhūd* (the concept of unity of vision). According to this doctrine, any experience of unity between God and the world he has created is purely subjective and occurs only in the mind of the believer; it has no objective counterpart in the real world. The former position, Shaykh Aḥmad felt, led to pantheism, which was contrary to the tenets of Sunnite Islam.

Afonso VI

born Aug. 21, 1643, Lisbon died Sept. 12, 1683, Sintra, Port. king of Portugal, whose reign was marked by internal disputes between his partisans and those of his brother Pedro. Afonso succeeded his father, John IV, in 1656, but his mother acted as regent until 1662. His reign saw a series of victories against Spain, including the battles of [Ameixal] (1663), []Castelo Rodrigo (1664), and []Montes Claros (1665), which in 1668 led to Spanish recognition of Portuguese independence. When Afonso's wife left him, their marriage was annulled on grounds of his incapacity. She married his brother, the future [][Peter II], who was declared Defender of the Realm. After surrendering the throne in 1667, Afonso was kept a virtual prisoner in the Azores and at Sintra until his death.

Agricola, Gnaeus Julius

born June 13, AD 40, Forum Julii, Gallia Narbonensis died Aug. 23, 93 Roman general celebrated for his conquests in [Britain]. His life is set forth by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. After serving as military tribune under Suetonius Paulinus, governor in Britain (59-61), Agricola became, successively, quaestor in Asia (64), people's tribune (66), and praetor (68). In the civil war of 69 he took the side of Vespasian, who appointed him to a command in Britain. He was granted patrician status upon his return to Rome in 73 and served as governor of Aquitania (74-77). Appointed consul in 77, he was made governor of Britain. Agricola was in Britain from 77/78 to 84. After conquering portions of [Wales], including the island of Mona (now Anglesey), he completed the conquest of what is now northern England. By the end of the third campaigning season, he had advanced into [Scotland], establishing a temporary frontier of posts between the firths of the Clota and Bodotria (Clyde and Forth) rivers. The Romans crossed the Forth in 83 and defeated the Caledonians in a decisive battle at Mons Graupius. Agricola's permanent occupation of Scotland reached the fringe of the highlands, where he blocked the main passes with forts and placed a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil (near Dunkeld in Perthshire). Recalled to Rome after his victory, the general lived in retirement, refusing the proconsulship of Asia.

Adler, Guido

born Nov. 1, 1855, Eibenschütz, Moravia, Austrian Empire [now Ivančice, Czech Republic] died Feb. 15, 1941, Vienna Austrian musicologist and teacher who was one of the founders of modern [][musicology]. Adler's family moved to Vienna in 1864, and four years later he began to study music theory and composition with Anton Bruckner at the Vienna Conservatory. Intending to pursue a career in law, Adler studied at Vienna University, receiving a doctoral degree in 1878. During this period he gave a series of lectures on Richard [][Wagner] at the university (later published as *Richard Wagner,* 1904) and, in cooperation with Felix Mottl, established the Akademischer Wagnerverein ("Academic Wagner Society"). Influenced by the writings of outstanding contemporaries in the field of music history, Adler abandoned law; he wrote a dissertation on Western music before 1600 and was awarded a Ph.D. in 1880. Two years later he became a lecturer and completed a work on the history of harmony. In collaboration with Philipp Spitta and K.F.F. Chrysander, Adler founded the []*Viertel-jahrsschrift für Musikwissenschaft* ("Quarterly of Musicology") in 1884. The following year he was appointed professor of the history of music at the German University at Prague.

Alajuela

city, northwestern [Costa Rica]. It lies in the [Valle Central] at an elevation of 3,141 feet (957 metres). Known in colonial days as Villahermosa, the town was active in support of independence from Spain in 1821; five years later it suffered from a plot to restore Spanish control over Costa Rica. For a brief period in the 1830s Alajuela served as the nation's capital. It was the home of []Juan Santamaría, a Costa Rican soldier and hero of the defense against the invasion by the American filibuster (military adventurer) [][William Walker] in 1856. The local Cultural Historical Museum is named in Santamaría's honour, as is the country's principal airport, which is located 2 miles (3 km) from Alajuela. A slightly lower elevation and a warmer climate, as compared with [San José] 12.5 miles (20 km) to the southeast, give Alajuela the air of a resort. Called the City of Mangoes, it is also known for its flowers and markets. Pop. (2005) 48,524.

Alaric II

died 507 king of the Visigoths, who succeeded his father Euric on Dec. 28, 484. He was married to Theodegotha, daughter of Theodoric, the Ostrogothic king of Italy. His dominions comprised Aquitaine, Languedoc, Roussillon, and parts of western Spain. Alaric, like his father, was an Arian Christian, but he mitigated the persecution of Catholics and authorized the Catholic council at Agde in 506. To provide a law code for his Roman subjects, he appointed a commission to prepare an abstract of Roman laws and imperial decrees. This influential code, issued in 506, is generally known as the *[Lex Romana Visigothorum],* or *Breviary of Alaric*. Alaric tried to maintain his father's treaty with the Franks, but [][Clovis], the Frankish king, made the Visigoths' Arianism a pretext for war. In 507 the Visigoths were defeated in the battle of the []Campus Vogladensis (Vouillé, in Poitou).

Adoptionism

either of two Christian heresies: one developed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries and is also known as Dynamic Monarchianism (*see* [Monarchianism]); the other began in the 8th century in Spain and was concerned with the teaching of []Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo. Wishing to distinguish in []Christ the operations of each of his natures, human and divine, Elipandus referred to Christ in his humanity as "adopted son" in contradistinction to Christ in his divinity, who is the Son of God by nature. The son of Mary, assumed by the Word, thus was not the Son of God by nature but only by adoption. Opposition to this view of Christ was expressed, which led Pope [][Adrian I] to intervene and condemn the teaching. Elipandus gained the support of [][Felix], bishop of Urgel, who eventually engaged in a literary duel with Alcuin of York over the doctrine. In 798 Pope [][Leo III] held a council in Rome that condemned the "Adoptionism" of Felix and anathematized him. Felix was forced to recant in 799 and was placed under surveillance. Elipandus remained unrepentant, however, and continued as archbishop of Toledo, but the Adoptionist view was almost universally abandoned after his death. It was temporarily revived in the 12th century in the teachings of Peter Abelard and his followers.

ADVERTISING: Infomercials

In 1964 a gadget inventor and salesman named Ron Popeil started a company named Ronco and became instrumental in creating the television infomercial industry in the U.S. Poised between superficial talk shows and the strident tones of Madison Avenue, the half-hour ads originally existed in a kind of television netherworld--shown only late at night after most consumers had gone to bed. By 1995, however, infomercials were no longer limited to appliances such as Veg-O-Matics and the Ronco food dehydrator. Their products ranged from high-priced Barbie dolls to citrus fruit, from skin- and hair-care products to diet regimens, and from investment advice to methods for improving interpersonal relationships.[] Modern infomercials usually relied on celebrity endorsements rather than high-pressure salesmen to lend credibility to their products. Singer Dionne Warwick had been affiliated with the "Psychic Friends Network" for almost a decade, while actresses Meredith Baxter and Ali McGraw both appeared in popular infomercials for Victoria Jackson cosmetics. Covert Bailey, a familiar face on public television, advertised an exercise machine, and veteran actress Angela Lansbury brought children's literature to infomercials by promoting a series of Beatrix Potter stories on videotape. Infomercials also showed they had great potential for profit. The National Infomercial Marketing Association International (NIMA), the trade association for the industry, estimated that in 1994 the ads brought in \$1 billion in product sales. NIMA played an important role in reinforcing marketing guidelines and in holding the companies accountable for the claims they made for their products. NIMA also presented yearly awards for excellence within the industry. In 1995 fitness expert Jake Steinfeld swept the field, winning infomercial of the year, best product, and best product offer. More recently, program-length commercials gained in popularity among mainstream products. Many companies opined that a standard 60-second television commercial was not long enough to present their products thoroughly, so they began turning to an offspring of infomercials called "documercials" to fill the need for more in-depth advertising. Documercials generally concentrated on promoting a product or company image rather than on direct sales. Familiar names included the Toyota and Ford motor companies, Sears, Roebuck and Co., American Airlines, and Eastman Kodak. In a bid for a younger audience, Sega of America released an infomercial describing new software for its Genesis video game machine, running the ad for four weeks during the 1994 holiday season.

Aikman, Troy

U.S. professional football quarterback Troy Aikman not only led the Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League (NFL) to three Super Bowl victories (1993, 1994, 1996) but also helped restore the lustre that the squad once enjoyed as "America's Team." The Cowboys, one of the most dominant and popular teams in the 1970s, had fallen on lean times by 1989, when Jerry Jones bought the club, replacing longtime head coach Tom Landry with Jimmy Johnson and building a star-studded backfield around quarterback Aikman (drafted 1989) and running back Emmitt Smith (drafted 1991). By the mid-1990s, owing to his rugged good looks and the precision and the power of his passing game, Aikman was one of football's top celebrities. In his first seven seasons with the Cowboys, he completed nearly 63% of his passes, including 98 touchdown throws. Aikman was born on Nov. 21, 1966, in West Covina, Calif., and raised in Cerritos, a suburb of Los Angeles, before moving to the small town of Henryetta, Okla., where he was an all-state high school standout. He was hotly recruited by coaches Barry Switzer of the University of Oklahoma and Johnson of Oklahoma State University; both later coached him as a professional. Aikman chose Switzer, who introduced the wishbone formation to the Oklahoma offense, emphasizing a running game at the expense of Aikman's strong passing skills. As a sophomore in 1985, Aikman broke his leg in the fifth game of the season and, because he was not well suited to the wishbone offense, lost his place as starting quarterback. Oklahoma went on to win the national championship, and Aikman went on to attend the University of California, Los Angeles, where, as a transfer student, he had to sit out the 1986 season. He shone in his remaining two years at UCLA, completing 65% of his passes and leading his squad to a 20-4 record, with postseason victories in the Aloha Bowl (December 1987) and the Cotton Bowl (January 1989). Named All-American in his senior year, he placed third in the polling for the Heisman Trophy, college football's most prestigious award. In 1989 the Cowboys made Aikman their number one draft selection and the wealthiest rookie in league history, with a six-year, \$11 million contract. He fared poorly in his first few seasons, throwing more interceptions than touchdown passes and missing games because of injuries. In 1992-93, however, his first season without injuries, Aikman led the team to a Super Bowl victory and was named the game's Most Valuable Player. On the way to a second Super Bowl win in 1994, he became the highest-paid player in NFL history, with an eight-year, \$50 million contract. In March 1994 Johnson was replaced as head coach by Switzer, who oversaw the Cowboys' continued success--much of which was due to Aikman's heroics in postseason play, during which he held the career record for passing percentage, highest average yard gain, and longest pass completion. (TOM MICHAEL)

Adorno, Theodor Wiesengrund

born Sept. 11, 1903, Frankfurt am Main, Ger. died Aug. 6, 1969, Visp, Switz. German philosopher who also wrote on sociology, psychology, and musicology. Adorno obtained a degree in philosophy from Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt in 1924. His early writings, which emphasize aesthetic development as important to historical evolution, reflect the influence of Walter Benjamin's application of Marxism to cultural criticism. After teaching two years at the University of Frankfurt, Adorno immigrated to England in 1934 to escape the Nazi persecution of the Jews. He taught at the University of Oxford for three years and then went to the United States (1938), where he worked at Princeton (1938-41) and then was codirector of the Research Project on Social Discrimination at the University of California, Berkeley (1941-48). Adorno and his colleague [][Max Horkheimer] returned to the University of Frankfurt in 1949. There they rebuilt the Institute for Social Research and revived the Frankfurt school of critical theory, which contributed to the German intellectual revival after World War II. One of Adorno's themes was civilization's tendency to self-destruction, as evinced by Fascism. In their widely influential book *Dialektik der Aufklärung* (1947; *[Dialectic of Enlightenment]*), Adorno and Horkheimer located this impulse in the concept of reason itself, which the Enlightenment and modern scientific thought had transformed into an irrational force that had come to dominate not only nature but humanity itself. The rationalization of human society had ultimately led to Fascism and other totalitarian regimes that represented a complete negation of human freedom. Adorno concluded that rationalism offers little hope for human emancipation, which might come instead from art and the prospects it offers for preserving individual autonomy and happiness. Adorno's other major publications are *Philosophie der neuen Musik* (1949; *Philosophy of Modern Music*), *The Authoritarian Personality* (1950, with others), *Negative Dialektik* (1966; *Negative Dialectics*), and *Ästhetische Theorie* (1970; "Aesthetic Theory").

åkermanite

mineral composed of dicalcium magnesium disilicate, Ca~2~MgSi~2~O~7~, one end-member of the melilite mineral series (*see* [melilite]).

Alabama River

river in southern [Alabama], U.S. It is formed by the [][Coosa] and [Tallapoosa] rivers, 7 miles (11 km) northeast of [Montgomery], winds westward to [Selma], and then flows southward. Its navigable length is 305 miles (491 km), and the river drains 22,800 square miles (59,050 square km). It receives its chief tributary, the []Cahaba, about 10 miles (16 km) southwest of Selma. The Alabama is joined 45 miles (72 km) north of [Mobile] by the [][Tombigbee] to form the [][Mobile] and []Tensaw rivers, which flow into [Mobile Bay], an arm of the Gulf of Mexico. Mobile and Montgomery became major cities largely because they were on this important traffic artery. The Coosa-Alabama river system, with various locks and dams, has been a major factor in the economic development of the state.

Albert

*also called **Adalbert,** or **Aleric** * flourished 12th century antipope in 1101. He was cardinal bishop of Silva Candida when elected early in 1101 as successor to the antipope Theodoric of Santa Ruffina, who had been set up against the legitimate pope, [][Paschal II], by an imperial faction supporting the Holy Roman emperor Henry IV in his struggle with Paschal for supremacy. Albert's uncanonical investiture provoked rioting in Rome, and he was stripped of his insignia and briefly imprisoned in the Lateran. He was then sentenced to confinement in the monastery of San Lorenzo, north of Naples, where he remained a monk the rest of his life.

affenpinscher

*also called **monkey terrier** * breed of toy [][dog] known since the 17th century. It is thought to have originated in Germany, where it was bred to be a ratter—to kill rats, mice, and other small vermin. Like other terriers, it is lively and playful. The affenpinscher stands 9.5 to 11.5 inches (24 to 29 cm) and weighs 7 to 8 pounds (3 to 3.5 kg). A sturdily built dog, it has small, erect ears that are usually cropped, round, black eyes, and a short, docked tail. While a black coat is preferred, it may also be gray, silver, red, black and tan, or beige. The wiry coat is short on parts of the body but longer on the legs and on the face, where it produces the monkeylike expression for which the breed is named (*Affen* being the German word for monkeys).

African swine fever (ASF)

*also called **warthog fever** * highly contagious and usually fatal viral disease of swine that is characterized by high fever, lesions, leukopenia (abnormally low count of white blood cells), elevated pulse and respiration rate, and death within four to seven days after the onset of fever. The virus responsible for African swine fever is classified as an [iridovirus]. It is physically, chemically, and antigenically distinct from the togavirus that causes hog cholera (swine fever). African swine fever virus can survive heat, putrefaction, smoking, partial cooking, and dryness and lives up to six months in chilled carcasses. The incubation period is from 5 to 15 days. The disease was first identified in 1910 in Kenya, where it was noted in domestic swine after contact with forest pigs and warthogs. It was confined to certain parts of Africa until 1957, when the disease spread—perhaps by means of processed pork products—to Portugal and then to Spain, Italy, Brazil, and other countries. During the 1970s, African swine fever spread to South America and certain Caribbean islands, but rigorous eradication programs have controlled the disease in the Caribbean area.

Adrian VI

*also known as **Hadrian VI,** original name **Adrian Florenszoon Boeyens** * born March 2, 1459, Utrecht, Bishopric of Utrecht died Sept. 14, 1523, Rome [![Photograph:Adrian VI, Flemish commemorative medallion, 16th century]] - Adrian VI, Flemish commemorative medallion, 16th century the only Dutch pope, elected in 1522. He was the last non-Italian pope until the election of John Paul II in 1978.

afterburner

*also called **Reheat,** * second combustion chamber in a [turbojet] (*q.v.*) or turbofan engine, immediately in front of the engine's exhaust nozzle. The injection and combustion of extra fuel in this chamber provide additional thrust for takeoff or supersonic flight. In most cases the afterburner can nearly double the thrust of a turbojet engine. Since the jet nozzle must be larger when using the afterburner, an automatic, adjustable nozzle is an essential component of the afterburner system. Because the afterburner sharply increases fuel consumption and is generally less effective at subsonic speeds, its use is for the most part restricted to supersonic military aircraft.

Aḥsāʾī, al-

*also called **Shaykh Aḥmad,** in full **Shaykh Aḥmad Ibn Zayn Ad-dīn Ibn Ibrāhīm Al-aḥsāʾī** * born 1753, Al-Hasa, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] died 1826, near Medina founder of the heterodox Shīʿite Muslim [Shaykhī] sect of Iran. After spending his early years studying the Islāmic religion and traveling widely in Persia and the Middle East, al-Aḥsāʾī in 1808 settled in Yazd, Persia, where he taught religion. His interpretation of the Shīʿite faith (one of the two major branches of Islām) soon attracted many followers but aroused controversy among the orthodox religious leaders of the day. A central idea of Shīʿite Islām is that the greater [][imam], the leader of Islām, is descended from the male offspring of ʿAlī (the Prophet Muḥammad's son-in-law) and Fāṭimah (the Prophet's daughter) and is divinely appointed and divinely inspired. After 874 the spiritual functions of the imam were performed by *[]wakīl*s, or agents, who were in contact with the []mahdi, the last imam and a messianic deliverer*.* But following the death of ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad as-Sāmarrīʾ in 940, this direct contact between the community and the mahdi ceased. The Shīʿites believed that some day prior to the apocalyptic end of the world, the mahdi would establish a reign of justice.

akund floss

*also called **calotropis floss** * downy seed fibre obtained from *[]Calotropis procera* and *[]C. gigantea,* plants of the Apocynaceae family. The plants are native to southern Asia and Africa and were introduced to South America and the islands of the Caribbean. The yellowish material is made up of thin fibres 2 to 3 cm (0.75 to 1.12 inches) long and 12 to 42 microns (a micron is about 0.00004 inch) in diameter and is harvested by hand. Akund floss is used primarily as upholstery stuffing, sometimes mixed with the seed fibre kapok. In certain areas it is variously known as ak, mader, or mudar.

Aga-Buryat

*also spelled **Agin-buryatiya, or Agin-buriatiya,** * autonomous *okrug* (district), Chita *oblast* (province), southeastern Russia. It is situated along the left bank of the lower Onon River, a headstream of the Amur. Aga-[][Buryat] was formed in 1937 for an exclave group of the Buryat people, who live chiefly east and south of Lake Baikal, although by the late 20th century they constituted only about half of the population (the remainder being mostly Russian). The western half of the *okrug* is forested hilly country, and the eastern half is steppe lowland. There are no towns, but there are several urban districts, including Aginskoye, the administrative centre. Large herds of cattle and sheep are kept, and spring wheat and oats are grown. Area 7,300 square miles (19,000 square km). Pop. (1995 est.) 79,400.

Ageladas

*also spelled **Hageladas** * born late 6th and early 5th centuries BC, Argos, Greece sculptor said to have been the teacher of [Myron], [Phidias], and [Polyclitus]. This tradition testifies to his wide fame but is historically doubtful.

aegis

*also spelled **egis,** plural **aegises** or **egises** * [![Photograph:Athena wearing an aegis; statue known as the Varakion, a Roman marble copy ( 130) of ...]] - Athena wearing an aegis; statue known as the Varakion, a Roman marble copy (*c.* AD 130) of ... in ancient Greece, leather cloak or breastplate generally associated with [][Zeus], the king of the gods, and thus thought to possess supernatural power. Zeus's daughter Athena adopted the aegis for ordinary dress. Athena placed on her aegis a symbolic representation of the severed head of the Gorgon Medusa. The head itself had been a gift from the Gorgon's slayer, Perseus. Occasionally, another god used it—e.g., Apollo in the *Iliad*, where it provoked terror. As early as Homer the aegis was more than an ordinary goatskin cloak, for it was decorated with golden tassels. A stout hide of this sort could turn a blow, like a buffcoat, and thus it often appears as armour. Later, after improvised armour of this type went out of use, it was occasionally thought of as a metal corselet.

Afonso IV

*byname **Afonso The Brave,** Portuguese **Afonso O Bravo** * born Feb. 8, 1291, Lisbon died May 28, 1357, Lisbon seventh king of Portugal (1325-57). Afonso IV was the son of King [][Dinis] and of Isabella, daughter of Peter II of Aragon. Afonso resented his father's generosity toward two illegitimate sons and in 1320 demanded to be given power, remaining in open revolt until May 1322. His mother reconciled them, but the conflict broke out again. When Dinis died, Afonso succeeded to the throne, but the quarrel was transferred to Castile, which sheltered his half brother. However, when the Marinid sultan of Morocco invaded Spain in 1340, Afonso IV led a force that joined Alfonso XI of Castile in the victory of the []Salado River near Tárifa (Oct. 30, 1340).

Akhisar

*historically **Thyatira** * town, western Turkey, in a fertile plain on the Great Zab River (the ancient Lycus). The ancient town, originally called Pelopia, was probably founded by the Lydians. It was made a Macedonian colony about 290 BC and renamed Thyatira. It became part of the kingdom of Pergamum in 190 BC and was an important station on the ancient Roman road from Pergamum (Bergama) to Laodicea (near Denizli). Its early Christian church appears as one of the seven churches in the Revelation to John. Akhisar was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century. The modern town is connected by railway and road to İzmir and Manisa and exports cotton, tobacco, graphite, opium, wool, raisins, and dyes. Pop. (1990 prelim.) 74,002.

African American English (AAE)

a language variety that has also been identified at different times in dialectology and literary studies as Black English, black dialect, and Negro (nonstandard) English. Since the late 1980s, the term has been used ambiguously, sometimes with reference to only [][Ebonics], or, as it is known to linguists, African American Vernacular English (AAVE; the English dialect spoken by many African Americans in the United States), and sometimes with reference to both Ebonics and [Gullah], the English creole spoken by African Americans in coastal areas of South Carolina and Georgia and on the offshore Sea Islands. In the 20th century much of the scholarship on AAE revolved around questions of how extensively it was influenced by African languages and whether it is in fact an English dialect, an archaic survival of the colonial English spoken by indentured servants on the plantations of the North American Southeast, or a descendant of 17th-century West African Pidgin English. The possibility that the structure of modern Ebonics is the result of decreolization has also been widely studied. ([]Decreolization, or debasilectalization, is the process by which a vernacular loses its []basilectal, or "[][creole]," features under the influence of the language from which it inherited most of its vocabulary. The basilect is the variety that is the most divergent from the local standard speech.) The consensus among linguists is that Ebonics is an American English dialect differing from other dialects primarily in the higher statistical frequency of nonstandard features, such as the merger of hasn't/haven't and isn't/aren't (even didn't/don't in the case of Ebonics) in the form ain't and the omission of the copula in constructions such as Jesse very tall ('Jesse's very tall'). The latter feature makes Ebonics typologically closer to Gullah and Caribbean English creoles. It has therefore been interpreted by some linguists as evidence that Ebonics must have creole origins. No consensus has been reached on this issue. Since the late 1960s, [][Gullah] has been treated as a separate language, because it shares more structures with Caribbean English creoles (e.g., usage of bin as a past tense marker in he bin go ['he/she went'], or usage of he in the possessive function, as in he bubba ['his/her brother']). It can be argued, however, that since most such creole features (i.e., those associated today with creoles) come in this case from English itself, their attestations in Caribbean English creoles are not conclusive evidence for stipulating that Gullah is a separate language. The fact that creoles bear heavier influence from black African languages than does Ebonics does not make the hypothesis more compelling, in part because external influence on other nonstandard English varieties—for instance, Yiddish English—has not made such divergent varieties separate languages. (It is also significant that Gullah speakers do not use the term creole in reference to their variety.) More research is now devoted to describing structural peculiarities of both Ebonics and Gullah in detail, which may eventually shed more light on the origins and typological affiliations of AAE. [Salikoko Sangol Mufwene]

Ahriman

*Avestan **Angra Mainyu ("Destructive Spirit")** * the evil spirit in the dualistic doctrine of Zoroastrianism. His essential nature is expressed in his principal epithet—Druj, "the Lie." The Lie expresses itself as greed, wrath, and envy. To aid him in attacking the light, the good creation of [][Ahura Mazdā], the Wise Lord, Ahriman created a horde of demons embodying envy and similar qualities. Despite the chaos and suffering effected in the world by his onslaught, believers expect Ahriman to be defeated in the end of time by Ahura Mazdā. Confined to their own realm, his demons will devour each other, and his own existence will be quenched. The modern Zoroastrians of India, the []Parsis, tend to diminish the importance of Ahriman by explaining him away as an allegory of man's evil tendencies, thus restoring omnipotence to Ahura Mazdā.

Aemilian

*Latin in full **Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus** * born , Mauretania died 253, near Spoletium, Umbria [Italy] Roman emperor for three months in 253. Aemilian was a senator and served as consul before receiving the command of the army of Moesia (in present eastern Yugoslavia) during the reign of the emperor [][Trebonianus Gallus] (reigned 251-253). After turning back an invasion by the Goths, Aemilian rebelled against the emperor in the summer of 253 and invaded Italy. When Gallus was killed by his own troops, Aemilian became his successor. A few weeks later the Roman forces of the Upper Rhine declared their commander, [][Valerian], emperor. Before the two sides came to battle, Aemilian was assassinated by his troops near Spoletium. Despite his victory over the Goths, his attempt to seize power allowed the defeated Goths to regroup and invade Greece.

African Union (AU)

*formerly (1963-2002) **Organization of African Unity** * intergovernmental organization, established in 2002, to promote unity and solidarity of African states, to spur economic development, and to promote international cooperation. The African Union (AU) replaced the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The AU's headquarters are in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The OAU was established on May 25, 1963, and its activities included diplomacy (especially in support of African liberation movements), mediation of boundary conflicts and regional and civil wars, and research in economics and communications. The OAU maintained the "Africa group" at the United Nations (UN) through which many of its efforts at international coordination were channeled. The OAU was instrumental in bringing about the joint cooperation of African states in the work of the [Group of 77], which acts as a caucus of developing nations within the UN Conference on Trade and Development. The principal organ of the OAU was the annual assembly of heads of state and government. Between these summit conferences, policy decisions were in the hands of a council of ministers, composed of foreign ministers of member states.

Aki, Keiiti

Japanese seismologist (b. March 30, 1930, Yokohama, Japan—d. May 17, 2005, Réunion), developed the concept of the "seismic moment"—a quantitative means of measuring the amount of energy released by an earthquake. The seismic moment, first introduced by Aki in 1966, takes into consideration such factors as the length and depth of the rupture along the fault where an earthquake occurs, the strength of the displaced rocks, and the distance the rocks slip. Scientists considered Aki's seismic moment method to give a more reliable measurement of earthquake force than the Richter scale. Aki was educated at the University of Tokyo, where he earned B.S. (1952) and Ph.D. (1958) degrees. He was a research fellow at the California Institute of Technology before returning to Japan to teach at the Earthquake Research Institute in Tokyo. From 1966 to 1984 he was a professor of geophysics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1979 Aki was elected president of the Seismological Society of America. He was also a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Among Aki's numerous awards and honours were the American Geophysical Union's Bowie Medal in 2004 and the European Geosciences Union's Gutenberg Medal in 2005. At the time of his death, Aki had been conducting research on the island of Réunion, a French overseas department in the Indian Ocean.

Akaka Falls

[![Photograph:Akaka Falls, Hawaii island.]] - Akaka Falls, Hawaii island. waterfall, Hawaii county, northeastern [Hawaii] island, [Hawaii], U.S. A central feature of Akaka Falls State Park (65 acres [26 hectares]), it is easily reached by foot trail. The waterfall is located 14 miles (23 km) north of [Hilo] in a canyon 4 miles (6.5 km) inland from the village of Honomu on the Hamakua coast. Akaka Falls plunges 442 feet (135 metres) through dense tropical overgrowth into a pool within Kolekole Stream.

Akureyri

[![Photograph:Akureyri, Iceland, near the southern end of Eyja Fjord]] - Akureyri, Iceland, near the southern end of Eyja Fjord town, northern Iceland. It lies at the southern end of []Eyja Fjord. Akureyri is the chief centre of the north and is one of the island's most populous urban centres outside the Reykjavík metropolitan area. While primarily a commercial and distributing centre, Akureyri is also a fishing port, agricultural market, and manufacturing centre for woolen goods, fish oil, shoes, and fish and dairy products. Ironworking, woodworking, and shipbuilding are all significant industries. The town has a technical college, an agricultural experimental station, an airport, botanical gardens, and several museums. Inc. 1876. Pop. (1993 est.) 14,799.

akh

in Egyptian religion, the spirit of a deceased person and, with the [*ka*] and [*ba*] (*qq.v.*), a principal aspect of the soul. By enabling the soul to assume temporarily any form it desired, for the purpose of revisiting the earth or for its own enjoyment, the *akh* characterized the soul of a deceased person as an effective entity in the next world. The *akh*-soul was generally represented as a bird and could appear to the living as a ghost.

Adonijah

in the Old Testament, the fourth son of David, the natural heir to the throne. David's favourite wife, [][Bathsheba], organized an intrigue in favour of her son [][Solomon]. Shortly after his accession, Solomon had Adonijah put to death on the ground that, by seeking to marry David's concubine Abishag, he was aiming at the crown (I Kings 1 ff.).

Ainu

indigenous people of Hokkaido, Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands who were culturally and physically distinct from their Japanese neighbours until the second part of the 20th century. The Ainu may be descendants of an indigenous population once widely spread over northern Asia; many contemporary Ainu claim some connection to Japan's prehistoric [Jōmon culture]. The traditional [Ainu language], an isolate with a number of dialects, had been almost completely supplanted by [Japanese] by the early 21st century; a language-revitalization movement initiated formal instruction in Ainu in the 1980s. The Ainu once lived on all four major Japanese islands. Their traditional dress included bark cloth, often decorated with geometric designs. Although the Ainu were predominantly a [hunting and gathering culture], some members also engaged in [shifting agriculture], a method in which fields are used for a few seasons and then abandoned so as not to exhaust the soil. [Animism] was the traditional religion; local forces of nature were thought to have souls or spirits. The most important ritual took place over several years and involved the capture of a bear cub that was then raised as a member of the family; at a designated time, the bear was ritually killed. Having treated the bear well in life, the Ainu believed that in death its spirit would ensure the well-being of its adoptive community. The Japanese began colonizing Ainu territory in the 1st millennium AD. Over the centuries, and despite armed resistance, these indigenous peoples lost most of their traditional lands; eventually they were resettled in the northernmost reaches of the Japanese archipelago. There they were seen as an essentially captive market and as a buffer against potential invasions by the Russians to the north. [![Photograph:Ainu couple in ceremonial dress, Hokkaido, Japan.]] - Ainu couple in ceremonial dress, Hokkaido, Japan. Japanese control of Ainu territory tightened after the [Meiji Restoration] (1868). During this period, Japanese racial discourse about the Ainu—which had long belittled the latter—became increasingly pejorative. Japanese observers had noted that the Ainu were hirsute in comparison with themselves, a fact emphasized by traditional Ainu customs in which men wore heavy beards and women had facial tattoos that at first glance appeared to be mustaches. Other physical distinctions included the absence of an epicanthal fold and a tendency to have lighter skin and hair colour than other East Asians. For a variety of reasons, late 19th-century Japanese pseudoscience fixated on Ainu hairiness and postulated many preposterous notions for its cause, claiming, for instance, that the Ainu interbred with animals in order to produce hirsute children. These notions, which supported the derogatory appellation "hairy Ainu," provided rationalizations for forced assimilation and the perpetuation of discrimination. [![Photograph:Ainu people dancing in front of a palace made of snow during the Asahikawa Snow Festival, ...]] - Ainu people dancing in front of a palace made of snow during the Asahikawa Snow Festival, ...

Akron, University of

public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Akron, [Ohio], U.S. While the university is known for its research in polymer engineering and science, it also offers a curriculum of liberal arts, business, and education courses, including master's degree programs. Doctoral degrees are available in a number of fields, including sociology, urban studies, polymer science and engineering, education, engineering, and chemistry. The school of law opened in 1959, and the nursing school opened in 1967. Originally named Buchtel College after its chief early benefactor, John R. Buchtel, the university was established in 1870 by the Ohio Universalist Convention and opened in 1872. The denominational affiliation was dropped in 1913 when the city took ownership of the school and changed its name to Municipal University of Akron. In 1967 it became a state university. In response to the growth of the city's rubber industry, the university offered the first collegiate course in rubber chemistry in 1909. It was also one of the first universities to offer cooperative engineering education programs, sending students out to work in local factories. Wayne College, a junior college open since 1972, is affiliated with the University of Akron.

Álava y Esquivel, Miguel Ricardo de born 1771, Vitoria, Spain died 1843, Bar?es, Fr.

soldier in the Napoleonic Wars and statesman. ?lava was an aide-de-camp to the Duke of Wellington and the Spanish commissary at the duke's headquarters during the Peninsular War. On the restoration of Ferdinand VII to the throne of Spain, he lost favour because of his liberal ideas but was appointed ambassador to The Netherlands (1815?22). He was president of the Spanish Cortes (parliament) in 1822?23 and later served as ambassador to Great Britain and France.

air-traffic control

the supervision of the movements of all aircraft, both in the air and on the ground, in the vicinity of an airport. *See* [traffic control].

Albemarle Sound

shallow coastal inlet of northeastern [North Carolina], U.S. Protected from the [Atlantic Ocean] by the [Outer Banks], it extends (east-west) for about 50 miles (80 km) and varies in width from 5 to 14 miles (8 to 23 km); nowhere is it deeper than 25 feet (8 metres). It receives the Pasquotank, Alligator, Chowan, and [Roanoke] rivers and discharges this flow at its southeastern end through the Roanoke and Croatan sounds to [Pamlico Sound]. It is connected with Chesapeake Bay by the Dismal Swamp Canal, which traverses the [Great Dismal Swamp], and forms part of the [Intracoastal Waterway]. [Elizabeth City] is the chief port. Explored by Ralph Lane from the [Roanoke Island] colony in 1586, Albemarle Sound was first called the Sea of Rawnocke (Roanoke Sea). It later appeared on maps as Roanoke Sound and Carolina River before it was renamed for George Monck, 1st duke of Albemarle. The state's earliest European settlements were established along its shores.

Aichbühl

site of a Middle Neolithic settlement (end of the 3rd millennium BC) on the shores of Lake Feder (Federsee) in southeastern Baden-Württemberg *Land* (state), southwestern Germany. Foundations of 25 rectangular buildings arranged in an irregular row along the shoreline were uncovered in the peat wetland by R. Schmidt in 1930. Approximately 20 of the buildings were two-room houses averaging 16.5 by 26.0 feet (5 by 8 m) in size, with walls built of split wooden posts arranged vertically. A central building, likely used for communal purposes, was approximately 66 by 66 feet (20 by 20 m); the remaining buildings were classified as storage houses. The economy was based primarily on hunting, supplemented by wheat and barley fields and livestock breeding. Small polished stone hatchets and bone implements were discovered around the site, and hearths and clay ovens were found in the houses. Aichbühl's ceramics were an unpainted Neolithic type common in southern Germany.

ALBANIA

A republic in the western Balkan Peninsula of southeastern Europe, Albania is situated on the Adriatic Sea. Area: 28,748 sq km (11,100 sq mi). Pop. (1993 est.): 3,422,000. Cap.: Tirane. Monetary unit: lek, with (Oct. 4, 1993) a free rate of 109.20 leks to U.S. \$1 (165.44 leks = £1 sterling). President in 1993, Sali Berisha; prime minister, Aleksander Meksi. Having begun its difficult transition from paralysis to democracy in March 1992, [Albania] in 1993 entered a new, postemergency period. A relative economic recovery was manifested by an 8% growth in gross national product, the highest in Eastern Europe; inflation was brought down to a monthly rate of 1.3%; and the agricultural sector showed new vitality as a result of privatization. The pace of recovery was acknowledged by international bodies such as the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. By 1993 the Albanian government had gone beyond its former passive approach to a more active program to stabilize the economy. Serious unemployment, the high cost of living, and the slow rate of foreign investment were the major problems. Albania's economic situation remained precarious, and the country would still have to rely on foreign aid to ensure the successful completion of the reform process. Nonetheless, the period of total reliance on foreign emergency aid gradually gave way to a situation that began to attract foreign investment and saw the beginnings of Albanian economic cooperation with the outside world. Former Communist leader Ramiz Alia, almost all former Politburo members, and the Socialist Party leader Fatos Nano were under arrest in 1993 awaiting trial on charges of abuse of office. Ties with the European Community and other international bodies, as well as with such neighbouring countries as Turkey and Italy, improved, and Albania joined the Organization of the Islamic Conference. Tirane even expressed interest in joining NATO. Pope John Paul II made a historic visit in April. (The last pope to travel to Albania--in 1464--died en route.) Relations with Greece deteriorated, however, as a result of Albania's expulsion of an Orthodox cleric and Greece's subsequent deportation of thousands of illegal Albanian migrant workers. The shooting of Albanian citizens on the Macedonian and Serbian borders and the continued violation of human rights of the ethnic Albanian population in the Serbian province of Kosovo served to further undermine Albania's efforts at peaceful regional cooperation. (LOUIS ZANGA)

Albania

Area: 28,703 sq km (11,082 sq mi) Population (2002 est.): 3,108,000 (not including Albanians living abroad)

Aiken, Joan Delano

British author (b. Sept. 4, 1924, Rye, Sussex, Eng.—d. Jan. 4, 2004, Petsworth, West Sussex, Eng.), wrote fantasy, adventure, horror, and suspense tales for both juvenile and adult readers. Aiken, the daughter of the American writer Conrad Aiken, was educated at home as a child and grew up with a love of literature. She was perhaps best known for *The Wolves of Willoughby Chase* (1962), an adventure story that follows the fortunes of two girls unwittingly left in the grip of evil caretakers. It was the first of Aiken's more than 60 short-story collections and novels for young people.

Adams, Scott

Cartoonist Scott Adams was asked one question so many times that he came up with a stock answer. It began, "I don't work at your company." People could not be blamed for asking. The comic strip "Dilbert" continuously seemed to be reflecting the events of everyone's workplace. Its lead character, a computer programmer and engineer for a high-tech company with no apparent purpose, was buffeted daily by the illogical projects and business decisions of his clueless boss and the corporation's equally inept management. Dilbert, readily recognized by his perpetually curled necktie (the subject of another frequently asked question), survived the indignities of his existence with the assistance of his pet, Dogbert, who often seemed to have his own self-serving agenda. Adams was born June 8, 1957, and grew up in Windham, N.Y., in the Catskill Mountains. He was valedictorian of his high-school class (because, he said, "the other 39 people in my class couldn't spell *valedictorian*") and went on to earn a B.A. in economics from Hartwick College, Oneonta, N.Y., in 1979 and an M.B.A. from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1986. From 1979 to 1986 he was employed at Crocker National Bank in San Francisco (while working as a teller, Adams was robbed twice at gunpoint). From 1986 until June 1995 he worked for Pacific Bell in San Ramon, Calif., in a number of jobs involving technology and finances. Dilbert, a composite of Adams' co-workers over the years, became the main character of Adams' doodles and made his first public appearances in business presentations. The comic strip was first published in 1989, and by 1995 it had been syndicated to some 600 newspapers, was being read in at least 15 countries, and found its own corner on the Internet. A few years after "Dilbert" appeared, Adams began publishing his E-mail address in the strip. He personally read and answered each message, and he credited his correspondents for suggesting many of the situations that Dilbert encountered. (BARBARA WHITNEY)

Al Benson

Critic and historian []Nelson George called Al Benson, who worked at several [][Chicago] radio stations beginning in the mid-1940s, one of the most influential black deejays of all time. While many of his [African-American] peers were indistinguishable from white deejays over the airwaves, Benson, who was nicknamed "Yo' Ol' Swingmaster," never tried to mask what he called "native talk." By most accounts, however, Benson—who was known to drink while on the air—was often unintelligible. Yet for all the derision he drew, Benson attracted listeners—he was voted the most popular deejay in Chicago in a 1948 *Chicago Tribune* poll—and he wielded enormous power. In *The Death of Rhythm and Blues,* George quotes one of Benson's fellow announcers, who said of him, "He sounded black. They [the listeners] knew he was and most of us were proud of the fact. 'Here's a black voice coming out of my little radio and we know it's him.' " [Ben Fong-Torres]

Akii-Bua, John

Ugandan athlete who in 1972 became the first, and thus far the only, Ugandan to win an Olympic gold medal when he triumphed in the 400-m hurdles in 47.82 seconds, a world record (b. Dec. 3, 1949--d. June 20, 1997).

Aechmea

[![Photograph:Urn plant (Aechmea fasciata).]] - Urn plant (*Aechmea fasciata*). genus of epiphytes (plants that are supported by other plants and have aerial roots exposed to the humid atmosphere) of the pineapple family (Bromeliaceae), with more than 140 species distributed in South America. Spiny-edged leaves, usually about 30 to 60 cm (about 12 to 24 inches) long, grow in a rosette from the root. A spike of red and yellow flowers, often with blue tips, grows from the centre. Many species are grown as indoor ornamentals for their colourful foliage or showy flowers. The fibrous leaves of *A. magdalenae,* native to Central and South America, are made into rope and twine.

adrenergic nerve fibre

[nerve] fibre that releases the [neurotransmitter] [norepinephrine] (also known as noradrenaline) at the [synapse], or junction, between a nerve and its end organ, which may be a muscle, gland, or another nerve. Adrenergic nerve fibres make up the sympathetic nervous system, one of two peripheral nervous systems controlling involuntary activities, such as [digestion], [respiration], and [circulation]. Adrenergic fibres innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, visceral glands, and various central nervous system structures and sense organs; their action is opposite to the inhibiting action of the cholinergic fibres of the parasympathetic system. Peripheral adrenergic [neurons] integrate signals from other nerves of the central nervous system and peripheral sense organs; an adrenergic nerve impulse is triggered when one nerve fires repeatedly or when several nerves fire simultaneously.

agglutinate

pyroclastic igneous rock formed from partly fused volcanic bombs. *See* [bomb] (volcanology).

aerial photography

technique of photographing the Earth's surface or features of its atmosphere or hydrosphere with cameras mounted on aircraft, rockets, or Earth-orbiting satellites and other spacecraft. For the mapping of terrestrial features, aerial photographs usually are taken in overlapping series from an aircraft following a systematic flight pattern at a fixed altitude. Each photograph depicts an area that includes several control points, the locations of which are determined by ground-surveying techniques. A technique known as [][photogrammetry] (*q.v.*), which involves the simultaneous projection of the overlapping views, makes possible the preparation of [][contour] maps or three-dimensional models of the terrestrial surface that has been photographed. Valuable data on topography, geology, hydrology, soil and vegetation, meteorology, ocean currents, and fish resources have become accessible with the use of satellite technology and expert interpretation. Views of cloud patterns obtained from orbiting satellites are valuable in weather forecasting. Aerial photography also has vital military reconnaissance and intelligence-gathering applications.

ʿĀʾishah

*in full **ʿāʾishah Bint Abī Bakr** * born 614, Mecca, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia] died July 678, Medina the third and most favoured wife of the Prophet [][Muḥammad] (the founder of Islām), who played a role of some political importance after the Prophet's death. All Muḥammad's marriages had political motivations, and in this case the intention seems to have been to cement ties with ʿĀʾishah's father, [][Abū Bakr], who was one of Muḥammad's most important supporters. ʿĀʾishah's physical charms, together with the genuine warmth of their relationship, secured her a place in his affections that was not lessened by his subsequent marriages. It is said that in 627 she accompanied the Prophet on an expedition but became separated from the group. When she was later escorted back to Medina by a man who had found her in the desert, Muḥammad's enemies claimed that she had been unfaithful. Muḥammad, who trusted her, had a revelation asserting her innocence and publicly humiliated her accusers. She had no important influence on his political or religious policies while he lived.

Aichi

*ken* (prefecture), central Honshu, Japan, on the Pacific coast. More than half of its area lies within the Nōbi Plain and two smaller plains to the east. The northwestern border with Gifu prefecture is formed by the Kiso River, sometimes known as the Nihon (Japan) Rhine. The irregular coast is marked by the peninsulas of Chita (west) and Atsumi (east), which enclose Mikawa Bay and lie within Mikawa Bay Quasi-national Park, a popular resort area. During the Tokugawa era (1603-1867) the area that is now Aichi prefecture was Japan's centre for cotton cultivation and manufacture. Its capital, Nagoya, and surrounding industrial suburbs now constitute the Chūkyō Industrial Zone, Japan's second-ranking industrial concentration after Keihin (Tokyo-Yokohama Region). Textiles, steel, ceramics, automobiles, machinery, plywood, chemicals, cloisonné, and processed foods are produced. Toyohashi is a major cotton and silk textile centre, and Seto is noted for its china. There are well-developed road and rail services; main port facilities are in Nagoya. Area 1,984 square miles (5,139 square km). Pop. (1990) 6,691,000; (1994 est.) 6,819,000.

Ajo

town, Pima county, southwestern [Arizona], U.S. Spaniards mined in the area in the 1750s, and the Ajo Copper Company (1854) was the first incorporated mining concern in the Arizona Territory. Copper and silver were the most valuable minerals mined in the area. The mines remained dormant from roughly 1860 until the 1900s when a townsite was laid out and a railroad built to [Gila Bend], 40 miles (64 km) north. The community, originally named Muy Vavi (Papago: "Warm Water"), was renamed Ajo (Spanish: "Garlic"), for the wild garlic found in the surrounding hills. An alternative derivation claims the Papago word *au'auho*, meaning "paint," as the origin of the town's name, for the red paint pigment found there and used by the Papago. Ajo's economy virtually depends on the Phelps Dodge Corporation, which operates the New Cornelia Open Pit Mine (390 acres [158 hectares]) and a smelter plant. A strike in 1985 led Phelps Dodge to suspend production, and depressed worldwide copper prices throughout the 1990s stymied efforts to reopen the mine. Nearby are the Papago Indian Reservation (east), the Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge (west), and the Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument (south). In winter the town's population swells by some 4,000 because of tourists visiting surrounding RV (recreational vehicle) parks and campgrounds. Pop. (1990) 2,919; (2000) 3,705.

Alatri

town, [Lazio] (Latium) *regione,* central Italy. It lies in the Cosa River valley, at 1,647 feet (502 m) above sea level, just north of Frosinone city. Said to have been founded in 1830 BC as Alatrium (mentioned by the Greek geographer Strabo), it belonged to the confederation of the Hernici, an ancient people of Italy, and later passed under the dominion of Rome (306 BC). Archaeologically the town is of significance for its great belt of cyclopean walls (6th century BC) that enclose the superb trapezoid Pelasgian (pre-Hellenic) acropolis, the walls of which are almost intact. The outer circle of walls, about 2.5 miles (4 km) long, supplemented at intervals by fine medieval towers, is penetrated by three massive gates. Other important buildings are the Casagrandi Palace (now the civic museum), the bishop's palace, the episcopal seminary, and the cathedral. Although it is a resort with rail connections to Rome and Naples, Alatri is also an agricultural and manufacturing centre. Pop. (2006 est.) mun., 28,078.

Alba

town, [Piedmont] *regione,* northwestern Italy. It lies along the Tanaro River southwest of Turin. It occupies the site of the Roman Alba Pompeia, which was probably founded by [Pompeius Strabo] (consul, 89 BC) when he constructed the road from Aquae Statiellae (Acqui Terme) to Augusta Taurinorum (Turin). The town became an episcopal see dependent on Milan in the 4th century. The San Lorenzo Cathedral (1486) and the civic museum, with collections of Roman and prehistoric relics, are notable. An agricultural trade centre specializing in wines and white truffles, Alba has a school of viticulture and light industry. Pop. (2006 est.) mun., 30,151.

Akure

town, capital of [Ondo] state, southwestern Nigeria. It lies in the southern part of the forested Yoruba Hills and at the intersection of roads from Ondo, Ilesha, Ado-Ekiti, and Owo. Akure is an agricultural trade centre for the yams, cassava, corn (maize), bananas, rice, palm oil and kernels, okra, and pumpkins grown by the Ondo branch of the Yoruba people. Although cocoa is by far the most important local commercial crop, cotton, teak, and palm produce are also cultivated for export. The town's industries include electronics manufacturing, soft drink bottling, weaving, and pottery making. Akure is the site of a federal university of technology (founded in 1981). Pop. (1993 est.) 150,500.

Aḥmadī, Al-

town, southern Kuwait. The oasis town was built after 1946 with the development of the oil field in which it is located. Al-Aḥmadī is the headquarters of the Kuwait Oil Company. Pipelines link it with Mīnāʾ (port) al-Aḥmadī, on the Persian Gulf to the east, where a refinery and tanker terminals are located. In 1991 the area's oil wells were set on fire by Iraqi troops, causing extensive damage that was subsequently repaired (*see* [Persian Gulf War]). Al-Aḥmadī has several gardens and numerous sports facilities, including a football (soccer) stadium where the local team competes. Pop. (1985) 26,899; (1995 prelim.) 21,504.

Aïn Sefra

town, western [Algeria]. It is situated in the Saharan Atlas, 28 miles (45 km) east of the Moroccan border. The town lies in a broad valley between Mount Aïssa and Mount Mekter, on either side of the usually dry Wadi Aïn Sefra. Aïn Sefra was founded in 1881 as a French garrison town. The former European quarter in the town, rebuilt after a disastrous flood in 1904, is clustered around the railway station on the north bank of the wadi. An iron bridge leads to the southern section of the town, which contains a former French military post and its neo-Moorish barracks. The oldest part of the town, with its traditional walled gardens, lies to the southwest. Aïn Sefra's market deals in sheep, wool, skins, and salt brought there by nomadic Berbers. Pop. (latest census) 23,799.

Adrar

traditional region of central Mauritania in western Africa. It consists of a low central massif with noticeable cliffs that rise to about 800 feet (240 m). The terrain is arid and almost totally unsuitable for cropping. There is, however, sufficient water at the base of the uplands to support date-palm groves, and during the wetter part of the year there is cultivation of millet, sorghum, melons, and vegetables in gorges. The population of the Adrar (Berber for "mountain") formerly was nomadic. The major town in the region is Atar. Historic sites include Ouadane, formerly a caravan and gold-trading centre, and Chinguetti, an ancient centre of learning and of Islām.

Agaie

town and traditional emirate, [Niger] state, west-central Nigeria. The town lies at the intersection of roads from Bida, Baro, Tagagi, Lapai, and Ebba. Originally inhabited by the Dibo (Ganagana, Zitako), a people associated with the Nupe, it fell under the sway of []Malam Baba, a Fulani warrior, in 1822. After Baba had extended his territory south to the Niger River, he requested the emir of Gwandu, the Fulani empire's overlord of the western emirates, to establish a new emirate; in 1832 Baba's son Abdullahi was inaugurated as the first emir of Agaie. Shortly after the chiefs of Agaie emirate had given military aid to Bida (the adjacent Fulani emirate to the west) in its campaign of 1897 against the [Royal Niger Company], Agaie was occupied by the British. In 1908 the emirate, a 737-square-mile (1,909-square-km) area, became part of a newly created administrative unit. Its present population, still predominantly [Nupe], is mainly engaged in farming. Agaie town is a market centre (yams, sorghum, millet, rice, shea nuts, cotton, and peanuts [groundnuts]). Swamp rice, an especially important cash crop south and west of the town in the Niger's floodplains, is cultivated both on small farms and at the government's irrigated rice project at Loguma, 20 miles (32 km) south. Pop. (1991 prelim.) local government area, 85,280.

Aḥa Of Shabḥa

*Aha also spelled **Ahai** * born *c.* 680, , probably at Shabḥa, near Basra, Iraq died *c.* 752 prominent Babylonian Talmudist who is the first rabbinical writer known to history after the close of the Talmud. Aḥa's *[]Sheʾeltot* ("Questions," or "Theses"), published in Venice in 1546, was an attempt to codify and explicate materials contained in the [][Babylonian Talmud]. Written in Aramaic and unique in its organization, the text connects decisions of the Oral Law with those of the Written Law. The connections, many of them original, are concerned not only with ritualistic laws but also with ethical obligations. *Sheʾeltot* itself came to be regarded as a literary model and was widely copied.

Akutagawa Prize

*Japanese **Akutagawa Ryūnosuke Shō** * Japanese literary prize awarded semiannually for the best work of fiction by a promising new Japanese writer. The prize is generally considered, along with the Naoki Prize (for the best work of popular fiction), Japan's most prestigious and sought-after literary award. Novellas win the prize more frequently than do full-length novels. The Akutagawa Prize was created in 1935 by the founding editor of the magazine *Bungei Shunjū*, [Kikuchi Kan], to honour the memory of [Akutagawa Ryūnosuke], a greatly esteemed writer who had committed suicide in 1927. The prize was awarded from 1935 to 1944 and again from 1949.

Agnes of Poitou

*also called **Agnes of Aquitaine,** French **Agnès de Poitou, or Agnès d'Aquitaine** * born *c.* 1024 died Dec. 14, 1077, Rome [Italy] second wife of the Holy Roman emperor [][Henry III]. She was regent (1056-62) during the minority of her son, the future Henry IV. Agnes was a daughter of William V the Great, duke of Aquitaine, and was a descendant of the kings of Burgundy and Italy. She married Henry III on Nov. 1, 1043, forming an alliance designed to cement the empire's relations with its neighbouring states to the west. On Henry's death she assumed the regency for her son until it was wrested from her by Archbishop Anno of Cologne in 1062. Agnes then retired to a convent, but she remained an important figure in the movement for ecclesiastical reform, which strongly influenced imperial politics throughout the rest of the 11th century.

Ādilābād

*formerly **Edlābād,** * city, northern Andhra Pradesh state, southern India. It is an agricultural-trade centre 160 miles (260 km) north of Hyderābād, on the Nāgpur-Hyderābād section of the Vārānasi-Kanniyākumāri National Highway. Nearby, at Māhūr (Mahārāshtra state), is a fort dating from the Bahmanī and ʿImād Shāhī dynasties (14th-16th century). The city is situated on a well-forested plateau (2,000 feet [600 m] high) between the Godāvari and Penganga rivers. Teak and ebony are commercially lumbered in the region. Agriculture and mining are significant in the regional economy. Rice, sorghum, and wheat rank among the major crops, and coal, talc, and limestone are mined. Pop. (1991 prelim.) 84,233.

Afghan hound

[![Photograph:Afghan hound.]] - Afghan hound. breed of [][dog] developed as a hunter in the hill country of Afghanistan. It was once thought to have originated several thousand years ago in Egypt, but there is no evidence for this theory. It was brought to Europe in the late 19th century by British soldiers returning from the Indian-Afghan border wars. The Afghan hound hunts by sight and, in its native Afghanistan, has been used to pursue leopards and gazelles. The animal is adapted to rough country by the structure of its high, wide hipbones. A long-legged dog, the Afghan stands 25 to 27 inches (63.5 to 68.5 cm) high and weighs from 50 to 60 pounds (23 to 27 kg). It has floppy ears, a long topknot, and a long, silky coat of various but usually solid colours. The coat is especially heavy on the forequarters and hindquarters; the Afghan carries its slim tail in an upright curve. The Afghan's appearance has been described as "aristocratic, with a farseeing expression." [![table]]*See* the [table] of selected breeds of hounds for further information.

Aegithalidae

[![Photograph:Long-tailed tits (Aegithalos caudatus)]] - Long-tailed tits (*Aegithalos caudatus*) songbird family that includes the long-tailed tits (or titmice) of the Old World and the [][bushtits] of North America. Both groups are sometimes considered subfamilies of the family Paridae (order Passeriformes). The eight species are small, arboreal insect eaters with long, narrow tails; tiny bills; and silky, plain plumage. The nest is a thick-walled, hanging pouch with a side entrance. The best-known species is the common, [long-tailed tit] (*Aegithalos caudatus*) of Eurasia. It is pinkish and black, with white head, and its tail makes up half of its 14-centimetre (6-inch) total length. One of the world's tiniest birds is the []pygmy tit (*Psaltria exilis*) of Java, with head and body length of 7 cm.

adding machine

a type of [calculator] (*q.v.*) used for performing simple arithmetical operations.

Ader, Clément

born Feb. 4, 1841, Muret, France died March 5, 1926, Toulouse [![Photograph:Clément Ader.]] - Clément Ader. self-taught French engineer, inventor, and aeronautical pioneer. Ader constructed a balloon at his own expense in 1870. By 1873 he had turned his attention to heavier-than-air flight, constructing a winged "bird" on which he is said to have made tethered flights. Ader resigned his position with the Administration of Bridges and Roads in 1876, determined to make a fortune and pursue the dream of mechanical flight. He built his early reputation as a pioneer of telephony and an inventor of communications devices, which ranged from a microphone to a public address system.

Aguinaldo, Emilio

born March 23, 1869, near Cavite, Luzon, Phil. died Feb. 6, 1964, Manila [![Photograph:Emilio Aguinaldo.]] - Emilio Aguinaldo. Filipino leader who fought first against [Spain] and later against the United States for the independence of the Philippines. Born of Chinese and Tagalog parentage, he completed his education at the University of Santo Tomás, Manila. In August 1896 he was mayor of Cavite Viejo and was the local leader of the Katipunan, a revolutionary society that fought bitterly and successfully against the Spanish. In December 1897 he signed an agreement called the Pact of Biac-na-Bató with the Spanish governor general. He agreed to leave the Philippines and to remain permanently in exile on condition of a substantial financial reward from Spain coupled with the promise of liberal reforms. While in Hong Kong and Singapore he made arrangements with representatives of the American consulates and of Commo. George Dewey to return to the Philippines to assist the United States in the war against Spain.

Akwamu

[Akan state] (c. 1600-1730) of the [Gold] and [Slave coasts] of western Africa. At its apogee in the early 18th century, it stretched more than 250 miles (400 km) along the coast from Whydah (now Ouidah, Benin) in the east to beyond Winneba (now in [Ghana]) in the west. Its founders, an [][Akan] people who are traditionally said to have come from Twifu Heman, northwest of Cape Coast, moved during the late 16th or early 17th century to the region of modern Akim Abuakwa, where they founded the state of Akwamu. As the state grew rich on the sale of gold from the Birim River district, its inhabitants sought to extend their authority. Because they were hemmed in on the north and northwest by the state of Akim and other states in loose alliance with or subject to the powerful [Denkyera], they expanded south and southeast toward the Ga and Fante (Fanti) towns of the coast. These they subdued between 1677 and 1681 under their king ([]Akwamuhene), []Ansa Sasraku. They also extended their influence over the state of Ladoku in the east (1679) and, under Ansa's successor, over the Fante state of Agona in the west (1689). In 1702 they crossed the Volta River to occupy Whydah, a coastal state of Dahomey (now in southern Benin), and in 1710 subdued the Ewe people of the Ho region. By this time, however, their former satellite, [][Asante], had grown rich and powerful and was becoming increasingly hostile to Akim. Pressured by the Asante, the [Akyem] peoples retreated upon Akwamu's borders and, after a long war, succeeded in infiltrating them. The Akwamuhene was forced to flee, and by 1731 the state had ceased to exist.

Adwick le Street

town, [Doncaster] metropolitan borough, metropolitan county of [South Yorkshire], historic county of [Yorkshire], England. The town derives its name from the great north British Roman routeway, Ermine Street. The earliest references to the town are found in Domesday Book (1086), and the parish church of St. Lawrence dates from the 12th century. The Washington family—from which George Washington, the first president of the United States, was probably descended—occupied Adwick Hall in the town in the 16th and 17th centuries. A former coal-mining town, Adwick is now mainly a centre of light industry. Pop. (1991) 10,288.

Agartala

town, capital of Tripura state, northeastern India, lying near the Bangladesh border in an intensively cultivated plain. Situated astride the Haroa River amid numerous villages, it is the commercial centre of the area. A maharaja's palace, a temple, and four colleges affiliated with the University of Calcutta are located there. Pop. (1981) 132,186.

Ai Qing

*Wade-Giles romanization **Ai Ch'ing** , pseudonym of **Jiang Haicheng** * born March 27, 1910, Jinhua, Zhejiang province, China died May 5, 1996, Beijing Chinese poet whose free verse was influential in the development of *xinshi* ("new poetry"). The son of a well-to-do landowner, Ai Qing was encouraged to learn Western languages. He studied painting in Paris from 1928 to 1932, and he developed an appreciation for Western literature. Imprisoned for his radical political activities, he began to write poetry under his pen name. His first collection of verse, *[]Dayanhe* (1936), reflects his concern for the common people of China; the title poem recalls the foster nurse (called Dayanhe in the poem) who reared him. He went to Yan'an in 1941 and eventually accepted the literary teachings of the Chinese Communist Party leader [Mao Zedong]. Ai Qing published a number of additional volumes in the 1940s, such as *Kuangye* (1940; "Wildness"), *Xiang taiyang* (1940; "Toward the Sun"), and *Beifang* (1942; "North"). An advocate of free expression and the role of the writer as social critic, Ai Qing used simple language and a free style in creating his socially oriented poems.

Aethelfrith

*also spelled **Ethelfrith** * died 616? king of Bernicia (from 592/593) and of Deira, which together formed Northumbria. Aethelfrith was the son of Aethelric and grandson of Ida, king of Bernicia, and his reign marks the true beginning of the continuous history of a united Northumbria and, indeed, of England. He married Acha, daughter of Aelle, king of Deira, whom his father succeeded in 588 or 590, expelling Aelle's son Edwin.

Aeolic dialect

*any of several dialects of Ancient Greek **that were spoken in Thessaly, Boeotia, and, after approximately 1000 Bc** * in Asiatic [][Aeolis], including the island of Lesbos, where Aeolian colonists from the mainland founded their cities. West Thessalian and especially Boeotian varieties of Aeolic were influenced by the neighbouring West Greek (Doric) dialects, whereas Asiatic Aeolic was influenced by Ionic. The Lesbian poets Alcaeus (*c.* 620-*c.* 580 BC) and Sappho (fl. *c.* 610-*c.* 580 BC) used their vernacular Asiatic Aeolic dialect, whereas the Boeotian poet Corinna (fl. *c.* 500 BC?) used her vernacular Boeotian.

Afonso V

*byname **Afonso The African,** Portuguese **Afonso O Africano** * born Jan. 15, 1432, Sintra, Port. died Aug. 28, 1481, Sintra 10th king of Portugal (1438-81), known as the African from his campaigns in Morocco. The son of King Edward (Duarte) and Queen Leonor, daughter of King Ferdinand I of Aragon, Afonso succeeded to the throne at the age of six. In 1440 his mother was deprived of the regency by his uncle Pedro, Duke de [][Coimbra], whose daughter Isabella Afonso married. The regent was in turn challenged by a half brother, the Duke de Bragança, and was forced to fight, dying at Alfarrobeira (May 1449). Afonso remained considerably under the influence of others, and he distributed his favours rashly. In North Africa he conquered Alcácer Ceguer in 1458, failed to take Tangier in 1463, took Arzila in 1471, and finally took Tangier.

ʿAflaq, Michel

*ʿAflaq also spelled **Aflak** * born 1910, Damascus, Syria, Ottoman Empire [now Syria] died June 23, 1989, Paris, Fr. social and political leader who played a major role in the Arab nationalist movement during and after World War II. ʿAflaq first saw nationalism as centring upon the issue of imperialism; he especially resented the French, who after World War I (1914-18) held a mandate over Syria and Lebanon. In 1929-34, however, he studied at the University of Paris, and his political thinking took on a Marxist orientation. He came to believe that the nationalist struggle had to oppose both the native aristocracy and the foreign ruler. By 1940 he was ready to devote his full efforts to organizing a political party, although he did not officially establish the [][Baʿth Party] until 1946. ʿAflaq's role was that of teacher, theorist, and organizer; he seldom held public office.

adrenal gland

Introduction ------------ *also called **suprarenal gland** * either of two small triangular endocrine glands that are located above each [kidney]. In humans each adrenal gland weighs about 5 grams (about 0.18 ounce) and measures about 30 mm (1.2 inches) wide, 50 mm (2 inches) long, and 10 mm (0.4 inch) thick. Each gland consists of two parts: an inner [medulla], which produces [epinephrine and norepinephrine] (adrenaline and noradrenaline), and an outer[cortex], which produces [][steroid hormones]. The two parts differ in embryological origin, structure, and function. The adrenal glands vary in size, shape, and nerve supply in other animal species. In some [vertebrate]s the [cell]s of the two parts are to varying degrees interspersed. Structure and functions of the adrenal medulla and cortex {#261636.toc} ---------------------------------------------------------

airport

Introduction ------------ *also called **air terminal,** **aerodrome** , or **airfield** * site and installation for the takeoff and landing of [aircraft]. An airport usually has paved runways and maintenance facilities and serves as a terminal for passengers and cargo. Evolution of airports {#72408.toc} --------------------- The requirements for airports have increased in complexity and scale since the earliest days of flying. Before World War II the [landing] and [takeoff] distance of most passenger-transport aircraft was at most 650 yards (600 metres). Additional clear areas were provided for blind landings or bad-weather runs, but the total area involved rarely exceeded 500 acres (200 hectares).

Aerial Experiment Association (AEA)

[![Photograph:AEA June Bug]] - AEA June Bug organization that gathered together a group of young aviators and designers for the purpose of developing heavier-than-air flying machines. It was founded in 1907 and funded for slightly longer than one year by the American inventor [][Alexander Graham Bell] and his wife, [Mabel Hubbard Bell]. Bell had conducted his earliest aeronautical experiments in 1891-92, and he was particularly impressed by the aeronautical work of his friend [][Samuel Pierpont Langley], who had achieved the first sustained flight of a powered, heavier-than-air machine in 1896. Convinced that a well-organized and cooperative effort would lead to progress in the field, Bell and his wife invited four talented young associates to join them in organizing the AEA on Sept. 30, 1907. The members of the new association agreed to cooperate "in pursuance of their common aim 'to get into the air' upon the construction of a practical aerodrome driven by its own motive power and carrying a man." In addition to the Bells (who funded the organization), the members of the AEA included F.W. ("Casey") []Baldwin and []J.A.D. McCurdy, a pair of engineers from the University of Toronto; [][Glenn Hammond Curtiss], a motorcycle builder from Hammondsport, N.Y., who served as the AEA propulsion expert; and []Thomas E. Selfridge, an officer in the U.S. Army.

al-

Arabic definite article, meaning "the." It often prefixes Arabic proper nouns, especially place-names; an example is Al-Jazīrah (Arabic: "The Island"), the name of an interfluvial region in The Sudan. The article is often used in lowercase form, hence al-Jazīrah. Reference works, including *Encyclopædia Britannica,* often alphabetize names beginning with *al-* under the main part of the name (thus, in the example, "Jazīrah, Al-"). Thirteen Arabic letters—the so-called sun letters, *t, th, d, dh, r, z, s, sh, ṣ, ḍ, ṭ, ẓ,* and *n*—assimilate the *l* of *al-* in pronunciation; thus, Ash-Shām (the colloquial Arabic name of Damascus), not Al-Shām. Care must be taken to avoid confusing the definite article *al-* meaning "the" with the form "Āl," a different Arabic construction that is used to designate a family or tribal name. "Āl" is invariate and does not elide; thus, Āl Saʿūd, not Ās-Saʿūd. The form "Āl" is always romanized with a capital letter, irrespective of its position in an English sentence.

Albania

Area: 28,703 sq km (11,082 sq mi) Population (2001 est.): 3,091,000 (not including Albanians living abroad)

Ajit (Hamid Ali Khan)

Indian actor whose charming villainy and outrageous double entendres made him a national folk hero during a film career that spanned several decades in Bollywood, the nickname for Mumbai (Bombay), India's film capital (b. Jan. 27, 1922, Golconda, India--d. Oct. 21, 1998, Hyderabad, India).

African literature

Introduction ------------ the traditional oral and written literatures together with the mainly 20th-century literature written mostly in European languages but also to an increasing extent in the many languages of the sub-Saharan region. Traditional written literature is limited to a smaller geographic area than is oral literature; indeed, it is most characteristic of those sub-Saharan cultures that have participated in the cultures of the Mediterranean. In particular, there is literature in both Hausa and Arabic from the scholars of what is now northern Nigeria; the literature of the likewise Muslim Somali people; and literature in Geʿez (or Ethiopic) and Amharic of Ethiopia, the one part of Africa where Christianity has been practiced long enough to be considered traditional. The literature of South Africa in English and Afrikaans is covered in a separate article, [South African literature]. See also [African theatre]. The relationship between oral and written traditions and in particular between oral and modern written literatures is one of great complexity and not a matter of simple evolution. Modern African literatures were born in the educational systems imposed by colonialism, with models drawn from Europe rather than existing African traditions. The modern African writer thus uses tradition as subject matter rather than as a means of effecting a continuity with past cultural practice. [Oral] traditions {#57038.toc} ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The poetic and narrative forms of oral tradition among those peoples living south of the Sahara are immensely rich and varied. They include myths (in the sense of symbolic accounts of the origins of things, whether the world, particular cultures, lineages, political structures, or gods), praise songs, epic poetry, folktales, riddles, proverbs, and magical spells. The content of this material also varies considerably and includes children's rhymes and oral history, as well as symbolic texts of profound intellectual significance.

Aguilar Manzo, Luis ("The Wild Rooster")

Mexican singer and actor whose career spanned half a century and included some 150 movies, most notably the comedy *Full Steam Ahead* (1951), in which he played a motorcycle policeman seeking romance and adventure (b. Jan. 29, 1918--d. Oct. 24, 1997).

Ake, Claude

Nigerian political scientist and activist who was an expert on African politics and economics, founded and directed the Centre for Advanced Social Science, Port Harcourt, and served as a visiting professor at Yale University; in 1995 he resigned from a Shell Oil commission to protest the execution of activist Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight others (b. Feb. 18, 1939--d. Nov. 7, 1996).

Albert II

On Aug. 9, 1993, Albert II was sworn in as the sixth king of the Belgians, succeeding his childless older brother, King Baudouin (*see* [OBITUARIES]), Europe's longest-reigning monarch at the time of his sudden death in July. Having shown little interest in becoming the king, Albert surprised many when he chose not to abdicate in favour of his elder son, Prince Philippe. Although groomed for the throne, Philippe was thought by some in the government to be less ready than his father to act as the head of state for a Belgium troubled by a faltering economy and increasing political divisiveness between French-speaking Wallonia and Flemish-speaking Flanders. Constitutional reform in 1993 both federalized the government and curbed the power of the monarchy, but Albert, like Baudouin, remained an important symbol of unity for a nation drifting toward dissolution. The new king, speaking in French, Flemish, and German, warned of the "menaces of individual and collective egoism" during a low-key investiture interrupted by a rebellious deputy's cry of "Long live the Republic of Europe!" A similar outburst had marred Baudouin's swearing-in 42 years previously. Albert Félix Humbert Théodore Christian Eugène Marie of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Prince of Belgium and Prince of Liège, was born June 6, 1934, in Brussels. His father, King Leopold III, chose house arrest over exile during the German occupation of Belgium in World War II, and the suspicion of collaboration raised by that decision eventually forced Leopold's abdication in favour of Baudouin in 1951. After being educated at home and in Geneva and Brussels, Prince Albert entered the Belgian navy in 1953. As the heir to the throne he became a member of the Belgian Senate. From 1962 until his ascension, the prince served as the honorary chairman of the Belgian Office of Foreign Trade, leading some 70 important trade missions and becoming an expert on shipping. However, that tenure was tainted by a 1979 kickback scandal involving Belgium's largest conglomerate and the construction of a hospital in Saudi Arabia. Prince Albert also served as the longtime president of the Belgian Red Cross and as a member of the International Olympic Committee. During his brother's lengthy reign, the prince acquired a reputation as a jet-setter. He enjoyed fast cars and boats and, clad in leather, took to the road on high-powered motorcycles. In 1959 he married Paola Ruffo di Calabria, a glamorous Italian princess once refused entrance to the Vatican because she was wearing a miniskirt. With her husband's ascension to the throne, she shared the title of queen with Baudouin's widow, Fabiola. In addition to Philippe (born 1960), the royal family included a daughter, Astrid (born 1962), and another son, Laurent (born 1963). (JEFF WALLENFELDT)

Afanasyev, Viktor Grigoryevich

Russian journalist (b. Nov. 18, 1922, Aktamysh, Tatar A.S.S.R., Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic--d. April 10, 1994, Moscow, Russia), as deputy editor (1968-74) and editor in chief (1976-89) of the daily newspaper *Pravda* and editor in chief (1974-76) of the journal *Kommunist,* was the official voice of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) for more than two decades. Afanasyev joined the army in 1940 and the CPSU in 1943. He graduated from the correspondence division of the Chita Pedagogical Institute in 1950, and three years later he left the army to teach at the Pedagogical Institute in Chelyabinsk. Afanasyev was named head of the department of scientific socialism at the CPSU's Academy of Social Sciences in 1960. In 1968 he was appointed deputy editor of *Pravda,* where he remained except for his brief stint at *Kommunist.* He was elected corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. in 1972 and made a member of the CPSU Central Committee in 1976. During his years at *Pravda,* Afanasyev, a close associate of Soviet Pres. Leonid Brezhnev and a dedicated communist, built the party newspaper into a powerful and well-respected hard-line publication. In the 1970s readership reportedly reached some 10 million, but it began to decline under Pres. Mikhail Gorbachev's glasnost policies in the late 1980s. In 1989 Afanasyev was removed from his post and given a sinecure at the Academy of Sciences.

Akesson, Birgit

Swedish dancer and choreographer (b. March 24, 1908, Malmö, Swed.—d. March 24, 2001, Stockholm, Swed.), sought to replace conventional expressionistic modern dance techniques with a new idiom of dance as pure nonrepresentational form. As a dancer she created stark solos that relied on slow movement and almost sculptural abstract shapes, often performed without music. In 1963 she founded the Choreographic Institute in Stockholm (later the State Dance School), where she headed the choreography department after her retirement as a dancer in 1965. Akesson, who later studied dance forms in Africa and East Asia, was awarded the title of professor by the Swedish government in 1992.

Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud

The surprise winner of Iran's presidential elections in June 2005 was Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who commanded the support of hard-line conservatives in the country. Despite having served as mayor of Tehran since 2003, Ahmadinejad was largely viewed as a political outsider when he announced his candidacy for president, and opinion polls put his support at about 7% prior to the first round of elections. Through a massive nationwide mobilization of supporters, however, Ahmadinejad managed to secure some 19.5% of the votes in that round, which propelled him into the second round of balloting, in which he handily defeated his moderate rival, former president Hashemi Rafsanjani. Ahmadinejad took office on August 3, when Supreme Leader Ayatollah Sayyed Ali Khamenei officially confirmed him as president. Ahmadinejad, the son of a blacksmith, was born on Oct. 28, 1956, in Garmsar, Iran. He grew up in Tehran, where in 1976 he entered the Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST) to study civil engineering. During the Iranian Revolution (1978-79), he was one of the student leaders who organized demonstrations. After the revolution, like many of his peers, he joined the Revolutionary Guards, a religious militia group formed by Ayatollah Khomeini. Parallel to his service with the Revolutionary Guards in the 1980-90 Iran-Iraq War, he continued his studies at IUST, eventually earning a Ph.D. in transportation engineering and planning. Following the war he served in various positions until 1993, when he was appointed governor of the newly established Ardabil province. After his term as governor ended in 1997, he returned to IUST as a lecturer. For the average Iranian, Ahmadinejad was an unknown figure until he became mayor of Tehran in 2003. Earlier he had helped establish a political party known as the Abadgaran (Developers of Islamic Iran), which promoted a populist agenda and sought to unite conservative factions in the country. The party gained momentum and captured the Tehran city council elections in February 2003. The city council chose Ahmadinejad to be mayor the following May. The Abadgaran also won a majority of seats in the 2004 parliamentary elections. As mayor of the capital city, Ahmadinejad was credited with solving traffic problems and keeping prices down. He presented himself as a man of the people—an image he continued to cultivate as president as he focused on such issues as poverty and social justice. His first months in office were characterized by internal challenges brought about by a sweeping changing of the guard in all key positions. On the foreign policy front, Ahmadinejad struck an immediate defiant chord, defending Iran's controversial nuclear program and discouraging talk of reestablishing formal ties with the U.S., which had been broken in 1979. He also prompted international condemnation with comments on Israel. In an October speech, he quoted Khomeini's declaration that Israel "must be eliminated from the pages of history" and added, "This sentence is very wise." Two months later he called the Holocaust a "myth" and suggested that Israel be moved to Europe. Editor

aerobe

an organism able to live and reproduce only in the presence of free oxygen (*e.g*., certain bacteria and certain yeasts). Organisms that grow in the absence of free oxygen are termed anaerobes; those that grow only in the absence of oxygen are [obligate], or strict, anaerobes. Some species, called [facultative anaerobes], are able to grow either with or without free oxygen. Certain others, able to grow best in the presence of low amounts of oxygen, are called microaerophiles.

Aequi

ancient people of Italy originally inhabiting the region watered by the tributaries of the Avens River (modern Velino). Long hostile to Rome, they became especially menacing in the 5th century BC, advancing to the Alban Hills. Although repulsed by the Romans in 431, the Aequi were not completely subdued by Rome until the end of the Second Samnite War (304 BC), when they received *civitas sine suffragio* ("citizenship without voting rights"). The establishment of the Latin colony of Carsioli (302 BC) and the extension of the Via Valeria through the territory of the Aequi aided the rapid Romanization of that people.

African spiny mouse (genus Acomys)

any of more than a dozen species of small to medium-sized [rodents] characterized by the harsh, inflexible spiny hairs of their upperparts. African spiny mice have large eyes and ears and scaly, nearly bald tails that are shorter than or about as long as the body. The tail is brittle and breaks off readily either as a whole or in part. The []golden spiny mouse (*Acomys russatus*), found from Egypt to Saudi Arabia, is one of the largest, with a body up to 25 cm (9.8 inches) long and a shorter tail of up to 7 cm. The []Cape spiny mouse (*A. subspinosus*) of South Africa is one of the smallest, with a body up to 10 cm long and a tail of less than 2 cm. Depending upon the species, fur covering the upperparts may be gray, grayish yellow, brownish red, or reddish. Black (melanistic) individuals occur in populations of the golden spiny mouse and the []Cairo spiny mouse (*A. cahirinus*). African spiny mice are omnivorous, though plant materials form the bulk of their diet. In Egypt some Cairo spiny mice eat mostly dates, but others have been reported to consume the dried flesh and bone marrow of mummies in the tombs of Gebel Drunka, southwest of [Asyut]. All species are ground dwellers, and most are nocturnal, some being more active during early morning and evening. The golden spiny mouse is diurnal and occupies the same habitat as the Cairo spiny mouse, which is its nocturnal counterpart—the two species exploit the same food resources but at different times. Females of certain species will assist mothers during birth by biting the umbilical cord and licking and cleaning the newborn mice. African spiny mice range through the northern, eastern, and southern regions of Africa eastward through southwestern Asia and southern Pakistan to the Indus River. They are also found in southern Turkey and on the islands of Cyprus and Crete. Living in rocky, partially vegetated deserts, savannas, and dry woodlands, they den in rock crevices, termite mounds, or other rodents' burrows. The Cairo spiny mouse has the most extensive distribution, extending from northern Africa to the Indus River; it lives near or with humans in some parts of its range. The most restricted is *[]A. cilicicus*, which is known only from a single locality in southern Turkey. Different authorities classify African spiny mice into as few as 14 species and as many as 19. The genus was once grouped with other Old World rats and mice of the subfamily Murinae in the family [Muridae], but analyses of dental and molecular data suggest that the African spiny mice form a distinctive and separate subfamily, Acomyinae. Other African rodents proved to be close relatives of African spiny mice and were also reclassified in this subfamily; these are []Rudd's mouse (*Uranomys ruddi*), the []Congo forest mouse (*Deomys ferrugineus*), and []brush-furred rats (genus *Lophuromys*).

Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī

born 1722?, Multān, Punjab died Oct. 16, -23?, 1772, Toba Maʿrūf, Afg. founder of the state of Afghanistan and ruler of an empire that extended from the Amu Darya to the Indian Ocean and from Khorāsān into Kashmir, the Punjab, and Sind. Head of the central government, with full control of all departments of state in domestic and foreign affairs, both civil and military, the shāh was assisted by a prime minister and a council of nine life-term advisers that he selected from the chiefs of the leading Afghan tribes. A member of the noble Sadōzai clan and the second son of Moḥammad Zamān Khān, a hereditary chief of the Abdālī tribe of Afghans, Aḥmad rose to command an Abdālī cavalry group under Nāder Shāh of Persia, and, on Nāder Shāh's assassination, the Afghan chiefs elected Aḥmad as shāh. He was crowned in 1747 near Qandahār, where coins were struck in his name and where he set up his capital. Embarking on the conquest of regions held by ineffectual rulers, he invaded India nine times between 1747 and 1769, supposedly with no intention of founding an empire there. After an unopposed march to Delhi in 1757, he plundered that city, Āgra, Mathura, and Vṛndāvana. Before an outbreak of cholera among his troops forced his return to Afghanistan, Aḥmad married Ḥazrat Baygam, daughter of the Indian Mughal emperor Muḥammad Shāh. His son [Tīmūr] remained behind as viceroy of the Punjab and married the daughter of India's puppet emperor ʿĀlamgīr II. Tīmūr was driven out in 1758 by a force of Sikhs, Mughals, and Marāthās, but in 1759-61 Aḥmad Shāh swept the Marāthās from the Punjab and destroyed their large army at Pānīpat, north of Delhi. In the 1760s he attempted four times to crush the Sikhs, but his empire was restive with serious revolts nearer home, and he lost control of the Punjab to them. He is buried in a mausoleum in Aḥmad Shāhī, the new capital he built.

Alberoni, Giulio

born May 21, 1664, Piacenza, duchy of Parma [Italy] died June 16, 1752, Piacenza [![Photograph:Alberoni, detail of an engraving by Weber]] - Alberoni, detail of an engraving by Weber statesman who as de facto premier of [Spain] (1716-19) played a major role in the revival of that nation after the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14). The son of a gardener, Alberoni was educated by the Jesuits, took holy orders, and in 1698 was appointed a canon at Parma, in Italy. In 1702 the government of Parma sent him on a diplomatic mission to Louis-Joseph, Duke de Vendôme, commander of French forces in Italy during the War of the Spanish Succession. Taken by Vendôme to France as secretary in 1706 and to Spain (1711), he nevertheless continued as an agent of Parma. After Vendôme's death (1712), Alberoni remained in Madrid, becoming the official representative of Parma the following year. He negotiated the marriage of Philip V of Spain to Elizabeth (Isabella) Farnese, daughter of the Duke of Parma. His influence at the Spanish court increased steadily, and by 1716 he was exercising the powers of a premier.

Albee, Edward Franklin

born Oct. 8, 1857, Machias, Maine, U.S. died March 11, 1930, Palm Beach, Fla. theatrical manager who, as the general manager of the []Keith-Albee theatre circuit, was the most influential person in vaudeville in the United States. A circus ticket seller when he joined Benjamin Franklin Keith in 1885 to establish the Boston Bijou Theatre, he was responsible for the expansion of the Keith-Albee vaudeville circuit. By the 1920s it controlled nearly 400 theatres in the East and Midwest. Albee was president of the United Bookings Office from its formation in 1900. In 1916 he organized a union, the []National Vaudeville Artists, thus gaining a near monopoly on both talent and production in U.S. vaudeville. Albee dominated vaudeville until 1928, when RKO, a film company, absorbed his circuit in order to acquire the theatres. His adopted grandson, and namesake, was an American playwright.

Africa's Struggle Against AIDS

by Elizabeth Pisani [![Map/Still]] Sub-Saharan [Africa] will move into the 21st century carrying the crippling burden of AIDS, a disease that is slashing life expectancy, shattering families, pushing industries to the brink of bankruptcy, and creating a generation of orphans. This disease was by far the leading cause of death among adults in much of the continent at the end of 1999, and yet it was virtually unknown just two decades ago. A full 70% of the 33.6 million people in the world currently estimated to be living with the virus—HIV—that causes AIDS live in African countries south of the Sahara, a region that accounts for just 10% of the world's population. A year's course of existing life-prolonging therapies for a single person costs 20 times the average per capita income for the region. Without such therapies most of those currently infected will die within the next 10 years. They will join the 14 million Africans who have already died of HIV-related illnesses, according to estimates made at the end of 1999 by the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS and the World Health Organization. They will doubtless be joined in turn by millions more—some 9,400 people in Africa were estimated to have become newly infected with the fatal virus every day of 1999. These estimates are derived largely from the anonymous testing of blood taken from pregnant women during regular antenatal visits and from epidemiological models based on what is known about the transmission and progression of the virus. Early attempts to measure the size of the epidemic by calculating backwards from registered AIDS cases and deaths foundered because of confusion over what constitutes an AIDS case, a lack of diagnostic facilities, reluctance to report AIDS as a cause of death because of the stigma associated with the disease, and poor health reporting systems. Explanations for the rapid spread of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa remain politically controversial, even though the expansion of the epidemic itself has been well documented. It is known that it is easier both to contract and to pass on the virus if a person is also suffering from another sexually transmitted disease (STD). Prevalence of other STDs is high in much of the continent, and poor access to health facilities means they are less likely to be promptly treated and cured than in richer parts of the world. Condom use in most countries is low, especially within marriage. High fertility and near-universal breast-feeding contribute to the transmission of HIV from mothers to children in Africa—nearly half a million children are born with HIV in Africa each year, compared with 70,000 in the rest of the world. Large studies of sexual behaviour also suggest that sexual activity begins very young, with high proportions of both men and women having premarital partners, and that extramarital sex is common, especially among men.

Akron

city, seat (1842) of Summit county, northeastern [Ohio], U.S. It lies along the Cuyahoga River, about 40 miles (64 km) south-southeast of Cleveland. Akron is the centre of a metropolitan area that includes the cities of Cuyahoga Falls, Tallmadge, and Stow and several villages. At 1,081 feet (329 metres) above sea level, it was named for its "high place" (Greek: *akros*) on the watershed between the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes. Laid out in 1825 by Gen. Simon Perkins, commissioner of the Ohio Canal Fund, the town was assured substantial growth by the completion of the [Ohio and Erie Canal] in 1827 and of the []Pennsylvania and Ohio Canal in 1840, linking it with Pittsburgh. Waterpower and transportation supplied by these canals led to Akron's early development as an industrial centre. The abundant water supply and the arrival of the railroads prompted Benjamin F. Goodrich to move a small [][rubber] factory to the site in 1871. This industry rapidly expanded with the advent of the automobile and the demand for rubber tires. Between 1910 and 1920 the city's population tripled to more than 200,000, and Akron became known as the "rubber capital of the world" and the international or American headquarters of the far-flung giants of the rubber industry—Firestone, General Tire, Goodrich, and Goodyear; by the late 20th century, however, only Goodyear remained. The city's manufactures are now well diversified and, apart from a wide variety of polymer and plastic products, include farm machinery, automotive parts, toys, power-generating equipment, and chemicals. The city has largely shifted away from a manufacturing economy, however, while the service and trade sectors have grown. In the late 20th century some manufacturing plants and downtown stores were closed, but by the late 1990s several large-scale projects had succeeded in stimulating a revitalization of the downtown area. The hangar at the city's airport is the site of the Goodyear Wingfoot Lake Airship Base (for [][airships] [blimps]). This hangar is one of the world's largest buildings without interior supports. Akron is an important truck terminal and distribution point between the eastern seaboard and the Midwest. More than 6,000 acres (2,400 hectares) in the city are occupied by parks, and surrounding lakes and reservoirs and several golf courses afford recreation facilities; the southern limit of Cuyahoga Valley National Park is just north of the city. The World Series of Golf, played in Akron, is an annual professional tournament. Nearby Derby Downs is the site of the annual All-American Soap Box Derby for homemade gravity-powered cars. The city's cultural centres include the Akron Art Museum and the Stan Hywet Hall and Gardens (with antiques dating from the 14th century). The construction of a new convention centre (1994), the National Inventors Hall of Fame (1995), and a new stadium for the minor-league baseball Aeros all contributed to a downtown renaissance in the late 1990s. The University of Akron was founded in 1870 as Buchtel College; the Akron Symphony Orchestra performs in E.J. Thomas Hall on the university campus. Inc. village, 1836; city, 1865. Pop. (2000) city, 217,074; Akron MSA, 694,960; (2005 est.) city, 210,795; Akron MSA, 702,235.

Aegilops

genus of grasses (order Cyperales) that has become an agricultural contaminant. Members of the genus grow with wheat, mature at the same time, and, unless care is taken, are harvested along with it. One *Aegilops* species was an ancestor of bread wheat. Its origin was in southeastern Turkey, northern Iraq, and western Iran.

Akan states

historical complex of gold-producing forest states in western Africa lying between the [Comoé] and [Volta] rivers (in an area roughly corresponding to the coastal lands of the modern republics of Togo, Ghana, and, in part, Côte d'Ivoire). Their economic, political, and social systems were transformed from the 16th to the 18th century by trade with Europeans on the coast. Of the northern Akan (or Brong) states the earliest (established c. 1450) was [][Bono]; of the southern the most important were [][Denkyera], [][Akwamu], [][Fante (Fanti)]#9033708.toc), and [][Asante].

Alaskan brown bear

race or subspecies of [grizzly bear] (*q.v.*).

Albania, flag of

![flag]\ national flag consisting of a red field (background) with a black two-headed eagle in its centre. Its width-to-length ratio is 5 to 7. On November 28, 1443, the national hero of [][Albania], a prince known as [][Skanderbeg (George Kastrioti)]#9068069.toc), raised his flag over the fortress of Krujë in defiance of the Turks who ruled the country. His small mountainous nation was able to resist the forces of the Ottoman Empire, although after Skanderbeg's death in 1468 independence was lost again. His flag was red and bore a black eagle, even today the symbol of Albania. Like the symbol of the Byzantine Empire to which it once belonged, Albania's eagle is double-headed. Albanian immigrants [Faik Konitsa] of Brussels and []Querim Panarity of Boston popularized Skanderbeg in the late 19th century and revived his flag as a national rallying point for Albanians at home and abroad. Independence from Ottoman rule was finally proclaimed on November 28, 1912. Since that time various Albanian regimes—republic, monarchy, fascist corporate state, and communist people's republic—have used the red flag with the double-headed black eagle. There has been no symbol over the heads of the eagle since the fall of communism. Prior to restoration of the simple flag on May 22, 1993, however, separate emblems (a star, a cross, a crown, etc.) had identified the different governments. [Whitney Smith]

Albee, Edward

*in full **Edward Franklin Albee** * born March 12, 1928, Washington, D.C., U.S. American dramatist and theatrical producer best-known for his play *[]Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?* (1962), which displays slashing insight and witty dialogue in its gruesome portrayal of married life. Albee was the adopted child of a father who had for a time been the assistant general manager of a chain of vaudeville theatres then partially owned by the Albee family. At the time of Albee's adoption, though, both his parents were involved with owning and showing saddle horses. He had a difficult relationship with his parents, particularly with his mother, whom he saw as distant and unloving. Albee grew up in New York City and nearby Westchester county. He was educated at Choate School (graduated 1946) and at Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut (1946-47). He wrote poetry and an unpublished novel but turned to plays in the late 1950s. Among Albee's early one-act plays, *The Zoo Story* (1959), *The Sandbox* (1959), and *The American Dream* (1961) were the most successful and established him as an astute critic of American values. But it is his first full-length play, *Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?* (filmed 1966), that remains his most important work. In this play a middle-aged professor, his wife, and a younger couple engage one night in an unrestrained drinking bout that is filled with malicious games, insults, humiliations, betrayals, savage witticisms, and painful, self-revealing confrontations. *Virginia Woolf* won immediate acclaim and established Albee as a major American playwright. It was followed by a number of full-length works—including *[]A Delicate Balance* (1966; winner of a Pulitzer Prize), which was based in part on his mother's witty alcoholic sister, and *[Three Tall Women]* (1994; Pulitzer Prize). The latter play deals with Albee's perceptions and feelings about his mother and is a remarkable portrait achieved by presenting the interaction of three women, who resemble each other, at different stages of life. Among his other plays are *[Tiny Alice]* (1965), which begins as a philosophical discussion between a lawyer and a cardinal; *[]Seascape* (1975; also winner of a Pulitzer Prize), a poetic exploration of evolution; and *[]The Play About the Baby* (2002), on the mysteries of birth and parenthood. In addition to writing, Albee produced a number of plays and lectured at schools throughout the country. Additional Reading {#199.toc} ------------------

Afghanistan

Introduction ------------ [![Flag]] [![Map/Still]] [![Photograph:The Blue Mosque at Mazār-e Sharīf, Afghanistan.]] - The Blue Mosque at Mazār-e Sharīf, Afghanistan. landlocked, multiethnic country located in the heart of south-central Asia. Lying along important trade routes connecting southern and eastern Asia to Europe and the Middle East, Afghanistan has long been a prize sought by empire builders, and for millennia great armies have attempted to subdue it, leaving traces of their efforts in great monuments now fallen to ruin. The country's forbidding landscape of deserts and mountains has laid many imperial ambitions to rest, as has the tireless resistance of its fiercely independent peoples—so independent that the country has failed to coalesce into a nation but has instead long endured as a patchwork of contending ethnic factions and ever-shifting alliances. The modern boundaries of Afghanistan were established in the late 19th century in the context of a rivalry between imperial Britain and tsarist Russia that Rudyard Kipling termed the "Great Game." Modern Afghanistan became a pawn in struggles over political ideology and commercial influence. In the last quarter of the 20th century, Afghanistan suffered the ruinous effects of civil war greatly exacerbated by a military invasion and occupation by the Soviet Union (1979-89). In subsequent armed struggles, a surviving Afghan [][communist] regime held out against Islamic insurgents (1989-92), and, following a brief rule by mujahideen groups, an austere movement of religious students—the [][Taliban]—rose up against the country's governing parties and warlords and established a theocratic regime (1996-2001) that soon fell under the influence of a group of well-funded Islamists led by an exiled Saudi Arabian, [][Osama bin Laden]. The Taliban regime collapsed in December 2001 in the wake of a sustained U.S.-dominated military campaign aimed at the Taliban and fighters of bin Laden's [al-Qaeda] organization. Soon thereafter, anti-Taliban forces agreed to a period of transitional leadership and an administration that would lead to a new constitution and the establishment of a democratically elected government.

Adhikari, Man Mohan

Nepalese politician who dedicated most of his adult life to the fight against the monarchy and authoritarian rule; in 1994-95 he served as Nepal's first communist prime minister for about nine months, during which he initiated a number of reforms, such as a build-your-own-village program to direct money to poor villages (b. June 1920, Lazimpat, Kathmandu, Nepal—d. April 26, 1999).

Adelaide

[![Photograph:Park lands along the Torrens River, Adelaide, South Australia]] - Park lands along the Torrens River, Adelaide, South Australia city and capital of the state of [South Australia]. Situated at the base of the Mount Lofty Ranges, 9 miles (14 km) inland from the centre of the eastern shore of the Gulf St. Vincent, it has a Mediterranean climate with hot summers (February mean temperature 74 °F [23 °C]), mild winters (July mean 54 °F [12 °C]), and an average annual rainfall of 21 inches (530 mm). The site, chosen in 1836 by William Light (the colony's first surveyor general), is on slightly rising ground along the Torrens River, which divides it into a southern business district and a northern residential section. The city is separated from its suburbs by extensive areas of parklands. Named for Queen Adelaide, consort of the British king William IV, it was incorporated as Australia's first municipal government in 1840, but the city council ran into considerable debt and became defunct in 1843. Adelaide was thereafter controlled by the provincial government until 1849, when a city commission was formed. A municipal corporation was reestablished in 1852, and the city gained a lord mayoralty in 1919. The fertility of the surrounding plains, easy access to the Murray lowlands to the east and southeast, and the presence of mineral deposits in the nearby hills all contributed to the city's growth. As an early agricultural marketing centre, it handled wheat, wool, fruits, and wine. Adelaide, aided by its central position and a ready supply of raw materials, has since become industrialized, with factories producing automobile components, machinery, textiles, and chemicals. A petroleum refinery was completed in 1962 at Hallet Cove, south of Adelaide near Port Noarlunga; a second refinery at Port Stanvac operated in the area until it was closed in 2003. Adelaide is connected by pipeline with the Gidgealpa natural-gas fields in Cooper Basin, northeastern South Australia. A focus of rail, sea, air, and road transportation, Adelaide receives the bulk of the products of the lower Murray River valley, which has no port at its mouth. Adelaide's own harbour facilities are at [Port Adelaide Enfield], 7 miles (11 km) northwest. Notable city landmarks include the University of Adelaide (founded 1874), Parliament and Government houses, the Natural History Museum, the Adelaide Zoo, and two cathedrals—St. Peter's (Anglican) and St. Francis Xavier's (Roman Catholic). The city is also home to Flinders University (1966) and the University of South Australia (1991). The biennial Adelaide Festival of Arts (1960) was the first international celebration of its kind to be held in Australia. Pop. (2006) local government area, 16,659; urban agglom., 1,105,840.

Afghanistan, flag of

![flag]\ vertically striped black-red-green national flag with a central [coat of arms]. Its width-to-length ratio is 1 to 2. Since the early 20th century, [][Afghanistan] has had numerous national flags. In 1928 [][Amānollāh Khan], having just returned from a trip to Europe, was determined to introduce modern principles into the country. He chose a tricolour of black for the dark ages of the past, red for the blood shed in the independence struggle, and green for the hope and wealth of the future. Amānollāh was soon overthrown by reactionary forces, and the old Afghan flag (a white emblem on a black field) was restored. When Moḥammad Nāder Shah came to the throne, the tricolour was resurrected and continued in use from 1929 to 1973, when the monarchy was overthrown and a republic established. [![Flag:Afghanistan national flag, 1992-2001.]] - Afghanistan national flag, 1992-2001. Under the republic the stripes were placed in a horizontal position and a new coat of arms was developed; between 1978 and 1992, however, flags reflected the ruling communist regimes. After a bitter and protracted civil war, Islamic rebels (mujahideen) overthrew the government. Their flag, adopted on December 3, 1992, contained stripes of green-white-black with a central coat of arms in gold. Muslim values were emphasized in the design of the arms and in its Arabic inscriptions, translated as "Islamic State of Afghanistan," "God is great," and "There is no deity but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God." The coat of arms also featured a mosque with a prayer niche and altar, two flags, two crossed sabres, and sheaves of wheat. The government that adopted that flag was reduced to control over only a few provinces in the north by 1997, but internationally its flag was still recognized for Afghanistan. An even more reactionary Muslim group known as the Taliban, which controlled the rest of the country, flew white flags emblazoned with Arabic inscriptions.

aide-de-camp

(French: "camp assistant"), an officer on the personal staff of a general, admiral, or other high-ranking commander who acts as his confidential secretary in routine matters. On [][Napoleon's] staff such officers were frequently of high military qualifications and acted both as his "eyes" and as interpreters of his mind to subordinate commanders, even on occasion exercising delegated authority. In modern times aides-de-camp are usually of junior rank and their duties largely social. Military, naval, and air force officers, frequently of high rank, who act as aides to chiefs of state, such as kings or presidents, are also called aides-de-camp. In many countries, the word adjutant is used for aide-de-camp and adjutant general for a royal aide-de-camp.

ālaya-vijñāna

(Sanskrit: "store of consciousness"), key concept of the Vijñānavāda ("Consciousness-affirming") school of the Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition. Since that school maintains that no external reality exists, while retaining the position that knowledge, and therefore a knowable, exists, it assumes that knowledge itself is the object of consciousness. It therefore postulates a higher storage consciousness, the final basis of the apparent individual. The universe consists in an infinite number of possible ideas that lie inactive in storage. That latent consciousness projects an interrupted sequence of thoughts, while it itself is in restless flux until the karma, or accumulated consequences of past deeds, is destroyed. That storage consciousness contains all the impressions of previous experiences (*vāsanā*s, "perfumings"), which form the germs (*bīja*) of future karmic action, an illusive force that creates categories that are in fact only fictions of the spirit. That illusive force (maya) determines the world of difference and belongs to man's nature, producing the erroneous notions of an I and a non-I. That duality is conquered only by enlightenment (bodhi), which transforms a person into a buddha.

Agrionia

(from Greek *agrios,* "wild," or "savage"), Greek religious festival celebrated annually at Orchomenus in Boeotia and elsewhere in honour of the wine god [][Dionysus]. The Greek tradition is that the daughters of []Minyas, king of Orchomenus, having despised the rites of the god, were driven mad by Dionysus and sacrificed Hippasus (son of Minyas's oldest daughter, Leucippe) to Dionysus; as punishment they were turned into bats or birds. Ovid, *Metamorphoses* Book IV, omits the murder of the child. At this festival it was originally the custom for the priest to pursue and kill a woman of the Minyan family at night.

adrenocorticotropic hormone

*(ACTH),also called **Corticotropin,** * a polypeptide hormone formed in the pituitary gland that regulates the activity of the outer region (cortex) of the adrenal glands. In mammals the action of ACTH is limited to those areas of the adrenal cortex in which the glucocorticoid hormones—cortisol and corticosterone (*see* [corticoid])—are formed. The secretion of ACTH by the pituitary is itself regulated by another polypeptide, a so-called corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), that is discharged from the hypothalamus in response to impulses transmitted by the nervous system.

Aigner, Ladislas

***"Lucien"** * Hungarian-born photojournalist whose use of the then new 35-mm Leica camera made him one of the pioneers in candid news photography in the 1930s and allowed him to capture such famous images as Albert Einstein standing before a blackboard and looking slightly rumpled (his favourite photograph of himself) and Benito Mussolini pinching his nose (b. Sept. 14, 1901, Ersekujvar, Hung., Austria-Hungary [now Nove Zamky, Czech Rep.]—d. March 29, 1999, Waltham, Mass.).

Adler, Lawrence Cecil

***"Larry"** * American musician, composer, writer, and entertainer (b. Feb. 10, 1914, Baltimore, Md.—d. Aug. 6, 2001, London, Eng.), played classical music on the harmonica, which he insisted on calling a "mouth organ"; he then enjoyed a long career as a humorist, telling stories of his encounters with celebrity friends and British royalty. Though the harmonica had previously been associated only with folk music, in his hands it became a highly versatile and expressive instrument. At age 10 Adler became the youngest cantor in Baltimore, and the following year he ordered an expensive piano, which he then persuaded his parents to accept; he also began playing the harmonica. In 1927 he won the Maryland Harmonica Championship by playing a Beethoven minuet. The next year, at 14, Adler left home for New York City and played harmonica on the streets, then in nightclubs; by age 17 he was performing with Fred Astaire in the Broadway show *Smiles.* He also appeared in small film roles and became a favourite of New York City and Hollywood stars before playing his first of many concerts with symphony orchestras in Sydney, Australia, in 1939. Adler learned music by listening and memorizing; he did not learn to read music until 1940, when French composer Jean Berger wrote a concerto for him. Among others who composed music for him were Ralph Vaughan Williams and Darius Milhaud; William Walton called him a "genius," and George Gershwin praised his performance of *Rhapsody in Blue.* A liberal who entertained American troops during World War II and the Korean War and in Israel during its 1967 and 1973 wars, Adler opposed the House Committee on Un-American Activities; as a result, he was blacklisted in the U.S., and in 1949 he moved to England, where he had long been popular. There he composed for the stage, films, and television, and he performed as a stand-up comedian-storyteller as well as musician in nightclubs, in theatres, and on the air. At age 80 Adler issued the disc *The Glory of Gershwin* with guest stars that included Elvis Costello and Elton John; it made him the oldest performer to have placed an album on the British hit record charts. In later life Adler also became a successful book, film, and restaurant critic, as well as the author of *Jokes and How to Tell Them* (1963) and the autobiography *It Ain't Necessarily So*(1984).

Ajax

***(Latin),** Greek **Aias,** byname **Ajax the Greater** * [![Photograph:Amphora with Ajax and Achilles playing a board game, painted by Exekias, 550-540 ...]] - Amphora with Ajax and Achilles playing a board game, painted by Exekias, *c.* 550-540 ... in Greek legend, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, described in the *Iliad* as being of great stature and colossal frame, second only to the Greek hero Achilles in strength and bravery. He engaged [Hector] (the chief [][Trojan] warrior) in single combat and later, with the aid of the goddess Athena, rescued the body of [Achilles] from the hands of the Trojans. He competed with the Greek hero [Odysseus] for the armour of Achilles but lost, which so enraged him that it caused his death. According to a later story Ajax' disappointment drove him mad. On coming to his senses he slew himself with the sword that he had received as a present from Hector. The legend has it that from his blood sprang a red flower that bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name, AI, letters that are also expressive of lament. Ajax was the tutelary hero of the island of [][Salamis], where he had a temple and an image and where a festival called []Aianteia was celebrated in his honour.

Ahvāz

*Arabic **Ahwāz,** * town, southwestern Iran. Ahvāz is situated on both banks of the Kārūn River where it crosses a low range of sandstone hills. The town has been identified with Achaemenid []Tareiana, a river crossing on the royal road connecting Susa, Persepolis, and Pasargadae. [][Ardashīr I], the Sāsānian king (224-241) who rebuilt the town, named it Hormuzd Ardashīr. He dammed the river, providing irrigation water, and the town prospered. When the Muslim Arabs conquered it in the 7th century, they renamed it Sūq al-Ahwāz ("Market of the []Hūzī"). Ahwāz is the plural of Hūzī, or Khūzī, a local warlike tribe that gave its name to the historical region of Khūzestān. Arab historians of the 12th century described Ahwāz as the centre of a large sugarcane and rice-growing area irrigated by a system of great canals from a dam constructed across the river on solid rock. Ahvāz had begun to decline in the 19th century when the dam collapsed and nearly destroyed the town. The discovery of oil in Khūzestān in the 20th century brought new prosperity to Ahvāz, however. Because of its location near the border with Iraq, Ahvāz was heavily bombarded during the Iran-Iraq War (1980-90). Nonetheless a steel complex west of the town began operating in 1989. Ahvāz is a junction of two branches of the Trans-Iranian Railway. It is also connected with Ābādān, Khorramshahr, Shūshtar, Dezfūl, and the oil fields by road and with Tehrān by air. Shahid Chamran University (1955; formerly Jundi Shapūr University is located there. Pop. (1991) 724,653.

Aix-Marseille I, II, and III, Universities of

*French **Universités D'aix-marseille I, Ii, Et Iii,** * coeducational, state-financed, autonomous institutions of higher learning at Aix-en-Provence and Marseille, founded under France's 1968 Orientation Act, reforming higher education. The institutions developed out of the original University of Provence, founded in 1409 as a *studium generale* by Louis II of Provence and recognized by papal bull in 1413. From the 15th to the 18th century it developed as an institution of classical learning, liberal arts, theology, law, and medicine. It was suppressed during the French Revolution, reestablished in Aix and Marseille, and came to be known as Aix-Marseille. In 1896 Aix-Marseille became one of 17 self-governing regional universities financed by the state. Under the Orientation Act of 1968, Aix-Marseille was divided into three institutions, each with independent units of teaching and research. The University of Provence (Aix-Marseille I) is primarily a school of languages and letters. It has an observatory and a centre for tele-education. The University of Aix-Marseille (Aix-Marseille II) is primarily a school of medicine and sciences. The University of Law, Economics and Science (Aix-Marseille III) was added in 1973 in a restructuring of Aix-Marseille I and II.

Albano, Lake

*Italian **Lago Albano,** * crater lake in the Alban Hills (Colli Albani), southeast of Rome. Elliptical in shape, formed by the fusion of two ancient volcanic craters, it lies 961 feet (293 m) above sea level and has an area of 2 square miles (5 square km) and a maximum depth of 558 feet (170 m). It is fed by underground sources and drained by an artificial outlet, reputedly built in 398-397 BC because the oracle at Delphi said that the Etruscan stronghold of Veii could be taken only when the waters of the lake reached the sea. Among the lakeside towns, the best known are the resorts of Albano Laziale and Castel Gandolfo, the papal summer residence.

Adriatic Sea

*Italian **Mare Adriatico** * arm of the Mediterranean Sea, lying between the Italian and Balkan peninsulas. The []Strait of Otranto at its southeasterly limit links it with the Ionian Sea. It is about 500 mi (800 km) long with an average width of 100 mi, a maximum depth of 4,035 ft (1,324 m), and an area of 50,590 sq mi (131,050 sq km). The Adriatic has been of great importance in the historical development of Mediterranean Europe and is of considerable scientific interest in itself. Modern study of the Adriatic has been carried out mainly under the auspices of several Italian and [][Balkan] scientific institutes. There is a striking contrast between its two shores. The Italian coast is relatively straight and continuous, having no islands, whereas the Balkan coast is full of both large and small islands, generally oblong in shape and running parallel to the continental shore. Many tortuous straits also form inlets between the islands similar to those of the Norwegian fjords and make the coastline very intricate. The depths of the Adriatic near its shores bear a close relationship to the physiography of the adjacent coasts. Wherever such coasts are high and mountainous, the nearby sea depths are considerable, as in the case of the Istrian and Dalmatian areas of Slovenia and Croatia. Where low and sandy shores are found, the nearby sea is shallow, as in the vicinity of Venice or, farther south, near the delta of the Italian Po River. Generally speaking, the waters are shallow all along the Italian coast. The site of maximum depth of the Adriatic Sea is situated south of the central area; average depth is 1,457 ft (444 m).

A-kuei

*Pinyin **Agui** * born Sept. 7, 1717, China died Oct. 10, 1797, Peking general and official during the middle years of the Ch'ing dynasty. The scion of a noble family, A-kuei directed Chinese military expeditions that quelled uprisings in the western provinces of Szechwan and Kansu. He also conquered Ili and Chinese Turkistan, areas on China's northwestern frontier that are today part of the Uighur Autonomous Region of Sinkiang. In addition, he helped subjugate Myanmar (Burma), making it a Chinese tributary state, and directed the campaign to stabilize China's position on the recently conquered island of Taiwan. He was one of the emperor's most trusted ministers, and he served until his 80th year as a senior member of the government's administrative cabinets, the Grand Council and the Grand Secretariat.

Aegina

*Modern Greek **Aíyina** * island, one of the largest in the Saronic group of Greece, about 16 miles (26 km) south-southwest of [Piraeus]. With an area of about 32 square miles (83 square km), it is an *eparkhía* (eparchy) of the *nomós* (department) of Piraeus. The northern plains and hills are cultivated with vines and olive, fig, almond, and pistachio trees, while along the east coast stretches a ridge of light volcanic rock known as trachyte. The highest point is conical []Mount Áyios Ilías (ancient Mount Pan Hellenion), at 1,745 feet (532 metres). On the west coast the chief town and port, [Aegina], lies over part of the ancient town of the same name. Inhabited since Neolithic times (*c.* 3000 BC), the island became a leading maritime power after the 7th century BC because of its strategic position, and its silver coins became currency in most of the Dorian states. Aegina's economic rivalry with Athens led to wars and to its close collaboration with Persia, but at the [][Battle of Salamis] (480 BC) the island sided with [Athens] and prevailed. The conspicuous bravery of the tiny Aeginetan contingent (only about 40 ships) was recognized by a prize for valour. Hostility with Athens was later resumed, and at the beginning of the [Peloponnesian War] the Athenians deported all of Aegina's population and replaced them with Athenian settlers (431 BC). The Spartans settled the refugees in the region of Thyreatis in northern Laconia. The remnants were allowed to return from exile in 404 BC after the defeat of Athens, but Aegina never recovered from the blow. It fell with the rest of Greece to Macedon and then to the Romans in 133 BC. It regained some prosperity under Venice (1451) but was eclipsed by a pirate raid in 1537. From that time, except for another Venetian interlude, the island remained in Turkish hands until 1826, by which time it was again a modestly successful commercial centre. It was chosen as the temporary capital of independent Greece (1826-28), but afterward the increasing concentration of business in Athens forced a gradual decay. Today it is a holiday and weekend resort for Athenians, and the ancient pottery trade is still carried on. Aegina's period of glory was the 5th century BC, as reflected by the legacy of sculpture and the poetry of [Pindar]. A well-preserved 5th-century-BC []temple to [Aphaea], the ancient Aeginetan deity related to the Cretan Britomartis (Artemis), is situated on a wooded crest in the east of the island. Its Doric peripheral construction (having columns surrounding the building) of local gray limestone has been partially restored.

Åland Islands

*Swedish **Åland Skärgård,** Finnish **Ahvenanmaa,** * archipelago constituting Åland (Ahvenanmaa) autonomous territory, southwestern [Finland]. The islands lie at the entrance to the Gulf of Bothnia, 25 miles (40 km) east of the Swedish coast, at the eastern edge of the Åland Sea. The archipelago has a land area of 599 square miles (1,551 square km) and consists of about 35 inhabited islands, 6,500 uninhabited islands, and many rocky reefs. The bedrock is primarily granite and covered with a soil that, though mainly clay, is rich in certain areas. Åland, the largest island in the group, accounts for more than 70 percent of the total land area and is known locally as Fasta Åland ("Main Island"). It consists of rugged granite to the north and rich agricultural soil to the southeast. Eckerö and Lemland are the next largest islands. Åland is home to about 90 percent of the archipelago's population and is the site of [Mariehamn], the administrative capital, chief seaport, and only town. Also located on Åland is Orrdals Hill, the highest point of the archipelago, rising to a height of 423 feet (129 metres). From the 19th century until World War II, Mariehamn served as the centre of a sailing fleet engaged in grain trade with Australia. Few of these ships still operate, though the colourful history of the fleet is reflected in an excellent maritime museum. Fishing, which originally brought settlement to coastal areas unsuited to agriculture, is a declining source of income. The archipelago has the highest crop yields in Finland per unit area because of the mild climate and fertile soil. Small, highly mechanized farms produce wheat, oats, barley, rye, cucumbers, sugar beets, potatoes, and onions. The climate also favours apple, plum, and pear orchards. Ayrshire cattle dominate the dairy farms, and sheep are also raised. Tourism, shipping, and commerce and banking account for much of the nonagricultural employment. The islands are linked to Sweden and the Finnish mainland by car and passenger ferries, steamship service, and air service from Mariehamn airport. The islands' tourist industry has expanded greatly in recent decades, with most visitors arriving by ferry from neighbouring Finland or Sweden. The islands' inhabitants speak [][Swedish], which is the sole official language and the language of instruction in schools.

Aistis, Jonas

*also called **Jonas Kossu-aleksandravičius** , or **Jonas Kuosa-aleksandriškis** , pseudonym of **Jonas Aleksandravičius** * born July 7, 1904, Kampiškės, near Kaunas, Lithuania, Russian Empire died June 13, 1973, Washington, D.C., U.S. poet whose lyrics are considered among the best in Lithuanian literature and who was the first modern Lithuanian poet to turn to personal expression. Aistis studied literature at the University of Kaunas and in 1936 went to France to study French literature at the University of Grenoble, receiving his doctorate in 1944. Because of the Soviet occupation, he did not return to Lithuania but went in 1946 to the United States, where, in 1958, he joined the staff of the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Admiral's Men

*also called **Lord Admiral's Men,** * a theatrical company in Elizabethan and Jacobean England. About 1576-79 they were known as Lord Howard's Men, so called after their patron Charles Howard, 1st earl of Nottingham, 2nd Baron Howard of Effingham. In 1585, when Lord Howard became England's lord high admiral, the company changed its designation to the Admiral's Men. It was later known successively as Nottingham's Men, Prince Henry's Men, and the Elector Palatinate's (Palsgrave's) Men. The chief actor of the Admiral's Men was [][Edward Alleyn]; their manager and effectively their employer until his death in 1616 was [][Philip Henslowe] (*q.v.*), whose *Diary,* covering the years 1592 to 1603, documents the Elizabethan theatre and its organization. The company was closely associated with [][Christopher Marlowe] and performed several of his works, including *Tamburlaine* and *Faustus.* In addition, the Admiral's Men were the first to produce [George Chapman]'s plays, and they staged the first known London comedy, William Haughton's *Englishmen for My Money* (1598). Once considered the premier Elizabethan theatrical company, the Admiral's Men began to decline with the rise of the Chamberlain's Men and the subsequent retirement of Alleyn in 1603. By 1631 the company had disbanded.

Akselrod, Pavel Borisovich

*also called **Paul Axelrod** * born August 25, 1850?, Chernigov?, Ukraine, Russian Empire [now Chernihiv, Ukraine] died 1928, Berlin, Germany Marxist theorist, a prominent member of the first [Russian Social-Democratic Workers'Party], and one of the leaders of the reformist wing of Russian [social democracy], known after 1903 as the [Mensheviks]. Akselrod participated in the [Narodnik] (populist) movement during the 1870s and formed the revolutionary splinter group Black Repartition with [Georgy Plekhanov] in 1879. Later traveling to western Europe, he became a Marxist and a founder of the Liberation of Labour (1883), the first organization committed to spreading [Marxism] in Russia. He also joined the editorial board of the Marxist newspaper *Iskra* (1900; "The Spark"). He adopted Menshevism at the Second Congress of Russian Social Democrats (1903), and for the next 15 years he was the leading ideologist of the [][Mensheviks]. Akselrod called for Russian Marxists to abandon violent revolutionary activities and instead to concentrate their efforts on labour organizing and parliamentary work in the social democratic tradition of western Europe. Akselrod opposed [Bolshevik] leader [Vladimir Lenin]'s strategy of organizing a highly centralized Marxist political party led by professional revolutionaries, and he predicted that, if such a party were to gain power in Russia, it would simply replace the despotism of the autocratic [tsar] with its own form of despotism.

African horse sickness (AHS)

*also called **equine plague** * disease of Equidae (horses, mules, donkeys, and zebras) caused by an orbivirus called AHSV (family Reoviridae) that is transmitted by arthropods, notably biting midges (*Culicoides imicola*). The disease, which is not usually fatal to indigenous zebra herds, is often fatal in horses. Dogs have also been fatally infected after eating virally contaminated horse meat. Signs of the disease occur within 10 days of viral invasion and include three main forms—pulmonary, cardiac, and fever—and usually edema. The acute, or pulmonary, form results in severe pulmonary edema and death. The subacute form affects the heart and causes widespread subcutaneous edema and often heart failure. The fever form, in which fever is the sole symptom, is usually mild. The disease persists in southern and equatorial Africa, and outbreaks have also occurred in the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, and parts of the Middle East. There is no cure for the disease, but annual vaccination provides immunity.

Adrian I

*also known as **Hadrian I** * born , Rome [Italy] died Dec. 25, 795 pope from 772 to 795 whose close relationship with the emperor [][Charlemagne] symbolized the medieval ideal of union of church and state in a united Christendom. Having been born an aristocrat and having served Popes Paul I and Stephen III (IV), he was elected pope on February 1 with the support of the Frankish party at Rome. As pope, Adrian invoked Frankish aid against the Lombard king Desiderius, who had attacked the papal possessions and was threatening Rome. By Easter 774, Charlemagne was in Rome, having destroyed the Lombard kingdom. Thenceforth, Adrian's policies were determined by the Frankish alliance rather than by relations with the Byzantine emperors of Constantinople.

ʿAkko

*also spelled **Acre** , or **ʿAkkā** * [![Photograph:Great Mosque of al-Jazzār, built in 1781, ʿAkko, Israel]] - Great Mosque of al-Jazzār, built in 1781, ʿAkko, Israel city, northwest Israel. It lies along the Mediterranean Sea, at the north end of the Bay of Haifa (formerly Bay of Acre). Its natural harbour was a frequent target for Palestine's many invaders over the centuries. The earliest mention of ʿAkko is in an Egyptian text dating from the 19th century BC. The Bible (Judges 1) states that the city did not fall to the Jews under Joshua and his successors; the Canaanites and Phoenicians, Semitic peoples of Palestine and the Levant coast, long held the site. Later it was conquered by Alexander the Great (336 BC) and by the Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus (reigned 285-246 BC), who renamed the city Ptolemais. ʿAkko was a principal base of the Romans when they suppressed the Jewish revolt of AD 66-70. Later conquerors include the Persians (614), the Arabs (638), and the crusaders (1104), who named the city St. Jean d'Acre and made it their last capital. Its capture in 1291 by the Mamlūk sultan al-Ashraf Khalil (reigned 1290-93) marked the end of crusader rule in the Holy Land. From 1516 to 1918 ʿAkko was, except for brief intervals, under the rule of the Ottoman Turks. In 1918 it was taken by British forces and subsequently became a part of Palestine under British mandate (1922).

Adwa

*also spelled **Adowa** , Italian **Adua** * town, northern Ethiopia. Adwa lies on the east-west highway between Aksum and Adi Grat at its junction with the road north to Asmara (Asmera), in Eritrea. Adwa is a market centre (grains, honey, hides, coffee) for the Tigray people. The town is located 10 miles (16 km) west of an area of fantastic volcanic formations. On March 1, 1896, Emperor Menilek II defeated an Italian force there. Nearby are the ruins of []Fremona, headquarters for the Portuguese Jesuits who came to Ethiopia in the 16th and 17th centuries. Pop. (1994) 24,519.

Aethelweard

*also spelled **Ethelwerd** * died 998? English chronicler and likely ealderman of the western provinces (probably the whole of Wessex), a descendant of King Alfred's brother Aethelred. He wrote, in elaborate and peculiar Latin, a chronicle for his continental kinswoman, Matilda, abbess of Essen. In the printed version of the text, the chronicle stops in 975, but fragments of the burned manuscript show that it continued into the reign of Aethelred (978-1016). Up to 894 it is based on a version, fuller than any now surviving, of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; thereafter it is an independent authority. Aethelweard was the patron of Aelfric the homilist. The last certain mention of him is in 998. His major work was edited as *The Chronicle of Aethelweard* by A. Campbell (1962).

Ahaggar

*also spelled **Hoggar,** * large plateau in the north centre of the Sahara, on the Tropic of Cancer, North Africa. Its height is above 3,000 feet (900 m), culminating in []Mount Tahat (9,573 feet [2,918 m]) in southeastern Algeria. The plateau, about 965 miles (1,550 km) north to south and 1,300 miles (2,100 km) east to west, is rocky desert composed of black volcanic (basalt) necks and of flows rising above a pink granite massif. The main caravan route to Kano in northern Nigeria passes along the plateau's western margin through the important oasis town of Tamanrasset, Alg., which is about 1,200 miles (1,900 km) south of Algiers. Natural-gas deposits have been found northwest of the plateau.

Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University

*byname **Alabama A&M University** * public, coeducational institution of higher learning in Normal, [Alabama], U.S., a historically black school. The university comprises the schools of Graduate Studies and Extended Education, Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Arts and Sciences, Business, Education, and Engineering and Technology. It offers a range of bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degree programs. University College provides services for new students. Research facilities include the Center of Excellence in Nonlinear Optics and Nonlinear Optical Materials, Howard J. Foster Center for Irradiation of Materials, and the Center for Forestry and Ecology. The university is the home of the State Black Archives, Research Center and Museum, which collects materials on African American history and culture. Total enrollment is more than 5,000. The university was founded in 1875 in [Huntsville] as the Huntsville Normal School. In 1891 the school moved to the Normal campus, was designated a [land-grant] school for African Americans, and was renamed State Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes. The college was re-formed as a junior college in 1919 and became a four-year college in 1939. Its name was changed to Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical College in 1948, and it was granted university status in 1969.

Adler, Larry

*byname of **Lawrence Cecil Adler** * born February 10, 1914, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. died August 7, 2001, London, England [![Photograph:Larry Adler, 1935.]] - Larry Adler, *c.* 1935. American [][harmonica] player generally considered to be responsible for the elevation of the mouth organ to concert status in the world of classical music.

Agate, James

*in full **James Evershed Agate** * born Sept. 9, 1877, Pendleton, Lancashire, Eng. died June 6, 1947, London English drama critic for the London *Sunday Times* (1923-47), book reviewer for the *Daily Express,* novelist, essayist, diarist, and raconteur. He is remembered for his wit and perverse yet lovable personality, the sparkle and fundamental seriousness of his dramatic criticism, and his racy, entertaining diary, called, characteristically, *Ego*, 9 vol. (1932-47). Educated at the Giggleswick and Manchester grammar schools, Agate went to London to become a journalist, working as drama critic for several papers. During World War I he served as an army officer. Between 1917, when, as he said, he "stormed London" with a lively account of an uneventful war, and 1949, 44 volumes of his drama, book, and film reviews, essays, novels, and surveys of the contemporary theatre for 1923-26 and 1944-45 had been published, not counting the nine volumes of *Ego*. He was perhaps one of the last of a long line of English dramatic critics to take for granted his position as arbiter of taste and was also one of the last outstanding journalists of a great age of English journalism. Additional Reading {#272962.toc} ------------------

Agustín, José

*in full **José Agustín Ramírez** * born Aug. 19, 1944, Acapulco, Guerrero, Mex. Mexican novelist whose prolific writings, reflecting an urban sensibility and the modern culture of youth, highlight urban violence and decay. Agustín was educated at National Autonomous University of Mexico and at Centro Mexicano de Escritores. He was a leader of Onda, a youth movement sympathetic to rock music and drug culture, and his fiction reflects this involvement. His first novel, *La tumba* (1964; "The Tomb"), published when he was 20, is told from a teenager's viewpoint. Subsequent works include the prizewinning play *Círculo vicioso* (1974; "Vicious Circle") and the award-winning novel *Ciudades desiertas* (1982; "Deserted Cities"). In 1985 Agustín published an autobiography, *El rock de la cárcel* ("Jailhouse Rock"); a collection of essays, *La nueva música clásica* ("The New Classical Music"); and the novels *Ahí viene la plaga* ("Here Comes the Plague") and *Furor matutino* ("Morning Fury"). The novel *Cerca del fuego* (1986; "Near the Fire") is a mordantly humorous indictment of life in Mexico City, told by an amnesiac after six years' absence from the city. In 1994 Agustín published *El viejo y el mar,* a translation of Ernest Hemingway's *The Old Man and the Sea.*

Albertinelli, Mariotto

*in full **Mariotto Albertinelli di Biagio di Bindo** * born 1474, Florence [Italy] died 1515, Florence painter associated with [][Fra Bartolommeo], and an artist whose style upheld the principles of the High Renaissance in Florence a decade after its leading exponents had moved to Rome. Albertinelli and Fra Bartolommeo were fellow pupils of Cosimo Rosselli and later painted many works together. Albertinelli's chief paintings are in Florence, notably his masterpiece, the "Visitation of the Virgin" (1503; Uffizi). His style, similar to that of Fra Bartolommeo, is characterized by simple dignity and monumentality and shows particularly the influence of [][Leonardo da Vinci] in its aristocratic, smiling figures, intimate compositions, and strong contrast of light and dark (chiaroscuro).

Agnon, S.Y.

*in full **Shmuel Yosef Agnon** , pseudonym of **Shmuel Yosef Halevi Czaczkes** * born July 17, 1888, Buczacz, Galicia, Austria-Hungary [now Buchach, Ukraine] died Feb. 17, 1970, Reḥovot, Israel [![Photograph:Agnon]] - Agnon Israeli writer who was one of the leading modern Hebrew novelists and short-story writers. In 1966 he was the corecipient, with [Nelly Sachs], of the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Ahmedi, Taceddin

*in full **Taceddin (Taj ad-Dīn) İbrahim ibn Hizr Ahmedi** * born 1334?, Anatolia died 1413, Amasya, Ottoman Empire one of the greatest poets of 14th-century Anatolia. As a young man, Ahmedi studied with the famous scholar Akmal ad-Din (al-Babarti) in Cairo. He then went to Kütahya, in Anatolia, and wrote for the ruler Amīr Süleyman (1367-86). Later he went to the court of the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I (1389-1403), and, at the Battle of Ankara, in which the Ottomans suffered a drastic defeat, Ahmedi apparently met the victor, the world conqueror Timur and wrote a qasida (ode) for him.

Albert, Prince Consort of Great Britain and Ireland

*original name **Francis Albert Augustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha** , German **Franz Albrecht August Karl Emanuel, Prinz von Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha** * born Aug. 26, 1819, Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha died Dec. 14, 1861, Windsor, Berkshire, Eng. [![Photograph:Prince Albert the prince consort, detail of a painting by F.X. Winterhalter, 1867; in the National ...]] - Prince Albert the prince consort, detail of a painting by F.X. Winterhalter, 1867; in the National ... the prince consort of Queen [][Victoria] of Great Britain and father of King Edward VII. Although Albert himself was undeservedly unpopular, the domestic happiness of the royal couple was well known and helped to assure the continuation of the monarchy, which was by no means certain on the Queen's accession. On his death from typhoid fever, the British public, which had regarded him almost as an enemy alien, finally recognized his exceptional qualities. Throughout almost 40 years of widowhood, the Queen decided important questions on the basis of what she thought Albert would have done.

Adonis, Joe

*original name **Giuseppe Antonio Doto** * born Nov. 22, 1902, Avellino, Italy died Nov. 26, 1971, Ancona major American crime-syndicate boss in New York and New Jersey. Born near Naples, Adonis came to America as a child and in the 1920s became a follower of [][Lucky Luciano]. He was one of the assassins of crime czar Giuseppe Masseria in 1931, leading to Luciano's supremacy in organized crime. As a rackets boss, Adonis specialized in labour racketeering, gambling, and hijacking. In 1951 he was convicted of violating gambling laws and sentenced to two to three years in prison. In 1953 he was ordered deported to Italy.

Akutagawa Ryūnosuke

*pseudonym **Chōkōdō Shujin** or **Gaki** * born March 1, 1892, Tokyo, Japan died July 24, 1927, Tokyo prolific Japanese writer known especially for his stories based on events in the Japanese past and for his stylistic virtuosity. As a boy Akutagawa was sickly and hypersensitive, but he excelled at school and was a voracious reader. He began his literary career while attending Tokyo Imperial University (now the University of Tokyo), where he studied English literature from 1913 to 1916.

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ [![Table I]]World agricultural production (*see* [Table I]) increased a little over 2% in 1994, according to preliminary estimates of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. The recovery of output in the developed countries, which fell 6% in 1993, was responsible for the bulk of the increase. Production in the less developed countries (LDCs) rose somewhat in excess of the 2% rate of population growth there. Output in the "countries in economic transition" in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union may have fallen 5% after increasing less than 1% in 1993. INTERNATIONAL ISSUES {#91292.toc} -------------------- ### Food Emergencies. {#92948.toc} The most dramatic problems were those in Rwanda and in surrounding countries sheltering Rwandan refugees. After some 1 million people were reported killed in massacres by Hutu militiamen, 300,000 people fled to Tanzania and more than 1 million fled to Zaire. Both national and international relief organizations initially were overwhelmed by the speed and magnitude of these population movements before sufficient international assistance could arrive.

African popular music

Introduction ------------ body of music that emerged in Africa in the 1960s, mixing indigenous influences with those of Western popular music. By the 1980s the audience for African popular music had expanded to include Western listeners. In common with the rest of the world, Africa was strongly affected by the instrumentation, rhythms, and repertoire from the Americas during the 1920s and '30s, as radio and records brought new messages and ideas across the Atlantic Ocean. By the early 1960s, in parallel with each nation's political independence from European colonialists, bandleaders across Africa modified their repertoire to accommodate adaptations of local folk tunes. In many cases, the bands' electric guitars, amplifiers, saxophones, and drum kits were the property of hotel and club owners, who employed musicians in much the same way they did waiters and cooks, hiring them to play danceable music for up to eight hours every night. Rock and roll had a muted impact in Africa compared with the rest of the world, but during the early 1960s the four-beats-to-the-bar of the twist spread like a virus; it was an easy-to-play style that inspired a new generation across the whole continent to become professional musicians. Many African guitarists, including African Fiesta's Dr. Nico, favoured the tremolo device featured by the British instrumental group the Shadows, but by the end of the decade the virtuoso pyrotechnics of [Jimi Hendrix] and [Carlos Santana] were more common inspirations. While South African musicians often emulated the sounds of American jazz musicians and vocal groups, musicians in the rest of the continent were more often drawn to music from the Caribbean, even though many include *jazz* in the name of their bands.

Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal

Introduction ------------ born 780, Baghdad died 855, Baghdad []Muslim theologian, jurist, and martyr for his faith. He was the compiler of the Traditions of the Prophet Muḥammad (*Musnad*) and []formulator of the Ḥanbalī, the most strictly traditionalist of the four orthodox Islāmic schools of []law. His doctrine influenced such noted followers as the 13th-14th-century theologian Ibn Taymīyah, the Wahhābīyah, an 18th-century reform movement, and the Salafīyah, a 19th-century Egyptian movement rooted in tradition. Life {#175.toc} ---- Of pure Arab stock, Ibn Ḥanbal belonged to the tribe of Shaybān through both parents. He was still an infant when his father died at 30. When Ibn Ḥanbal was 15 he began to study the Traditions ([][Ḥadīth]) of the Prophet Muḥammad. Seeking to learn from the great masters of his day, he travelled to the cities of Kūfah and Basra in Iraq; Mecca, Hejaz, and Medina in Arabia; and to the lands of Yemen and Syria. He made five pilgrimages to the holy city of Mecca, three times on foot. Ibn Ḥanbal led a life of asceticism and self-denial, winning many disciples. He had eight children, of whom two were well known and closely associated with his intellectual work: Ṣālih (died 880) and ʿAbd Allāh (died 903).

Aer Lingus

Irish international air carrier that originated as the national airline of Ireland and resulted from the combination of two government-owned companies: (1) Aer Lingus Teoranta, incorporated in 1936 and operating air services within Ireland and between Ireland and Britain and continental Europe, and (2) Aerlinte Eireann Teoranta, incorporated in 1947 and operating air services between Ireland and the United States and Canada. The airline's first route, inaugurated on May 27, 1936, extended from Dublin to Bristol and, in the same year, was extended to London. Other flights prior to World War II were routed to Liverpool and the Isle of Man. After the war, service was inaugurated to Paris and Amsterdam and eventually expanded to other European cities. The first transatlantic routes, from Dublin through Shannon International Airport to New York and Boston, were inaugurated in 1958; flights to Chicago and Montreal began in 1966. The Irish government privatized the airline in 2006.

Air New Zealand Limited

New Zealand international airline founded in 1939 (as Tasman Empire Airways Limited, or TEAL) and, by 1980, operating throughout the South Pacific from New Zealand and Australia to Hong Kong and Singapore and to Tahiti, Hawaii, and Los Angeles. The original shareholders in 1939 were New Zealand (50 percent), Australia (30 percent), and Britain (20 percent); Britain withdrew in 1953, and New Zealand became sole owner in 1961. Headquarters are in Auckland. Service (under the TEAL name) began in 1940 with flying-boat service between Auckland and Sydney. Beginning in the 1950s, routes were expanded, reaching Tahiti in 1951, Los Angeles in 1965, and Hong Kong and Singapore in 1966. The name Air New Zealand was adopted in 1965. Air New Zealand became a publicly traded company in 1989, and between 1996 and 2000 the firm acquired the assets of [Ansett], Australia's domestic air carrier. Air New Zealand's primary businesses are passenger and cargo transportation.

AEA June Bug

[![Photograph:AEA June Bug]] - AEA June Bug [![table]]biplane designed, built, and tested by members of the [Aerial Experiment Association] (AEA) in 1908. *See* [table] of pioneer aircraft. [][Alexander Graham Bell], one of the founders of the AEA, gave the third and most famous of the powered airplanes constructed by the group the name June Bug because of the beetles that filled the air on its first flight, in June 1908. The aircraft was a braced biplane featuring wingtip [ailerons], a canard, or forward elevator, a rear rudder, and horizontal surfaces. [][Glenn Hammond Curtiss] made the first nine flights with the June Bug from June 21 to June 29, 1908, covering distances of up to 3,420 feet (1,040 metres). Confident of success, the members of the AEA informed the Aero Club of America that they were prepared to win the Scientific American Trophy, which would be awarded to the first American airplane completing a flight of at least 1 km (3,280 feet). On July 4, at Hammondsport, N.Y., Curtiss kept the June Bug in the air for 1 minute 42.5 seconds, covering a distance of 5,085 feet (1,550 metres) at an average speed of 39 miles (63 km) per hour. He had won the trophy with 1,800 feet (550 metres) to spare. The flight set a new record for both distance flown and time in the air.

aegirine

[![Photograph:Aegirine crystals from Magnet Cove, Arkansas]] - Aegirine crystals from Magnet Cove, Arkansas a pyroxene mineral, sodium and iron silicate (NaFe^+3^Si~2~O~6~), that is commonly found in alkaline igneous rocks, particularly in syenites and syenite pegmatites. It also occurs in crystalline schists. Aegirine forms a continuous chemical series with []aegirine-augite, in which calcium replaces sodium, and magnesium and aluminum replace iron. In this series, the name []acmite is given to crystals with the composition NaFeSi~2~O~6~ as well as to the reddish brown or greenish black pointed crystals approximating that composition. Aegirine generally is restricted to the dark green to greenish black, blunt crystals of the same composition. For detailed physical properties, *see* [pyroxene] (table).

Albeluvisol

[![Photograph:Albeluvisol soil profile from Germany, showing "tongues" of a bleached layer depleted ...]] - Albeluvisol soil profile from Germany, showing "tongues" of a bleached layer depleted ... one of the 30 soil groups in the classification system of the [Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)]#214853.toc). Albeluvisols are characterized by a subsurface layer of brownish [][clay] into which "tongues" of bleached material project from an overlying layer extensively leached of clay and iron oxides. They form in cold climates on relatively flat terrain that supports boreal landscapes, taiga, or coniferous or mixed forest. High acidity, low plant-nutrient content, and fragile aggregate structure are common to these soils. Such adverse climatic and chemical conditions, combined with the impeding clay layer, prevent agricultural use, except in areas where the growing season is sufficient to allow grazing, cold-hardy grains, or acid-tolerant root crops. Occupying 2.5 percent of the total land area on Earth, Albeluvisols are concentrated in a belt from Poland to Siberia in Eurasia and from Baffin Bay westward in Canada. As their subsurface layer structure implies, they tend to be associated with the FAO soil groups of [Podzols] to the north and [Luvisols] to the south.

admiral

[![Photograph:Red admiral (Vanessa atalanta)]] - Red admiral (*Vanessa atalanta*) [![Photograph:White admiral butterfly (Limenitis arthemis), a common North American species.]] - White admiral butterfly (*Limenitis arthemis*), a common North American species. any of several butterfly species in the family Nymphalidae (order Lepidoptera) that are fast-flying and much prized by collectors for their coloration, which consists of black wings with white bands and reddish brown markings. The migratory []red admiral (*Vanessa atalanta*), placed in the subfamily Nymphalinae, is widespread in Europe, Scandinavia, North America, and North Africa and feeds on stinging nettles. The western, or Weidemeyer's, admiral (*Limenitis weidemeyerii*), is found in the western United States. The []white admiral (*Limenitis arthemis*; *see* [photograph]), which occurs in North America and from Great Britain across Eurasia to Japan, feeds on honeysuckle. The []Indian red admiral, *V. indica*, is found in the Canary Islands as well as India and is distinguished by a red band on the forewings wider than that of *V. atalanta*.

Agra

[![Photograph:The Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid) and the fort at Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India.]] - The Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid) and the fort at Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. city, west-central [Uttar Pradesh] state, north-central [India]. It lies on the [Yamuna (Jumna) River]%20River#9077786.toc), about 125 miles (200 km) southeast of [Delhi]. Founded by Sultan Sikandar Lodi in the early 16th century, it was the [Mughal] capital during some periods of their empire. In the late 18th century the city fell successively to the Jats, the Marathas, the Mughals, the ruler of Gwalior, and, finally, the British in 1803. It was the capital of Agra (later North-Western) province from 1833 to 1868 and was one of the main centres of the [Indian Mutiny] (1857-58). [![Photograph:Red Fort, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India.]] - Red Fort, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. [![Photograph:Tomb of Itimad al-Dawlah, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India.]] - Tomb of Itimad al-Dawlah, Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. Agra is best known as the site of the [Taj Mahal] (17th century), designated a UNESCO [][World Heritage site] in 1983. Agra is also the site of the 16th-century []Red Fort (also named a [][World Heritage] site in 1983), built by the emperor [Akbar], which contains the 17th-century []Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid), constructed of white marble; a palace, the Jahangiri Mahal; [Jami Masjid], or Great Mosque; and the elegant []Itimad al-Dawlah tomb (1628), also of white marble and noted for its architectural style. To the northwest, at Sikandra, is the tomb of Akbar.

alba

a Provençal song of lament for lovers parting at dawn or of a watchman's warning to lovers at dawn. Albas were sung by the 11th- and 12th-century [troubadours]. Some sources consider the alba an early form of an aubade, though, unlike the alba, an aubade is usually a celebration of the dawn. Examples of albas for which music also survives include "Reis glorios" by Guiraut de Bornelh and the anonymous "Gaite de la tor." The [minnesingers], German counterparts of the troubadours, also used the form, calling it *Tagelied.*

Akshak

ancient city of Mesopotamia on the northern boundary of Akkad, identified by some authorities with the Babylonian city of Upi (Opis). About 2500 BC Akshak was conquered by Eannatum, king of Lagash. About a century later Akshak temporarily established its hegemony over Sumer and Akkad. The location of Akshak is uncertain, although the Mari letters (from the royal archives at Mari on the Euphrates River; *c.* 1770 BC) indicate that it lay near Eshnunna in the Diyālā River valley.

adrenergic drug

any of various drugs that interfere with the functioning of the sympathetic nervous system by affecting the release or action of [norepinephrine] and [][epinephrine]. The former are hormones, secreted by the adrenal gland, that constrict blood vessels (thus increasing blood pressure) and accelerate the rate and force of contractions of the heart. Adrenergic drugs that stimulate the release or activity of norepinephrine or that mimic its effects are termed sympathomimetic agents. Among the sympathomimetic drugs are the amphetamines and ephedrine. Because these drugs raise the blood pressure and increase the heart rate, they are useful in treating systemic trauma, including bronchial asthma, shock, and cardiac arrest. They are also used to effect nasal decongestion and appetite suppression and to relieve allergic disorders. Drugs that block or inhibit the release or activity of norepinephrine are known as adrenergic blocking agents. These drugs dilate blood vessels (thus lowering blood pressure) and slow the heart rate. They are very useful in treating hypertension, angina, and heart dysrhythmias. Among the adrenergic blocking agents are phenoxybenzamine, propranolol, and prazosin.

Aichinger, Gregor

born 1564, Regensburg, Bishopric of Ratisbon [now in Germany] died Jan. 21, 1628, Augsburg German composer of religious music during the stylistic transition from the late Renaissance to early Baroque. Aichinger took holy orders and became organist to the family of Jakob Fugger at Augsburg from 1584. He visited Italy in 1584-87 and again in 1598-1600. His music is chiefly choral and ecclesiastical, set to Latin texts. It shows a conservative taste influenced by the Venetian school of composers, especially Giovanni Gabrieli, with whom he studied. His motets were well known and frequently appeared in contemporary collections. His *[]Cantiones Ecclesiasticae* (1607) was one of the earliest German examples of the use of basso continuo.

ʿAḍud ad-Dawlah

born 936 died 983 greatest ruler (949-983) of the Iranian Būyid dynasty. Becoming ruler of Fārs province in southern Iran in 944, ʿAḍud ad-Dawlah did not actually reign on his own until almost a decade later. But by 979 his authority extended, through inheritance and conquest, over all southern Iran and most of what is now Iraq. He became famous for his public works, which included a dam still standing near Shīrāz, and he also consolidated the internal security and administrative order of the dynasty and patronized arts and letters. *See also* [Būyid dynasty].

Akiba ben Joseph

born AD 40 died *c.* 135, , Caesarea, Palestine [now in Israel] Jewish sage, a principal founder of [][rabbinic Judaism]. He introduced a new method of interpreting Jewish oral law (Halakha), thereby laying the foundation of what was to become the Mishna, the first postbiblical written code of Jewish law. The subject of numerous popular legends, Akiba is said to have been an illiterate shepherd who began to study after the age of 40. His devoted wife, []Rachel, supported him both morally and materially during this arduous period of late learning (12 years, according to one account). His principal teachers were the great masters of the Law, Eliezer ben Hyrcanus and Joshua ben Hananiah[]. Akiba established his academy in [][Bene Beraq] (near present-day Tel Aviv-Yafo), and the leading sages of the following generation, especially [][Meïr] and [][Simeon ben Yoḥai], were his disciples. Akiba perfected the method of biblical interpretation called []"Midrash," whereby legal, sacral, and ethical tenets that had been sanctioned by Jewish oral tradition were viewed as being implied in Scripture. Thus, Scripture, in addition to its overt meaning, is understood as replete with implied teaching; it is, in fact, all-encompassing. The "Written Law" of Scripture and the "Oral Law" of tradition are ultimately one. Many midrashic works of the 2nd century originated in Akiba's school. In addition, he collected the oral traditions that regulated the conduct of Jewish personal, social, and religious life and arranged them systematically. (Akiba has been called "the father of the [][Mishna].") His apprehension of Scripture was opposed by the contemporary exegete Rabbi Ishmael ben Elisha, who taught that "the Torah speaks in the language of men" and should not be forced to yield special meanings but instead should be interpreted exclusively by means of set, logical rules of interpretation.

Albert

born April 23, 1828, Dresden, Saxony died June 19, 1902, near Öls, Silesia king of Saxony from Oct. 29, 1873, Catholic king of a Protestant country who was nonetheless popular with his subjects. He also was a capable soldier who fought well in the Seven Weeks' War of 1866 and in the Franco-German War of 1870-71. He was the eldest son of Prince John, who succeeded to the Saxon throne in 1854. An artillery officer at the age of 15, Albert had one year of university studies at Bonn before serving in the German Schleswig-Holstein campaign of 1849 against the Danes. He married Caroline, granddaughter of King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden, in 1853. In 1857 he was made general of infantry, and in 1862 he became a member of the upper house of the Saxon parliament. Commanding the Saxon Army in the [][Seven Weeks' War], Albert effected an orderly retreat when the Prussians invaded Saxony. After the defeat of Austria and its allies, including Saxony, at Königgrätz (Sadowa) on July 3, 1866, Albert held his position tenaciously. Personally favourable to Prussia, Albert became commander of the XII Corps, formerly the Saxon Army, when his country entered the Prussian-dominated North German Confederation.

Agnelli, Giovanni

born Aug. 13, 1866, Villar Perosa, Piedmont, Italy died Dec. 16, 1945, Turin founder of the Fiat ([][Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino]) automobile company and the leading Italian industrialist of the first half of the 20th century. Agnelli attended the military school at Modena, but he quit the army in 1892. In 1899 he was one of the prime movers in creating Fiat, which soon became an internationally renowned automobile manufacturer. During World War I, Fiat ran its huge Turin plants at full speed, supplying the Italian military forces with armaments. The company employed a workforce of more than 30,000 in the production of streetcars, airplanes, railroad cars, tractors, and diesel engines. In 1921 workers seized the Fiat plants and hoisted the red flag of communism over them. Agnelli responded by quitting the company, retiring to private life, and letting the workers try to run Fiat. In short order, 3,000 of them paraded to his office and asked him to return to the helm—a request to which he acquiesced. A supporter of Benito Mussolini, he was named to the Senate by the Fascist dictator in 1923. Agnelli also established the ball- and roller-bearing industry in Italy (1907), and he was a chief mobilizer of the Italian war industry before and during World War II. In April 1945, however, the Italian Committee of National Liberation removed him—along with other top executives—from control of Fiat. Control did not return to the Agnelli family until 1966.

Ahmed III

born Dec. 30, 1673, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire died July 1, 1736, Constantinople [now Istanbul], Turkey sultan of the [Ottoman Empire] from 1703 to 1730. The son of [Mehmed IV], he succeeded to the throne in 1703 upon the deposition of his brother [Mustafa II]. Ahmed III cultivated good relations with England and France and afforded refuge at his court to [Charles XII] of Sweden after his defeat by [Peter I] the Great of Russia at the Battle of Poltava (1709). Ahmed declared war on [][Russia] in 1710 and came nearer than any other Turkish sovereign to breaking that country's power. His grand vizier, Baltaji Mehmed Pasha, encircled Peter's army near the Prut River in July 1711, and Russia had to agree to restore the town of Azov to Turkey, to destroy the Azovian forts, and to abstain from interference in Polish or Cossack affairs. (Turkish discontent at the leniency of these terms nearly brought on a renewal of the war in late 1712.) In 1715 Ahmed directed the capture of the Morea (Peloponnesus) from the Venetians, but when Austria intervened, the Turks suffered reverses, losing [][Belgrade] in 1717. Under the [][Treaty of Passarowitz] (1718), which Ahmed made, Turkey retained its conquests from the Venetians but ceded Hungary and part of Serbia to Austria. In 1724 Turkey and Russia reached an agreement to partition much of Iran between them. The Iranians drove the Turks out of Iran in 1729-30, however, and news of this defeat sparked a popular uprising in Turkey led by [][Patrona Halil] in which Ahmed was deposed. He died in captivity in 1736.

Alabaster, William

born Jan. 27, 1568, Hadleigh, Suffolk, Eng. died early April 1640, Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire English poet, mystic, and scholar in Latin and Hebrew, author of a Latin tragedy, *[]Roxana* (1597, published 1632), which the 18th-century critic Samuel Johnson thought was the finest Latin writing in England before John Milton's elegies. Alabaster was educated at the University of Cambridge and in 1596 accompanied the Earl of Essex's expedition to Cádiz, Spain, as chaplain but became a Roman Catholic in 1597, consequently suffering intermittent imprisonment. When visiting Rome in 1609, he was denounced to the Inquisition because of his mystical writings. After much wavering he reverted to Anglicanism and became the king's chaplain in 1618. He also wrote an unfinished Latin epic, *Elisaeis,* glorifying Elizabeth I, as well as occasional poems, spiritual sonnets, mystically inclined prose works, and biblical commentaries. His sonnets are sometimes claimed to be the earliest religious lyrics in the Metaphysical style.

Ailey, Alvin, Jr.

born Jan. 5, 1931, Rogers, Texas, U.S. died Dec. 1, 1989, New York, N.Y. [![Photograph:Alvin Ailey, Jr., 1960.]] - Alvin Ailey, Jr., 1960. American dancer, choreographer, and director of the [Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater]. Having moved with his family to Los Angeles in 1942, Ailey became involved with the Lester Horton Dance Theater there in 1949. Following Horton's death in 1953, Ailey was director of the company until it disbanded in 1954. He moved to New York City that year. There he performed in various stage productions and studied acting with Stella Adler and dance with Martha Graham, Hanya Holm, Charles Weidman, and others.

Akers, Ronald L.

born Jan. 7, 1939, New Albany, Ind., U.S. American criminologist widely known for his [][social learning] theory of crime. After earning a Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Kentucky (1966), Akers taught at several universities before joining the faculty of the University of Florida (1980), where he served as professor of sociology and director of the Center for Studies in Criminology and Law. Akers argued that criminal behaviour is the product of normal learning. The original version of this theory, developed with the American sociologist Robert L. Burgess and published as *[]A Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory of Criminal Behavior* (1966), drew upon earlier work by the American criminologist [][Edwin Sutherland] and the American psychologist [][B.F. Skinner]. On the basis of Sutherland's differential theory of crime (according to which criminal acts are most likely to occur in social settings that cast crime in a favourable light) and Skinner's theory of operant conditioning (according to which learning is a form of association created through reinforcements such as punishments and rewards), Akers argued that criminal behaviour is learned through both social and nonsocial reinforcements and that most learning of criminal behaviour occurs in social interactions with other people. Later versions of Akers's theory drew upon the social learning theory of the American psychologist [Albert Bandura] (which broadened operant conditioning to include learning that takes place through modeling) and ultimately examined the effects on individuals of behaviours seen on television and in motion pictures. Akers argued that, although criminal behaviour is acquired through social interaction and modeling, it is maintained over time through the actual consequences of criminal acts, both social and nonsocial. He further argued that social learning is the process that mediates the effects of social structural factors on criminal and deviant behaviour. Akers tested his theory in a variety of studies involving [delinquency] and drug, alcohol, and cigarette use. In 1988 he received the Edwin H. Sutherland Award from the American Society of Criminology for outstanding contributions to theory and research. [Thomas J. Bernard]

Aguilar, Grace

born June 2, 1816, London, Eng. died Sept. 16, 1847, Frankfurt am Main [Germany] poet, novelist, and writer on Jewish history and religion, best known for her numerous sentimental novels of domestic life, especially for *Home Influence* (1847) and *The Mother's Recompense* (1851). Aguilar was the daughter of Sephardic Jews. She was tutored in the classics at home and (even in adulthood) was not permitted to move outside of her family circle. Before becoming known as a novelist, she gained a considerable reputation as an educator about Jewish culture for an English-speaking public. Within the bounds of a painfully circumscribed life, Aguilar managed to write 12 books. In *[]The Spirit of Judaism* (1842) she attacked contemporary Judaism for its formalism and traditionalism. Her novels, although they evinced strong religious feeling, were free of sectarian bias. *Home Influence* was the only one published during her lifetime.

Alarcón y Ariza, Pedro Antonio de

born March 10, 1833, Guadix, Spain died July 10, 1891, Valdemoro writer remembered for his novel *El sombrero de tres picos* (1874; *[The Three-Cornered Hat]*). Alarcón had achieved a considerable reputation as a journalist and poet when his play *[]El hijo pródigo* ("The Prodigal Son") was hissed off the stage in 1857. The failure so exasperated him that he enlisted as a volunteer in the Moroccan campaign of 1859-60. The expedition provided the material for his eyewitness account *[]Diario de un testigo de la guerra de Africa* (1859; "Diary of a Witness of the African War"), a masterpiece in its way as a description of campaigning life. On his return Alarcón became editor of the anticlerical periodical *[]El Látigo,* but in the years 1868-74 he ruined his political reputation by rapid changes of position. His literary reputation, however, steadily increased. *El sombrero de tres picos,* a short novel inspired by a popular ballad, is notable for its skillful construction and pointed observation and is a masterpiece of the *costumbrismo* literary genre. [][Manuel de Falla] based his ballet of the same title on the story, and Hugo Wolf wrote an opera so titled. Alarcón's other major novels are *El final de Norma* (1855; *The Last Act of Norma*), *El escándalo* (1875; "The Scandal"), and *El niño de la bola* (1880; "The Lucky Kid").

Adler, Cyrus

born Sept. 13, 1863, Van Buren, Ark., U.S. died April 7, 1940, Philadelphia, Pa. scholar, educator, editor, and Conservative Jewish leader who had great influence on American Jewish life in his time. Adler received his Ph.D. in Semitics in 1887 from Johns Hopkins University, where he later taught Semitic languages. In 1892 he founded the []American Jewish Historical Society, of which he was president from 1898 until 1922. For the Jewish Publication Society of America, he planned the *[]American Jewish Year Book,* which he edited from its first year (1899) until 1905 and again in 1916. Under his chairmanship, the []Bible Committee of the Jewish Publication Society published the first authoritative Jewish translation of the Hebrew Scriptures in the English language (1917). Adler helped develop the [][Jewish Theological Seminary] in New York City, an institution for research in Judaica and the training of rabbis; he did so principally by bringing [][Solomon Schechter] from Europe, in 1902, to head the institution. In 1908 Adler became the first president of []Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning, in Philadelphia. There Adler published and edited the *[Jewish Quarterly Review],* which had been previously printed in England. With Schechter, in 1913, he created the [][United Synagogue of America], a laymen's organization that remains the chief organ of Conservative Judaism in the United States. When Schechter died in 1915, Adler became acting president of the Jewish Theological Seminary and from 1924 until his death served as president. During his tenure, the seminary accumulated one of the world's foremost collections of Judaica.

Aiken

city, seat of Aiken county, western [South Carolina], U.S. Aiken lies 16 miles (26 km) northeast of [Augusta], [Georgia]. It was chartered in 1835 and named for the railroad entrepreneur William Aiken. The city was originally a health resort. During the [American Civil War] the Confederate forces of General [][Joseph Wheeler] defeated General Hugh J. Kilpatrick's Union troops in the town's main street. By the beginning of the 20th century, Aiken was a winter colony for the wealthy and was noted for equestrian sports, especially polo. It experienced a boom after 1950 with the building of the Savannah River Atomic Plant in an area now called the [Savannah River Site], 12 miles (19 km) south. Although the five nuclear reactors on the site (which were used to produce materials for nuclear weapons) have been permanently shut down, tritium is still being recycled there. The city is a focus of regional industrialization (textiles, glass fibre, paper tissue products, solenoid valves, and kaolin mining). A campus of the [University of South Carolina] was established there in 1961. Also situated in the city is Aiken Technical College (1972). Hopeland Gardens, a public garden on a former estate, is a local attraction; it includes the Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame. The annual Aiken's Triple Crown includes harness racing, trials, and steeplechase. Pop. (1990) 19,872; (2000) 25,337.

Albany

county, east-central [New York] state, U.S., bordered by the [Mohawk River] to the northeast and the [Hudson River] to the east. The terrain rises from the Hudson valley lowlands in the east to the Helderberg Mountains in the centre of the county; Alcove Reservoir is in the south. Parklands include Thompson's Lake and John Boyd Thacher state parks. Timber in the western half of the county mainly comprises maple, birch, and beech, while oak and hickory dominate the eastern half. Algonquian-speaking [Mahican] (Mohican) Indians inhabited the region when European explorers first arrived. The city of [Albany] is the county seat and the state capital of New York; the first European to visit the site was the English navigator [Henry Hudson] in 1609, and by 1624 the area was permanently settled by the Dutch. The Albany Institute of History and Art features 19th-century artwork by the Hudson River school, the first native school of painting in the United States. The New York State Museum is the nation's oldest and largest state museum. The [State University of New York] at Albany was founded in 1844. Siena College was established in Loudonville in 1937. Other communities include Guilderland, Delmar, Cohoes, and Watervliet. One of New York's original counties, Albany was created in 1683 and named for James, duke of York and Albany (later [King James II]). The county became a major transportation centre with the advent of canal shipping (1825), rail travel (1831), commercial air travel (1919), and oceangoing shipping (1932). In addition to governmental activities, the economy is based on services (health and business), finance, transportation, and trade (retail and wholesale). Area 524 square miles (1,357 square km). Pop. (1990) 292,793; (1996 est.) 296,087.

agon

debate or contest between two characters in [][Attic] comedy, constituting one of several formal conventions in these highly structured plays. The Old Comedy of []Greece, introduced into Dionysian festivals in 487 BC and surviving in the works of Aristophanes, adhered to a rigid structure within which some variation was allowed. The plays begin with a prologos, which outlines the dilemma of the plot, followed by the parodos, or chorus entrance, which in Aristophanic comedies often revealed the chorus dressed as animals. Next, a debate, or agon, develops between an actor and the chorus or between two actors, each supported by half the chorus. Representing opposing principles, the actors argue in a fashion similar to the dialectical dialogues of Plato. In Aristophanes' *[The Clouds],* for example, the agon concerns right and wrong logic. Following the debate is the parabasis, or "coming forward," at which time the chorus steps forward to address the audience directly, speaking in the name of the poet and often haranguing the audience by attacking prominent people or social and political principles. The probable source of the agon and the other elaborate conventions of Old Comedy is the mimetic ritual from which comedy evolved, namely ancient fertility rituals in which men attempted to imitate the life cycles of regeneration and rebirth.

Ahuitzotl

died 1503 eighth king of the Aztecs, under whose reign (1486-1503) the Aztec empire reached its greatest extent. The aggressive Ahuitzotl succeeded his brother, Tizoc, to the throne. He proved an effective warrior, conquering tribes as far south as present-day Guatemala and in territory along the Gulf of Mexico, using such tactics as forced marches, ambushes, and surprise attacks. His men feared and respected him, and their king, after conquering a foreign city, chose to camp with his men rather than stay in a captured palace. Conquest brought enormous wealth to the Aztec empire as tribute poured in from all the vassal states. The capital of [Tenochtitlán] grew to such an extent that Ahuitzotl had another aqueduct built. He built the great temple of Malinalco as well. The king imposed tight bureaucratic control over the empire. Ahuitzotl is known primarily for having occasioned the greatest orgy of human sacrifice in Aztec history. In 1487 he decided to dedicate his new temple at Tenochtitlán. The ceremonies, lasting four days, consisted of prisoners of war forming four lines, each one extending over three miles. As the captives were marched up to the altar, priests and Aztec nobles, including Ahuitzotl, had the honour of cutting open their chests and tearing out their hearts. Although actual numbers remain in dispute, as many as 20,000 prisoners may have been killed this way, while guests from the conquered provinces were asked to watch. Ahuitzotl was later killed when he hit his head on a stone lintel trying to escape the great flood that devastated Tenochtitlán in 1503.

Aedon

in Greek mythology, a daughter of Pandareus of Ephesus. According to Homer (Book XIX of the *Odyssey*), she was the wife of Zethus, who with his brother Amphion was the joint king of Thebes. She had only two children and envied her sister-in-law, Niobe, who had many. She planned to murder Niobe's eldest son in his sleep, but by mistake killed her own son, Itylus, who was asleep in the same room. Zeus took pity on Aedon in her grief and changed her into a nightingale; her song was a lament for her dead son.

Aeacus

in Greek mythology, son of [][Zeus] and []Aegina, the daughter of the river god Asopus; Aeacus was the father of Telamon and Peleus. His mother was carried off by Zeus to the island of Oenone, afterward called by her name. Aeacus was celebrated for justice and in later tradition became a judge of the dead, together with Minos and Rhadamanthys. His successful prayer to Zeus for rain during a drought was commemorated by a temple at Aegina, where a festival, the []Aiakeia, was held in his honour.

adjustment

in [][psychology], the behavioral process by which [][humans] and other [][animals] maintain an equilibrium among their various needs or between their needs and the obstacles of their environments. A sequence of adjustment begins when a need is felt and ends when it is satisfied. Hungry people, for example, are stimulated by their physiological state to seek food. When they eat, they reduce the stimulating condition that impelled them to activity, and they are thereby adjusted to this particular need. In general, the adjustment process involves four parts: (1) a need or motive in the form of a strong persistent stimulus, (2) the thwarting or nonfulfillment of this need, (3) varied activity, or exploratory behaviour accompanied by problem solving, and (4) some response that removes or at least reduces the initiating stimulus and completes the adjustment. Social and cultural adjustments are similar to physiological adjustments. People strive to be comfortable in their surroundings and to have their psychological needs (such as love or affirmation) met through the social networks they inhabit. When needs arise, especially in new or changed surroundings, they impel interpersonal activity meant to satisfy those needs. In this way, people increase their familiarity and comfort with their environments, and they come to expect that their needs will be met in the future through their social networks. Ongoing difficulties in social and cultural adjustment may be accompanied by anxiety or depression.

Agri Decumates

in antiquity, the Black Forest and adjoining areas of what is now southwestern Germany between the Rhine, Danube, and Main rivers. The name may imply earlier occupation by a tribe with 10 cantons. The Romans under the Flavian emperors began annexing the area in AD 74 to secure better communications between the Rhine and Danube armies. According to [][Tacitus], the territory was previously inhabited by the Helvetii; later, Gauls settled there. The Romans were displaced from the Agri Decumates by the [][Alemanni] in about AD 260.

agenesis

in human physiology, failure of all or part of an organ to develop during [][embryonic] growth. Many forms of agenesis are consistently lethal, as when the entire brain is absent (anencephaly), but agenesis of one of a paired organ may create little disruption of normal function. Agenesis of the kidney, bladder, testicle, ovary, thyroid, and lung are known. Agenesis of the long bones of the arms or legs also may occur, called variously []meromelia (absence of one or both hands or feet), [phocomelia] (normal hands and feet but absence of the long bones), and [amelia] (complete absence of one or more limbs). Agenesis often occurs because the embryonic tissue that gives rise to the affected organ, or an adjacent embryonic tissue, is missing. At many stages in development, one structure induces the formation of another; removing the first structure causes agenesis of the second. Other cases of agenesis have been associated with chemical exposure in the womb, as in the association between the drug [][thalidomide] and phocomelia. Agenesis syndromes are frequently associated with other congenital anomalies. In renal agenesis, or []Potter's syndrome (absence of one or both kidneys), the ureters also are usually absent, and sex organs may be abnormal. Affected children have wide-set eyes, large, low-set ears, and flattened nose. Agenesis of the lung may be unilateral, a relatively common defect, or bilateral, the latter occurring most frequently with acardia (failure of the heart to develop).

Akwapim-Togo Ranges

narrow belt of ridges and hills in Ghana, western Africa. They extend in a southwest-northeast line for about 200 miles (320 km) from the Densu River mouth (near Accra) on the Atlantic coast to the boundary with Togo. Averaging 1,500 feet (460 m) in height, the hills continue eastward to the Niger River as the [Togo Mountains] in Togo and as the [Atakora Mountains] in Benin, and they contain isolated peaks near the Togo border. The Volta River cuts through their complex of closely packed folds at Ajena (Volta) Gorge and is harnessed by the great dam at Akosombo 1 mile (1.6 km) downstream. Although the area is fertile and supports semideciduous forest, the ranges' descent to the surrounding plains is frequently steep and marked by abrupt cliffs. The central highlands, once important for palm oil and cocoa, have suffered greatly from erosion. The section within the Volta River region is important for cash crops of cacao and coffee. Plantains, cassava, and corn (maize) also are grown. Because of an equable climate, the ranges contain hill resorts such as Aburi, located some 20 miles (32 km) north of Accra, and Amedzofe. Roads are sparse and are mainly limited to the south. The northern and western fringes benefit somewhat from boat traffic on the Volta reservoir.

albarello

pottery jar for apothecaries' ointments and dry drugs made in the Near East and in Spain and produced in Italy from the 15th through the 18th century in the form known as [][majolica] (*q.v.*), or tin-glazed earthenware. Since the jar had to be easy to hold, use, and shelve, its basic form was cylindrical but incurved for grasping and wide-mouthed for access. All albarellos are about 7 inches (18 centimetres) high. A few have close-set handles, but, because they were not designed to hold liquids, they are generally free of spouts, lips, handles, and outcurved forms. A piece of paper or parchment tied around the rim served as a cover for the jar. Drug jars from Persia, Syria, and Egypt were introduced into Italy sometime before the 15th century, and lustre-decorated pots of Hispano-Moresque origin (influenced by the Moors in Spain) entered the country by way of Sicily. Spanish and Islāmic influence is apparent in the colours used in the decoration of early 15th-century Italian albarellos, which are often blue on white. A conventional oakleaf and floral design frequently occurs, combining handsomely with heraldic shields or with scrollwork and an inscribed label, usually an abbreviation of the name of the jar's contents. Geometric patterns are also common. Renaissance craftsmen showed their ingenuity in the sophisticated polychrome albarellos of the 16th century, in which the early decorative motifs gave way to figurative elements: classical grotesques, portraits, historical scenes, allegories, animals, and other themes. By the end of the 18th century, albarellos had yielded to other containers.

Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of

(Oct. 1-Nov. 15, 1818), the first of the four congresses held by Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France to discuss and take common action on European problems following the Napoleonic Wars (1800-15). This congress (held at Aix-la-Chapelle—now Aachen, Ger.) was attended by Alexander I of Russia, Francis I of Austria, Frederick William III of Prussia, and their representatives. Great Britain was represented by Viscount Castlereagh and by the duke of Wellington. [][Armand-Emmanuel, duke de Richelieu], represented France. The later congresses were held at [Troppau] (1820), [Laibach] (1821), and [Verona] (1822). At the first session Richelieu offered to pay most of the war indemnity owed by France to the allies in return for the withdrawal of their armies of occupation by November 30. This offer was accepted. On October 9 a treaty was signed settling the claims against France as a result of the wars. France was admitted to the new [Quintuple Alliance] as an equal. Although the [old Quadruple Alliance] of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia was secretly renewed in a protocol signed on November 15, this renewal was largely a formality. The congress also discussed suppression of the slave trade and of the Barbary pirates, but no decision was reached. The status of Jews and many other questions were considered.

Afghan interlude

(1722-30), period in Iranian history that began with the Afghan conquest of Iran and ended with the defeat and death of the Afghan ruler [Ashraf]. In 1722 [Maḥmūd], an Afghan notable and former vassal of the [][Ṣafavids], attacked and captured Eṣfahān, the Ṣafavid capital in Iran. The capture of Eṣfahān marked the eclipse of the Ṣafavid dynasty. Maḥmūd proclaimed himself ruler of Iran in 1722, and in 1723 he put to death Shāh Solṭān Ḥoseyn, the former Ṣafavid ruler. Maḥmūd consolidated his gains in southern and southeastern Iran, and in 1725 he was succeeded by his cousin Ashraf. Ashraf attempted to conciliate the Iranians, but he was always regarded as the hated foreign invader. In the meantime, [][Peter I] the Great of Russia, who had long contemplated establishing a trade route to India via the countries east of the Caspian Sea, invaded the north of Iran in 1722, ostensibly because of losses suffered by some Russian merchants during a tribal uprising there. At this the [][Ottomans] moved into western and northwestern Iran to prevent the Russians from taking over Iranian territory next to Turkey. The confrontation threatened to blow up into war, but a settlement was negotiated in 1724. Russia held much of Iran's north and the Ottomans the west, with the northwestern regions partitioned between them; this was perhaps the first such imposition of precise boundaries by European powers on an Islāmic state. In the north, [Ṭahmāsp II]—the representative of the ousted Ṣafavid dynasty—controlled the provinces of Māzandarān and Gīlān. In 1727 Ashraf negotiated a treaty with the Ottomans, accepting their annexation of western Iran; in return the Ottomans recognized Ashraf as ruler of Iran. In 1727 Ṭahmāsp II was joined by Nāder Qolī Khān, a leader of the Afshār tribe. Nāder (later reigned in 1736-47 as [][Nāder Shāh]) set out to expel the Afghans and to reunify the former Ṣafavid domains. A brilliant general, Nāder defeated the Afghans in a series of battles; Ashraf was killed, and Nāder installed Ṭahmāsp II as shah in Eṣfahān (1729). He continued operations against the Afghans until they were finally routed and expelled from Iran in 1730.

Ahl al-Kitāb

(Arabic: "People of the Book"), in Islāmic thought, those religionists such as Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians who are possessors of divine books (*i.e.,* the Torah, the Gospel, and the Avesta), as distinguished from those whose religions are not based on divine revelations. The latter are an imprecisely identified group referred to as Sabaeans but also considered "People of the Book." The Prophet Muḥammad gave many privileges to *Ahl al-Kitāb* that are not to be extended to heathens. *Ahl al-Kitāb* are granted freedom of worship; thus, during the early Muslim conquests, Jews and Christians were not forced to convert to Islām and had only to pay a special tax for their exemption from military service. Muslim authorities are responsible for the protection and well-being of *Ahl al-Kitāb*, for, according to a saying of the Prophet, "he who wrongs a Jew or a Christian will have myself [the Prophet] as his indicter on the day of judgment." After Muḥammad's death, his successors sent strict instructions to their generals and provincial governors not to interfere with *Ahl al-Kitāb* in their worship and to treat them with full respect. Muslim men are permitted to marry women from *Ahl al-Kitāb* even if the latter choose to remain in their religion; Muslim women, however, are not allowed to marry Christians or Jews unless they convert to Islām.

Ah Kin

(Mayan: "He of the Sun"), the regular clergy of the Yucatec Maya in pre-Columbian times. The Ah Kin are best known historically for their performance in the ritual []sacrifice of victims, whose hearts were offered to the Mayan gods. The chief priest (Ah Kin Mai) served in the various capacities of administrator, teacher, healer, astronomer, adviser to the chief, and diviner. Priests specializing in []prophecy were known as []Chilans, but it is likely that Ah Kins and Chilans performed many of the same functions. Prophecy was aided by readings from hieroglyphic books and, possibly, by drug-induced visions. Couples contemplating marriage as well as civic leaders consulted the Ah Kin on the prospects of their undertakings. The office of Ah Kin was hereditary, passing from priests to their sons, but training was also extended to the sons of the nobility who showed inclinations toward the priesthood.

Agnano

volcanic crater, Napoli *provincia,* Campania *regione,* southern Italy. It is situated in the Campi Flegrei volcanic region just west of Naples. The crater, about 4 miles (6 km) in circumference, was known to the Greeks and Romans for its hot springs and the six-story Thermae Anianae ("Thermal Baths") built for visitors. However, in the Middle Ages a lake formed in the crater, and this was not drained until 1866. Water draining from the crater still creates numerous mineral springs of various temperatures that are utilized by a large spa at Agnano Terme on the crater's south rim.

Alberti, Leon Battista

Introduction ------------ born Feb. 14, 1404, Genoa died April 25, 1472, Rome [![Photograph:Leon Battista Alberti, self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435; in the National Gallery of ...]] - Leon Battista Alberti, self-portrait plaque, bronze, *c.* 1435; in the National Gallery of ... Italian humanist, architect, and principal initiator of Renaissance art theory. In his personality, works, and breadth of learning, he is considered the prototype of the Renaissance "universal man." Childhood and education {#200.toc} -----------------------

Agassiz, (Jean) Louis (Rodolphe)

Introduction ------------ born May 28, 1807, Motier, Switz. died December 14, 1873, Cambridge, Mass., U.S. Swiss-born U.S. naturalist, geologist, and teacher who made revolutionary contributions to the study of natural science with landmark work on glacier activity and extinct [][fishes]. He achieved lasting fame through his innovative teaching methods, which altered the character of natural science education in the United States. Early life {#167.toc} ---------- Agassiz was the son of the Protestant pastor of Motier, a village on the shore of Lake Morat, Switzerland. In boyhood he attended the gymnasium in Bienne and later the academy at Lausanne. He entered the universities of Zürich, Heidelberg, and Munich and took at Erlangen the degree of doctor of philosophy and at Munich that of doctor of medicine.

advanced structural ceramics

Introduction ------------ ceramic materials that demonstrate enhanced mechanical properties under demanding conditions. Because they serve as structural members, often being subjected to mechanical loading, they are given the name structural ceramics. Ordinarily, for structural applications ceramics tend to be expensive replacements for other materials, such as metals, polymers, and composites. For especially erosive, corrosive, or high-temperature environments, however, they may be the material of choice. This is because the strong chemical bonding in ceramics—described in the article [ceramic composition and properties: Chemical bonds]—makes them exceptionally robust in demanding situations. For example, some advanced ceramics display superior wear resistance, making them ideal for tribological (wear) applications such as mineral processing equipment. Others are chemically inert and therefore are used as bone replacements in the highly corrosive environment of the human body. High bond strengths also make ceramics thermochemically inert; this property shows promising areas of application in engines for automobiles, aerospace vehicles, and power generators. A number of technological barriers have to be surmounted in order to make advanced structural ceramics an everyday reality. The most significant challenges are the inherent flaw sensitivity, or brittleness, of ceramics and the variability of their mechanical properties. In this article toughening methods are described and prospects for toughened ceramics assessed. The survey ends with links to articles on various established and prospective applications for advanced structural ceramics. Toughening methods {#76757.toc} ------------------ ### []Reinforced ceramics {#76758.toc}

African Games

*also called **Pan-African Games** or **All-Africa Games** * international athletics (track-and-field) competition sponsored by the [][International Association of Athletics Federations] (IAAF) and contested by athletes representing the nations of Africa. The African Games were first held in 1965, in Brazzaville, Congo, and consisted of contests in athletic sports exclusively. Attempts to hold such African games date back to the 1920s, and in the early 1960s "friendship" games were held, but only among formerly French-governed countries. The second African Games were held in 1973 in Lagos, Nigeria, and the number of participating countries rose from 29 to 35. The third games were held in Algiers in 1978. The games were not held again until 1987, and thereafter they were quadrennial.

Ahaz

*also spelled **Achaz** , Assyrian **Jehoahaz** * flourished 8th century BC king of Judah (*c.* 735-720 BC) who became an Assyrian vassal (2 Kings 16; Isaiah 7-8). Ahaz assumed the throne of Judah at the age of 20 or 25. Sometime later his kingdom was invaded by Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin, king of Syria, in an effort to force him into an alliance with them against the powerful state of Assyria. Acting against the counsel of the prophet Isaiah, Ahaz appealed for aid to Tiglath-pileser III, king of Assyria, to repel the invaders. Assyria defeated Syria and Israel, and Ahaz presented himself as a vassal to the Assyrian king. Not only was Judah's political situation unimproved but Assyria exacted a heavy tribute and Assyrian gods were introduced into the Temple at Jerusalem.

Alagoas

*estado* (state) of northeastern [Brazil]. It is the second smallest of Brazil's states and is an agricultural region in the early stages of industrialization. Situated on the northern bank of the [][São Francisco River], it is bounded on the north and west by the state of [Pernambuco], on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by [Sergipe], and on the west by [Bahia]. Its coastline is about 138 miles (220 km) long. The name of the state derives from its large number of lakes (*lagôas*). The capital is [][Maceió]. Pôrto Calvo in the north and Penedo, located on the northern bank of the São Francisco River, were founded during the early years of the Portuguese occupation of Brazil, in the 16th century. In the early part of the 17th century the Dutch obtained a foothold but were soon expelled. At about the same time, *[quilombos]*—fortified settlements of fugitive slaves, with a distinct culture that had many African characteristics—were established in the forests. Alagoas was a district of Pernambuco until 1817, when it became a captaincy (fief). Following the proclamation of Brazilian independence in 1822, it became a province of the empire, and in 1889 it became a state of the republic. The climate of Alagoas is hot and humid along the coast and hot and dry in the interior. The terrain slopes downward from a semi-barren plateau to a narrow coastal plain. The principal rivers of the state are the São Francisco and the Mundaú, Paraíba, and Coruripe. Lagoa Mundaú, or Lagoa do Norte (Lake of the North), and Lagoa Manguaba, or Lagoa do Sul (Lake of the South), are the largest of the state's many lakes. Geologically, Alagoas consists mostly of the southern part of the Serra da Borborema ([]Borborema Mountain Range). The Serra Lisa ([]Lisa Mountain) is the state's highest point. There are four zones of vegetation: the coastal plain; the Mata, or tropical rainforest; the Agreste, a shrubby savanna parkland; and the Caatinga, an arid region covered with underbrush and cacti. The animal life of the state is rich and varied. The Alagoans are a mixture of peoples of European, African, and Indian origin. Those of European and African ancestry predominate in the coastal region of Alagoas, and *caboclos*—people of mixed European and Indian descent—in the interior. The language of the state is Portuguese. Roman Catholicism is the principal religion.

Albanian League

*in full **League For The Defense Of The Rights Of The Albanian Nation,** also called **League Of Prizren,** * first Albanian nationalist organization. Formed at Prizren, Serbia, on July 1, 1878, the league, initially supported by the Turks, tried to influence the [][Congress of Berlin], which was formulating a peace settlement following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 and which threatened to partition Albania (then part of the Ottoman Empire) and transfer some of its districts to Montenegro, Serbia, and Greece. Unsuccessful in its appeals to the congress, the league used military force to prevent Montenegro from annexing the northern Albanian districts assigned to it (February 1879 and April 1880); the league also forced the area acquired by Greece to be reduced (1881). The league, however, was compelled to give up the district of Ulcinj (Dulcigno) to Montenegro (November 1880) and then was crushed by a Turkish army (by May 1881) that had been sent into Albania when the sultan's government became annoyed with the league's demands for political autonomy. Despite its defeat, the league engaged in activities between 1878 and 1881 that not only demonstrated the existence of a genuine nationalist movement in Albania but also gave impetus to that movement, which in 1912 brought about the declaration of the independence of Albania.

agnathan

Introduction ------------ any of the class Agnatha of primitive, jawless fishes that includes the [][lampreys] and [][hagfishes] (order Cyclostomata), as well as extinct groups. Hagfishes are minor pests of commercial food fisheries of the North Atlantic, but because of their parasitic habit, lampreys have been a serious pest of food fisheries in the Great Lakes in North America, where they have reduced the numbers of lake trout and other species. Agnathans are otherwise of little economic importance. The group is of great evolutionary interest, however, because it includes the oldest known craniate fossils and because the living agnathans have many primitive characteristics. General features {#63377.toc} ---------------- The body of the hagfish is softskinned and nearly cylindrical, with a single nostril at the anterior end, overlying the mouth, and a low caudal fin around the tail. The eyes are vestigial and covered by skin. All of the 20 known species are restricted to cold, marine bottom waters at depths ranging from 10 metres (about 33 feet) in high latitudes to 1,300 metres in equatorial oceans. Adults are 40 to 80 centimetres (15 to 30 inches) long. All species are superficially similar except in the number and position of the gill apertures.

aeolipile

[![Animation:Heron's aeolipile]] - Heron's aeolipile steam turbine invented in the 1st century AD by [][Heron of Alexandria] and described in his *Pneumatica*. The aeolipile was a hollow sphere mounted so that it could turn on a pair of hollow tubes that provided steam to the sphere from a cauldron. The steam escaped from the sphere from one or more bent tubes projecting from its equator, causing the sphere to revolve. The aeolipile is the first known device to transform steam into rotary motion. Like many other machines of the time that demonstrated basic mechanical principles, it was simply regarded as a curiosity or a toy and was not used for any practical purpose.

Akita

[![Photograph:Akita.]] - Akita. breed of working [][dog] that originated in the mountains of northern Japan. In 1931 the Japanese government designated the breed as a national treasure. It was employed as a hunting and fighting dog and is now trained for police and guard work. The Akita is a powerful, muscular dog with a broad head, erect, pointed ears (small in relation to head size), and a large curved tail carried over the back or curled against the flank. Akitas are bred in a variety of colours and markings, including all-white, brindle, and pinto. Except for the white, all Akitas bear a distinct mask (dark area around the muzzle). The first Akita was brought to the United States by Helen Keller in 1937, a puppy having been presented to her as a gift during a tour of Japan. Akitas were admitted into the show classifications of the American Kennel Club (AKC) in 1973. According to AKC standards, males must be 26 to 28 inches (66 to 71 cm) tall, females 24 to 26 inches (61 to 66 cm), weighing 75 to 110 pounds (165 to 242 kg). [![table]]*See* the [table] of selected breeds of working dogs for further information.

agama (genus Agama)

any of about 30 species of lizards belonging to the family [Agamidae] (suborder Sauria). They are rather unspecialized lizards about 30 to 45 cm (12 to 18 inches) long exhibiting little development of crests or dewlaps. They inhabit rocky desert areas throughout Africa, southeastern Europe, and central India. Although they are usually brown or gray, males undergo a conspicuous colour change during mating season, turning bright red, blue, and shades of yellow; in some species females are known to court males. Agamas, which lay from 2 to 20 eggs per clutch, may hatch several clutches in one year. *[]Agama agama*, a common gray lizard with a red or yellow head, is well adapted to gardens and to the bush and grasslands. The []hardun (*A. stellio*), which is common in northern Egypt, has a tail ringed with spiked scales, giving it a ferocious appearance.

Albert I

born April 8, 1875, Brussels, Belg. died Feb. 17, 1934, Marche-les-Dames, near Namur [![Photograph:Albert I]] - Albert I king of the Belgians (1909-34), who led the Belgian army during World War I and guided his country's postwar recovery. The younger son of Philip, count of Flanders (brother of King Leopold II), Albert succeeded to the throne in 1909—Leopold's son and Albert's father and older brother having died earlier. Before World War I, Albert worked to strengthen the army, gaining passage in 1913 of a military conscription bill. He reaffirmed Belgian neutrality to France and Germany in the summer of 1914 and rejected the German emperor William II's ultimatum of Aug. 2, 1914, demanding free passage of German troops across Belgian territory. A German invasion followed two days later.

Adler, Felix

born Aug. 13, 1851, Alzey, Hesse-Darmstadt [Germany] died April 24, 1933, New York, N.Y., U.S. [![Photograph:Felix Adler]] - Felix Adler American educator and founder of the Ethical Movement. The son of a rabbi, Adler immigrated to the United States with his family in 1856 and graduated from Columbia College in 1870. After study at the Universities of Berlin and Heidelberg, he became professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. In 1902 he was appointed professor of political and social ethics at Columbia University.

Agramonte y Simoni, Aristides

born June 3, 1868, Camagüey, Cuba died Aug. 19, 1931, New Orleans, La., U.S. physician, pathologist, and bacteriologist, a member of the Reed Yellow Fever Board of the U.S. Army that discovered (1901) the role of the mosquito in the transmission of yellow fever. Agramonte was the son of a prominent physician who had been killed while serving in the Cuban Army of Liberation. Brought up in New York City, Agramonte received his M.D. in 1892 from the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University. After he had served his internship, he conducted research in pathology and bacteriology at Bellevue Hospital and with the New York City Department of Health. He was appointed an assistant surgeon with the U.S. Army from 1898 to 1902. As professor of bacteriology and experimental pathology at the University of Havana (from 1900), member of the government board of infectious diseases, Cabinet secretary of health and charities, and medical practitioner for many of the Americans who lived in Havana, Agramonte was an influential leader of scientific medicine in Cuba. In 1931 he was appointed to head the new department of tropical medicine at a medical school in Louisiana, but he died while preparing to assume the position.

Albany, Louise Maximilienne Caroline, Countess of

born Sept. 20, 1752, Mons, Austrian Netherlands [now in Belgium] died Jan. 29, 1824, Florence [Italy] wife of the Young Pretender, Prince []Charles Edward, unsuccessful Stuart claimant to the English throne. Later she became the mistress of the Italian poet and dramatist [][Vittorio Alfieri]. The elder daughter of Gustav Adolf, prince of Stolberg-Gedern, she entered the convent of Saint Waudru in Mons, where as a canoness she was able to receive a good education despite the poverty in which her father's death at the Battle of Leuthen had left her family. In 1772 she was married to Prince Charles Edward, self-styled Count of Albany, who was 32 years older than she. In Rome the countess was embarrassed by her husband's attempts to have her treated as a queen. After they had moved to Florence, it became plain that she would not present him with an heir; his bouts of drunkenness returned, and they became estranged. In 1780 she fled from him and placed herself under the protection of his brother Henry, Cardinal Duke of York. Charles Edward's ill-treatment of her was the reason given for this move, but the real cause was her liaison with Alfieri, who soon followed her to Rome. When this liaison became known to the cardinal, he withdrew his support and had Alfieri banished. After some wanderings the couple settled in Florence, Louise having obtained a legal separation from her husband in 1784 through the intervention of Gustavus III of Sweden. On a visit to London the countess was received at court and obtained a pension from George III of Britain.

Affre, Denis-Auguste

born Sept. 28, 1793, Saint-Rome-de-Tarn, France died June 27, 1848, Paris [![Photograph:Affre, lithograph after a drawing by Krinowski, 19th century]] - Affre, lithograph after a drawing by Krinowski, 19th century prelate, archbishop of Paris, and opponent of King [][Louis-Philippe], remembered for his brave attempt to end the June 1848 riots, in which he was accidentally slain. Affre was ordained a priest in 1818 and became a Sulpician and a teacher of theology in 1819. He successively became vicar-general of the French dioceses of Luçon (1821), Amiens (1823), and Paris (1834) and in 1840 was named archbishop of Paris.

Ādoni

city, western Andhra Pradesh state, southern India. It lies 140 miles (225 km) southwest of Hyderābād, on the Madras-Bombay railway route. Ādoni was once the stronghold for the rulers of the medieval Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar. Muslims later controlled it until 1792, when a war between the British East India Company and Tippu Sultan resulted in its cession to the niẓām of Hyderābād. A magnificent mosque (Jāmiʿ Masjid) was built there in 1680. Ādoni now manufactures cotton cloth and carpets. Pop. (1991 prelim.) 135,718.

Ahuachapán

city, western [El Salvador], on the small Molino River (with a hydroelectric station) at the foot of La Lagunita Volcano. Originally called Güeciapam by the Indians, it was renamed Agüecha before becoming the town (1823) and the city (1862) of Ahuachapán. A manufacturing and distributing centre (the most important product being coffee), it is also noted for its mineral baths, drawn from thermal springs, notably below the nearby Malacatiupán Falls. A geothermal power plant, using heat from the springs, began operation in 1975. Pop. (2005 est.) urban area, 38,100.

affreightment

contract for carriage of goods by water, "freight" being the price paid for the service of carriage. Such contracts are of immense importance to the world economy, forming the legal structure of the arterial traffic of the oceans. Essentially, such a contract is an agreement between two parties, the carrier and the shipper. The carrier undertakes to carry the goods to a specified destination, and the shipper to pay the freight. There are two basic forms: the [][charter party], engaging the whole capacity of the ship for a single voyage or for a period of time, and the [][bill of lading], which is a receipt for goods taken on board for carriage. *See also* [charter party]; [lading, bill of].

Aiken

county, western [South Carolina], U.S. It lies in the state's sandhill region between the North Fork Edisto River to the northeast and the [Savannah River] border with Georgia to the southwest. The county is also drained by the South Fork Edisto. Aiken and Redcliffe Plantation state parks are within its boundaries. The area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Savannah Indians in the late 18th century. During the [][U.S. War of Independence] colonial patriots defeated Tories during a battle in Dean's Swamp. The area's growth began with the establishment of the first cotton mill in the southern United States, at Graniteville in 1845. In 1848 []Hamburg (near present-day North Augusta), across the Savannah River from Augusta, Georgia, was a centre of the [slave trade], which was banned in Georgia. Aiken county was established in 1871 and named for the politician and railroad executive William Aiken. [][Race riots] in Hamburg and []Ellenton in 1876 led to Aiken county's becoming a centre for the political [][white supremacy movement] during and after the [][Reconstruction] era. The U.S. Department of Energy's [Savannah River Site], once a leading producer of nuclear weapons materials and now operating in a much-diminished capacity as a weapons materials processor, occupies much of the southeastern portion of the county. To make room for the plant, homes and other buildings were moved to new locations, including the entire town of Ellenton, now called New Ellenton. Livestock raising (notably racehorses) and the growing of soybeans, grains, and peaches are major factors in the economy, as are the mining of kaolin and other minerals. Chief manufactures include chemicals and paper, textile, and glass products. The city of [Aiken] is the county seat. Area 1,073 square miles (2,779 square km). Pop. (1990) 120,991; (1998 est.) 134,051.

Alberta, flag of

![flag]\ Canadian provincial flag consisting of a blue field (background) with the provincial [coat of arms] in the centre. The crest includes (from bottom to top) the typical wheat fields of the province, rough prairie land, foothills, and finally the Rocky Mountains under a blue sky. At the very top of the shield is the red Cross of St. George, recalling the English settlement of the region. In 1905 [][Alberta] became a Canadian province, and a naturalistic scene was proposed for its new coat of arms. The design was not immediately accepted, however, because of objections by the [College of Arms] (the English body to which Canada deferred most heraldic matters in that era). On May 30, 1907, the design was established by royal warrant. In anticipation of the centennial of Canadian confederation, petitions were submitted in November 1966 to Premier Ernest Charles Manning by the Social Credit Women's Auxiliaries of the Alberta Social Credit League, calling for a distinctive Alberta flag. Approved as the provincial "banner" (for use everywhere except on public buildings) on January 17, 1967, the new design consisted of the shield of the province on a plain blue background, whose symbolism was not explained. This centennial flag was subsequently made the official provincial flag by the legislature on June 1, 1968. The design of the coat of arms is attributed to Mrs. H. MacCully; it was augmented in a royal warrant dated July 30, 1980, by a crest, motto, and supporters. Those design elements were not added to the flag, however. [Whitney Smith]

Alaska, flag of

![flag]\ U.S. state flag consisting of a dark blue field (background) showing [Polaris] (the North Star) and the [Ursa Major] (Great Bear) constellation in gold or yellow. The territories of the United States typically did not have flags of their own prior to statehood. [][Alaska] nevertheless held a competition in 1926, sponsored by the American Legion, which sought a distinctive territorial flag. The following year the Alaskan legislature approved the winning design, which remained unchanged when the territory became a state in 1959. The creator of the flag was Benny Benson, a 13-year-old boy living in an orphanage. He chose straightforward symbols that struck a chord with Alaskans of all ages and backgrounds. The flag's dark blue colour symbolizes the Alaskan sky and the ubiquitous forget-me-not flowers that announce the arrival of spring. The stars emblazoned on this background can be seen clearly in the Alaskan sky. The [][North Star] is an appropriate symbol for Alaska as the northernmost part of the United States; the two previously northernmost states, Minnesota and Maine, also show the North Star in their flags. [Whitney Smith]

Alabama, flag of

![flag]\ U.S. state flag consisting of a white field with a red saltire (diagonal cross). During the Civil War (1861-65) an unofficial flag of blue with a yellow or white star represented the separation of [][Alabama] from the Union. Another blue flag flew over the state capitol; its obverse side showed the state seal flanked by a woman holding the unofficial flag, while its reverse side featured a cotton plant and a coiled snake. Following the Civil War, many wished to assert the identity of the state through a distinctive flag. The design chosen in 1895 was white with a red saltire. The flag law referred to the design as a "[Cross of St. Andrew]," although that name, as used in Scotland, had always signified a white saltire. [![Flag:Cross of St. Andrew.]] - Cross of St. Andrew. No explanation was given concerning the symbolism of the flag, but the intent of the designer was clear. The square shape in which the flag was normally represented was a subtle reference to the Battle Flag of the Confederate States of America. In 1905 the legislature considered a proposal to add stars to the state flag, which would have made it even more similar to the Battle Flag; the flag was left unaltered, however. In 1939 Alabama adopted a state coat of arms directly incorporating the Confederate Battle Flag along with the flags of other governments that had controlled Alabama, including those of France, Spain, and Great Britain. In addition it rejected the state seal established in 1868 by the Reconstruction government, which featured the U.S. shield and bald eagle, in favour of its original seal, which featured a map of Alabama and its rivers. [Whitney Smith]

Alarcos, Battle of

(July 18, 1195), celebrated [][Almohad] victory in Muslim Spain over the forces of King [][Alfonso VIII] of Castile. In 1190 the Almohad caliph [][Abū Yūsuf Yaʿqūb] forced an armistice on the Christian kings of Castile and Leon, after repulsing their attacks on Muslim possessions in Spain. At the expiration of the truce (c. 1194) Alfonso invaded the province of Sevilla (Seville), prompting Abū Yūsuf to leave his North African capital, Marrakech, with an expedition against the Christians. The Castilians managed to surprise the Muslim advance guard; but, having underestimated the strength of the Almohad army, they were severely beaten by Yaʿqūb, who was joined by the cavalry of the Castilian []Pedro Fernández de Castro, a personal enemy of Alfonso. The defeat occurred in a battle fought near the fortress of Alarcos (Al-Arak in Arabic). Alfonso and his army fled to Toledo and Alarcos, while Yaʿqūb returned triumphantly to Sevilla. There he assumed the title Al-Manṣūr Billāh ("Victorious by God"). For years afterward, even with the support of the king of Aragon, Alfonso was unwilling to confront the Almohads while they marched through his territories, taking Montánchez, Trujillo, Santa Cruz, and Talavera and destroying the vineyards of Toledo.

Alaska Purchase

(1867), acquisition by the United States from Russia of 586,412 square miles (1,518,800 square km) of land at the northwestern tip of the North American continent. [][William Henry Seward], secretary of state under President Andrew Johnson, had as early as 1860 dreamed of acquiring Alaska. The territory was considered an economic liability by the Russians, and in December 1866 Baron []Eduard de Stoeckl, Russian minister to the United States, was instructed to open negotiations with Seward for its sale. On March 29, 1867, Stoeckl and Seward completed the draft of a treaty ceding Russian North America to the United States, and the treaty was signed early the following day. The price—\$7,200,000—amounted to about two cents per acre. Few Americans, however, viewed the purchase as a bargain, and Seward was vilified in the press. "Seward's Icebox" and "Seward's Folly" were the two most popular names for the Alaska Purchase, and consent by the Senate and funding by the House of Representatives seemed in jeopardy as a result of the public outrage. The treaty was submitted for consent on March 30. Senator Charles Sumner spoke in its favour, and the treaty was passed on April 9. The House passed the necessary appropriation on July 14, 1868. Extensive propaganda campaigns and judicious use of bribes by Stoeckl secured the required votes in each house of Congress.

Adkins v. Children's Hospital

(1923), U.S. Supreme Court case in which the court invalidated a board established by Congress to set minimum wages for [women] workers in the District of Columbia. Congress in 1918 had authorized the Wage Board to ascertain and fix adequate wages for women employees in the nation's capital. The court ruled in a 5-3 vote that the law authorizing the Wage Board infringed upon Fifth Amendment guarantees of life, liberty, and property. Employer and employee, according to the majority opinion, had a constitutional right to contract in whatever manner they pleased. Thus, the establishment of the Wage Board was an unjustified interference with the freedom of contract. In their dissent, justices William Howard Taft, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and Edward T. Sanford argued that Congress had the policing power to correct recognizable evils. The effects of *Adkins* v. *Children's Hospital* were reversed in *West Coast Hotel Company* v. *Parrish* (1937), when the Supreme Court overturned the position that had been adopted by the court's conservative majority and ruled that some government intervention in contracts between employers and employees is not unconstitutional.

Aegospotami, Battle of

(405 BC), naval victory of Sparta over Athens, final battle of the [][Peloponnesian War]. The fleets of the two Greek rival powers faced each other in the Hellespont for four days without battle, until on the fifth day the Spartans under [][Lysander] surprised the Athenians in their anchorage off Aegospotami. Conon, the Athenian commander, escaped with only 20 of his 180 ships, and the 3,000-4,000 Athenians who were captured were put to death. The victory at Aegospotami enabled Lysander to proceed against Athens itself, forcing the Athenians to surrender in April 404.

Afrikaner Bond

(Afrikaans: "Afrikaner League"), the first political party of Cape Colony, southern Africa, founded by S.J. [][du Toit] in 1880. In 1883 it amalgamated with J.H. [][Hofmeyr's] []Boeren Beschermings Vereeniging ("Farmer's Protection Association"). Du Toit attempted to create a pan-Afrikaner nationalist Bond with affiliated branches outside the Cape, but this effort foundered, and the unity of Afrikaners in the late 1890s owed more to British imperial intervention in southern Africa than to Bond policies. Under Hofmeyr's leadership, the Bond advocated a broader nationalism that included the British. Although he never formed a Cabinet, Hofmeyr, as the majority leader in the Cape House of Assembly, was able, through the judicious support of the English-speaking politicians, to protect Afrikaner interests and keep Cape Colony neutral during the South African War (1899-1902). In 1910 the Bond joined with Afrikaner parties in the rest of South Africa to form the South African National Party (later, the South Africa Party) and dissolved itself in 1911.

Ahl-e Ḥaqq

(Arabic: "People of Truth," or "People of God"), a secret, syncretistic religion, derived largely from Islām, whose adherents are found in western Iran, with enclaves in Iraq. They retain the 12 imams of the Ithnā ʿAsharīyah sect and such aspects of Islāmic mysticism as the communal feast. Central to their religion, however, is a belief in seven successive manifestations of God. They further believe in the transmigration of souls, asserting that every person must pass through 1,001 incarnations, in the course of which he receives the proper reward for his actions. The ultimate purification, however (becoming "luminous"), is limited to those who in the initial creation were destined to be good and were made of yellow clay; those destined to be evil were made of black clay. On the Day of Judgment the good will enter Paradise and the wicked will be annihilated. The Ahl-e Ḥaqq rites, all communal, include animal sacrifice. The chief source of information about the sect is the *[]Firqān al-Akhbār*, written in the late 19th or early 20th century by a member.

Aftenposten

(Norwegian: "Evening Post"), morning and evening daily newspaper published in Oslo. It is one of the leading newspapers in [][Norway] and in all Scandinavia. It was established in 1860 by Christian Schibsted, and it played a significant role in developing a sense of Norwegian nationhood. Noted from its founding for the strength of its coverage of local and, increasingly, national news, *Aftenposten* has generally taken an editorial stance that is moderately conservative. It was an early voice warning Norwegians of the dangers of Adolf Hitler's Germany. When the Nazis invaded Norway in 1940, the paper's elevator operator, who had been a member of the "fifth column" of the traitorous Major Vidkun Quisling, took over *Aftenposten* from its editor, and, for the remainder of World War II, the paper was a Nazi propaganda organ. During the Nazi occupation, more than 60 editors of Norwegian newspapers were executed and 3,000 sent to concentration camps. In the postwar era, *Aftenposten* won wide note for the strength of its coverage of international news while retaining its outstanding strength in local and national affairs.

air de cour

(French: "court air"), genre of French solo or part-song predominant from the late 16th century through the 17th century. It originated in arrangements, for voice and lute, of popular chansons (secular part-songs) written in a light chordal style. Such arrangements were originally known as *vau-* (or *voix-*) *de-villes* ("town voice"), the name *air de cour* becoming common after its use in 1571 in a collection by Adrian Le Roy and Robert Ballard. Other notable early collections were published by Pierre Attaignant and Pierre Phalèse; Antoine Boesset, Jean de Cambefort, and Michel Lambert were among the composers included. Early collections drew heavily on chanson arrangements, but new pieces were also composed explicitly as accompanied solo song. Typically, the *air de cour* was a strophic song (the same music for all stanzas) written for one or two voices and lute or harpsichord or for four or five unaccompanied voices. There were two repeated sections, and often a refrain; singers often embellished the melody on the repetitions. The texts were usually love poems in stylized language, sometimes in *vers mesuré* (quantitative verse written in imitation of the poetry of classical antiquity), but they also included drinking songs, religious feats, and other subject matter. *[][Musique mesurée],* a short-lived musical style that reflected the metre of *vers mesuré* in the duration of the musical notes, left its mark on the *air de cour* in a tendency to use irregular rhythmic patterns. *See also* [ayre].

Ai Qing

(JIANG HAICHENG), Chinese poet (b. March 27, 1910, Jinhua, Zhejiang province, China--d. May 5, 1996, Beijing, China), created works that at their best were simple and powerful while at their worst were marred by propagandistic intent. The son of a wealthy landowner, Jiang lived the first five years of his life with an impoverished wet nurse. From 1928 to 1932 he studied in Paris, where he gained an appreciation for Western literature. Upon his return to China, he was imprisoned for his radical political associations, and while in jail he wrote a poem about his wet nurse that established his popularity. After his release some three years later, he joined Mao Zedong and dedicated his poetry to the communist cause. He published more than 30 volumes of chiefly nationalistic, folk-oriented verse and served in many cultural offices, but in 1957 he was officially censured. He remained silent for 21 years, interned in labour camps in Heilongjiang and Xinjiang provinces. *Selected Poems of Ai Qing* was published in 1982.

aikido

(Japanese: "way of spiritual harmony"), self-defense system that resembles the fighting methods jujitsu and judo in its use of twisting and throwing techniques and in its aim of turning an attacker's strength and momentum against himself. Pressure on vital nerve centres is also used. Aikido was developed to subdue, rather than maim or kill as in jujitsu and karate, but many of its movements can nevertheless be deadly. Aikido especially emphasizes the importance of achieving complete mental calm and control of one's own body to master an opponent's attack. As in other Oriental martial arts, the development of courtesy and respect is an integral part of aikido training. The basic skills of aikido probably originated in Japan in about the 14th century. In the early 20th century they were systematized in their modern form through the work of the Japanese martial-arts expert []Ueshiba Morihei. There are no offensive moves in aikido. As taught by Ueshiba, it was so purely defensive an art that no direct contest between practitioners was possible. Later a student of Ueshiba, []Tomiki Kenji, developed a competition style (known as Tomiki aikido) that incorporates aikido techniques. A competitor attempts to score points by swiftly touching an opponent with a rubber or wooden knife, and the other tries to avoid and disarm the attacker. The two alternate in wielding the knife. *See also* [martial art].

Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of

(Oct. 18, 1748), treaty negotiated largely by Britain and France, with the other powers following their lead, ending the [][War of the Austrian Succession] (1740-48). The treaty was marked by the mutual restitution of conquests, including the fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, to France; Madras in India, to England; and the barrier towns to the Dutch. The right of the Habsburg heiress [][Maria Theresa] to the Austrian lands was guaranteed, but the Habsburgs were seriously weakened by the guarantee to Prussia, not a party to the treaty, of its conquest of Silesia. Both Britain and France were trying to win the friendship of Prussia, now clearly a significant power, for the next war. Maria Theresa gave up to Spain the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla in Italy. The treaty confirmed the right of succession of the house of Hanover both in Great Britain and in Hanover. In the commercial struggle between England and France in the West Indies, Africa, and India, nothing was settled; the treaty was thus no basis for a lasting peace.

Agincourt, Battle of

(Oct. 25, 1415), decisive victory of the [][English] over the French in the [][Hundred Years'War]. In pursuit of his claim to the French throne, [][Henry V] of England and an army of about 11,000 men invaded Normandy in August 1415. They took Harfleur in September, but by then half their troops had been lost to disease and battle casualties. Henry decided to move northeast to Calais, an English enclave in France, whence his diminished forces could return to England. Large [French] forces under the constable [Charles I d'Albret] blocked his line of advance to the north, however. The French force, which totaled 20,000 to 30,000 men, many of them mounted knights in heavy armour, caught the exhausted English army at Agincourt (now Azincourt in Pas-de-Calais *département*). The French unwisely chose a battlefield with a narrow frontage of only about 1,000 yards of open ground between two woods. In this cramped space, which made large-scale maneuvers almost impossible, the French virtually forfeited the advantage of their overwhelming numbers. At dawn on October 25, the two armies prepared for battle. Three French divisions, the first two dismounted, were drawn up one behind another. Henry had only about 5,000 archers and 900 men-at-arms, whom he arrayed in a dismounted line. The dismounted men-at-arms were arrayed in three central blocks linked by projecting wedges of archers, and additional masses of archers formed forward wings at the left and right ends of the English line. Henry led his troops forward into bowshot range, where their long-range archery provoked the French into an assault. Several small French cavalry charges broke upon a line of pointed stakes in front of the English archers. Then the main French assault, consisting of heavily armoured, dismounted knights, advanced over the sodden ground. At the first clash the English line yielded, only to recover quickly. As more French knights entered the battle, they became so tightly bunched that some of them could barely raise their arms to strike a blow. At this decisive point, Henry ordered his lightly equipped and more mobile English archers to attack with swords and axes. The unencumbered English hacked down thousands of the French, and thousands more were taken prisoner, many of whom were killed on Henry's orders when another French attack seemed imminent.

Akāl Takht

(Punjabi: "Throne of the Timeless One"), the chief centre of religious authority for the Sikh community of India. The Akāl Takht is located at the city of Amritsar (Punjab state), opposite the Harimandir, or Golden Temple, the principal Sikh house of worship; it is also the headquarters of the Shiromanī Akālī Dal ("Leading Akālī Party"), predominant among the Sikhs. Similar seats of authority are located at Anandpur and Patiāla (Punjab), Patna (Bihār), and Nānded (Mahārāshtra). The Akāl Takht was badly damaged during the assault on the Golden Temple by the Indian army in June 1984. When in 1708 Gurū Gobind Singh declared that the line of personal Gurūs (religious guides) had come to an end, the authority of the office of Gurū was considered to be embodied in the holy scriptures, the *Ādi Granth*. Disputes in interpretation had to be settled by the entire Sikh community. Decisions were made at annual or semiannual meetings in Amritsar, when groups would assemble behind their elected leaders in the open area in front of the Akāl Takht. Resolutions had to be carried unanimously; they then became *[]gurmata*s (decisions of the Gurū) and were binding on all Sikhs. Both political and religious decisions were taken at Akāl Takht meetings up until 1809, when Maharaja [][Ranjit Singh], the leader of the newly unified Sikh state, abolished political *gurmata*s and began to seek counsel from both Sikhs and non-Sikhs. In the 20th century, resolutions of local congregations on nonpolitical matters relating to the interpretation of Sikh doctrine or rules of conduct can be appealed to the Akāl Takht; decisions taken there are conveyed in the form of *[hukamnāmā]*s (orders). A *hukamnāmā* issued from the Akāl Takht is considered mandatory for all Sikhs.

Akālī

(Punjabi: "Timeless One," or "Eternal One"), a movement in Sikhism; also any member of suicide squads in the armies of the Sikhs, a religious group of India. The Akālī suicide squads first appeared about 1690 when the execution of two predecessors and continuing persecution by the Mughals forced the 10th Gurū Gobind Singh to take up arms. The Akālīs were also known as *nihang*s (Persian: "crocodiles"; a name first used by the Mughals for their suicide squads) and wore a distinctive blue uniform. Some present-day Akālīs continue to wear a blue tunic and a conical blue turban and to carry a sword. The Akālī name was revived in the 1920s during the gurdwara reform movement as a semimilitary corps of volunteers raised to oppose the British government. After the Sikhs regained control of their []gurdwaras, or shrines, the Akālīs continued to represent the Sikh community in the Punjab and took the lead in the agitation for a Punjabi-speaking, Sikh-majority state. This goal was achieved in 1966 with the establishment of the Indian state of Punjab. A major political party of Punjab state is the [Shiromanī Akālī Dal] (SAD; "Leading Akālī Party"). Although it competes in national elections, it is mainly concerned with the status of the Sikhs in Punjab state.

Advaita

(Sanskrit: "Nondualism," or "Monism"), most influential of the schools of Vedānta, an orthodox philosophy of India. While its followers find its main tenets already fully expressed in the *Upaniṣad*s and systematized by the *Vedānta-sūtra*s, it has its historical beginning with the 7th-century thinker []Gauḍapāda, author of the *[]Māṇḍūkya-kārikā,* a commentary in verse form on the late *Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad.* Gauḍapāda builds further on the Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy of Śūnyavā-da ("Emptiness"). He argues that there is no duality; the mind, awake or dreaming, moves through maya ("illusion"); and only nonduality (advaita) is the final truth. This truth is concealed by the ignorance of illusion. There is no becoming, either of a thing by itself or of a thing out of some other thing. There is ultimately no individual self or soul (jiva), only the [][atman] (all-soul), in which individuals may be temporarily delineated just as the space in a jar delineates a part of main space: when the jar is broken, the individual space becomes once more part of the main space. The medieval Indian philosopher [][Śaṅkara], or Śaṅkarācārya (Master Śaṅkara, *c.* 700-750), builds further on Gauḍapāda's foundation, principally in his commentary on the *Vedānta-sūtra*s, the *[]Śārī-raka-mīmāṃsā-bhāṣya* ("Commentary on the Study of the Self "). Śaṅkara in his philosophy does not start from the empirical world with logical analysis but, rather, directly from the absolute ([][Brahman]). If interpreted correctly, he argues, the *Upaniṣad*s teach the nature of Brahman. In making this argument, he develops a complete epistemology to account for the human error in taking the phenomenal world for real. Fundamental for Śaṅkara is the tenet that the Brahman is real and the world is unreal. Any change, duality, or plurality is an illusion. The self is nothing but Brahman. Insight into this identity results in spiritual release. Brahman is outside time, space, and causality, which are simply forms of empirical experience. No distinction in Brahman or from Brahman is possible. Śaṅkara points to scriptural texts, either stating identity ("Thou art that") or denying difference ("There is no duality here"), as declaring the true meaning of a Brahman without qualities (*[][nirguṇa]*). Other texts that ascribe qualities (*saguṇa*) to Brahman refer not to the true nature of Brahman but to its personality as God (Īśvara).

Ahmose I

(reigned *c.* 1539-14 BC), founder of the 18th dynasty, who completed his brother's expulsion of the [][Hyksos] (Asiatic rulers of Egypt), invaded Palestine, and re-exerted Egypt's hegemony over [][Nubia], to the south. Resuming the war of liberation against the Hyksos early in his reign, Ahmose crushed the foreigners' allies in Middle Egypt and, advancing down the Nile River, captured Memphis, the traditional capital of Egypt, near modern Cairo. While his mother, Queen Ahhotep, ran the government in Thebes, near modern Luxor, he undertook a waterborne operation against Avaris, the Hyksos capital, in the eastern delta, followed by a land siege. When a rebellion flared in Upper Egypt, he hastened upriver to quell the rising, while the queen mother Ahhotep helped to contain it. Having put down the rising, he captured Avaris and then pursued the enemy to Sharuhen, a Hyksos stronghold in Palestine, which was reduced after a three-year siege. Before advancing into Palestine, Ahmose, in three campaigns, advanced into Nubia, whose ruler had been an ally of the Hyksos. The rich gold mines of the south provided another incentive for Ahmose's expansion into Nubia. After his borders were secure, Ahmose established an administration loyal to him in Egypt and granted lands to distinguished veterans of his campaigns and to members of the royal family. He reactivated the copper mines at Sinai and resumed trade with the cities of the Syrian coast, as attested by inscriptions recording the use of cedar found in Syria and by the rich jewelry from his reign. He restored neglected temples, erected chapels for his family, and planned more ambitious works, but he died soon afterward, leaving a prosperous and reunited Egypt.

Alaska blackfish

(species *Dallia pectoralis*), Arctic freshwater fish, assigned by some authorities to the family Umbridae but by others to the separate family Dalliidae. The fish is about 20 cm (8 inches) long, with a dark, streamlined body, protruding lower jaw, and two large opposed fins near the tail. Locally important as a food fish, it lives in shallow streams and ponds of North America and Siberia. Although it is said to withstand being frozen solid, this has never been substantiated.

Agassiz, Elizabeth Cabot

**née* **Elizabeth Cabot Cary** * born Dec. 5, 1822, Boston, Mass., U.S. died June 27, 1907, Arlington Heights, Mass. American naturalist and educator who was the first president of [Radcliffe College], Cambridge, Massachusetts. Elizabeth Cary was related to many of Boston's leading families. She received no formal schooling but acquired a somewhat haphazard education at home. In April 1850 she married the distinguished and recently widowed Swiss naturalist [Louis Agassiz]; her work proved to be invaluable to his career. Her notes on his lectures were the raw material of much of his published work, and she helped organize and manage several of his expeditions into the field, notably the Thayer Expedition to Brazil in 1865-66 and the Hassler Expedition through the Strait of Magellan in 1871-72. Together they founded the coeducational Anderson School of Natural History, a marine laboratory on Penikese Island in Buzzard's Bay, Massachusetts. Elizabeth Agassiz's own published work includes *A First Lesson in Natural History* (1859), *Seaside Studies in Natural History* (1865; with her stepson Alexander Agassiz), and *A Journey in Brazil* (1867; with her husband).

Ahura Mazdā

*(Avestan: "Wise Lord"),also spelled **Ormizd, or Ormazd,** * [![Photograph:Ahura Mazdā, symbol from a doorway of the main hall of the Council Hall, Persepolis, Persia]] - Ahura Mazdā, symbol from a doorway of the main hall of the Council Hall, Persepolis, Persia supreme god in ancient Iranian religion, especially in the religious system of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster (7th century-6th century BC). Ahura Mazdā was worshiped by the Persian king Darius I (reigned 522 BC-486 BC) and his successors as the greatest of all gods and protector of the just king. According to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazdā created the universe and the cosmic order that he maintains. He created the twin spirits [][Spenta Mainyu] and Angra Mainyu ([][Ahriman])—the former beneficent, choosing truth, light, and life, the latter destructive, choosing deceit, darkness, and death. The struggle of the spirits against each other makes up the history of the world.

Alaungpaya

*(Burmese: "The Victorious"),also spelled **Alaung Phra, Alompra, or Aungzeya** * born 1714, Moksobomyo [Shwebo], Myanmar died April 13, 1760, Kin-ywa, Martaban province, Myanmar king (1752-60) who unified Myanmar (Burma) and founded the [][Alaungpaya], or Konbaung, dynasty, which held power until the British annexed Upper (northern) Burma on Jan. 1, 1886. He also conquered the independent Mon kingdom of Pegu (in the Irrawaddy River delta). Of humble origins, Alaungpaya was a village headman from the small town of Moksobomyo (present-day [][Shwebo]), north of Ava, the Myanmar capital, when in April 1752 [][Binnya Dala], the Mon king of Pegu, captured Ava and put an end to Myanmar's ruling Toungoo dynasty. Refusing to become his vassal, Alaungpaya organized a resistance movement. Claiming descent from a 15th-century Myanmar king, he established a new Myanmar capital at Moksobomyo. In 1753 he recaptured Ava and went on the offensive in southern Myanmar. In 1755, at the end of a lightning campaign into the Mon country, he founded a new port, to be called Yangôn (Rangoon), at the site of the Mon fishing village of Dagon. In 1757 he captured the city of Pegu, and took Binnya Dala prisoner. Alaungpaya established effective control over the whole area previously under the rule of the Toungoo dynasty.

Agnus Dei

*(Latin), English **Lamb of God** * designation of Jesus Christ in Christian []liturgical usage. It is based on the saying of [][John the Baptist]: "Behold, the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world!" (John 1:29). In the [][Roman Catholic] liturgy the Agnus Dei is employed in the following text: "Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us! Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us! Lamb of God, who takest away the sins of the world, grant us peace!" It comes between the Lord's Prayer and the Communion and sounds the themes of sacrifice and of adoration. Thus, it unites the sacrifice of the liturgy to the sacrifice of Christ on the Cross as the Lamb of God and calls to mind the sacrifice of the lamb in the cultus of the Old Testament. Both [][Anglican] and []Lutheran liturgies have retained the Agnus Dei in their eucharistic rites. It also appears as part of many of the litanies. The name is also applied to figures of Christ as the Lamb of God, especially to waxen disks impressed with this figure and blessed by the pope.

Agnelli, Giovanni

***"Gianni"** * Italian business tycoon (b. March 12, 1921, Turin, Italy—d. Jan. 24, 2003, Turin), as chairman (1966-96) of the Fiat SpA industrial conglomerate, was the most important Italian business leader of the 20th century and a symbol of Italy's post-World War II renaissance. Under Agnelli's leadership, diversification increased and the market for Fiat cars expanded from Italy to the rest of continental Europe. Though Agnelli had a degree in law, he embarked on a career as a jet-setting international playboy. A bad car accident in 1952 caused him to change direction, however, and in 1959 he became chairman of Istituto Finanziario Industriale, the Agnelli family's holding company. In 1963 he became managing director of Fiat. He was also well known for his stewardship of the Juventus association football (soccer) club, one of the family's holdings.

Ajax

***(Latin),** Greek **Aias,** byname **Ajax the Lesser** * in Greek legend, son of Oileus, king of Locris; he was said to be boastful, arrogant, and quarrelsome. For his crime of dragging King Priam's daughter Cassandra from the statue of the goddess Athena and violating her, he barely escaped being stoned to death by his Greek allies. Odysseus knew that Athena would be angry and advised the Greeks to put Ajax to death. When the Greeks were sailing away from Troy, the goddess, with the help of Poseidon, caused a tremendous storm. Ajax's ship was wrecked, but he swam to a rock and boasted to the gods of his escape. Then he was cast by Poseidon into the sea and drowned. Ajax was worshiped as a national hero by the Opuntian Locrians (who lived on the Malian Gulf in central Greece and on whose coins he appeared), who always left a vacant place for him in their battle line.

Albert, Eddie

***Edward Albert Heimberger** * American actor (b. April 22, 1906, Rock Island, Ill.—d. May 26, 2005, Pacific Palisades, Calif.), was best remembered for his starring role as Oliver Wendell Douglas, a lawyer intent on leaving the trappings of city life to become a gentleman farmer, in the popular TV series *Green Acres* (1965-71). Albert debuted on Broadway in 1936 in the comedy *O Evening Star* and later that year starred in *Brother Rat.* He was featured in numerous Broadway productions, including *The Boys from Syracuse* (1938), *The Music Man* (1960), and *You Can't Take It with You* (1983). He appeared in nearly 100 films and received Academy Award nominations for his roles in *Roman Holiday* (1953) and *The Heartbreak Kid* (1972). Albert returned to TV in the series *Switch* (1975-78) and *Falcon Crest* (1987).

Aguilar, Antonio

***Pascual Antonio Aguilar Barraza; Tony Aguilar; Toni Aguilar, "El Charro de Mexico"** * Mexican actor, singer, and cowboy born May 17, 1919, Villanueva, Zacatecas, Mex. died June 19, 2007, Mexico City, Mex. enraptured audiences with his powerful voice and became the most popular of the ranchero singers during the golden age of Mexican films; he appeared in more than 125 motion pictures, many of which used scripts that he wrote, and recorded at least 150 albums during his heyday. Though he initially moved to Los Angeles to pursue an operatic career, Aguilar returned to Mexico in 1945 and became a mariachi. A spot on a radio show led to a record deal and his first film role, in *Un rincón cerca del cielo* (1950). Six years later he secured his first starring role, in *Tierra de hombres.* He was perhaps best known for his portrayals of Mexican revolutionaries; he starred in the title role of *Emiliano Zapata* (1970) and portrayed Pancho Villa in *La sangre de un valiente* (1993). After playing a Mexican general in *The Undefeated* (1969), Aguilar became disenchanted with the portrayal of Mexicans in Hollywood productions. He returned home to make films and in 1997 received a Special Golden Ariel Award for his contribution to Mexican cinema. Aguilar also traveled across the U.S. and Latin America with his wife, singer Flor Silvestre, and his two sons (Pepe and Antonio, Jr.) in glittering sequined costumes in a combination concert and rodeo show called a *charrería.* In 2000 Aguilar, who sold more than 25 million records, had his star embedded on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

Akinola, Peter

***Peter Jasper Akinola** * born Jan. 27, 1944, Abeokuta, Nigeria In 2007 Anglican Archbishop Peter Akinola of Nigeria stirred up controversy when he created an American diocese to welcome discontented Episcopal parishes to a more conservative branch of the Anglican church. As primate of the Church of Nigeria, Akinola led the nearly 20 million members in the world's fastest-growing Anglican province, second in membership only to the 26-million-member Church of England; his church was a prominent example of the growth of Christianity in the "Global South" made up of Africa, Latin America, and parts of Asia. Akinola was four years old when his father died, and he was sent to live with an uncle. He attended school from the ages of 10 to 16; his uncle then told him to leave school and learn a trade. After an apprenticeship in Lagos, Akinola became a successful furniture maker and patent-medicine seller, but he gave up the business to study for the priesthood. He was ordained a deacon in 1978 and a priest in 1979; he traveled to the United States, graduating in 1981 from the Virginia Theological Seminary with a master's degree. Upon his return to Nigeria, he served in the Abuja diocese, being consecrated as bishop in 1989. In 1998 he became archbishop in Islam-dominated northern Nigeria, and in 2000 he was elected primate of all Nigeria. Akinola drew international attention after V. Gene Robinson of New Hampshire in 2003 became the first openly gay Anglican bishop. The Nigerian primate said that the U.S. Episcopal Church had "chosen the path of deviation from the historic faith" and called homosexuality "an aberration unknown even in animal relationships." Under Akinola's leadership the Nigerian church established the Convocation of Anglicans in North America (CANA) to provide a way for congregations that were alienated by the actions of the Episcopal Church to retain fellowship with the Anglican Communion. CANA's first missionary bishop, Martyn Minns of Virginia, was installed in May 2007 against the wishes of the archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams.

Aglauros

***also spelled** **Aglaurus** * in Greek mythology, eldest daughter of the Athenian king Cecrops. Aglauros died with her sisters by leaping in fear from the Acropolis after seeing the infant Erichthonius, a human with a serpent's tail. The Roman poet Ovid (*Metamorphoses* Book II), however, related that Aglauros was turned to stone by the god Mercury in retribution for her attempt to frustrate his abduction of []Herse, Aglauros' youngest sister. Aglauros and her sisters (Herse and []Pandrosos) were apparently at first fertility deities. Aglauros had a sanctuary on the Acropolis in which young men of military age swore an oath to her as well as to Zeus and to other deities. The honour, however, may have stemmed from another legend—that Aglauros had sacrificed herself for the city during the war against Eleusis (*see* [Erechtheus]). Aglauros had a daughter named []Alcippe by the god of war, [][Ares]. Alcippe was raped by Halirrhothius, a son of the god of the sea, Poseidon. Ares avenged the act and was tried before the gods on the Athens hill that later was named after him, the Areopagus. That place became the site of Athens's criminal trials.

Adler, Sara

**née* **Sara Levitzky** * born 1858, Odessa, Russia died April 28, 1953, New York, N.Y., U.S. Russian-born American actress, one of the most celebrated figures in the American Yiddish theatre. Sara Levitzky was born of a well-to-do Jewish family. She studied singing at the Odessa Conservatory for a time and then joined a Yiddish theatre troupe managed by Maurice Heine, whom she shortly thereafter married. The repressions that followed the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 bore heavily on the Jews of Russia, and in September 1883 Yiddish plays were expressly forbidden. Early the next year the Heine troupe immigrated to the United States, where Sara soon gained a following in the Yiddish theatre in New York City. In 1890 she divorced Heine and married []Jacob Adler, the leading tragic actor on the American Yiddish stage. Jacob Adler, together with playwright Jacob Gordin, was undertaking to revitalize the Yiddish theatre, then overburdened by outmoded stock material, with modern drama reflecting the urban milieu of Jews in the United States. Sara and Jacob Adler's productions over the next several decades, mainly at their own theatre on the Bowery, were the rebirth of serious Yiddish theatre. Sara played some 300 leading roles, including many from the popular theatrical repertoire of the day. Her greatest role, and the one that established her preeminence on the Yiddish stage, was that of Katusha Maslova in Gordin's dramatization of Leo Tolstoy's *Resurrection*. A close second was her starkly realistic portrayal of the abandoned and unbalanced wife in Gordin's *Homeless*. She performed infrequently after Jacob Adler's death in 1926. In 1939 she re-created her role in *Resurrection* at a tribute to her at the New Yorker Theatre. Not the least of her contributions to the theatre were her children [Stella Adler] and Luther Adler.

Adrianople, Battle of

*Adrianople also spelled **Hadrianopolis** * (Aug. 9, AD 378), battle fought at present Edirne, in European Turkey, resulting in the defeat of a Roman army commanded by the emperor [][Valens] at the hands of the Germanic Visigoths led by Fritigern and augmented by Ostrogothic and other reinforcements. It was a major victory of barbarian horsemen over Roman infantry and marked the beginning of serious Germanic inroads into Roman territory. The Goths annihilated the Roman army; by some accounts, the Romans lost 40,000 men. Valens, who had failed to await reinforcements from Gratian, his nephew and co-emperor, was killed on the battlefield. An accommodation (382) was reached with the [][Goths] by [][Theodosius I], Valens' successor as Eastern co-emperor, whereby the Goths agreed to aid in the imperial defenses in exchange for annual food subsidies, establishing a pattern for later barbarian intrusions into the empire.

AFGHANISTAN

Area: 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi) Population (1997 est.): 23,738,000 (including Afghan refugees estimated to number more than 1,500,000 in Pakistan and about 1,400,000 in Iran) Capital: Kabul Chief of state: President Burhanuddin Rabbani; de facto Taliban leader, Mohammad Rabbani

Adwa, Battle of

*Adwa also spelled **Adowa** , Italian **Adua** * (March 1, 1896), military clash at Adwa, in north-central [Ethiopia], between the Ethiopian army of King [][Menilek II] and [Italian] forces. The decisive Ethiopian victory checked Italy's attempt to build an empire in Africa. The death (in 1889) of the Ethiopian emperor Yohannes IV was followed by great disorder, during which the Italians helped Menilek of Shewa (Shoa) win the throne. Furthermore, the [][Treaty of Wichale] (Ucciali), which Italy had signed with Menilek in 1889, was interpreted by the Italian premier [][Francesco Crispi] as implying the declaration of an Italian protectorate over Ethiopia. Accordingly, the Italian possessions in Africa were constituted (January 1890) as Colonia Eritrea. Menilek first repudiated in September 1890 the ambiguous Article XVII of the treaty and then, in September 1893, repudiated the treaty altogether, afterward preparing to combat the Italians' attempt to impose their dominion militarily. Italian victories at the beginning of the campaign were brilliant but fruitless, and at the end of 1895 large Ethiopian armies were threatening the Italian outposts. The Italian governor of Eritrea, General [][Oreste Baratieri], sighted Menilek's forces on February 7, 1896, but remained inactive. On February 28 Crispi sent Baratieri a furious telegram to try to goad him into action. Desperate to retrieve his position, Baratieri advanced to Adwa with 14,500 men against an Ethiopian army of some 100,000; the Italian columns, moreover, were disorganized and lacked adequate maps of the area. Humiliatingly routed on March 1 by Menilek's forces, the Italians retreated through difficult terrain, harassed by a hostile population. As much as 70 percent of the Italian force was killed, wounded, or captured.

Aelfheah, Saint

*Aelfheah also spelled **Elphege,** **Alphage** , or **Alphege** , also called **Elphege the Martyr** , or **Godwine** * born 954, Gloucestershire?, Eng. died April 19, 1012, Greenwich, London; feast day, April 19 archbishop of Canterbury who was venerated as a martyr after his murder by the Danes. Of noble birth, Aelfheah entered the Benedictine abbey of Deerhurst, Gloucestershire, and later became a hermit at Bath, Somerset, where followers elected him abbot. Aelfheah was a friend of Archbishop St. Dunstan of Canterbury, through whose influence he was named bishop of Winchester in 984. Aethelred II the Unready, king of the English, sent Aelfheah as ambassador to King [][Olaf I Tryggvason] of Norway, who in 994 entered Britain and whom Aelfheah confirmed and allegedly persuaded not to invade England again.

Aelred of Rievaulx, Saint

*Aelred also spelled **Ailred,** **Aethelred,** or **Ethelred** * born *c.* 1110, Hexham, Northumberland, Eng. died Jan. 12, 1167, Rievaulx Abbey, Yorkshire writer, historian, and outstanding [Cistercian] abbot who influenced monasticism in medieval England, Scotland, and France. Of noble birth, Aelred was reared at the court of King [][David I] of Scotland, whose life story he later wrote and for whom he was royal steward. He entered the Cistercian abbey of Rievaulx about 1134, and from 1143 to 1147 he was abbot of Revesby in Lincolnshire. In late 1147 he became abbot of Rievaulx.

Aksyonov, Vasily Pavlovich

*Aksyonov also spelled **Aksenov** * born Aug. 20, 1932, Kazan, Russia, U.S.S.R. Russian novelist and short-story writer, one of the leading literary spokesmen for the generation of Soviets who reached maturity after World War II. The son of parents who spent many years in Soviet prisons, Aksyonov was raised in a state home and graduated from medical school in 1956. After working a few years as a doctor, he turned to writing, and in the cultural thaw of the late 1950s and early '60s he published a number of short stories and novels. His novels *Kollegi* (1960; *Colleagues*), *Zvezdnyi bilet* (1961; *A Ticket to the Stars*), and *Apel'siny iz Morokko* (1963; "Oranges From Morocco") are fast-moving narratives dealing with youthful rebels and misfits in Soviet society. In these books Aksyonov excels in reproducing the racy slang and jargon of characters who are attracted to Western culture even though they share the collectivist ideals of the previous generation. Aksyonov began incorporating stronger elements of fantasy, satire, and parody in such later novels as *Zatovarennaia bochkotara* (1968; *Surplussed Barrelware*) and *Ostrov Krym* (1981; *The Island of Crimea*). His independent spirit had incurred the disfavour of the Soviet authorities beginning in the late 1960s. Because of his reputation and his involvement in the attempted publication of *Metropol,* an uncensored literary journal, in 1980 he was forced into exile in the West. His citizenship was restored by decree in 1990.

Albani, Francesco

*Albani also spelled **Albano, or I'abane** * born March 17, 1578, Bologna, Papal States [Italy] died October 1660, Bologna Italian painter, one of the 17th-century Bolognese masters trained in the studio of the Carracci. He assisted [][Guido Reni] in a number of major decorative cycles, including that of the Chapel of the Annunciation (1609-12) in the Quirinal Palace and the choir (1612-14) of Santa Maria della Pace. Albani lived for several years in Rome, where he had his own academy. There he painted, after the designs of Annibale Carracci, the whole of the frescoes in the Chapel of San Diego in the Church of San Giacomo degli Spagnuoli. His best-known frescoes are on mythological subjects, such as the "Dance of the Amorini" (*c.* 1625; Brera, Milan). In 1616 he returned to Bologna, where he remained except for visits to Mantua in 1621-22 and Florence in 1633.

Afar

*Amharic **Adal,** Arabic **Denakil,** * [![Photograph:Afar nomads in Ethiopia.]] - Afar nomads in Ethiopia. a people of the Horn of Africa who speak Saho, a language of the Eastern Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic (formerly Hamito-Semitic) family. They live in northeastern [Ethiopia] and in Djibouti, where, with the Issas, they are the dominant people. It is thought that the Afars were the first of the present inhabitants of Ethiopia to elaborate their pastoral life into full-scale nomadism, descending from the highlands of southeast Ethiopia and migrating to the stony desert area of Denakil, the name used by surrounding tribes to identify them. The Afars' subsistence economy depends on livestock, especially goats, some camels, and, more rarely, cattle. There are some exceptions, such as fishermen in the coastal areas and agriculturalists in the Assau oasis. The Afars also mine and export salt.

African Development Bank (ADB)

*French **Banque Africaine de Développement** * African organization established in 1964, operational beginning in 1966, and dedicated to [financing] the economic and social development of its African member countries. Its membership includes 53 African states and 24 non-African countries. ADB headquarters are in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. The ADB group of financing bodies includes the African Development Fund, which grants interest-free loans to impoverished African countries, and the Nigeria Trust Fund. The ADB has five associated institutions through which public and private capital is channeled: the African Import-Export Bank (Afreximbank), the Africa Reinsurance Corporation (Africa-Re), the Société Internationale Financière pour les Investissements et le Développement en Afrique (SIFIDA), the Association of African Development Finance Institutions (AADFI), and Shelter-Afrique.

Akhḍar Mountains

*Arabic **Al-jabal Al-akhḍar,** also spelled **Gebel El-achdar,** * mountain range of northeastern Libya that extends along the Mediterranean coast for about 100 miles (160 km) in an east-northeasterly direction between the towns of al-Marj and Darnah. Rising sharply in two steps, the first reaching 985 feet (300 m) and the second about 1,800 feet (550 m), the limestone range (about 20 miles [32 km] wide) then blends into a plateau crowned by hills attaining elevations of nearly 3,000 feet (900 m). It descends eastward to the barren, stony terrain of al-Buṭnān and southward to the Libyan Sahara. Dissected by river valleys, the mountain chain is covered with sparse low bush, remnants of scrub forest, and scattered cultivation. It has a comparatively high rainfall (15-20 inches [375-500 mm] annually) and high humidity, but periodic drought does occur. The Akhḍar (Arabic: "Green") presented the most promising area of Cyrenaica and was colonized by the [Italians] in the 1930s. The settlements, interrupted during World War II and later deserted, have now been reoccupied by Libyans. Livestock herding (camels, goats, and sheep) among the mountains involves a degree of nomadism, and there is limited agriculture, notably in the al-Marj plain and around Darnah, producing grain, olives, grapes, and almonds. A large agricultural project in the area has improved reclamation and irrigation. The mountain chain was a major battleground during World War II.

Ahl al-Bayt

*Arabic:"People of the House,"* designation in Islam for the holy family of the Prophet Muḥammad, particularly his daughter [Fāṭimah], her husband ʿAlī (who was also Muḥammad's cousin), and their descendants. [Shīʿites] closely identify this family with the imams, whom they regard as the legitimate holders of authority in the Muslim community, the infallible bearers of sacred knowledge, and the source of messianic deliverance in the end time. Since the 12th and 13th centuries most Sufi orders have included members of the Prophet's family in their elaborate spiritual lineages (*silsila*s), which they trace back to the Prophet through ʿAlī. Aside from [Mecca], shrines containing the remains of members of the Prophet's family and their heirs are the most popular Muslim pilgrimage centres. These include the shrines of ʿAlī in [an-Najaf], Iraq; [Ḥusayn] in [Karbalāʾ], Iraq, and [Cairo], Egypt; [ʿAlī ar-Riā] in [Meshed], Iran; and Khwajah Muʿīn-ud-Dīn Chishtī in [Ajmer] (western India). In many Muslim societies people known as [sharifs] and [sayyids] hold privileged status by descent from the holy family. Among those claiming such status in the 20th century were [King Ḥassan II]of Morocco, [King Hussein] of Jordan, [Ṣaddam Hussein] of Iraq, and Abūʾl-ʿalāʾ Mawdūdī of India/Pakistan.

ʿAlawite

*Arabic **ʿAlawī** , plural **ʿAlawīyah** , also called **Nuṣayrī** , plural **Nuṣayrīyah** , or **Namīrī** , plural **Namīrīyah** , or **Ansarī** , plural **Ansarīyah** * any member of a minority sect of Shīʿite Muslims living chiefly in Syria. The roots of ʿAlawism lie in the teachings of Muḥammad ibn Nuṣayr an-Namīrī (fl. 850), a Basran contemporary of the 10th Shīʿite imam, and the sect was chiefly established by Ḥusayn ibn Ḥamdān []al-Khaṣībī (d. 957 or 968) during the period of the Ḥamdānid dynasty (905-1004), at which time the ʿAlawites had great influence in Aleppo. With the fall of Shiʿite rule, however, the ʿAlawites, with other Shīʿites, became the victims of persecution. They were ill-treated by waves of Crusaders, by Mamlūks, and by Ottoman conquerors, in addition to fighting a number of internecine wars. Considered by many Muslims to be heretics, the present-day ʿAlawites obtained a legal decision about their status as Muslims from the Lebanese leader of the Ithnā ʿAsharīyah (Twelver) sect of Shīʿite Islām. The ʿAlawite sect has become politically dominant in [][Syria], particularly since 1971, when Ḥafiz al-Assad, an ʿAlawite, was elected president of the country. The sect is predominant in the Latakia region of Syria, and it extends north to Antioch (Antakya), Turkey. Many ʿAlawites also live around or in Ḥimṣ and Ḥamāh. They are second in number within Syria to the Sunnite sect, which makes up about three-fourths of the Muslim population of mostly Muslim Syria.

Aladdin

*Arabic **ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn** * hero of one of the best-known stories in *[][The Thousand and One Nights]*. The son of a deceased Chinese tailor and his poor widow, Aladdin is a lazy, careless boy who meets an African magician claiming to be his uncle. The magician brings Aladdin to the mouth of a cave and bids him enter and bring out a wonderful lamp that is inside, giving him a magic ring for his safety in the meantime. Aladdin goes in and returns with the lamp but refuses to hand it over to the magician until he is safely out of the cave. The magician thereupon shuts him inside the cave with the lamp and departs. Wringing his hands in dismay in the dark, Aladdin finds that he can summon up powerful jinn, or genies, by rubbing the ring. He returns home and soon finds that rubbing the lamp also produces genies. These supernatural spirits grant him his every wish, and Aladdin eventually becomes immensely wealthy, builds a wonderful jeweled palace, and marries the beautiful daughter of the sultan. After defeating the attempts of the frustrated African magician and his even more wicked younger brother to recover the lamp, Aladdin lives in longtime marital happiness, succeeds the sultan, and reigns for many years, "leaving behind him a long line of kings." The story of Aladdin—like several other popular stories in *The Thousand and One Nights*, such as the adventures of [Sindbad the Sailor]—was not part of the original story collection.

Aesopus, Claudius

*Claudius also spelled **Clodius** * flourished 1st century BC most eminent of the Roman tragedians, contemporary and intimate friend of [][Cicero], whom he instructed in elocution, and regarded by Horace as the equal of the great Roman comic actor Roscius. Aesopus became completely absorbed in his roles; the biographer [][Plutarch] mentions that, while playing the part of Atreus deliberating revenge, Aesopus forgot himself and in the heat of the moment struck and killed another actor. Aesopus made a last appearance in 55 BC at the dedication of the Roman ruler Pompey's new theatre; Cicero mentions that Aesopus was advanced in years at that time.

Ahram, Al-

*Egyptian"The Pyramids"* daily newspaper published in Cairo, long regarded as Egypt's most authoritative and influential newspaper and as one of the most important papers in the Arab world. It was founded in 1875 by two Lebanese-Christian brothers, Salīm and Bishārah Taqlā. As a daily from 1881, the paper became famous for its independence and objectivity, despite British censorship and control, and for its coverage of international news and nonpolitical news about Egypt and Egyptians. Its influence waned, however, after censorship tightened as Egyptian independence neared. In the late 1950s *Al-Ahram* came under the influence of the Egyptian government, and President [][Gamal Abdel Nasser] made his friend [][Muhammad Hassanein Heikal]its editor. In 1960 Nasser nationalized the press, and *Al-Ahram* became the de facto voice of the government. Heikal's influence on the paper was profound. He was an eloquent editorialist and a solid journalist, and he built the paper's prestige, its journalistic excellence, and its makeup and technical operation to new levels. The paper had become the dominant daily in the Arab world. Heikal was removed as editor in 1974 when he lost the confidence of President [Anwar el-Sādāt], but the qualities he had built into *Al-Ahram* have remained. *Al-Ahram*'s circulation averaged about one million copies per day at the turn of the 21st century, and it was widely considered Egypt's leading newspaper.

Afrikaner-Broederbond

*English **Afrikaner Brotherhood** * [South African] [secret society] composed of Afrikaans-speaking, Protestant, white men over the age of 25. Although its political power is evident throughout South African society, its rituals and membership—by invitation only—remain secret. The organization was established in 1918 for the purpose of counteracting the humiliating defeat of the [][Afrikaners] by the British in the South African War (1899-1902). Through the Broederbond, Afrikaner men hoped to foster Afrikaner culture and traditions in the face of ill treatment by British South Africans and second-class citizenship. The Broederbond's silent network became a means to power, and the organization was considered to be the significant force behind the rise to national dominance in 1948 of the largely Afrikaner [][National Party of South Africa]. Despite its association with the conservative Dutch Reformed Church and the [][apartheid-promoting] National Party, the Broederbond gradually began to change its position and in 1990 began to actively support President F.W. de Klerk's announced dismantling of the official policy of apartheid. This turnabout caused a 10 to 15 percent loss of membership in the Broederbond.

Albertus Magnus, Saint

*English **Saint Albert The Great** , German **Sankt Albert Der Grosse** , byname **Albert Of Cologne** , or **Of Lauingen** , or **Doctor Universalis (Latin: "Universal Doctor")** * born *c.* 1200, Lauingen an der Donau, Swabia [Germany] died November 15, 1280, Cologne; canonized Dec. 16, 1931; feast day November 15 [![Photograph:Albertus Magnus, detail of a fresco by Tommaso da Modena, 1352; in the Church of San ...]] - Albertus Magnus, detail of a fresco by Tommaso da Modena, **c.** 1352; in the Church of San ... Dominican bishop and philosopher best known as a teacher of St. Thomas Aquinas and as a proponent of [][Aristotelianism] at the University of Paris. He established the study of nature as a legitimate science within the Christian tradition. By papal decree in 1941, he was declared the patron saint of all who cultivate the natural sciences. He was the most prolific writer of his century and was the only scholar of his age to be called "the Great"; this title was used even before his death.

Aïr massif

*French **Massif De L'aïr,** * group of granitic mountains rising sharply from the Sahara in central [][Niger]. Several of these mountains approach and exceed 6,000 feet (1,800 m), the highest being Mount Gréboun (6,378 feet [1,944 m]). The mountains are dissected by deep valleys, called *kori*s, in which some vegetation permits the pasturage of livestock, owned mainly by Tuaregs. Hot springs are found in the mountains, as are ancient rock carvings. Uranium and other minerals are mined.

African Trade Union Unity, Organization of (OATUU)

*French **Organisation De L'unité Africaine (OUA)** * labour organization founded in 1973 at Addis Ababa, Eth., on the initiative of the Organization of African Unity and replacing the former []All-African Trade Union Federation (AATUF; founded in 1961) and the []African Trade Union Confederation (ATUC; founded in 1962). The ATUC from its founding had encouraged member affiliation with other international union organizations, while the more militant AATUF had rejected such affiliation as incompatible with the development of a Pan-African federation. Members of the OATUU include some 50 African national trade-union organizations, the South Africa Congress of Trade Unions, and the National Union of Namibian Workers. Its aims are to remain independent of other international trade-union organizations, to build trade-union unity on the African continent, to coordinate the action of national union organizations, and to support, in general, the interests of the African working class. Its headquarters are in Accra, Ghana.

Albert l'Ouvrier

*French"Albert the Worker"original name **Alexandre Martin** * born April 27, 1815, Bury, France died May 28, 1895, Mello French worker who became the workers' representative in the provisional government and National Assembly of 1848; he was the first industrial workingman to enter a government in France. A Paris mechanic during the 1830s and a member of several secret societies, Albert was imprisoned briefly in 1841. Subsequently, he joined the Christian-Socialist movement, collaborated on *L'Atelier* ("The Workshop"), and by 1846 had become the leader of the Society of the Seasons. When King Louis-Philippe was overthrown in February 1848, Albert was elected to the provisional government, his name appearing on all documents as Albert l'Ouvrier. With [][Louis Blanc] he formed the extreme left contingent, advocating profound socio-economic change and supporting the short-lived Luxembourg Commission of workers and employers that reformed working hours. Elected to the new, moderate, Republican-dominated Constituent Assembly in April, Albert soon played a leading role in the May-June uprising, for which he was arrested and imprisoned. After his amnesty in 1859, he began working for a gas company and remained there for the rest of his life.

Adolf Frederick

*German **Adolf Friedrich,** Swedish **Adolf Fredrik** * born May 14, 1710, Gottorp, Schleswig died Feb. 12, 1771, Stockholm, Swed. [![Photograph:Adolf Frederick, detail from an oil painting by Lorenz Pasch the Younger; in Gripsholm Castle, ...]] - Adolf Frederick, detail from an oil painting by Lorenz Pasch the Younger; in Gripsholm Castle, ... king of [Sweden] from 1751 to 1771. He was the son of Christian Augustus (1673-1726), Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp, and of Albertina Frederica of Baden-Durlach.

Alba Iulia

*German **Karlsburg,** Hungarian **Gyulafehérvár,** * city, capital of Alba *judeţ* (county), west-central Romania. It lies along the Mureş River, 170 miles (270 km) northwest of Bucharest. One of the oldest settlements in Romania, the site was selected by the Romans for a military camp. The remains of []Apulum, an important city in Roman Dacia mentioned by Ptolemy in the 2nd century BC, are 6 miles (10 km) from Alba Iulia, and the Regional Museum has a rich collection of Roman antiquities. From the 9th to the 11th century the town bore the Slavic name Bălgrad. The Roman name was first documented in 1097, and the use of Alba Iulia in Latin documents ensured the survival of the name. In the 16th and 17th centuries Alba Iulia became the capital of the principality of Transylvania. In 1599 [][Michael] the Brave (Mihai Viteazul) proclaimed himself prince of Walachia, Transylvania, and Moldavia at Alba Iulia—achieving for the first time the union of the three great provinces of Romania. The town became a centre of Romanian nationalism and an important Romanian-language printing centre. It was at Alba Iulia that the union of Transylvania with Romania was pronounced on Dec. 1, 1918; Romania's King Ferdinand and Queen Marie were crowned in the Orthodox cathedral in 1922. The city also has a 13th-century Roman Catholic cathedral (Romanesque), an 18th-century fortress, and the []Batthyáneum Library, founded in 1794 by Ignatius Batthyány, a Catholic bishop, and containing many incunabula and old manuscripts of great value, notably the *Codex Aureus* from the 8th century. Industries in Alba Iulia include leatherworking and food processing and the production of footwear, construction materials, and wine. Pop. (1989 est.) 72,331.

AG catalog

*German **in full Astronomische Gesellschaft Katalog** * (AGK; "Astronomical Society Catalog"), compilation of the positions of all stars brighter than the ninth magnitude, compiled by the Astronomische Gesellschaft of Germany. []Friedrich W.A. Argelander, founder of the society, proposed the star catalog in 1867, after completing the *Bonner Durchmusterung* ("Bonn Survey"). The massive project gave each participating observatory responsibility for mapping a specific zone of declination, and observatories around the world took part in the work. The first version of the *Astronomische Gesellschaft Katalog* (*AGK1*) covered the sky north of 18° south declination and was completely published by 1912. A second (*AGK2*), based on photographs rather than direct observations, was begun in 1924 and published in 1951-58; a third catalog (*AGK3*) included the stars' proper motions (the rates at which their apparent positions change) and became available in 1969.

Albert, Archduke

*German in full **Erzherzog Albrecht, Herzog (duke) von Teschen** * born Aug. 3, 1817, Vienna died Feb. 18, 1895, Arco, South Tirol, Austria-Hungary able field marshal who distinguished himself in the suppression of the Italian Revolution of 1848 and in the Austro-Prussian War (1866) and whose reforms turned the Austrian Army into a modern fighting force after its rout by Prussia. The son of the archduke Charles, who defeated Napoleon at Aspern-Essling, Albert entered the Austrian Army in 1837. He received a thorough military education from Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky and fought under his mentor in the campaign of 1848-49 in Italy, distinguishing himself as a divisional commander at Novara. In 1851 he became governor of Hungary, retaining the post until 1863. At the outbreak of the war against Prussia, he commanded the Italian front and won the decisive victory at Custoza (June 1866), which so disorganized the Italians that he was able to detach sizable units for the protection of Vienna, which the Prussians threatened after the Austrian defeat at Königgrätz (Sadowa). He was named commander in chief of all Austrian forces on July 10, 1866, but peace intervened before he had a chance to test his plans.

Aegean Sea

*Greek **Aigaíon Pélagos,** Turkish **Ege Deniz** * an arm of the [][Mediterranean Sea], located between the Greek peninsula on the west and Asia Minor on the east. About 380 miles (612 km) long and 186 miles (299 km) wide, it has a total area of some 83,000 square miles (215,000 square km). The Aegean is connected through the straits of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus to the Black Sea, while the island of Crete can be taken as marking its boundary on the south. The cradle of two of the great early civilizations, those of Crete and Greece, from which much of modern Western culture is derived, the Aegean Sea is also an important natural feature of the Mediterranean region, possessing several unique characteristics that make it of considerable scientific interest. The Aegean has an intricate configuration and could well be considered as a bay within the eastern Mediterranean basin, to which it is connected by the straits to the west and east of Crete. It also has a good connection to the Ionian Sea to the west, through the strait lying between the Peloponnese peninsula of Greece and Crete. Virtually throughout the Aegean area, numerous islands large and small emerge from the clear blue waters. These are the mountain peaks of Aegeis, the name given to a now-submerged landmass. At the dawn of European history, these islands facilitated contacts between the people of the area and of three continents. Throughout the entire Aegean shoreline—that is, both the continental shores surrounding the Aegean Sea and those of the islands—bays, ports, and shelter creeks are also abundant. These also facilitated the task of seamen traveling in the Aegean Sea, making longer voyages possible at a time when shipbuilding was in its infancy. For its size, no other maritime area of the Mediterranean has comparable shoreline development. The maximum depth of the Aegean is to be found east of Crete, where it reaches 11,627 feet (3,544 metres). The rocks making up the floor of the Aegean are mainly limestone, though often greatly altered by volcanic activity that has convulsed the region in relatively recent geologic times. The richly coloured sediments in the region of the islands of [][Thera] (Santoríni, or Thíra) and [][Melos] (Mílos), in the south Aegean, are particularly interesting. During the 1970s, Thera in particular became a topic of major international scientific importance, analysis of its surrounding sediments having been linked with a possible explanation of the ancient legend of the lost island of Atlantis.

Aimorés Mountains

*Portuguese **Serra Dos Aimorés,** * mountainous region divided between the *estados* (states) of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo, eastern [Brazil], occupying an area of about 3,900 square miles (10,100 square km). The mountains form a crystalline-hill upland with an average elevation of 3,000 feet (900 m). They are covered with semideciduous forest and are crossed by the São Mateus River and several smaller streams. The Doce River closely follows the mountainous region's southwestern border. Mantena (Gabriel Emílio) is the principal town in the sparsely populated area.

agape

*Greek **agapē** * in the New Testament, the fatherly love of God for humans, as well as the human reciprocal love for God. The term necessarily extends to the love of one's fellow man. The Church Fathers used agape to designate both a rite (using bread and wine) and a meal of fellowship to which the poor were invited. The historical relationship between the agape, the Lord's Supper, and the [][Eucharist] is still uncertain. Some scholars believe the agape was a form of the Lord's Supper and the Eucharist the sacramental aspect of that celebration. Others interpret agape as a fellowship meal held in imitation of gatherings attended by Jesus and his disciples; the Eucharist is believed to have been joined to this meal later but eventually to have become totally separated from it.

Adret, Solomon ben Abraham

*Hebrew **Rabbi Shlomo Ben Abraham Adret,** acronym **Rashba** * born 1235, Barcelona, Spain died 1310, Barcelona outstanding spiritual leader of Spanish Jewry of his time (known as El Rab de España [the Rabbi of Spain]); he is remembered partly for his controversial decree of 1305 threatening to excommunicate all Jews less than 25 years old (except medical students) who studied philosophy or science. As a leading scholar of the Talmud, the rabbinical compendium of law, lore, and commentary, Adret received inquiries on Jewish law from all over Europe, and more than 3,000 of his responsa (replies) still remain. Besides providing cultural data on Adret's time, his responsa strongly influenced the later development of authoritative codes of Jewish law, such as the *[][Shulḥan ʿarukh]* ("The Well-Laid Table") of the codifier Joseph Karo (1488-1575). Adret's many other writings include commentaries on the Talmud and polemics defending it against attacks by non-Jews.

agunah

*Hebrew **ʿaguna ("deserted woman")** , plural **agunahs,** **ʿagunot** , or **agunoth** * in Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, a []woman who is presumed to be widowed but who cannot remarry because evidence of her husband's death does not satisfy legal requirements. The plight of the agunah has generated voluminous and complex treatment in Halakhic literature. Although religious courts are not empowered to grant remarriage without indisputable evidence of the spouse's death, human considerations have led to a de facto relaxation of the law of evidence. The testimony of a single witness has thus been accepted as sufficient proof of death even when the body of the presumed deceased has not been recovered from, for example, a battlefield, the sea, or a disaster area. An effort to solve the still vexing problem facing agunahs has, in some places, led to the introduction of a custom whereby soldiers sign a document authorizing a rabbinic court to grant a divorce should the soldier be officially declared missing in action and presumed dead. Women who are victims of willful desertion are also called agunahs inasmuch as they are forbidden to remarry without a religious divorce that cannot be granted unilaterally to the wife by a religious court. Because of the severity of the biblical injunction against adultery and the possibility that a husband who was presumed dead might suddenly reappear, various proposed solutions to the problems of agunahs have enjoyed but limited acceptance. Even the great emergencies created by Jewish mass migrations at the beginning of the 20th century and the development of the vast number of missing persons after the two World Wars and the Nazi Holocaust have not led to universally accepted modifications of existing laws and practices.

Agung, Mount

*Indonesian **Gunung Agung ("Great Mountain")** , Dutch **Piek Van Bali ("Peak of Bali")** * volcano, northeastern Bali, Indonesia. The highest point in Bali and the object of traditional veneration, it rises to a height of 9,888 feet (3,014 m). In 1963 it erupted after being dormant for 120 years; some 1,600 people were killed and 86,000 left homeless. According to one Balinese myth, the deities made mountains for their thrones and placed the highest, Mount Agung, in Bali. According to another myth, the deities found the island of Bali unstable and wobbling and, to still it, set down upon it the holy mountain of Hinduism, Mahameru, renamed Gunung Agung. To the Balinese the mountain became the "Navel of the World," and in every Balinese temple a shrine is dedicated to its spirit. Such religious items as temple offerings and cremation mounds are shaped in the form of mountains out of reverence for the volcano. The mother temple of Bali, Pura Besakih, lies on the slopes of Mount Agung.

Alban Hills

*Italian **Colli Albani, or Monti Albani,** * area of extinct volcanoes in the Lazio (Latium) *regione* of central Italy, southeast of Rome. The hills consist of an outer circle, 6-8 miles (10-13 km) in diameter, rising to 3,113 feet (949 m) at Mount Cavo, and an inner crater rim, about 1.5 miles (2 km) across, rising to 3,136 feet (956 m) at Mount Faete. Lakes Albano and Nemi occupy two of the craters. Even before the emergence of Rome as a great power, the Alban Hills were a place sacred to the people of Latium. Roman roads, temples, villas, and theatres are still partly preserved there. Because of their coolness in summer and the absence of malaria, the hills for centuries have been a favourite summer resort of Romans. The Alban vineyards produce the popular wines known as Castelli Romani (after the towns of the district). An electric suburban railway connects Rome with the hill retreats of Frascati, Grottaferrata, Albano, Velletri, Genzano, and Castel Gandolfo (the papal summer residence).

ajiva

*Sanskrit **Ajīva,** * in the Jainist philosophy of India, "nonliving substance," as opposed to jiva, "soul" or "living matter." Ajiva is divided into: (1) *[ākāśa],* "space," (2) *[dharma],* "that which makes motion possible," (3) []*adharma,* "that which makes rest possible," and (4) *[pudgala],* "matter." *Pudgala* consists of atoms; is eternal yet subject to change and development; is both gross (that which it is possible to see) and subtle (that which cannot be perceived by the senses). The invisible karma (causative) matter that adheres to and weighs down the soul is an example of subtle *pudgala.* The first three types of ajiva are necessary conditions for the subsistence of both souls and matter. Some of the above terms are also used in Buddhist philosophy, but with meanings that are quite different.

Adda River

*Italian **Fiume Adda,** * river, in the Lombardia (Lombardy) *regione* of northern Italy, issuing from small lakes in the Rhaetian Alps at 7,660 feet (2,335 m). The Adda flows southward from Bormio to Tirano, where it turns west past Sondrio to enter Lake Como near its northern end after a course of 194 miles (313 km). The river's upper course is known as the [Valtellina] (*q.v.*). Leaving Lake Como at Lecco, it crosses the Lombardy Plain, flowing past Lodi and forming the Milan-Cremona provincial boundary before joining the Po River just upstream from Cremona city. The drainage basin of the Adda covers 3,000 square miles (7,800 square km), and the river's average flow in its lower course, navigable for 50 miles (80 km), is about 8,800 cubic feet (250 cubic m) per second, varying between 600 and 28,000. The river is used extensively for hydroelectric power production in the Valtellina and for irrigation on the Lombardy Plain. Historically the Adda (Addua) was a strategic defense line in many wars as early as the Roman period.

Alakol, Lake

*Kazak **Alaköl** , Russian **Ozero Alakol** , also called **Ozero Ala-Kul** * salt lake in Kazakhstan, 110 miles (180 km) east of Lake Balqash, near the border with the Uighur Autonomous Region of Sinkiang, China. Lake Alakol has a drainage basin of about 26,500 square miles (68,700 square km), an area of 1,025 square miles, reaches a depth of about 148 feet (45 m), and receives the Urdzhar River (north).

aedile

*Latin **Aedilis,** plural **Aediles** * (from Latin *aedes,* "temple"), magistrate of ancient Rome who originally had charge of the temple and cult of Ceres. At first the aediles were two officials of the plebeians, created at the same time as the tribunes (494 BC), whose sanctity they shared. These magistrates were elected in the assembly of the plebeians. In 366 two [curule] ("higher") aediles were created. These were at first patricians; but those of the next year were plebeians and so on year by year alternately until, in the 2nd century BC, the system of alternation between classes ceased. They were elected in the assembly of the tribes, with the consul presiding. The privileges of the curule aediles included a fringed toga, a curule chair, and the right to ancestral masks—privileges perhaps extended to the plebeian aediles after 100 BC. Aediles ranked between tribunes and praetors, a greater proportion of the curule ones attaining the consulship, but the office was not necessary for advancement in a senatorial career. The functions of the aediles were threefold: first, the care of the city (repair of temples, public buildings, streets, sewers, and aqueducts; supervision of traffic; supervision of public decency; and precaution against fires); second, the charge of the provision markets and of weights and measures and the distribution of grain, a function for which Julius Caesar added two plebeian aediles called []ceriales; third, organization of certain public games, the Megalesian and the Roman games being under the curule aediles and the Plebeian games as well as those of Ceres and Flora being under the plebeian. They had judicial powers and could impose fines. Augustus transferred the care of the games and the judicial functions to the praetors and the care of the city to appointed boards and to the prefects of the watch and of the city. Under the imperial regime the office became a step in the senatorial career for plebeians until it disappeared after the reign of Alexander Severus in the 3rd century AD.

Alain de Lille

*Latin **Alanus de Insulis,** English **Alan of Lille** * born *c.* 1128, probably Lille, Flanders [now in France] died 1202, Cîteaux, France theologian and poet so celebrated for his varied learning that he was known as "the universal doctor." Alain studied and taught at Paris, lived for some time at Montpellier, and later joined the Cistercians in Cîteaux. As a theologian, he shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the 12th century against Scholastic philosophy, adopting an eclectic Scholasticism composed of rationalism and mysticism. In his apologetic works, he tried to prove by reason the tenets of Roman Catholicism in opposition to the opinions of unbelievers. In this manner, his *Tractatus contra haereticos* ("Treatise Against Heretics") attempted to refute heterodoxy on rational grounds; and his *Theologicae regulae* ("Maxims of Theology") assumed that the principles of the faith are self-evident propositions.

Aelian

*Latin in full **Claudius Aelianus** * born *c.* 170, Praeneste [now Palestrina, Italy] died *c.* 235 Roman author and teacher of rhetoric, who spoke and wrote so fluently in Greek—in which language his works were written—that he was nicknamed "Meliglōttos" ("Honey-tongued"). Aelian was an admirer and student of the writings of Plato, Aristotle, Isocrates, Plutarch, Homer, and others, and his own works preserve many excerpts from earlier writers. Aelian is chiefly remembered for his *[]On the Nature of Animals,* in 17 books, curious stories of birds and other animals, often in the form of anecdote, folklore, or fable that points a moral. This work set a pattern that continued in bestiaries and medical treatises through the Middle Ages. His *Various History* relates anecdotes of men and customs and miraculous events. Twenty brief "rustic epistles" have survived under his name. Fragments of other works (most of them quotations found in the 10th-century Byzantine *Suda* lexicon) survive. Additional Reading {#273754.toc} ------------------

Akademgorodok

*Russian:"Academic Town"* scientific research city located near Novosibirsk at the northeast corner of the Novosibirsk Reservoir, south-central Russia. Akademgorodok is home to numerous research institutes and is the seat of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It is, after Moscow and St. Petersburg, the third most important research and educational centre in Russia. Akademgorodok was established by the government of the U.S.S.R. in 1958. With the support of leading officials of the Communist Party and the Soviet Academy of Sciences, the city's founding fathers—the mathematicians Mikhail Lavrentyev and Sergey Sobolev, the geologist Andrey Trofimuk, and others—succeeded within seven years in creating 20 institutes covering major fields of science and technology, including chemistry, physics, automation, hydrodynamics, genetics, and cytology, as well as the humanities and social sciences. The city also became the site of Novosibirsk State University (1959), a regional library, a botanical garden, and experimental agricultural plots. During its first 10 years of existence, Akademgorodok was noted for its pioneering work in several fields and also for its political and cultural distance from the central Academy of Sciences and Communist Party in Moscow. Almost 1,800 miles (3,000 km) away from the Soviet capital, scientists were able to form social clubs where they engaged in discussions of literature, art, and music that were unheard of elsewhere in the U.S.S.R. Crucial to the scientific successes of the city was the gathering of leading scholars who left Moscow and Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) to pursue alternative approaches. They included Gersh Budker in high-energy physics, Nikolay Dubinin in genetics, Abel Aganbegyan in economics, and Tatyana Zaslavskaya in sociology. In 1968, as part of growing Soviet political conservatism, government authorities closed down the social clubs and ended the open political environment of the city. Nevertheless, through funding provided to develop the extensive natural resources of Siberia in the 1970s and '80s, scientists managed to maintain leading research programs in many fields.

ahankara

*Sanskrit **Ahaṃkāra** * ("I-saying," or "I-making"), in the dualist and evolutionist Saṃkhyā school of Hindu philosophy, the second stage of development of the [][prakriti], the original stuff of material nature, which evolves into the manifest world. Ahankara follows the stage of buddhi (intelligence, or perception), in which the [][purusha] (soul, or self)—once in a state of pure consciousness, *i.e.,* without an object of contemplation—becomes focused on the prakriti, on existence outside of itself. From the "this-awareness" of the buddhi level evolves the ahankara, or ego-consciousness (an "I-this awareness"). Ahankara is thus the mistaken assumption of personality or individuality. It is mistaken because the soul is incapable of acting; it is rather the prakriti, the essential matter, that acts. Ahankara in turn gives way to other stages in the transmigration of the soul. *See also* [Saṃkhyā].

ahimsa

*Sanskrit **Ahiṃsā** * ("noninjury"), the fundamental ethical virtue of the Jains of India, highly respected throughout the centuries by Hindus and Buddhists as well. In modern times, [][Mahatma Gandhi], the famous spiritual and political leader, developed his theory of passive resistance as a means of bringing about political change on the principle of ahimsa. In Jainism, ahimsa is the standard by which all actions are judged. For a householder observing the small vows (*[aṇuvrata]*), the practice of ahimsa requires that he not kill any animal life, but for an ascetic observing the great vows (*[mahāvrata]*), ahimsa entails the greatest care to prevent him from knowingly or unknowingly being the cause of injury to any living substance. Living matter (jiva) includes not only human beings and animals but insects, plants, and atoms as well, and the same law governs the entire cosmos. The interruption of another jiva's spiritual progress increases one's own [][karma] and delays one's liberation from the cycle of rebirths. Many common Jainist practices, such as not eating or drinking after dark or the wearing of cloth mouth covers (*mukhavastrikā*) by monks, are based on the principle of ahimsa. Though the Hindus and Buddhists never required so strict an observance of ahimsa as the Jains, vegetarianism and tolerance toward all forms of life became widespread in India. The Buddhist emperor [][Aśoka] in his inscriptions of the 3rd century BC stressed the sanctity of animal life. Ahimsa is one of the first disciplines learned by the student of yoga and is required to be mastered in the preparatory stage (*yama*), the first of the eight stages that lead to perfect concentration. In the early 20th century Gandhi extended ahimsa into the political sphere as []satyagraha, nonviolent resistance to a specific evil.

alapa

*Sanskrit"conversation"* in the art musics of South Asia, improvised melody structures that reveal the musical characteristics of a [][raga]. Variant forms of the word—*alap* in northern Indian music and *alapana* in Carnatic music (where the term *ragam* improvisation is also used)—are often found. *Alapa* ordinarily constitutes the first section of the performance of a raga. Vocal or instrumental, it is accompanied by a drone (sustained-tone) instrument and often also by a melodic instrument that repeats the soloist's phrases after a lag of a few seconds. The principal portion of *alapa* is not metric but rhythmically free; in Hindustani music it moves gradually to a section known as *[]jor*, which uses a rhythmic pulse though no metric cycle (tala). The performer of the *alapa* gradually introduces the essential notes and melodic turns of the raga to be performed. Only when the soloist is satisfied that he has set forth the full range of melodic possibilities of the raga and has established its unique mood and personality will he proceed, without interruption, to the metrically organized section of the piece. If a drummer is present, as is usual in formal concert, his first beats serve as a signal to the listener that the *alapa* is concluded.

akriyāvāda

*Sanskrit"doctrine denying the effect of deeds"Pāli **\>Akiriyāvāda** * set of beliefs held by heretic teachers in India who were contemporaries of the Buddha. The doctrine was a kind of antinomianism that, by denying the orthodox karmic theory of the efficacy of former deeds on a person's present and future condition, also denied the possibility of a person's influencing his own destiny through preferring righteous to bad conduct. The doctrine's teachers were therefore severely criticized for immorality by their religious opponents, including Buddhists. Their views are known only through uncomplimentary references in Buddhist and Jaina literature. Among the heretic teachers whose names are known are Pūraṇa Kāśyapa, a radical antinomian; [Gośāla Maskarīputra], a fatalist; Ajita Keśakambalin, the earliest-known materialist in India; and Pakudha Kātyāyana, an atomist. Gośāla's followers formed the Ājīvika sect, which enjoyed some acceptance during the Maurya period (3rd century BC) and then dwindled.

Agama

*Sanskrit"tradition" or "received knowledge"* post-Vedic scripture conveying ritual knowledge and considered to have been revealed by a personal divinity. [][Shaivite] scriptures, dating probably to the 8th century, are particularly so designated, in contrast to the Vaishnava Samhitas and the Shakta Tantras. (*Compare* [Shaivism], [Vaishnavism], and [Shaktism].) The Agamas are often in the form of a dialogue between [Shiva] and his wife Parvati. For convenience, scholars discuss the texts according to the four Shaivite branches that follow the Agamic tradition. These are the Sanskrit school of [Shaiva-siddhanta], the Tamil Shaivas, the [Kashmir Shaivas], and the [Lingayat]s, who are also known as the Virashaivas. The Agamas provide a considerable amount of information on the earliest codes of temple building, image making, and religious procedure.

Ahmad Khan, Sir Sayyid

*Sayyid also spelled **Syad, or Syed, Ahmad** also spelled **Ahmed** * born Oct. 17, 1817, Delhi died March 27, 1898, Alīgarh, India []Muslim educator, jurist, and author, founder of the [Anglo-Mohammedan Oriental College] at Alīgarh, Uttar Pradesh, India, and the principal motivating force behind the revival of Indian Islām in the late 19th century. His works, in Urdu, include *Essays on the Life of Mohammed* (1870) and commentaries on the Bible and on the Qurʾān. In 1888 he was made a Knight Commander of the Star of India. Sayyid's family, though progressive, was highly regarded by the dying [][Mughal dynasty]. His father, who received an allowance from the Mughal administration, became something of a religious recluse; his maternal grandfather had twice served as prime minister of the Mughal emperor of his time and had also held positions of trust under the East India Company. Sayyid's brother established one of the first printing presses at Delhi and started one of the earliest newspapers in [][Urdu], the principal language of the Muslims of northern India.

AFGHANISTAN

Area: 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi) Population (1998 est.): 24,792,000 (including Afghan refugees estimated to number more than 1,100,000 in Pakistan and about 1,400,000 in Iran) Capital: Kabul Chief of state: President Burhanuddin Rabbani; de facto Taliban Supreme Leader, Mullah Mohammad Omar

Aguarico River

*Spanish **Río Aguarico** * [![Photograph:The Aguarico River in the rain forests of El Oriente region, Ecuador]] - The Aguarico River in the rain forests of El Oriente region, Ecuador river, northeastern [Ecuador], rising south of Tulcán, in the Andes mountains near the Ecuador-Colombia border, and flowing east-southeast for approximately 230 miles (370 km) to its juncture with the Napo River at Pantoja. It is navigable for smaller boats. The Rio de Janeiro Protocol of 1942 fixed the lower course of the Aguarico (Spanish: "Rich Water") as part of the long-disputed Ecuador-Peru frontier. Although Ecuador unilaterally denounced the protocol in 1960, a new agreement was signed in 1998.

Aguán River

*Spanish **Río Aguán** * river in northern [Honduras], 150 mi (240 km) in length. After rising in the central highlands west of Yoro, it descends to the northeast between the Cerros de Cangreja and the Sierra de la Esperanza to the coastal lowlands, on which it forms a maze of channels and empties into the Caribbean Sea near the towns of Santa Rosa de Aguán and Limón. The lands along the river, although periodically devastated by banana diseases, floods, and hurricanes (particularly Fifi in 1974), were restored to banana cultivation with new disease-resistant varieties in the late 1970s. In the lower river valley, agricultural cooperatives shifted to raising citrus fruits, corn (maize), rice, and African palm for oil. Flood control works were started after the river burst its levees in 1977. A new highway links the river valley to the ports at Tela, La Ceiba, Trujillo, and Puerto Cortés. The railway paralleling the lower and middle valley of the Aguán, damaged by natural disasters, was restored to service and extended to Puerto Castilla in the late 1970s.

aksak

*Turkish"limping"* an important pattern in the rhythmic structure of folk and vernacular traditional music of the Middle East, particularly Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan, and of the Balkans. It is characterized by combinations of unequal beats, such as 2 + 3 and their extensions, particularly 2 + 2 + 2 + 3. Called Bulgarian rhythm (e.g., by the Hungarian composer and ethnomusicologist [][Béla Bartók]), the concept also includes divisions of the eight-beat structure common in Western music into unequal subdivisions, such as 2 + 3 + 3. As non-Western music, as well as eastern European folk music, began to exert influence in the West, *aksak* rhythms found their way into the works of a number of 20th-century composers of Western art music, Bartók and [][Igor Stravinsky] foremost among them.

Afghanistan

Area: 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi) Population (1999 est.): 25,825,000 (including Afghan refugees estimated to number about 1,100,000 in Pakistan and about 1,400,000 in Iran)

agitprop

*abbreviated from Russian **agitatsiya propaganda (agitation propaganda)** * political strategy in which the techniques of []agitation and [propaganda] are used to influence and mobilize public opinion. Although the strategy is common, both the label and an obsession with it were specific to the [Marxism] practiced by communists in the Soviet Union. The twin strategies of agitation and propaganda were originally elaborated by the Marxist theorist [][Georgy Plekhanov], who defined propaganda as the promulgation of a number of ideas to an individual or small group and agitation as the promulgation of a single idea to a large mass of people. Expanding on these notions in his pamphlet *What Is to Be Done?* (1902), [][Vladimir Lenin] stated that the propagandist, whose primary medium is print, explains the causes of social inequities such as unemployment or hunger, while the agitator, whose primary medium is speech, seizes on the emotional aspects of these issues to arouse his audience to indignation or action. Agitation is thus the use of political slogans and half-truths to exploit the grievances of the public and thereby to mold [][public opinion] and mobilize public support. Propaganda, by contrast, is the reasoned use of historical and scientific arguments to indoctrinate the educated and so-called "enlightened" members of society, such as party members. The term *agitprop* originated as a shortened form of the Agitation and Propaganda Section of the Central Committee Secretariat of the [][Communist Party] in the Soviet Union. This department of the Central Committee was established in the early 1920s and was responsible for determining the content of all official information, overseeing political education in schools, watching over all forms of mass communication, and mobilizing public support for party programs. Every unit of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union, from the republic to the local-party level, had an agitprop section; at the local level, agitators (party-trained spokesmen) were the chief points of contact between the party and the public.

Albany, Alexander Stewart, duke of

*also called (1455-*c.* 1458) **Earl Of March** * born *c.* 1454 died 1485, France second son of James II of Scotland, created duke of Albany in or before 1458. Both he and John, earl of Mar, quarrelled with their brother James III, who imprisoned them in 1479. Mar died, but Albany escaped to carry on a series of intrigues with the English, who supported his pretensions to the Scottish crown. Although he returned to favour and was lieutenant general of the realm during the winter of 1482-83, he was attainted in 1483 and defeated in another rising in 1484. Escaping to France, he died there the following year.

Afghanistan

Area: 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi) Population (2000 est.): 25,889,000 (including Afghan refugees estimated to number about 1,100,000 in Pakistan and more than 1,200,000 in Iran)

Afghanistan

Area: 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi) Population (2001 est.): 26,813,000 (including Afghan refugees estimated to number about 2,000,000 in Pakistan and about 2,000,000 in Iran)

Adolf

*also called **Adolf, Count (Graf) Von Nassau** * born *c.* 1250 died July 2, 1298, Göllheim, near Worms [Germany] [![Photograph:Adolf of Nassau (centre), ivory carving, 13th century; in the Germanic National Museum, ...]] - Adolf of Nassau (centre), ivory carving, 13th century; in the Germanic National Museum, ... German king from May 5, 1292, to June 23, 1298, when he was deposed in favour of his Habsburg opponent, [][Albert I].

Adolf

*also called **Adolf, Duke (Herzog) von Nassau** , in full **Adolf Wilhelm August Karl Friedrich** * born July 24, 1817, Biebrich, Nassau [Germany] died Nov. 17, 1905, Hohenberg, Württemberg, Ger. duke of Nassau from 1839 to 1867, who, as grand duke of Luxembourg from 1890 to 1905, was the first ruler of that autonomous duchy. The son of Duke William of Nassau-Weilburg and Charlotte of Saxony, Adolf became duke of Nassau upon his father's death (1839). Educated in Vienna and a military supporter of the Habsburgs, he sided with Austria against Prussia in the Seven Weeks' War (over hegemony in German affairs); and, upon the defeat of Austria (1866), Nassau was annexed by Prussia. He formally abdicated as duke of Nassau (Sept. 9, 1867) and was granted 8,500,000 thalers and a few castles as compensation. He served as regent of Luxembourg for King William III of The Netherlands in 1889; when the male line of Orange-Nassau ended with William III's death (1890) and the personal union between Luxembourg and The Netherlands ceased, the grand duchy reverted, according to the 1783 Nassau Succession Agreement, to him as the head of the ducal house of Nassau-Weilburg. Ruling until his death, he was succeeded by his son, Grand Duke William IV.

Aelianus

*also called **Aelianus Tacticus** * flourished 2nd century AD Greek military writer residing in Rome whose manual of tactics influenced Byzantine, Muslim, and post-15th-century European methods of [][warfare]. Probably written in AD 106, Aelianus'*[]Taktikē theōria* ("Tactical Theory"), based on the art of warfare as practiced by the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great, was an instruction manual on arming, organizing, deploying, and maneuvering an army in the field. Consulting previous authorities on the subject, Aelianus dealt with a force composed mainly of armoured infantry of the Greek hoplite type, with auxiliary light infantry and cavalry screens. His influence is evident in the military writings of the Byzantine emperor Leo VI (886-912); an Arab translation of the *Taktikē theōria* was made about 1350. Aelianus' detailed treatise became a valuable source of knowledge for European military writers of the 16th century, when infantry once again began to supersede cavalry as the decisive arm of the battlefield. It was while reading Aelianus' account of Roman drill in 1594 that Maurice of Nassau realized that the same practices that had worked for javelins could work for muskets, producing a continuous fire by ranks.

Aeolis

*also called **Aeolia,** * group of ancient cities on the west coast of Anatolia, which were founded at the end of the 2nd millennium BC by Greeks speaking an Aeolic dialect. The earliest settlements, located on the islands of Lesbos and Tenedos and on the mainland between Troas and Ionia, resulted from migrations during 1130-1000 BC. A second group of Aeolian settlements was colonized in the 7th century BC. At the end of the 6th century, Darius I incorporated Aeolis into one of the satrapies (provinces) of the Persian Empire.

Affair of the Diamond Necklace

*also called **Affair of the Necklace** * scandal at the court of Louis XVI in 1785 that discredited the French monarchy on the eve of the French Revolution. It began as an intrigue on the part of an adventuress, the []comtesse (countess) de La Motte, to procure, supposedly for Queen [][Marie-Antoinette] but in reality for herself and her associates, a diamond necklace worth 1,600,000 livres. The necklace was the property of the Parisian firm of jewelers Boehmer and Bassenge, who had tried unsuccessfully to sell it, first to Louis XV as a present for his mistress Madame du Barry and later to [][Louis XVI] for the queen. The countess's scheme involved the prestigious Cardinal de [][Rohan], bishop of Strasbourg, who as French ambassador to Vienna from 1772 to 1774 had aroused the dislike of the queen's mother, the empress Maria Theresa, and who had subsequently incurred the hostility of Marie-Antoinette herself; he was anxious to be restored to favour at the French court. The comtesse de La Motte suggested to the cardinal that the queen wished to acquire the necklace surreptitiously and would be prepared for a formal reconciliation at court if he would facilitate its purchase by negotiating with the jewelers. After reading forged letters supposedly from the queen and after a brief nocturnal interview in the gardens of Versailles with a prostitute disguised as the queen, the cardinal entered into a contract with the jewelers to pledge his credit to pay for the necklace in installments. The imposture came to light, however, when the cardinal failed to raise the first installment in full and the jewelers applied directly to the queen. With the imposture exposed, it was discovered that the necklace that the cardinal had supposed to be in the queen's possession had been broken up and sold in London.

Afonso I

*also called **Afonso Henriques** , byname **Afonso the Conqueror** , Portuguese **Afonso o Conquistador** * born 1109/11, Guimarães, Port. died Dec. 6, 1185, Coimbra the first king of Portugal (1139-85), who conquered [][Santarém] and [][Lisbon] from the Muslims (1147) and secured Portuguese independence from Leon (1139). [][Alfonso VI], emperor of Leon, had granted the county of Portugal to Afonso's father, [Henry] of Burgundy, who successfully defended it against the Muslims (1095-1112). Henry married Alfonso VI's illegitimate daughter, [Teresa], who governed Portugal from the time of her husband's death (1112) until her son Afonso came of age. She refused to cede her power to Afonso, but his party prevailed in the []Battle of São Mamede, near Guimarães (1128). Though at first obliged as a vassal to submit to his cousin Alfonso VII of Leon, Afonso assumed the title of king in 1139.

agar

*also called **Agar-agar,** * gelatin-like product made primarily from the [][algae] *Gelidium* and *Gracilaria* (red seaweeds). Best known as a solidifying component of bacteriological culture media, it is used also in canning meat, fish, and poultry; in cosmetics, medicines, and dentistry; as a clarifying agent in brewing and wine making; as a thickening agent in ice cream, pastries, desserts, and salad dressings; and as a wire-drawing lubricant. Agar is isolated from the algae as an amorphous and translucent product sold as powder, flakes, or bricks. It is produced chiefly in Japan, New Zealand, Australia, the United States, and Russia. Although agar is insoluble in cold water, it absorbs as much as 20 times its own weight. It dissolves readily in boiling water; a dilute solution is still liquid at 42° C (108° F) but solidifies at 37° C into a firm gel. In the natural state, agar occurs as a complex cell-wall constituent containing a complex carbohydrate (polysaccharide) with sulfate and calcium.

age distribution

*also called **Age Composition,** * in population studies, the proportionate numbers of persons in successive age categories in a given population. Age distributions differ among countries mainly because of differences in the levels and trends of [][fertility]. A population with persistently high fertility, for instance, has a large proportion of children and a small proportion of aged persons. A population, such as that of [][France], in which fertility has been low for a long time, has a smaller proportion of children and a larger proportion of aged persons. Changes in fertility have an immediate effect on numbers of children, but many years must pass before the change affects the numbers above childhood. Thus, a population that has experienced a recent decline in fertility tends to have relatively small numbers both of children and of aged persons and a large proportion of adults in the middle ages. Age distributions have also been influenced in varying ways by migrations, war losses, and differences in mortality—though these effects are generally less important than the influence of variations in fertility. Yet the []migration of young adults, who bring children with them or soon have children in the area to which they move, is likely to swell the number both of adults in the middle ages and of children in the receiving country, while the proportion of aged persons remains low—with reverse effects on the population of an area from which there is a large net out movement.

agonism

*also called **Agonistic Behaviour,** * survivalist [][animal behaviour] that includes aggression, defense, and avoidance. The term is favoured by biologists who recognize that the behavioral bases and stimuli for approach and fleeing are often the same, the actual behaviour exhibited depending on other factors, especially the distance to the stimulus. Ethologists believe that the most general and probably the primary function of agonistic behaviour is to allow members of a species to regulate the spatial distribution of that species. It also may regulate access to both food supplies and mates. In [][human] societies, where verbal explanation is possible, agonistic behaviour can serve as a tool to bring about constructive activity as well as distinct antisocial, destructive acts. Some ethologists have suggested that many seemingly irrational human behaviours, such as war and murder, reflect the same instinctual mechanisms (territorial defense, for example) that leads to aggressive acts in many non-humans.

Agrippina, Vipsania

*also called **Agrippina the Elder** * born *c.* 14 BC died Oct. 18, AD 33, the island of Pandateria [modern Ventotene Island, Italy], in the Tyrrhenian Sea daughter of Marcus Agrippa and Julia (who was the daughter of the emperor Augustus), and a major figure in the succession struggles in the latter part of the reign of [][Tiberius] (ruled AD 14-37). [![Photograph:Marble statue of Vipsania Agrippina, from the 2nd century .]] - Marble statue of Vipsania Agrippina, from the 2nd century AD. Agrippina was married to [][Germanicus Caesar] (great-nephew of Augustus by adoption and nephew and adopted son of Tiberius). She accompanied her husband to Germany and to the East, where he died at Antioch in 19. On her return she accused Tiberius of having had Germanicus murdered, and relations between them remained tense. Sejanus, Tiberius's chief minister, encouraged the emperor's suspicion of her for his own purposes, especially when the death of Tiberius's son Drusus in 23 brought her sons into direct line for the succession. In 29 Agrippina was exiled, and in 30 her son Drusus was imprisoned. In 33, two years after the fall of Sejanus, they both died by starvation. Tiberius was suspected of having ordered their deaths. Of her nine children by Germanicus, one son and three daughters survived her, the son becoming Tiberius's successor as the emperor Gaius Caligula (37-41). The most famous of her daughters was [][Julia Agrippina], the mother of the emperor Nero. Several fine portraits of Agrippina have been preserved, the most famous being in the Capitoline Museum, Rome.

Ahhiyawā

*also called **Ahhiyā** * ancient kingdom lying to the west of the [][Hittite] empire. The exact location of Ahhiyawā is not definitely known but may have been western Anatolia or one of the islands in the Aegean Sea. The most commonly held theory is that the people of Ahhiyawā were the Achaeans of Homer, early Mycenaean Greeks. Another theory represents them as ancestors of the Trojans. In any case, it seems quite certain that the Ahhiyawāns were a powerful seafaring people. Much of what is known about Ahhiyawā has been derived from Hittite texts. The earliest references to the kingdom occur in documents prepared during the reign of [][Suppiluliumas] (*c.* 1380-46 BC). It seems that Ahhiyawā was a large and formidable kingdom with which the Hittites had good relations. Later documents indicate that members of the Ahhiyawān royal family traveled to the Hittite capital of Hattusa to study the charioteer's art and that a statue of the god of Ahhiyawā was brought to the Hittite king [][Mursilis II] (reigned *c.* 1340-1300 BC) to cure his illness. The Ahhiyawāns apparently became a threat to the Hittite empire during the reign of [Tudhaliyas IV] (*c.* 1250-20 BC). During this period a certain Attarissiyas led several attacks on Hittite vassals and cities, and some have thought this might be Atreus, the father of Agamemnon.

Afghanistan

Area: 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi) Population (2002 est.): 27,756,000 (including Afghan refugees estimated to number about 1,100,000 in Pakistan and about 1,400,000 in Iran)

Aizawa Yasushi

*also called **Aizawa Seishisai** * born July 5, 1782, Mito, Hitachi Province, Japan died August 27, 1863, Mito Japanese nationalist thinker whose writings helped provoke the movement that in 1868 overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate and restored power to the emperor. Aizawa's fief of Mito, one of the branches of the great Tokugawa family, was a centre of Confucian learning and loyalty. Thus, the threat to these traditional beliefs posed by growing contact with the West was keenly felt in Mito. Writing in the early 19th century, when Western ships were first beginning to be seen off the Japanese coast, Aizawa argued that the new "barbarians" had to be dealt with decisively, but that in order to do so Japan had to adopt certain Western military techniques and develop her armaments and defenses. Even so, contact with foreigners should be limited, according to Aizawa, for to encourage trade would undermine the Japanese nation. He realized that the real threat to the country was a weak, apathetic citizenry; strength could be ensured only through promotion of nationalistic sentiment, including loyalty to the emperor as the real sovereign.

Aḥmad al-Manṣūr

*also called **Al-dhahabī (the Golden)** * born 1549, Fès, Mor. died August 20, 1603, Fès sixth ruler of the Saʿdī dynasty, which he raised to its zenith of power by his policy of centralization and astute diplomacy. Al-Manṣūr resisted the demands of his nominal suzerain, the Ottoman sultan, by playing off the European powers, namely, France, Portugal, Spain, and England, against one another in order to preserve Moroccan independence. Aḥmad al-Manṣūr succeeded his brother ʿAbd al-Malik in August 1578. During the early years of his rule a largely mercenary army was trained and led by Ottoman Turks. The administrative system of the government was centralized, and important state officials were given land assignments and exempted from taxation. A survey of property was made, and land revenue was collected directly. Agriculture and the sugar industry were developed. The capital city of Marrākush was restored to its former grandeur.

Alani

*also called **Alans,** * an ancient nomadic pastoral people that occupied the steppe region northeast of the Black Sea. The Alani were first mentioned in Roman literature in the 1st century AD and were described later as a warlike people that specialized in horse breeding. They frequently raided the Parthian empire and the Caucasian provinces of the Roman Empire. About AD 370, however, they were overwhelmed by the Huns, and many fled westward, crossing into Gaul with the Vandals and Suebi (406). Although some of the Alani settled near Orléans and Valence, most went to North Africa with the Vandals, causing the official title of the Vandal kings in Africa to be "kings of the Vandals and the Alani." The Alani who remained under the rule of the Huns are said to be ancestors of the modern [Ossetes] of the Caucasus.

Albert III

*also called **Albert Animosus, or The Courageous,** German **Albrecht Der Beherzte** * born July 27/31, 1443, Grimma, Saxony died Sept. 12, 1500, Emden, East Frisia duke of Saxony, founder of the Albertine branch of the House of Wettin, and marshal of the Holy Roman Empire. Albert was the son of Frederick II, elector of Saxony. When he was 12 years of age, he and his brother Ernest were abducted by their father's enemy, the Saxon noble Kunz von Kaufungen, who was quickly thwarted and executed. The incident is known as the *[]Prinzenraub*, and it became a popular subject for legend and literature, particularly for 16th-century German dramatists. On the death of their father, the brothers ruled their Saxon territories jointly until the Leipzig partition of 1485, when the lands were split between them.

Albert, Lake

*also called **Albert Nyanza** and **Lake Mobutu Sese Seko,** * northernmost of the lakes in the Western Rift Valley, in east-central Africa, on the border between [][Congo (Kinshasa)]#9108337.toc) and Uganda. In 1864 the lake was first visited by a European, [][Samuel Baker], who was seeking the sources of the Nile; he named it after Queen Victoria's consort and published his experiences in *[]The Albert N'yanza* (1866). [][Romolo Gessi], an Italian soldier and explorer, circumnavigated it in 1876. Both Henry (later Sir Henry) Morton Stanley and Mehmed Emin Paşa (Eduard Schnitzer) established forts on its shores. With an area of about 2,160 square miles (5,600 square km), a length of 100 miles (160 km), and an average width of 22 miles (35 km), Albert is a shallow body of water, averaging about 80 feet (25 m) in depth; its maximum depth is 190 feet (60 m). In the southwest, the Semliki River brings into the lake the waters of Lake Edward, of the Congo Escarpment, and of the rain-soaked Ruwenzori Range, building a large alluvial plain in the process. There is a considerable expanse of lowland at the northern end, where the Victoria Nile enters as a sluggish stream in a swampy delta. Almost immediately the lake narrows into the [][Albert Nile], through which it supplies water to the White Nile. In the west and east, the lake is bordered by forested cliffs and ravines.

Albert Of Saxony

*also called **Albert Of Ricmestorp** , or **Of Halberstadt** , German **Albert Von Sachsen** , or **Von Ricmestorp** , or **Von Halberstadt** * born *c.* 1316, , Helmstedt, Saxony died July 8, 1390, Halberstadt German scholastic philosopher especially noted for his investigations into physics. He studied at Prague and then at the University of Paris, where he was a master of arts from 1351 to 1362 and rector in 1353. Most probably he is to be identified with the Albert of Ricmestorp, or Rückmersdorf, who was rector of the University of Vienna in 1365 and bishop of Halberstadt from 1366 until his death there in 1390.

Albert of Aix

*also called **Albert of Aachen** , Latin **Albericus Aquensis** * flourished 1120 canon of the church of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) and historian of the First [][Crusade]. He gathered oral and written testaments of participants in the Crusade and provided a chronicle on the subject, the *[]Historia expeditionis Hierosolymitanae* ("History of the Expedition to Jerusalem"). His work remains an important source on the First [Crusade] and the history of the kingdom of Jerusalem until 1120 and is the sole document on the People's Crusade of 1096, led by [Peter the Hermit]. Albert's history is a compilation of legends and eyewitness reports. Little is known about his life. He himself never visited the Holy Land.

Albert

*also called **Albert of Brandenburg,** German **Albrecht von Brandenburg** * born June 28, 1490 died Sept. 24, 1545, Mainz [Germany] [![Photograph:Albert of Brandenburg, engraving by Albrecht Dürer, 1523]] - Albert of Brandenburg, engraving by Albrecht Dürer, 1523 margrave of Brandenburg, cardinal, and elector of Mainz, a liberal patron of the arts known chiefly as the object of the reformer [][Martin Luther's] attacks concerning the sale of indulgences.

Alberti Family

*also called **Alberti Del Giudice,** * wealthy Florentine merchant banking family that was influential in European politics in the second half of the 14th century and notable for its patronage of the arts and beneficence toward the poor. The ascendancy of the Alberti family began with []Niccolò di Iacopo di Alberti (d. 1377), whose immense success at directing a branch of the family's bank at Avignon, Fr., then the papal seat, enabled the Alberti to become the almost exclusive banker of the papacy (1362). As codirector of the company (from 1369) and then as its director (from 1372), Niccolò steadily expanded his financial interests and increased his own and his family's wealth and influence. A strong supporter of the propapal Guelf party in Florence, he held several important public offices there, including chief magistrate, or prior (1355), and gonfalonier of justice (1363). Later he contributed to Florence's victory over the rival city of Pisa, and in a treaty in 1369 he secured free entry for Florentine ships into the port of Pisa. He built the family's magnificent Villa del Paradiso, where he protected and encouraged men of arts and letters. Under the leadership of Benedetto (d. 1388), the []Alberti sought to check the steadily growing ascendancy of the rival []Albizzi family. A Guelf leader, Benedetto encouraged and participated in a popular insurrection against the oligarchic Florentine government (July 1378). Although briefly successful, this attempt ultimately failed (1382); Benedetto was exiled several years later.

aerial perspective

*also called **Atmospheric Perspective,** * [![Photograph:Aerial perspective (Top) "Banks of the Seine in Autumn," Impressionist painting ...]] - *Aerial perspective* (Top) "Banks of the Seine in Autumn," Impressionist painting ... method of creating the illusion of depth, or recession, in a painting or drawing by modulating colour to simulate changes effected by the atmosphere on the colours of things seen at a distance. Although the use of aerial perspective has been known since antiquity, [][Leonardo da Vinci] first used the term aerial perspective in his *[Treatise on Painting],* in which he wrote: "Colours become weaker in proportion to their distance from the person who is looking at them." It was later discovered that the presence in the atmosphere of moisture and of tiny particles of dust and similar material causes a scattering of light as it passes through them, the degree of scattering being dependent on the wavelength, which corresponds to the colour, of the light. Because light of short wavelength—blue light—is scattered most, the colours of all distant dark objects tend toward blue; for example, distant mountains have a bluish cast. Light of long wavelength—red light—is scattered least; thus, distant bright objects appear redder because some of the blue is scattered and lost from the light by which they are seen. The intervening atmosphere between a viewer and, for example, distant mountains, creates other visual effects that can be mimicked by landscape painters. The atmosphere causes distant forms to have less distinct edges and outlines than forms near the viewer, and interior detail is similarly softened or blurred. Distant objects appear somewhat lighter than objects of similar tone lying closer at hand, and in general contrasts between light and shade appear less extreme at great distances. All these effects are more apparent at the base of a mountain than at its peak, since the density of the intervening atmosphere is greater at lower elevations.

Aḥmad Grāñ

*also called **Aḥmad the Left-handed** , real name **Aḥmad Ibn Ibrāhīm al-Ghāzī** * born c. 1506 died 1543 leader of a Muslim movement that all but subjugated [Ethiopia]. At the height of his conquest, he held more than three-quarters of the kingdom, and, according to the chronicles, the majority of men in these conquered areas had converted to Islam. Once Aḥmad Grāñ had gained control of the Muslim Somali state of [][Adal] (Adel), where he installed his brother as a puppet king, he launched a jihad (Islamic holy war) against Christian Ethiopia. He created an army out of the masses of heterogeneous and nomadic Somalis who had joined him, motivated by religion and the prospects of wealth. He also made skillful use of firearms, introduced by the Turks, and employed a small body of Turkish troops.

Aghlabid dynasty

*also called **Banū al-Aghlab** * Arab Muslim dynasty that ruled [Ifrīqīyah] (Tunisia and eastern Algeria) from AD 800 to 909. The Aghlabids were nominally subject to the ʿAbbāsid caliphs of Baghdad but were in fact independent. Their capital city was Kairouan (al-Qayrawān), in Tunisia. The most interesting of the 11 Aghlabid emirs were the energetic and cultured [Ibrāhīm ibn al-Aghlab] (reigned 800-812), founder of al-Abbāsiyya (2 miles [3 km] south of Kairouan); []Ziyādat Allāh I (817-838), who broke the rebellion of the Arab soldiery and sent it to conquer Sicily (which remained in Arab hands for two centuries); and []Abū Ibrāhim Aḥmad (856-863), who commissioned many public works. During the 9th century the brilliant Kairouan civilization evolved under their rule. The Aghlabid emirs maintained a splendid court, though at the cost of oppressive taxes; their public works for the conservation and distribution of water, however, contributed to the prosperity of a country that was on the whole peaceful. Their fleet was supreme in the central Mediterranean.

Aggtelek Caves

*also called **Baradla-Domica Caverns** * limestone cave system on the Hungarian-Slovakian border, about 30 miles (50 km) northwest of Miskolc, Hungary, and 40 miles (65 km) southwest of Košice, Slovakia. It is the largest [][stalactite] cave system in Europe, and its stalactite and stalagmite formations are spectacular. The caverns and their surroundings have been designated a national park by both Hungary and Slovakia, and the area was named a UNESCO [][World Heritage site] in 1995. The caverns were formed in the Tertiary and Quaternary periods in the unevenly uplifted Aggtelek Mountains, which are rich in [karstic] features. The subterranean streams are fed by 11 sinkholes. There are more than 14 miles (23 km) of charted pathways. The main path for tourists follows the course of the intermittent Acheron River. There are six entrances to the caverns, three in Slovakia (the Devil's Hole and the natural and man-made entrances at Domica) and three in Hungary (the natural entrance at Aggtelek in the highest cliff face in Hungary and the man-made entrances at Jósvafő and Lake Vörös). The narrow corridors of the caverns connect spacious chambers (with names such as the Black Chamber, the Ballroom, the Hall of Tigers, the Concert Hall, the Banquet Hall, the Room of Lace, the Great Chamber, the Room of Ruins, the Heroes' Chamber, the Reményi Ede Room, Rákóczi's Tent Hall, the Hall of Councils, and the Giants' Hall), and the stalactites and stalagmites, with their diverse colours, shapes, and forms, present a remarkable spectacle. It has attracted tourists since the early 1800s.

Afrikaans language

*also called **Cape Dutch,** * West Germanic language of South Africa, developed from 17th-century Netherlandic (Dutch) by the descendants of European (Dutch, German, and French) colonists, indigenous Khoisan peoples, and African and Asian slaves in the Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope. Afrikaans and English are the only Indo-European languages among the many official languages of South Africa. Although Afrikaans is very similar to Netherlandic, it is clearly a separate language, differing from Standard Netherlandic in its sound system and its loss of case and gender distinctions. Afrikaans was adopted for use in schools in 1914 and in the Dutch Reformed Church in 1919. A distinct [Afrikaans literature] has evolved during the 20th century, and the first complete translation of the Bible into Afrikaans was published in 1933. *See also* [Netherlandic language].

African hunting dog

*also called **Cape Hunting Dog, or Hyena Dog** * [![Photograph:African hunting dogs (Lycaon pictus).]] - African hunting dogs (*Lycaon pictus*). (*Lycaon pictus*), wild African carnivore that differs from the rest of the members of the dog family (Canidae) in having only four toes on each foot. Its coat is short, sparse, and irregularly blotched with yellow, black, and white. The African hunting dog is about 76-102 cm (30-41 inches) long, exclusive of its 31-41-centimetre tail, stands about 60 cm (24 inches) at the shoulder, and weighs about 16-23 kg (35-50 pounds). The African hunting dog is long-limbed with a broad, flat head, short muzzle, and large, erect ears. It hunts in packs of 15 to 60 or more and is found in most of Africa south and east of the Sahara, particularly in grasslands. It usually preys on antelopes and some larger game but has been hunted in settled regions for the damage it sometimes does to domestic livestock. The average number of young per litter appears to be about six; gestation periods of about 60 and 80 days have been noted.

adult education

*also called **Continuing Education** * any form of learning undertaken by or provided for mature men and women. In a 1970 report, the National Institute of Adult Education (England and Wales) defined adult education as "any kind of education for people who are old enough to work, vote, fight and marry and who have completed the cycle of continuous education, [if any] commenced in childhood." Adult education comprehends such diverse modes as independent study consciously pursued with or without the aid of libraries; broadcast programs or correspondence courses; group discussion and other "mutual aid" learning in study circles, colloquia, seminars or workshops, and residential conferences or meetings; and full- or part-time study in classes or courses in which the lecturer, teacher, or tutor has a formal leading role. Types of adult education can also be classified as follows: 1\. Education for [][vocational], technical, and professional competence. (Such education may aim at preparing an adult for a first job or for a new job, or it may aim at keeping him up to date on new developments in his occupation or profession.) 2\. Education for health, [][welfare], and family living. (Such education includes all kinds of education in health, family relations, consumer buying, planned parenthood, hygiene, child care, and the like.)

airship

*also called **Dirigible, or Dirigible Balloon** * [![Photograph:Graf Zeppelin in flight.]] - *Graf Zeppelin* in flight. (from French *diriger,* "to steer"), a self-propelled, lighter-than-air craft. Three main types of airships have been built: nonrigids ([][blimps]), [semirigids], and [rigids]. All three types have four principal parts: a cigar-shaped bag, or balloon, that is filled with a lighter-than-air gas; a car or gondola that is slung beneath the balloon and holds the crew and passengers; engines that drive propellers; and horizontal and vertical rudders to steer the craft. Nonrigids are simply balloons with cars attached by cables; if the gas escapes, the balloon collapses. Semirigids likewise depend on the internal gas to maintain the balloon's shape, but they also have a structural metal keel that extends longitudinally along the balloon's base and supports the car. Rigids consist of a light framework of aluminum-alloy girders that is covered with fabric but is not airtight. Inside this framework are a number of gas-filled balloons, each of which can be filled or emptied separately; rigids keep their shape whether they are filled with gas or not.

affections, doctrine of the

*also called **Doctrine Of Affects,** German **Affektenlehre,** * theory of musical aesthetics, widely accepted by late [Baroque] theorists and composers, that embraced the proposition that music is capable of arousing a variety of specific emotions within the listener. At the centre of the doctrine was the belief that, by making use of the proper standard musical procedure or device, the composer could create a piece of music capable of producing a particular involuntary emotional response in his audience. These devices and their affective counterparts were rigorously cataloged and described by such 17th- and 18th-century theorists as Athanasius Kircher, Andreas Werckmeister, Johann David Heinichen, and [][Johann Mattheson]. Mattheson is especially comprehensive in his treatment of the affections in music. In *[]Der vollkommene Capellmeister* (1739; "The Perfect Chapelmaster"), he notes that joy is elicited by large intervals, sadness by small intervals; fury may be aroused by a roughness of harmony coupled with a rapid melody; obstinacy is evoked by the contrapuntal combination of highly independent (obstinate) melodies. [][Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach] (1714-88) and the [][Mannheim school] were exponents of the doctrine. The contemplation of the emotional aspect of music is not limited to the Baroque era but may be found throughout the history of music. It is an essential part of ancient Greek musical theory (the doctrine of ethos), it takes on a particular importance in the Romantic movement of the 19th century, and it also occurs in such non-Western music as the Indian raga. It was in the Baroque era, however, that theorists, influenced by the [][Enlightenment's] tendency toward encyclopaedic organization of all knowledge, attempted to delineate music into affective categories.

air embolism

*also called **Gas Embolism,** * blockage of an artery or vein by an air bubble. Air can be introduced into the blood vessels during surgery or traumatic accidents. One type of traumatic embolization occurs when lung tissue is ruptured; bubbles of air pass from the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs into nearby capillaries and veins. The air bubbles are then carried into the heart, where, if trapped, they can cause [][myocardial infarction], the destruction of tissue in the heart muscle; usually, however, the air rises to the [][brain]. The consequent blockage of vessels carrying blood to the brain starves this tissue of its vital blood supply. Nervous tissue becomes irreversibly damaged after about five minutes of oxygen and nutritional starvation; convulsions, unconsciousness, respiratory difficulties, and death may ensue. Air embolism is one of the most common hazards of underwater diving while breathing compressed air. *See also* [mediastinal emphysema]; [decompression sickness].

AK-47

*also called **Kalashnikov Model** * 1947, Soviet assault rifle, one of the most widely used shoulder weapons in the world. The initials AK represent Avtomat Kalashnikov, Russian for "automatic Kalashnikov," for its designer, Mikhail Timofeyevich Kalashnikov (b. 1919). It has both semiautomatic and automatic capabilities and fires intermediate-power 7.62-millimetre ammunition. The AK-47 is a short and well-designed gun. It has a separate gas return tube above the barrel, a long box magazine that holds 30 rounds, and a cyclic firing rate of 600 rounds per minute. It is manufactured in several countries in two basic designs. One has a wooden stock, the other a folding metal stock. In the 1980s the AK-47 was replaced by the []AKM, a modernized version with better sights but the same basic operation. The AK-47 and its AKM version, however, remained the basic shoulder weapons for virtually all communist armies, as well as for many guerrilla and nationalist movements throughout the world. It was produced in the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, China, East Germany, Hungary, North Korea, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia.

Alaungpaya Dynasty

*also called **Konbaung** * the last ruling dynasty (1752-1885) of Myanmar (Burma). The dynasty's collapse in the face of British imperial might marked the end of Myanmar sovereignty for more than 60 years. (Some authorities limit the name Konbaung dynasty to the period beginning with King [][Bodawpaya] in 1782 and continuing to 1885.) The Alaungpaya dynasty led Myanmar in an era of expansionism that was only brought to an end by defeat in the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824-26. By the 18th century Myanmar under the Toungoo dynasty (1486-1752) was fragmented: the Shan States to the north and east of Ava were as much Chinese as Burmese, while in the southeast the Mon people's separatism had been rekindled by 1740. In 1752 [][Alaungpaya], a village headman in Shwebo (then called Moksobomyo; near Mandalay), organized an army and led a successful attack against the Mon rulers of the southern part of Myanmar. Alaungpaya led his armies southward, crushing all local resistance. Aware that his power rested on his ability to centralize his kingdom, Alaungpaya forced the rulers of the Shan States to accept his suzerainty. Advancing farther eastward, he attacked the Siamese kingdom of Ayutthaya (now in Thailand) but was forced to withdraw and was mortally wounded (1760) during his retreat. In 1764 [][Hsinbyushin], third king of the dynasty, restored order and renewed the conquest of Ayutthaya, which he reduced to ruins in 1767 but which he was unable to hold for long. Hsinbyushin's armies ranged far into the Shan and Lao states and the Manipur kingdom of India and four times defeated invasions of Myanmar by the Chinese. Hsinbyushin, intent upon pacifying the southern areas, was stymied in 1776. Bodawpaya (reigned 1782-1819), sixth king of the dynasty, was committed to the reconquest of Ayutthaya and mounted a number of unsuccessful campaigns against the Siamese. Bodawpaya also moved the capital to nearby Amarapura.

Albert Nile

*also called **Mobutu Nile,** * [![Photograph:The Albert Nile, near Pakwach, Uganda]] - The Albert Nile, near Pakwach, Uganda the upper Nile River in northwestern Uganda, eastern Africa, issuing from the north end of Lake Albert (Mobutu), just north of the mouth of the Victoria Nile. It flows 130 miles (210 km) north past Pakwach to the Sudanese border at Nimule, where it becomes the Al-Jabal River, or Mountain Nile. It is navigable throughout its course.

Agreda, María de

*also called **Sister María De Jesús,** original name **María Fernández Coronel** * born April 2, 1602, Agreda, Spain died May 24, 1665, Agreda abbess and mystic. In 1620 she took her vows as a Franciscan nun and in 1627 became abbess of a Franciscan monastery in Agreda, retaining this office, except for a brief period, until her death. Her virtues and holy life were universally acknowledged, but controversy arose over her mystical writings, her political influence, and her missionary activities. Her best-known work is *[]The Mystical City of God* (1670), a life of the Virgin Mary ostensibly based on divine revelations granted to María. It was placed on the *Index Librorum Prohibitorum* in 1681, but the ban was lifted in 1747; Spanish theologians maintained from the start that most of the opposition arose from a misunderstanding of the Spanish text. Despite the book's evident historical, geographic, and chronological errors, scholars value it as an ascetic and mystical treatise.

Aidan

*also spelled **Aedan** * died *c.* 608 king of the Scottish kingdom of Dalriada. He was the son of Gabran, king of Dalriada. Aidan was inaugurated as king at Iona by St. Columba. He refused to allow his kingdom to remain dependent on the Irish Dalriada; but, coming into collision with his southern neighbours, he led a large force against Aethelfrith, king of the Northumbrians, and was defeated at Degsastan, probably in Liddesdale.

aecium

*also called **aecidium** * a cluster-cup or fruiting body of certain rust fungi (phylum Basidiomycota, kingdom Fungi). Yellow to orange in colour, aecia develop after fertilization and bear one-celled spores (aeciospores, or aecidiospores). Aecia are usually found on lower leaf surfaces of plants.

agranulocytosis

*also called **agranulocytic angina** * acute infection characterized by severe sore throat, fever, and fatigue and associated with an extreme reduction of white blood cells, or [leukocytes] (a condition known as [leukopenia]), particularly the white cells known as neutrophils ([neutropenia]). In most cases, agranulocytosis appears to develop as a result of sensitization to certain drugs and chemicals; infection then follows as a consequence, not a cause, of the profound neutropenia. First observed as a reaction to the coal-tar product aminopyrine, agranulocytosis is triggered by a variety of pain relievers (analgesics), tranquilizers, antihistamines, anticonvulsants, sulfonamide derivatives, and antithyroid drugs. It also is a frequent complication of cancer treatment. Treatment of agranulocytosis consists of the immediate and permanent withdrawal of the offending drug and control of the infection with antibiotics.

Aelle

*also spelled **Aella or Aelli** * died 588 first king of Deira in northern England, whose people threw off the Bernician overlordship upon the death of Ida, king of Bernicia. Aelle became king, apparently in 559, while Ida's descendants continued to reign in the northern kingdom. On Aelle's death the Bernician king Aethelric again subdued Deira, but Aelle's son [][Edwin] (*q.v.*) would return to rule as the most powerful English ruler of the age.

Aepyornis

*also called **elephant bird,** * extinct genus of giant flightless birds found as fossils in Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene deposits on the island of Madagascar. The remains of *Aepyornis* are abundant. The several known species were massively constructed, with conical beaks, short, thick legs, three-toed feet, and relatively small wings that were useless for flight. The birds were probably slow-moving inhabitants of forests. The skull in *Aepyornis* was of small size, and the neck was long and slim. Some forms of *Aepyornis* attained very large size; *Aepyornis titan,* or *maximus,* stood 3 m (10 feet) high and weighed about 450 kg (1,000 pounds). The fossilized remains of *Aepyornis* eggs are relatively common, both fragmented and intact. The eggs of the giant forms were apparently the largest eggs ever laid by any animal. One of the largest intact specimens is 89 cm (35 inches) in circumference around its long axis and probably had a capacity of about nine litres (more than two gallons). A few *Aepyornis* eggs contain the bones of embryonic young. Though *Aepyornis* occurred relatively late in the geologic record, it was a primitive member of the ratites, an evolutionary lineage that includes the ostrich, rhea, and emu. *Aepyornis* species survived on Madagascar well into the period of the island's human occupation. The birds became extinct sometime in the last 1,000 years, probably as a result of hunting and habitat loss due to deforestation. *Aepyornis* may have given rise to the Arabic legend of the [][roc,] a gigantic bird.

agent

*also called **softbot ("software robot")** * a computer program that performs various actions continuously and autonomously on behalf of an individual or an organization. For example, an agent may archive various computer files or retrieve electronic messages on a regular schedule. Such simple tasks barely begin to tap the potential uses of agents, however. This is because an intelligent agent can observe the behaviour patterns of its users and learn to anticipate their needs, or at least their repetitive actions. Such intelligent agents frequently rely on techniques from other fields of [artificial intelligence], such as [expert systems] and [neural networks]. Intelligent agents possess, to varying degrees, autonomy, mobility, a symbolic model of reality, a capacity to learn from experience, and an ability to cooperate with other agents and systems. An intelligent agent is most frequently classified by the role that it performs. For example, interface agents such as Microsoft's Office Assistant monitor the user's "desktop" actions and offer advice. Thus far, however, the most useful agents have been developed for Internet assistance. For example, Brewster Kahle, the inventor of the Wide Area Information Server (WAIS) for indexing Web sites, created []Alexa, an Internet agent that monitors a user's pattern of Web "surfing" and suggests other sites of possible interest. []Chatterbots, another type of Internet agent, provide assistance to Web site visitors by conducting a dialogue with them to determine their needs and to service their more routine requests. Mobile agents are expected to become particularly useful in gathering information—from Internet articles and academic research papers to electronic newspapers, magazines, and books—to match a user's interests. Simple agents have also been used to facilitate trading on eBay, an electronic auction site, as well as on various electronic exchanges. Elaborate multi-agent systems, or communities, are being constructed in which agents meet and represent the interests of their principals in negotiations or collaborations. In addition to agent-only electronic marketplaces, collaborative projects, in which each agent provides some portion of the necessary information, are under development. [Vladimir Zwass]

Adrian III, Saint

*also known as **Hadrian III** * born , Rome? died , *c.* September 885, near Modena, Bishopric of Modena [Italy]; canonized June 2, 1891; feast day July 8 pope from 884 to 885. Adrian's brief pontificate came during troubled times. He died en route to the Diet of Worms after being summoned by the Frankish king Charles III the Fat to settle the succession to the empire and discuss the rising Saracen power. His death under dubious circumstances led many to believe that he had been assassinated. The motives for his veneration are practically unknown, but he was noted for having aided the Romans during a famine.

Adrian V

*also known as **Hadrian V,** original name **Ottobono Fieschi** * born , Genoa [Italy] died Aug. 18, 1276, Viterbo, Papal States [Italy] [![Photograph:Adrian V, detail from a tomb monument by Vassalletto Iacopo, 1276; in the church of St. Francis, ...]] - Adrian V, detail from a tomb monument by Vassalletto Iacopo, 1276; in the church of St. Francis, ... pope for about five weeks in 1276.

Akkadian language

*also spelled **Accadian,** also called **Assyro-babylonian,** * extinct Semitic language of the Northern Peripheral group, spoken in Mesopotamia from the 3rd to the 1st millennium BC. Akkadian spread across an area extending from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf during the time of Sargon (Akkadian Sharrum-kin) of the Akkad dynasty, who reigned from about 2334 to about 2279 BC. By about 2000 Akkadian had supplanted [][Sumerian] as the spoken language of southern Mesopotamia, although Sumerian remained in use as the written language of sacred literature. At about the same time, the Akkadian language divided into the []Assyrian dialect, spoken in northern Mesopotamia, and the []Babylonian dialect, spoken in southern Mesopotamia. At first the Assyrian dialect was used more extensively, but Babylonian largely supplanted it and became the lingua franca of the Middle East by the 9th century BC. During the 7th and 6th centuries BC, Aramaic gradually began to replace Babylonian as the spoken and written language; after that, Babylonian was still used for writings on mathematics, astronomy, and other learned subjects, but by the 1st century AD it had completely died out. Scholars deciphered the Akkadian language in the 19th century. Akkadian, written in a cuneiform script developed from that of the Sumerians, contained about 600 word and syllable signs. The sound system of the language had 20 consonants and 8 vowels (both long and short *a, i, e,* and *u*). Nouns occurred in three cases (nominative, genitive, and accusative), three numbers (singular, dual, and plural), and two genders (masculine and feminine); the feminine was distinguished from the masculine by the addition of the suffix *-t* or *-at* to the stem. The verb had two tenses (past and present-future).

Ahab

*also spelled **Achab** * flourished 9th century BC seventh king of the northern kingdom of Israel (reigned *c*. 874-*c*. 853 BC), according to the Old Testament, and son of King Omri. Omri left to Ahab an empire that comprised not only territory east of the Jordan River, in Gilead and probably Bashan, but also the land of Moab, whose king was tributary. The southern kingdom of Judah, if not actually subject to Omri, was certainly a subordinate ally. And Ahab's marriage to [][Jezebel], daughter of Ethbaal of Sidon, revived an alliance with the Phoenicians that had been in abeyance since the time of Solomon. Throughout Ahab's reign, however, a fierce border war was waged with Syria in which Israel, in spite of occasional victories, proved the weaker, and in the meantime Mesha, king of Moab, successfully revolted and occupied the southern portions of the territory of Gad. The forces of Israel retained enough strength to contribute the second-largest contingent of soldiers (and the largest force of chariots) to the combined armies that, under the leadership of Ben-hadad I of Damascus, checked the westward movement of Shalmaneser III of Assyria at Karkar. After the Assyrians were repulsed, however, the alliance broke up, and Ahab met his death fighting the Syrians in a vain attempt to recover Ramoth-Gilead.

Ahithophel

*also spelled **Achitophel,** * in the Old Testament, one of King David's most trusted advisers. He took a leading part in the revolt of David's son [][Absalom], and Ahithophel's defection was a severe blow to David. Having consulted Ahithophel about his plans to proceed against David, Absalom then sought advice from []Hushai, another of David's counselors. Hushai, who remained secretly loyal to the king, betrayed Absalom's cause by opposing Ahithophel's plan and proposing in its place a scheme of his own, which actually gave the advantage to David. This plan Absalom accepted. Ahithophel, recognizing that Hushai had outwitted him, foresaw the disastrous defeat of Absalom's forces and took his own life (II Samuel 15:31-37; 16:20-17:23).

akee

*also spelled **Ackee** * [![Photograph:Akee (Blighia sapida)]] - Akee (*Blighia sapida*) (*Blighia sapida*), tree of the soapberry family native to West Africa, widely cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical regions for its edible fruit. The tree grows about 9 metres (30 feet) tall and bears pinnate leaves and fragrant white flowers. Brought to the Caribbean area with slaves from Africa, the akee tree was introduced to science by [][William Bligh], famous as captain of the ill-fated "Bounty," hence its botanical name. At maturity, the reddish, woody shell of the fist-sized fruits splits open to reveal three segments of white flesh, each with large shiny black seeds. The soft, bland flesh is eaten as a vegetable. Akee and salt fish is a popular dish in the Caribbean.

Adygea

*also spelled **Adygeya** * republic, southwestern Russia. It extends from the Kuban River south to the Caucasus foothills. Adygea was established as an *oblast* (province) in 1922 for the [Adyghian] people, one of two major branches of the Circassians (Cherkess), who make up about one-fifth of its total population. Apart from the foothills in the south, which are covered in deciduous forest, most of Adygea is an undulating plain with rich soils that are used almost wholly for agriculture. Corn (maize), wheat, sunflowers, hemp, tobacco, melons, potatoes, and other vegetables are grown. A local specialty is flowers, especially Crimean roses and lavender, grown for scent. On the marshy floodplain along the Kuban River, some 20,000 acres (8,000 hectares) have been reclaimed for market gardening. Adygea's industry is chiefly concerned with processing farm produce, but oil and natural gas are exploited near [Maykop], the administrative centre of the republic. There is some timbering in the south. Area 2,900 square miles (7,600 square km). Pop. (1999 est.) 449,000.

Ajaria

*also spelled **Adzhariya** , or **Adžarija** * republic in Georgia, in the southwestern corner of that country adjacent to the Black Sea and the Turkish frontier. It is largely mountainous with the exception of a narrow coastal strip. [][Batumi] (*q.v.*) is the capital and largest city. Ajaria was under Turkish rule from the 17th century until 1878, when it was annexed by Russia and attached to Georgia. From 1922 to 1991 it was an autonomous republic of the U.S.S.R. Two east-west ranges, the []Ajar-Imeretinsky in the north and the []Shavshetsky in the south, rise from the Black Sea coastal lowlands to more than 9,200 feet (2,800 m). Between the ranges lies the Ajaristskali River valley, which is closed at the eastern end by a third range, the Arsiyan Mountains. The coastal lowland area, which widens somewhat to the south of Batumi and again in the north around Kobuleti, has a humid subtropical climate with average January temperatures ranging from 41° to 46° F (5° to 8° C) and average August temperatures ranging from 70° to 73° F (21° to 23° C). The climate becomes more severe in the foothills and mountains as elevation increases; above 6,000 feet (1,800 m) it is cold, and snow lies on the summits for six months. The highest rainfall in Georgia occurs at Batumi, where an average 62 inches (1,600 mm) are recorded annually. Subtropical vegetation prevails in the lowland areas, and coniferous forests, scrub, and alpine meadows predominate on the mountain slopes. The population includes Georgians, Russians, Armenians, and the []Ajars themselves, a Georgian population Islāmicized under Turkish rule. Although the Ajars are not a nationality distinct from other Georgians, they do represent a distinctive cultural segment of the Georgian homeland. Of the total population, less than one-half is urban and two-thirds live in the coastal lowlands and foothills.

Aelle

*also spelled **Aella, or Aelli** * flourished 5th century AD Anglo-Saxon ruler who is credited with the foundation of the kingdom of the South Saxons, or [][Sussex]. Aelle is said to have landed near Selsey Bill (in modern West Sussex, Eng.) in 477. He immediately made war on the Britons, and in 491 he and his son Cissa massacred a British garrison at the former Roman fort of Anderida (modern Pevensey, East Sussex). His subsequent fate is unknown, but the 8th-century historian []Bede wrote that Aelle was the first king to be recognized as overlord of all the English peoples south of the Humber. Drawing on Bede, the 9th-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle described Aelle as the first *bretwalda* ("ruler of Britain").

airfoil

*also spelled **Aerofoil,** * shaped surface, such as an airplane wing, tail, or propeller blade, that produces [lift] and [drag] when moved through the air. An airfoil produces a lifting force that acts at right angles to the airstream and a dragging force that acts in the same direction as the airstream. High-speed aircraft usually employ low-drag, low-lift airfoils that are thin and streamlined. Slow aircraft that carry heavy loads use thicker airfoils with high drag and high lift.

Agadez

*also spelled **Agades,** * [![Photograph:Mosque in Agadez, Niger.]] - Mosque in Agadez, Niger. town, central Niger, at the southern edge of the Aïr massif. Agadez is a market town at a crossroads, 460 miles (740 km) northeast of Niamey, the national capital. Once the seat of a [][Tuareg] sultanate (dating from the 15th century), the town remains the centre for Tuareg pastoralists, who still wander over the arid plateau. The surrounding region receives less than 12 inches (300 mm) of annual rainfall and lies above the northern limit of nonirrigated cultivation in Niger. The general elevation of this vast landscape of sandy basins, low lateritic plateaus, isolated hills, and sandstone bluffs varies from 1,000 to 3,000 feet (300 to 1,000 m). Elevations in the [][Aïr massif], a 200-mile (325-kilometre) Precambrian granite mountain range to the north, reach 6,600 feet (2,000 m). Cassiterite (tin) and coal are mined near Agadez. Tuareg and Fulani nomads traditionally meet annually in August at I-n-Gall some 68 miles (110 km) to the west of Agadez. Agadez handles their livestock and hides as well as some grains and vegetables in the marketplace. The School of Mines of the Aïr opened in Agadez in 1976, and uranium mining has become important. There is an airstrip. Pop. (1988 prelim.) 50,164.

Agau

*also spelled **Agaw,** * an ancient people that settled in the northern and central Ethiopian Plateau; they are associated with the development of agriculture and animal husbandry in the area. The term Agau also refers to any of several contemporaneous groups that are either culturally similar or linked by a Cushitic language base. The Jewish [][Falasha] (or "Black Jews") are believed to have descended from the Agau, and they retain some of the old Agau words in their religious vocabulary. Agau dialects are spoken in the mountainous region of Simen northeast of the City of Gonder and in the area southeast of Gonder. Awiya, a dialect spoken south of Lake Tana, is believed to contain the strongest similarities of any of the dialects to the ancient Agau language. Amharic also has many Agau elements and influences.

Agenais

*also spelled **Agenois** * former province of France, of which Agen was the centre and to which the modern *département* of Lot-et-Garonne nearly corresponds. In ancient Gaul, Agenais was the country of the Nitiobriges, then a Gallo-Roman *civitas,* whose limits became those of the diocese of Agen. Having in general shared the fortunes of Aquitaine during the Merovingian and Carolingian periods, Agenais eventually became a hereditary countship. From the middle of the 10th century it was part of the demesne of the counts of Bordeaux, dukes of Gascony, from whom it passed in 1036 to Eudes of Poitiers, later Duke of Aquitaine. After Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry Plantagenet (later Henry II of England) in 1152, Agenais became the possession of the English kings; it later reverted to the personal possession of the French crown (1249), but the English king Edward I recovered it by the Treaty of Amiens (1279). The "general court of Agenais," first attested in the late 12th century, was one of the earliest representative institutions of the European Middle Ages. []The English and French kings alternately controlled Agenais during the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) until the final retreat of the English gave the province to the French crown. In 1578 the countship was given to [][Margaret of France] (Marguerite de Valois) in part settlement of the dowry due on her marriage to Henry of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France). On her death (1615) it was finally reunited to the French crown. In the last years of the ancien régime, Agenais was a *sénéchaussée* within the *gouvernement* of Guyenne and the intendance of Bordeaux.

aga

*also spelled **Agha,** Turkish **Ağa,** * in Turkey, person of high rank or social position, especially during the era of the Ottoman Empire. Combined with the names of military units or administrative departments, it formed the official titles borne by the chief officers of the Janissaries and of the cavalry, by the principal members of the imperial household, and by the eunuchs who controlled the sultan's harem. Later it was applied to officers of lower rank and, socially, as a term of respect, to heads of families and villages and to landowners. In republican Turkey the official title disappeared, the social use of the word surviving only among the lower classes. As a title of respect, aga has also been used for Islāmic religious leaders, notably for the leader of the Nizārī Ismāʿīlīte sect of the Shīʿite Muslims.

Ahmedabad

*also spelled **Ahmadabad** * [![Photograph:Window on the Sidi Said Mosque, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.]] - Window on the Sidi Said Mosque, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. [![Photograph:Jāmiʿ Masjid (Great Mosque), Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.]] - Jāmiʿ Masjid (Great Mosque), Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. city, eastern [Gujarat] state, west-central [India]. It lies along the Sabarmati River about 275 miles (440 km) north of [Mumbai] (Bombay). The old city lies east of the river, while newer sections lie along the west bank.

Alaska Highway

*formerly **Alcan Highway,** * road (1,523 miles [2,451 km] long) through the Yukon, connecting Dawson Creek, B.C., with Fairbanks, Alaska. It was previously called the Alaskan International Highway, the Alaska Military Highway, and the Alcan (Alaska-Canadian) Highway. It was constructed by U.S. Army engineers (March-November 1942) at a cost of \$135 million as an emergency war measure to provide an overland military supply route to Alaska. The Canadian part (1,200 miles [1,930 km], mostly gravel) was turned over to Canada in 1946. A scenic route open all year round, it joins highways to Edmonton and Prince George (in the south) and highways to Valdez, Anchorage, Seward, and Haines (in the north).

Ahmadnagar

*also spelled **Ahmednagar,** * town, west-central Mahārāshtra state, western India. It lies along the Sīna River, 130 miles (210 km) east of Bombay. Known as Bhinar in early Yādava times, it was conquered by [Malik Aḥmad Niẓām Shāh], founder of the Ahmadnagar dynasty, in 1490. The city was later taken by the Mughals, Marāṭhās, and British. Chief among its historical sites are Aḥmad Niẓām Shāh's fort, in which Jawaharlal Nehru was imprisoned by the British in the 1940s, and the Mughal palace and gardens. Connected by road and rail to Bombay, Pune (Poona), and Sholāpur, the town is a commercial centre whose major industries are cotton and leather processing. It has three colleges affiliated with the University of Poona. Agriculture is the mainstay of the surrounding area. Rainfall is extremely unreliable, however, and food scarcity is a perennial concern. Millet, wheat, and cotton are the locality's chief dry crops, and sugarcane ranks as the most important irrigated crop. Industries include sugar processing and cotton ginning and pressing. Pop. (1991) town, 181,339; metropolitan area, 222,088.

Aetolia

*also spelled **Aitolia,** * district of ancient Greece, located directly north of the Gulf of Corinth and bounded by Epirus (north), Locris (east), and Acarnania (west). In modern Greece, Aetolia is linked with Acarnania in the department of Aitolía kai Akarnanía. Aetolia, particularly its cities Pleuron and Calydon, figures prominently in early legend. During the great migrations (1200-1000 BC) most of the region's early inhabitants were displaced; those tribes that remained still lived in open villages under petty kings in the 5th century BC and were dedicated to piracy. Their archers and slingers, however, repulsed an Athenian invasion in 426 BC, and by 367 they had organized into a federal state, the Aetolian League. In 27 BC Augustus incorporated Aetolia into the Roman province of Achaea. In the 15th century AD it passed successively under the rules of Albania, Venice, and, in 1450, Turkey. In the War of Greek Independence (1821-29), it was the scene of fierce fighting, notably the sieges of Mesolóngion (Missolonghi).

Ajmer

*also spelled **Ajmere** , or **Ajmir** * [![Photograph:The Shrine of Khwājah Ṣaḥib at Ajmer, Rājasthān, India]] - The Shrine of Khwājah Ṣaḥib at Ajmer, Rājasthān, India city, central Rājasthān state, northwestern India. The city is on the lower slopes of Tārāgarh Hill, on the summit of which stands a fortress. It was probably founded about 1100 and was the capital of the former state. Architectural monuments include an ancient Jaina temple (converted *c.* 1200 into a mosque); the white marble tomb complex of the Muslim saint Muʿīh-ud-Dīn Chishtī (d. 1236); and the palace of Akbar (Mughal emperor who reigned from 1556 to 1605), now a museum. The city was a Muslim military base used in operations against the Rājputs (the warrior people who ruled the historic region of Rājputāna). To the north lies []Anā Sāgar, a lake created in the 11th century, on the shores of which stand marble pavilions built by Shāh Jahān (Mughal emperor of India from 1628 to 1658). Situated on major road and rail routes, Ajmer is a trade centre for salt, mica, cloth fabrics, and agricultural products. Industries include railway workshops and oilseed mills; cotton and woolen fabrics as well as hosiery, soap, shoes, saddlery, and pharmaceuticals are produced there. Ajmer is known for its handicrafts and cloth weaving and dyeing. Ajmer lies in a hilly region that forms part of the Arāvalli Range and its outliers and is drained by headstreams of the Lūni River flowing southwestward and by tributaries of the Banās River flowing eastward. Agriculture is the principal occupation; and corn (maize), wheat, millet, gram (chick-pea), barley, cotton, oilseeds, chilies, and onions are the chief crops. The region also has cotton, textile, and hosiery mills and cotton-ginning and pressing factories. Mica, feldspar, and building-stone deposits are worked.

Akademiya Nauk Range

*also spelled **Akademiia Nauk,** Russian **Khrebet Akademi Nauk** * ("Academy of Sciences Range"), mountain range, western Pamirs, central Tajikistan. The mountains, extending north-south, are approximately 68 miles (110 km) in length and are composed mostly of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, together with some granite. Glaciation from permanent snowcaps extends over an area of 580 square miles (1,500 square km). The highest peak in Tajikistan, [Communism Peak] (24,590 feet [7,495 m]), is located in the range; there are 24 peaks above 19,700 feet (6,000 m). The mountains were named in 1927 in honour of the Academy of Sciences.

Akhlame

*also spelled **Akhlamû,** * ancient Semitic nomads of northern Syria and Mesopotamia and traditional enemies of the Assyrians. They are first mentioned about 1375 BC in an Egyptian source (one of the Tell el-Amarna letters), in which they are said to have advanced as far as the Euphrates River; about the same time there was also evidence of them in Assyria, at Nippur, and around the Persian Gulf. During the next century, they interrupted travel between Babylon and Hattusa (Boğazköy), and Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244-08 BC) of Assyria recorded that he conquered "the mountains of the Akhlamû." An inscription of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I (1115-1077), however, refers for the first time to the "Akhlamû-[][Aramaeans]," and soon thereafter the Akhlame disappear from Assyrian annals and are replaced by the Aramaeans. The relationship between the Akhlame and the Aramaeans is still a matter of conjecture.

Alapayevsk

*also spelled **Alapaevsk,** * city, Sverdlovsk *oblast* (province), west-central Russia, on the Neyva River. It is one of the oldest centres of the iron and steel industry in the Urals (an ironworks was established there in 1704). It also has machine-tool, timbering, and metalworking industries. Pop. (1991 est.) 50,300.

albacore

*also spelled **Albicore** * (species *Thunnus alalunga*), large oceanic fish noted for its fine flesh. The bluefin tuna (*T. thynnus*) is also sometimes called albacore. *See* [tuna].

Ak Koyunlu

*also spelled **Aq Qoyunlu (Turkish: "White Sheep")** * Turkmen tribal federation that ruled northern Iraq, Azerbaijan, and eastern Anatolia from AD 1378 to 1508. The Ak Koyunlu were present in eastern Anatolia at least from 1340, according to Byzantine chronicles, and most Ak Koyunlu leaders, including the founder of the dynasty, []Kara Osman (reigned 1378-1435), married Byzantine princesses. In 1402 Kara Osman was granted all of Diyār Bakr in northern Iraq by the Turkic ruler Timur. The strong presence of the [][Kara Koyunlu] (*q.v.;* "Black Sheep"), a rival Turkmen federation, in western Iran and Azerbaijan temporarily checked any expansion, but the rule of [][Uzun Ḥasan] (1452-78) brought the Ak Koyunlu to fresh prominence. With the defeat of Jihān Shāh, the Kara Koyunlu leader, in 1467 and the defeat of Abū Saʿīd, the Timurid, in 1468, Uzun Ḥasan was able to take Baghdad, the Persian Gulf, and Iran as far east as Khorāsān. The Ottoman Turks were simultaneously (1466-68) moving eastward in Anatolia, threatening Ak Koyunlu domains and forcing Uzun Ḥasan into an alliance with the Qaramānids of central Anatolia. In 1464 the Ak Koyunlu had already turned to the Venetians, enemies of the Ottomans, in an attempt to stave off the inevitable Ottoman attack. Despite promises of military aid, the Venetian arms never were provided, and Uzun Ḥasan was defeated by the Ottomans in Tercan (modern Mamahatun) in 1473.

Aetheling

*also spelled **Atheling, or Etheling,** * in Anglo-Saxon England, generally any person of noble birth. Use of the term was usually restricted to members of a royal family, and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle it is used almost exclusively for members of the royal house of Wessex. It was occasionally used after the Norman Conquest to designate members of the royal family—*e.g.,* William the Aetheling, son and heir of King Henry I. The earlier part of the word formed part of the name of several Anglo-Saxon kings—*e.g.,* Aethelbert, Aethelwulf, Aethelred—and was used obviously to indicate their noble birth.

Aksum

*also spelled **Axum,** * a powerful kingdom in northern [Ethiopia] during the early Christian era. Despite common belief to the contrary, Aksum did not originate from one of the Semitic Sabaean kingdoms of southern Arabia but instead developed as a local power. At its apogee (3rd-6th century AD), Aksum became the greatest market of northeastern Africa; its merchants traded as far as Alexandria and beyond the Nile River. Aksum continued to dominate the Red Sea coast until the end of the 9th century, exercising its influence from the shores of the Gulf of Aden to Zeila on the northern coast of Somaliland (modern Somalia and Djibouti). During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, its growth as a trading empire increasingly impinged on the power of the kingdom of Meroe, the fall of which was brought about in the 4th century by an Aksumite invasion.

Aksum

*also spelled **Axum,** * ancient town in northern Ethiopia. It lies at an elevation of about 7,000 feet (2,100 m), just west of Adwa. Once the seat of the kingdom of Aksum, it is now a tourist town and religious centre best known for its antiquities. Tall granite [][obelisks], 126 in all, stand (or lie broken) in the central square. One measuring 110 feet (34 m), now fallen, is said to be the tallest obelisk ever erected. The obelisks range from nearly plain slabs to intricately inscribed pillars. Door- and window-like shapes are carved into some of the pillars, giving them the appearance of slender buildings. The most recent of the obelisks announces the adoption of Christianity by a 4th-century king. At least 27 carved stone thrones have been unearthed in the overgrown ruins of the ancient palace. Aksum has long been regarded a holy city for the Ethiopian Orthodox church. It forms the setting of the 14th-century work *[Kebra Negast]* ("Glory of the Kings"), which relates the tradition of the transference of the Ark of the Covenant from Jerusalem to Aksum by King [Menilek I], legendary son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Makeda). According to tradition, the []Church of St. Mary of Zion contains the Ark of the Covenant. Over the centuries, however, the church has been destroyed and rebuilt several times; the present structure dates from the 17th century. Emperor Haile Selassie I built the new Church of St. Mary of Zion near the old one in 1965.

Ahmed Yesevi

*also spelled **Aḥmad Yasawī** , Yesevi also spelled **Yasavi** * born 11th century, Sayrām [now in Kazakhstan] died 1166, Yasī, Turkistan [now Turkmenistan] poet and Sufi (Muslim mystic), an early Turkish mystic leader who exerted a powerful influence on the development of mystical orders throughout the Turkish-speaking world. Very little is known about his life, but legends indicate that his father died when the boy was young and his family moved to Yasī, where he began his mystical teaching, hence his name. He is said to have gone to Bukhara to study with the great Sufi leader Yūsuf Hamadhānī and other famous mystics. Finally he returned to Yasī. The extant work attributed to the poet is the *[]Divan-i hikmet* ("Book of Wisdom"), containing poems on mystical themes. Scholars believe that the work is probably not his. It is felt, however, that the poems in the *Divan* are similar in style and sentiment to what he wrote. The importance of Ahmed Yesevi cannot be overestimated. Legends about his life were spread throughout the Turkish Islamic world, and he developed a tremendous following. The conqueror [][Timur] erected a magnificent mausoleum over his grave in 1397/98, to which pilgrims came, revering Ahmed Yesevi as a saint.

ʿAlavī, Buzurg

*also spelled **Bozorg Alavi** * born Feb. 2, 1904, Tehran, Iran died Feb. 18, 1997, Berlin, Ger. one of the leading prose writers of 20th-century Persian literature. ʿAlavī was educated in Iran, and in 1922 he was sent to Berlin, where he learned German and translated a number of German works into Persian. Upon returning to Iran, he taught at the Industrial College of Tehran and became involved with a group of Iranian socialists. He was imprisoned with them from 1937 to 1941, and while in jail he wrote *[]Panjāh va siho se nafar* ("Fifty-Three People"), describing the members of the socialist group and their ordeal in prison, and the short-story collection *Varaq-pārahā-yē zendān* ("Notes from Prison").

Akhmīm

*also spelled **Ekhmīn,** * town, [Sawhāj] *muḥāfaẓah* (governorate), Upper Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile, above Sawhāj on the west bank. Extensive necropolises dating from the 6th dynasty (*c.* 2345-*c.* 2181 BC) until the late Coptic period reveal the site's antiquity. In 1981 remains of a temple (Roman period) with Ramesside statues were excavated in the city. The name apparently derives from the pharaonic Khent-min and Coptic Khmin. Its deity was Min, in Hellenistic times identified with Pan, whence the name Panopolis, meaning "city of Pan." Also referred to as Chemmis or Khemmis, it was the capital of the 9th, or Chemmite, nome (department) of Ptolemaic Upper Egypt. Linen weaving is cited as an ancient industry there by the Greek geographer Strabo (born *c.* 63 BC). The 18th-dynasty pharaoh Ay (reigned *c.* 1323-19 BC) and the 5th-century AD Greek poet Nonnus were born at Akhmīm. The Coptic dialect once spoken in the area had an important literature. In the Islāmic period it became a provincial capital under Faṭīmid caliph al-Mustanṣir (11th century AD); in the 18th century it was incorporated into the former province of Jirjā (Girga), and the town was sacked during the Mamlūk civil wars. The modern town is a market and processing centre for cereals, sugarcane, dates, and cotton. Manufactures include textiles, clothing, pottery, and bricks; the ancient weaving tradition has been revived as well. An electrical transformer station started operation in 1980. Akhmīm has a considerable Coptic Christian minority. Pop. (1996) 84,778.

aeon

*also spelled **Eon** * (Greek: "age," or "lifetime"), in Gnosticism and Manichaeism, one of the orders of spirits, or spheres of being, that emanated from the Godhead and were attributes of the nature of the absolute; an important element in the cosmology that developed around the central concept of Gnostic dualism—the conflict between matter and spirit. The first aeon was said to emanate directly from the unmanifest divinity and to be charged with a divine force. Successive emanations of aeons were charged with successively diminished force. Each Gnostic system explained aeons in its own way, but all concurred that aeons increased in number in proportion to their remoteness from the divinity and that lower aeons shared proportionately less in divine energy. At a certain level of remoteness, the possibility of error was said to invade the activity of aeons; in most systems, such error was responsible for the creation of the material universe. For many, Christ was the most perfect aeon, whose specific function was to redeem the error embodied in the material universe; the Holy Spirit was usually a subordinate aeon. In certain systems, aeons were regarded positively as embodiments of the divine; in others, they were viewed negatively as vast media of time, space, and experience through which the human soul must painfully pass to reach its divine origin.

Aethelflaed

*also spelled **Ethelfleda** or **Aelfled** , also called **Lady of the Mercians** * died June 12, 918, Tamworth, Eng. Anglo-Saxon ruler of Mercia in England and founder of Gloucester Abbey. The eldest child of King Alfred the Great, she helped her brother [][Edward] the Elder, king of the West Saxons (reigned 899-924), in conquering the Danish armies occupying eastern England. Aethelflaed became the effective ruler of Mercia some years before the death (911) of her husband, Aethelred, ealdorman of the Mercians. While Edward fortified (910-916) the southeast Midlands, Aethelflaed was building fortresses around Mercia. By 917 she and Edward were ready to launch a massive joint assault on the Danish positions. Aethelflaed quickly captured Derby, and in 918 she occupied Leicester, but she died before the campaign was successfully completed. Edward then claimed his sister's kingdom and completed the subjugation of the Danes. Because Aethelflaed had extended her influence into Wales and Northumbria, Edward was able to assert his authority over these regions as well. Thus, almost all of England came under his control.

adz

*also spelled **adze** * [![Art:Adz.]] - Adz. hand tool for shaping wood. One of the earliest tools, it was widely distributed in Stone Age cultures in the form of a handheld stone chipped to form a blade. By Egyptian times it had acquired a wooden haft, or handle, with a copper or bronze blade set flat at the top of the haft to form a T. In this form the adz continued to be the prime hand tool for shaping and trimming wood. A log or other piece of timber was laid on the ground or floor, and the carpenter stood astride or on it, swinging the adz in a picklike action down and toward himself.

ʿAjmān

*also spelled **ʿujmān,** * constituent emirate of the United Arab Emirates (formerly Trucial States, or Trucial Oman); the smallest state of the country. It is composed of three sections; the principal portion, on the Persian Gulf coast, is completely surrounded by the emirate of ash-Shāriqah. This section is the site of []ʿAjmān town, the capital and only urban settlement. ʿAjmān also includes two interior exclaves (noncontiguous sections) on the Oman promontory, the horn of the Arabian Peninsula. They are tiny al-[]Manāmah, 37 miles (60 km) east-southeast of ʿAjmān town, and []Maṣfūṭ, 56 miles (90 km) southeast of ʿAjmān town, in the Ḥattá Wadi, at the promontory's base. Estimated total area is 100 square miles (250 square km). The sheikh of ʿAjmān signed the British-sponsored General Treaty of Peace, abjuring piracy, in 1820; this was ʿAjmān's first recognition as an autonomous state. It also subscribed to the maritime truce of 1835 and to the Perpetual Maritime Truce in 1853. To forestall Turkish and French expansion along the Trucial Coast, the sheikhs, including ʿAjmān's ruler, signed an Exclusive Agreement (1892), placing their foreign relations in the hands of the British government. In 1968, Britain announced its forthcoming withdrawal from the Persian Gulf area. Negotiations were begun to create a nine-member federation (including ʿAjmān, the six other Trucial States, Bahrain, and Qatar). The latter two states abandoned the proposed federation and became separately independent (August and September 1971). The British left the area in December 1971, and the United Arab Emirates was formed, of which ʿAjmān was an original constituent. Economically, ʿAjmān is the poorest member of the United Arab Emirates. Shortly after 1900, when the sheikh's influence extended only a few miles from ʿAjmān town, about 40 pearling boats and a date-palm plantation there were the sole economic activities. From 1961 to the early 1970s, one of ʿAjmān's main sources of revenue was from the sale of many varieties of postage stamps, designed to be of interest to Western collectors. These stamps were never shipped to ʿAjmān and served no legitimate postal purpose; most were not recognized by reliable philatelic organizations and catalogs. Some commemorative coins were also issued. In 1972, the United Arab Emirates announced the establishment of a post office department, to take over philatelic emissions from member emirates.

Afonso II

*byname **Afonso The Fat,** Portuguese **Afonso O Gordo** * born 1185?, Coimbra, Port. died March 25, 1223, Coimbra the third king of Portugal (1211-23), under whom the reconquest of the south from the Muslims was continued. Afonso II was the son of King Sancho I and Queen Dulcia, daughter of Ramón Berenguer IV of Barcelona. His obesity seems to have been caused by illness in his youth, and he was unable to lead his forces. However, they distinguished themselves in the victory of Alfonso VIII of Castile at Las []Navas de Tolosa (1212). This marked the decline of the Muslim Almohads, and Afonso II's army seized Alcacer do Sal in 1217.

Agrigento

*formerly **(until 1927) Girgenti,** Greek **Acragas,** Latin **Agrigentum** * [![Photograph:The Temple of Hera, Agrigento, Sicily.]] - The Temple of Hera, Agrigento, Sicily. city, near the southern coast of [Sicily], Italy. It lies on a plateau encircled by low cliffs overlooking the junction of the Drago (ancient Hypsas) and San Biagio (Acragas) rivers and is dominated from the north by a ridge with twin peaks. Agrigento was a wealthy ancient city founded about 581 BC by Greek colonists from Gela. It was ruled 570-554 BC by the notorious tyrant [][Phalaris], who was reputed to have had men roasted alive in a brazen bull, and it reached its peak in 480 when the tyrant [][Theron], in alliance with Syracuse, won the decisive Battle of Himera over the [][Carthaginians]. In 470 the tyranny was replaced by a democracy. Agrigento was the birthplace of the philosopher-politician Empedocles. Under the tyranny it was a considerable centre of the arts. The city was neutral in the struggle between Athens and Syracuse but was ravaged by the Carthaginians in 406 BC, a disaster from which it never really recovered. Refounded by the Greek general and statesman Timoleon in 338, it achieved some local importance in the early 3rd century BC but was sacked by the Romans (262) and the Carthaginians (255) before falling finally to Rome in 210 BC. Under Roman rule its agricultural wealth and the exploitation of the nearby sulfur mines ensured a modest prosperity. In late antiquity its inhabitants withdrew to the relative security of the medieval hilltop town of Girgenti, the nucleus of modern Agrigento. Occupied and colonized by the Saracens in 828, Girgenti was captured in 1087 by the Norman conqueror of Sicily, Count Roger I, who established a Latin bishopric. The plateau site of the ancient city is extraordinarily rich in Greek remains. A wall, with remnants of eight gates, can be traced from the two northern peaks (the Rock of Athena and the hill of Girgenti) to the ridge that carried the south line of the city's defenses. An almost continuous sacred area along this ridge has been excavated to reveal Agrigento's most famous remains, its seven Doric temples. The best preserved are two very similar peripteral, hexastyle temples conventionally, though wrongly, attributed to the goddesses Hera and Concordia; the latter temple, which lacks little but the roof, owes its remarkable preservation to having been converted into a church in AD 597.

Adrano

*formerly **(until 1929) Adernò,** * town, eastern [Sicily], Italy. It lies near the Simeto River on a lava plateau on the western slopes of Mount Etna, northwest of Catania city. It originated as the ancient town of Hadranon, founded about 400 BC by Dionysius the Elder, tyrant of Syracuse, near a sanctuary dedicated to the Siculan god Adranus (Hadranus). Conquered in 263 BC by the Romans, who called it Adranum (Hadranum), it belonged in the Middle Ages to Count Roger I of Sicily. The Holy Roman emperor Frederick II made it a countship, and it was held from 1549 to 1812 by the Moncada, princes of Paternò. In 1929 it resumed the classical name, which had been corrupted to Adernò. There are ruins of Greek walls and ancient burial grounds. The Norman castle (rebuilt in the 13th century) and the former monastery of Santa Lucia (founded in 1157 by Roger I) are also notable. Citrus fruits and grapes are cultivated locally, and honey is produced. Pop. (2006 est.) mun., 35,981.

Afyon

*formerly **Afyon Karahisar, Afyonkarahisar, or Karahisar-i Sahip,** * city, western Turkey. It lies along the Akar River at an elevation of 3,392 feet (1,034 m). In ancient times the town was known as Acroënus. It fell to the Seljuq Turks in the 13th century and was renamed Karahisar ("Black Fortress") after the ancient fortress situated atop a cone of volcanic rock 660 feet (201 m) above the town. The word *afyon* []("opium") was subsequently prefixed to the town's name as a reflection of the region's chief product. The town came under Ottoman rule briefly in 1392-1402 and then conclusively in 1428-29. It was heavily damaged in the Turkish War of Independence (1919-22), when it was occupied twice by Greek forces. Historical monuments in Afyon include the partly ruined fortress (the landmark of the town), the 13th-century Ulu Cami ("Great Mosque"), and the Altığöz Bridge built by the Seljuqs. The local archaeological museum is housed in an old theological school. An important railway junction on the İzmir-Ankara line, Afyon is also well-served by highways and air service linking it to all the major towns in Turkey. The region surrounding the city has traditionally been the leading opium-poppy-producing area in Turkey. Its other agricultural products include wheat, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, and livestock. Industry is confined to mohair, wool, carpets, cement, and marble. Pop. (1990) 95,643.

Air India

*formerly **Air-India** * airline founded in 1932 (as Tata Airlines) that grew into an international airline owned by the [][Indian] government; it serves southern and east Asia, the Middle East, Europe, Africa, the United States, and Canada. Headquarters are in Bombay (Mumbai). The first scheduled service was inaugurated in 1932 by [J.R.D. Tata], flying mail and passengers between Karāchi, Ahmadābād, Bombay, Bellary, and Madras. By 1939 routes had been extended to Trivandrum, Delhi, Colombo, Lahore, and intermediate points. After World War II, in 1946, Tata Airlines was converted into a public company and renamed Air-India Limited. Two years later, to inaugurate international services between Bombay (Mumbai) and Cairo, Geneva, and London, Air-India International Limited was formed. In 1953 India nationalized all Indian airlines, creating two corporations—one for domestic service, called [][Indian Airlines Corporation] (merging Air-India Limited with six lesser lines), and one for international service, Air-India International Corporation. The latter's name was abbreviated to Air-India in 1962. In the following decades as India's flag carrier, the airline extended its international routes to all continents except South America and Australia, and it expanded its cargo operations. To gain a competitive advantage in computerized reservation searches, the airline removed the hyphen from its name in 2005 to become Air India.

Aïn Beïda

*formerly **Daoud,** * town, northeastern [Algeria]. It is situated on a plateau at the eastern edge of the Sétif plains. The plateau, once occupied by a large lake, now has several shallow depressions containing saline lakes. Sheltered on the east by wooded hills, Aïn Beïda is in a grain-producing area irrigated by wells and springs. Evidence of Roman settlement can be noted in the remains of lead and copper mines in the neighbouring hills and in the inscriptions that are on display in the Public Garden. Aïn Beïda was founded as a French military post (two forts, 1848 and 1850) to control the powerful, Arabized Harakta Berbers. It is a road and rail junction as well as a trading centre for agriculture produce. There are saltworks at the Garaet et-Tarf Depression, 11 miles (18 km) southwest, and phosphate deposits are located nearby. Pop. (1998) 90,560.

Agrihan

*formerly **Grigan** or **Agrigan** * one of the [Mariana Islands] and part of the [Northern Mariana Islands], a commonwealth of the [United States]. It lies in the western [Pacific Ocean], 350 miles (560 km) north of [Guam], and has an area of 18 square miles (47 square km. An active volcano that last erupted in 1917, it rises to 3,166 feet (965 metres), the highest point in the commonwealth. Together with Alamagan, Pagan, and several islets, Agrihan forms a municipal council called the Northern Islands, with a total area of 55 square miles (143 square km). Agrihan was the site of the last stand the indigenous [Chamorro] people made against the Spaniards, who had occupied the Marianas late in the 17th century. In 1810 colonists from the United States and Hawaii established plantations there, but they were expelled by the Spanish administration. Agrihan has some fertile highlands and phosphate deposits. The residents of Agrihan and nearby islands were evacuated in 1990 because of the threat of volcanic eruptions. A resettlement and development plan was later instituted by the islands' government, but by the early 21st century only a handful of residents had returned.

Adıyaman

*formerly **Hüsnümansur,** Arabic **Ḥiṣn Manṣūr,** * city located in a valley of southeastern Turkey. Founded in the 8th century by the Umayyad Arabs near the site of ancient Perre, Ḥiṣn Manṣūr was later fortified by Caliph Hārūn ar-Rashīd and became the chief town of the area, replacing Perre. Ruled successively by the Byzantines, Seljuq Turks, and the Turkmen Dulkadir dynasty after the Arabs, it was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire near the end of the 14th century. Under the Turkish republic, it was renamed []Adıyaman in 1926. The ruins of Perre are just to the north. The city is a local market for the agricultural products of the area. The region around Adıyaman contains mountains and plateaus drained by the Euphrates River and its tributaries. Many of the residents in the region are [][Kurds]. Products include cereals, cotton, tobacco, pistachio nuts, and grapes. Pop. (1990) 100,045.

Adrar

*formerly **Timmi,** * palm grove settlement, the largest of the Touat oasis group, southwestern [Algeria], in the Sahara. Adrar's historical name was given it by the local Berber people, the Timmi, who established their *ksar* (fortified village) here. The modern name is derived from the Berber *adrar* ("mountain"). The settlement lies between the Erg (sand dunes) Chech and the Grand Erg Occidental near the streambed of the Wadi Messaoud. The Adrar area was historically a strategic point on the trade route between North and West Africa. The settlement's distinctive thick-walled red-wash architecture is characterized by sawtooth crenellation. The French captured Adrar from Moroccan forces in 1900, and in 1962 it became part of independent Algeria. The contemporary town is entered through a monumental gateway and has two main squares and rectangular avenues. The surrounding region consists almost entirely of sand-dune-covered plains. Nearly all of the region's inhabitants live in the vicinity of the Touat oases group, although palm-grove settlements are strung out along the Wadi Messaoud. Pop. (latest est.) mun., 28,495.

Akershus

*fylke* (county), southeastern Norway. Covering 1,898 square miles (4,917 square km), it extends north from Oslo Fjord to the southern end of Lake Mjøsa and east to the Swedish frontier. The Vorma River flows through Akershus from Mjøsa into the Glomma (Glåma) River and on to Lake Øyeren. The national capital, Oslo, is the county seat, though it is a separate *fylke* and *bykommune* (urban commune) and thus lies outside the boundaries of Akershus. Embracing numerous suburbs of Oslo, Akershus is one of the most densely populated areas of Norway. It contains the historic village of []Eidsvoll, 30 miles (48 km) north of Oslo, in which the National Assembly voted Norway's constitution in 1814. Between Eidsvoll and Oslo is Gardermoen international airport. Shipping, manufacturing, and tourism are the economic mainstays of the county. Pop. (1997 est.) 446,385.

Adonias Filho

*in full **Adonias Aguiar Filho** * born Nov. 27, 1915, Itajuípe, Brazil died Aug. 2, 1990, Ilhéus novelist, essayist, journalist, and literary critic whose works of fiction embrace universal themes within the provincial setting of Brazil's rural northeast. His literary career began in the early 1930s under the aegis of the Neo-Catholic writers' group (Tasso da Silveira and Andrade Murici, among others) of Rio de Janeiro. Until the late 1940s he dedicated his energies principally to journalism in periodicals such as *O Correio da Manhã* and the *Revista do Brasil*. He subsequently established a column of literary criticism in the *Jornal de Letras* and began to publish translations of English-language fiction (notably the works of Graham Greene, Virginia Woolf, and William Faulkner).

Aḥmad Bābā

*in full **Abū Al-ʿabbās Aḥmad Ibn Aḥmad Al-takrūrī Al-massūfī** * born Oct. 26, 1556, Arawān, near Timbuktu, Songhai Empire died April 22, 1627, Timbuktu jurist, writer, and a cultural leader of the western Sudan. A descendant of a line of jurists, Aḥmad Bābā was educated in Islāmic culture, including jurisprudence. When Timbuktu was conquered by the Sultan of Morocco in 1591, he was accused of refusing to recognize the Sultan's authority and of plotting a rebellion. In 1594 he was deported to the Moroccan capital of Marrakūsh. The conditions of his captivity were liberal, and he was allowed to teach and practice law. His *fatwā*s (legal opinions) dating from this period are noted for their clarity of thought and clear exposition of Islāmic judicial principles. He also compiled a biographical dictionary of the famous Mālikī (one of the four schools of Islāmic law) jurists; this work is still an important source of information concerning the lives of Mālikite jurists and Moroccan religious personalities.

Albert II, prince de Monaco

*in full **Albert Alexandre Louis Pierre de Grimaldi, prince de Monaco, marquis de Baux** * born March 14, 1958, Monaco 32nd hereditary ruler of the principality of [Monaco] (2005- ). He was the only son of [Rainier III, prince de Monaco], and [Grace Kelly] (Princess Grace de Monaco), a former actress. Albert attended Amherst College (B.A., 1981) in Massachusetts and briefly served in the French navy. Following his mother's death in 1982, he became president of the Monaco Red Cross and was later involved with a number of charities. An avid sportsman, he formed the Monegasque Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation in 1987 and, as a member of the principality's bobsled team, was a five-time Olympian. Albert was also active in the International Olympic Committee, holding a number of positions. In 1994 he became chair of Monaco's Olympic committee. As his father's health began to decline in the early 21st century, Albert assumed greater royal responsibilities. In April 2005 Prince Rainier died, and Albert formally assumed the throne on July 12. He did so amid controversy as days earlier he had publicly acknowledged that he had fathered a son out of wedlock. The child, however, was barred from inheriting the throne due to a 2002 constitutional amendment that required the heir's parents to be married. Another amendment included female siblings and their legitimate heirs in the line of succession, easing concerns of Monaco's future in the event that Albert, who had two sisters (Caroline and Stéphanie), did not produce a rightful heir.

Albert II

*in full **Albert Félix Humbert Théodore Christian Eugène Marie of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha** * born June 6, 1934, Brussels, Belg. king of the Belgians from 1993. The second son of King Leopold III, Albert was educated at home and in Geneva and Brussels and entered the Belgian navy in 1953. From 1962 until his ascension, he served as honorary chairman of the Belgian Office of Foreign Trade, leading some 70 important trade missions and becoming an expert on shipping. He also served as the longtime president of the Belgian Red Cross and as a member of the International Olympic Committee. In 1959 he married Paola Ruffo di Calabria, an Italian princess. The couple had three children: Philippe (b. 1960), Astrid (b. 1962), and Laurent (b. 1963). Albert succeeded his childless older brother [Baudouin] after the latter's death in July 1993. Though many had speculated he would abdicate in favour of his eldest son, Albert was sworn in as sixth king of the Belgians on August 9, 1993. While constitutional reform in 1993 had federalized the government and limited the power of the monarchy, Albert remained an important symbol of unity to the country as it faced growing political divisiveness between French-speaking Wallonia and Flemish-speaking Flanders.

Albert

*in full **Albert-honoré-charles Grimaldi** * born November 13, 1848, Paris died June 26, 1922, Paris prince of Monaco (1889-1922), seaman, amateur oceanographer, and patron of the sciences, whose contributions to the development of oceanography included innovations in oceanographic equipment and technique and the founding and endowment of institutions to further basic research. Albert's love of the sea developed at an early age, and as a young man he served in the Spanish Navy. Later, he conducted his own oceanographic surveys on a series of increasingly large and well-equipped ships. His active involvement in oceanography continued even after he became ruler of Monaco—upon the death of his father, Charles III (1889)—and culminated in his establishment of the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco (1899) and the Oceanographic Institute in Paris (1906).

Aehrenthal, Alois, Graf (count) Lexa von

*in full **Alois Leopold Johann Baptist, Graf (count) Lexa von Aehrenthal** * born Sept. 27, 1854, Gross-Skal, Bohemia [now Hrubá Skála, Czech Republic] died Feb. 17, 1912, Vienna, Austria-Hungary [![Photograph:Alois, Graf (count) Lexa von Aehrenthal.]] - Alois, Graf (count) Lexa von Aehrenthal. foreign minister (1906-12) of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy, whose direction of the latter's annexation of [][Bosnia] and Hercegovina (1908) provoked an international crisis. (*See* [Bosnian crisis of 1908].)

Aḥmad

*in full **Aḥmad Ibn Muṣṭafa** * born 1806, Tunis died 1855, Ḥalq al-Wādī, Tunisia 10th ruler of the Ḥusaynid dynasty of Tunisia. Succeeding his brother as the ruler of Tunis in 1837, Aḥmad began at once to modernize his armed forces: Tunisian cadets were sent to France, a military and technical academy was established, and European instructors invited to Tunis. He organized a naval force with 12 frigates purchased from France. He sent 8,000-10,000 soldiers to fight with the allies (France, England, Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire) against the Russians in the [][Crimean War] (1853-56).

Aḥmad Shāh

*in full **Aḥmad Shāh Bahādur Mujāhid-ud-dīn Abū Naṣr** * born December 24, 1725, Delhi died January 1, 1775, Delhi ineffectual Mughal emperor of India from 1748 to 1754, who has been characterized as a "good-natured imbecile," without personality, training, or qualities of leadership. He was entirely dominated by others, including the queen mother, Udham Bai, and the eunuch superintendent of the harem, the emperor's vicar Javīd Khān. Twice during his reign, the Afghan Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī plundered the northwest Punjab area, extorting money and land from him. At a demonstration by the Marāthās in Sikandarābād, he fled, abandoning the women of his family to captivity. In 1750 Aḥmad Shāh's *wazīr* ("vizier"), Ṣafdar Jang, who had been defeated by Afghans of the Doab, joined the Marāthās of southwest India in attempting to gain the spoils of Aḥmad Shāh's empire. Aḥmad Shāh was blinded and deposed by the Marāthās and their allies in 1754, after which he lived in confinement until his death.

Ahern, Bertie

*in full **Bartholemew Ahern** * born September 12, 1951, Dublin, Ireland [![Photograph:Bertie Ahern, 2006.]] - Bertie Ahern, 2006. prime minister of Ireland from June 1997. Ahern was educated at St. Aidan's Christian Brothers secondary school, Rathmines College of Commerce, University College in Dublin, and the London School of Economics, obtaining degrees in taxation, business administration, and computer science. He was elected to the Dáil (lower house of Parliament) in 1977 as a member of the [][Fianna Fáil] party for a constituency in central Dublin and to the Dublin City Council in 1979, later becoming lord mayor (1986-87). An assistant whip (1980-81) in the first government of Prime Minister [][Charles Haughey], he became a junior minister in Haughey's second government (1982) and minister for labour in his third (1987-89) and fourth (1989-91) governments. Ahern's success in establishing general economic agreements with employers, unions, and farmers in 1987 and 1990 and his role in constructing the first Fianna Fáil coalition government (with the [Progressive Democrats]) in 1989 confirmed his reputation as a skillful negotiator. He was made minister for finance in 1991. In the contest to choose Haughey's successor, Ahern withdrew in favour of [][Albert Reynolds], and he remained minister for finance in each of Reynolds's two governments (February-November 1992 and 1993-94). In November 1994, following the fall of the Fianna Fáil-[Labour Party] government, Reynolds resigned, and Ahern was elected party leader. He was set to become prime minister in a new coalition with the Labour Party, but at the eleventh hour Labour opted to join a government with [Fine Gael] and [Democratic Left].

Admiralty

*in full **Board Of Admiralty,** * in Great Britain, until 1964, the government department that managed naval affairs. In that year the three service departments—the Admiralty, the War Office, and the Air Ministry—were abolished as separate departments and merged in a new unified Ministry of Defence, and the Admiralty was renamed the Admiralty Board of the Defence Council. England's navy was originally governed by a "great officer of state" called the [lord high admiral] of England. Early in the 18th century this office was placed in the hands of commissioners known as the Board of Admiralty. The board derived its powers from the royal prerogative; no act of Parliament defined or circumscribed them, except inasmuch as the discipline of the navy was regulated by a Naval Discipline Act. In pure law the members of the Admiralty Board shared a joint and equal responsibility, but an order in council in 1869 conferred upon the first lord of the admiralty overriding powers. He was directly responsible to Parliament for the navy. The Admiralty differed from other British service departments in that it functioned as an operational authority, sometimes actually issuing direct orders to ships at sea. In the 20th century there were usually 10 members of the Board of Admiralty; 3 were members of Parliament, 6 were naval officers, and 1 was permanent secretary.

Akeley, Carl E.

*in full **Carl Ethan Akeley** * born May 19, 1864, Clarendon, N.Y., U.S. died Nov. 17, 1926, Albert National Park, Belgian Congo American naturalist and explorer who developed the [][taxidermic] method for mounting [][museum] displays to show animals in their natural surroundings. His method of applying skin on a finely molded replica of the body of the animal gave results of unprecedented realism and elevated taxidermy from a craft to an art. His modeling led to sculpture, and he executed notable pieces showing elephants, lions, and lion spearers. Akeley's goal was to create a panorama of Africa and its big game in American museums. At age 19 he became an apprentice at Ward's Natural Science Establishment in Rochester, N.Y., and during his associations with the [][Field Museum of Natural History] in Chicago (1895-1909) and the American Museum of Natural History in New York City (1909-26) he made five trips to Africa to study, hunt, and collect big game. In 1923 his book *In Brightest Africa* appeared. He died during his last expedition and was buried on Mount Mikeno in Albert National Park (now Virunga National Park, Congo [Kinshasa]), the first wildlife sanctuary in central Africa, which he had helped establish. His inventions include the Akeley cement gun, used in mounting animals, and the Akeley camera, a motion-picture camera adapted for use by naturalists, with which Akeley made the first motion pictures of gorillas in their natural habitat.

Aicard, Jean

*in full **François-victor-jean Aicard** * born Feb 4, 1848, Toulon, Fr. died May 13, 1921, Paris French poet, novelist, and dramatist, best known for his poems of the Provence region. As a young man Aicard studied law but abandoned it to devote himself to literature. His first book of poetry, *Jeunes croyances* (1867; "Beliefs of a Youth"), showed the influence of the Romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine and was well received upon its appearance. He went to Paris after the Franco-German War and published *Les Rebellions et les apaisements* (1871; "Rebellions and Reassurances"). *Poèmes de Provence,* a sensitive evocation of the Provençal scene, followed in 1874; two years later *La Chanson de l'enfant* ("The Child's Song") was published. Both volumes received awards from the French Academy, as did his later poem "Lamartine." Of his 14 plays the most successful was *Le Père Lebonnard* ("Father Lebonnard"), first performed in 1889. Most of his novels, the best of which is *Maurin des maures* (1908; "Maurin of the Moors"), are also based on Provençal life. Aicard became a member of the French Academy in 1909.

Aidoo, Ama Ata

*in full **Christina Ama Ata Aidoo** * born March 23, 1942, Abeadzi Kyiakor, near Saltpond, Gold Coast [now Ghana] Ghanaian writer whose work, written in English, emphasized the paradoxical position of the modern African woman. Aidoo began to write seriously while an honours student at the University of Ghana (B.A., 1964). She won early recognition with a problem play, *[The Dilemma of a Ghost]* (1965), in which a Ghanaian student returning home brings his African-American wife into the traditional culture and the extended family that he now finds restrictive. Their dilemma reflects Aidoo's characteristic concern with the "been-to" (African educated abroad), voiced again in her semiautobiographical experimental first novel, *Our Sister Killjoy; or, Reflections from a Black-Eyed Squint* (1966). Aidoo herself won a fellowship to Stanford University in California, returned to teach at Cape Coast, Ghana, and subsequently accepted various visiting professorships in the United States and Kenya. In *[]No Sweetness Here* (1970), a collection of short stories, Aidoo exercised the oral element of storytelling, writing tales that are meant to be read aloud. These stories and *Anowa* (1970), another problem play, are concerned with Western influences on the role of women and on the individual in a communal society. Aidoo rejected the argument that Western education emancipates African women. She further exposed exploitation of women who, as unacknowledged heads of households when war or unemployment leaves them husbandless, must support their children alone. Aidoo published little between 1970 and 1985, when *Someone Talking to Sometime,* a collection of poetry, appeared. Later titles include *The Eagle and the Chickens* (1986; a collection of children's stories), *Birds and* *Other Poems* (1987), and the novel *Changes: A Love Story* (1991).

Air France

*in full **Compagnie Nationale Air France** * French international airline originally formed in 1933 and today serving all parts of the globe. With [British Airways], it was the first to fly the supersonic Concorde. Headquarters are in Paris. On May 17, 1933, four airlines—Société Centrale pour l'Exploitation de Lignes Aériennes (founded 1919), Compagnie Internationale de Navigation (1920), Air Union (1923), and Air Orient (1929)—merged and negotiated with the French government to form a national system. A few months later, on August 30, with the support of the government, the combine merged with another line, Compagnie Générale Aéropostale (founded 1919), to form Air France, which in the years before World War II developed one of the most extensive networks in Europe. Nearly devastated by the war, the company resumed Paris-to-London service on October 11, 1945. The following year it reorganized, and on June 16, 1948, a new Compagnie Nationale Air France was incorporated by act of parliament, with 70 percent of the new company being owned by the French government. The first Air France transatlantic flight, from Paris to New York City, was inaugurated on June 25, 1946. Routes expanded in the coming decades so that by the early 21st century the airline was serving more than 200 cities in some 80 countries. In 1976 it inaugurated supersonic [Concorde] flights, initially from Paris to Rio de Janeiro (January 21); in 1982 that route and others had to be cut owing to their unprofitability, leaving the Paris-New York flight as its sole route. Further financial loss, however, led Air France to cease its Concorde operations in 2003. In the late 20th century a movement began to privatize the airline. Public ownership increased in 1999, and, after the French government agreed to relinquish majority ownership in Air France, a privatization program was launched in 2002. In 2004 Air France acquired the Dutch airline [][KLM] to create [Air France-KLM], one of the largest air carriers in the world. The deal, however, allowed the two airlines to continue to operate as separate companies, retaining their own hubs, flights, and logos.

Aiken, Conrad

*in full **Conrad Potter Aiken** * born August 5, 1889, Savannah, Georgia, U.S. died August 17, 1973, Savannah [![Photograph:Conrad Aiken.]] - Conrad Aiken. American Pulitzer Prize-winning poet, short-story writer, novelist, and critic whose works, influenced by early psychoanalytic theory, are concerned largely with the human need for self-awareness and a sense of identity. Aiken himself faced considerable trauma in his childhood when he found the bodies of his parents after his father had killed his mother and committed suicide. He later wrote of this in his autobiography *[]Ushant* (1952).

Aiguillon, Emmanuel-Armand de Richelieu, duc (duke) d'

*in full **Emmanuel-armand De Vignerot Du Plessis De Richelieu, Duc D'aiguillon** * born July 31, 1720 died Sept. 1, 1788, Paris, France French statesman, whose career illustrates the difficulties of the central government of the *[ancien régime]* in dealing with the provincial Parlements and estates, the extent to which powerful ministers were at the mercy of court intrigue, and how French diplomacy suffered under Louis XV as a result of secret diplomacy. In 1750 he succeeded to the peerage duchy of Aiguillon and in 1753 was appointed military commander for Brittany, where he was the chief representative in the province of the central government and so incurred the hostility of the Parlement of Rennes and of the provincial estates, which resisted the government's fiscal reforms of 1764-65. He also aroused the personal enmity of [L. R. de Caradeuc de La Chalotais] (*q.v.*), the powerful *procureur-général* of the Parlement. These quarrels led to his recall in 1766. Aiguillon, however, was a man of great ambition and, after the fall of the duc de Choiseul, was appointed minister of foreign affairs (June 1771). He was closely associated with the chancellor, René de Maupeou, and with the controller-general, the abbé Joseph-Marie Terray, in the so-called triumvirate, which attempted to destroy the political powers of the Parlements. As foreign minister he was unable to prevent the rapid decline of French influence in central and northern Europe. Though this was partly due to the rising power of Prussia and Russia, he gave no firm direction to French diplomacy and could not save Poland from being partitioned in 1772. His only—dubious—success was the help he gave Gustavus III of Sweden in effecting his coup of 1772. He was dismissed from office on the accession of Louis XVI in 1774.

Akhṭal, al-

*in full **Ghiyāth ibn Ghawth ibn al-Ṣalt al-Akhṭal** * born *c.* 640, Al-Ḥīrah, Mesopotamia, or the Syrian Desert died 710 poet of the Umayyad period (661-750), esteemed for his perfection of Arabic poetic form in the old Bedouin tradition. Al-Akhṭal ("The Loquacious") was a Christian but did not take the duties of his religion seriously, being addicted to drink and women. He was a favourite panegyrist and friend of the Umayyad caliph Yazīd I and his generals Ziyād ibn Abīhī and al-Ḥajjāj. He continued as court poet to the caliph ʿAbd al-Malik but fell into disfavour under Walīd I. Al-Akhṭal's poetry is highly political; he is known for panegyrics that defended Umayyad policies and for invective that skewered those who opposed them.

Akhmadulina, Bella

*in full **Izabella Akhatovna Akhmadulina** * born April 10, 1937, Moscow [![Photograph:Bella Akhmadulina, 1965]] - Bella Akhmadulina, 1965 Russian-language poet of Tatar and Italian descent, a distinctive voice in post-Stalinist Soviet literature. Akhmadulina completed her education at the Gorky Literary Institute in 1960, after which she traveled in Central Asia. She was eventually admitted to the Soviet Writers' Union, although her uncompromisingly individualistic work elicited official criticism and met with some difficulty in publication. Like her fellow poet Yevgeny Yevtushenko, to whom she was married during the 1950s, she drew audiences of thousands at readings of her work.

Aiken, Joan

*in full **Joan Delano Aiken** * born September 4, 1924, Rye, Sussex, England died January 4, 2004, Petworth, West Sussex [![Photograph:Joan Aiken.]] - Joan Aiken. prolific British author of fantasy, adventure, horror, and suspense tales for both juvenile and adult readers. Perhaps best-known as the inventor of a genre called the "[]unhistorical romance," Aiken wrote tales that combine humour and action with traditional mythic and fairy tale elements. Many of these works are set in an invented historical era during the imagined reign of James III of England, who was known as the Old Pretender.

Alas, Leopoldo

*in full **Leopoldo Alas y Ureña** , byname **Clarín** * born April 25, 1852, Zamora, Spain died June 13, 1901, Oviedo [![Photograph:Leopoldo Alas.]] - Leopoldo Alas. novelist, journalist, and the most influential literary critic in late 19th-century Spain. His biting and often-bellicose articles, sometimes called *paliques* ("chitchat"), and his advocacy of liberalism, anticlericalism, and literary [naturalism] not only made him Spain's most feared critical voice but also created many enemies who later obscured his fame.

Agnew, Spiro T.

*in full **Spiro Theodore Agnew** * born Nov. 9, 1918, Baltimore, Md., U.S. died Sept. 17, 1996, Berlin, Md. [![Photograph:Spiro T. Agnew.]] - Spiro T. Agnew. 39th vice president of the United States (1969-73) in the Republican administration of President [Richard M. Nixon]. He was the second person to resign the nation's second highest office ([John C. Calhoun] was the first in 1832) and the first to resign under duress.

ʿĀlamgīr II

*in full **ʿazīz-ud-dīn ʿālamgīr Ii** * born June 6, 1699, Multān, India died Nov. 29, 1759, Delhi Mughal emperor of India who disgraced his reign (1754-59) by his weakness and his disregard for his subjects' welfare. A son of the emperor Jahāndār Shāh (reigned 1712-13), ʿĀlamgīr was always the puppet of more powerful men and was placed on the throne by the imperial vizier [ʿImād ul-Mulk Ghāzī-ud-Dīn], who had deposed his predecessor. Provoked by the vizier's attempt to reassert control over the Punjab, the Afghan ruler [][Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī] had his agents occupy Delhi in January 1757, at the time "absolutely without a single defender or caretaker." After the city was secured, ʿĀlamgīr was confirmed emperor of Hindustan but was in effect Aḥmad Shāh's puppet.

Alba

*judeţ* (county), western Romania, occupying an area of 2,406 square miles (6,231 square km). The Western Carpathians rise above the settled areas in intermontane valleys. The county is drained westward by the Mureş River and its tributaries. Neolithic artifacts have been found at [][Alba Iulia] (*q.v.;* the county capital) and other sites in the *judeţ*. A Celtic community (3rd century BC) was situated at []Aiud, and remnants of Daco-Roman villages have been found at Aiud, Sebeş, and Alba Iulia. Vineyards are worked in the Mureş River valley. Corn (maize) is grown in southern areas, and wheat is cultivated in the north. Mercury, gold, silver, and other nonferrous metals are mined in the western portion of the district, and basalt is quarried. Industries located in the cities and larger towns produce machinery, chemicals, textiles, paper, and leather and wood products. Highways and railway lines parallel the district's river courses, extending through Alba Iulia, Câmpeni, and Aiud. Pop. (1987 est.) 425,903.

Alalakh

*modern **Tell Açana** , also called **ʿAtshanah** * ancient Syrian city in the Orontes (Asi) valley, southern Turkey. Excavations (1936-49) by Sir Leonard []Woolley uncovered numerous impressive buildings, including a massive structure known as the palace of []Yarim-Lim, dating from *c.* 1780 BC, when Alalakh was the chief city of the district of []Mukish and was incorporated within the kingdom of [Yamkhad]. Excavations also revealed a towered palace, occupied by several successive rulers, one of whom, [Idrimi], ruled for 30 years and probably died about 1450 BC. The town was raided frequently because of its border location, but it was always rebuilt and remained a rich centre until its final destruction by the [][Sea Peoples] shortly after 1200 BC.

Agam, Yaacov

*original name **Jacob Gipstein** * born May 11, 1928, Rishon le-Zion, Palestine [now Rishon LeẔiyyon, Israel] [![Photograph:Agam, 1972]] - Agam, 1972 pioneer and leading exponent of optical and [][kinetic] art, best known for his three-dimensional paintings and sculptures. Agam was the son of a Russian rabbi. He grew up in an early Jewish settlement and did not begin his formal schooling until age 13. Having learned to draw at an early age, he studied art in Jerusalem (1947-48), Zürich (1949-51), and Paris (1951) and had his first one-man exhibition in 1953 in Paris, where he settled. Eventually his body of work grew to include vibrating and tactile elements, and he began to create manipulable sculptures as well.

Agricola, Johann

*original name **Johann Schneider, Schneider** also spelled **Schnitter,** Latin **Sartor** * born April 20, 1494, Eisleben, Saxony died Sept. 22, 1566, Berlin Lutheran Reformer, friend of [][Martin Luther], and advocate of [][antinomianism], a view asserting that Christians are freed by grace from the need to obey the Ten Commandments. At Wittenberg, Agricola was persuaded by Luther to change his course of study from medicine to theology. Increasingly under Luther's influence, Agricola accompanied him as recording secretary to his Leipzig debate of 1519 with the scholar Johann Eck. In 1525 Agricola helped introduce [][Lutheranism] to Frankfurt and, in the same year, became head of the Latin school at Eisleben. There, he began to assert his antinomianism (Greek *anti,* "against"; *nomos,* "law"), condemning the law as an unnecessary carry-over from the Old Testament and as too similar to the Roman Catholic stress on good works: "The Decalog (Ten Commandments) belongs in the courthouse, not in the pulpit. . . . To the gallows with Moses!" In 1527 he became more forceful, attacking the Reformer [][Philipp Melanchthon], an associate of Luther, for Lutheran inclusion of the law in Reformation theology. The conflict was enlarged when Agricola returned to Wittenberg in 1536, and Luther responded with five disputations and the treatise "Against the Antinomians." Under persecution for his attacks on Luther's position, in 1540 Agricola went to Berlin, where he retracted his views and in the same year was made court preacher by the Protestant prince Joachim II of Brandenburg. Shortly afterward he returned to Saxony but found himself no longer in Luther's trust.

Adler, Lawrence James

*original name **Laszlo James Adler** * born November 2, 1931, Budapest, Hungary died December 13, 1988, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Hungarian-born Australian businessman, founder of the Fire and All Risks Insurance Co. (later renamed []FAI Insurance, Ltd.) and one of the 10 richest men in the country. Adler, whose father died in a Nazi concentration camp during World War II, fled his Hungarian homeland in 1949. Arriving in Australia in 1950, Adler was a penniless refugee who was unable to speak English. He worked as a Melbourne railway labourer, a taxi driver, and a janitor before founding FAI (1960), which later became Australia's largest general insurer. An aggressive stock market investor renowned for international corporate takeovers, he acquired almost 15 percent of the British merchant bank Hill Samuel, which was taken over by another bank just prior to the stock market crash of October 1987. Adler's profits in the deal pushed FAI to a precrash value of more than \$1.7 billion (Australian). After Adler's death FAI was acquired by another Australian insurance company and later became part of the Allianz Group of Germany.

Agricola, Martin

*original name **Martin Sore,** Sore also spelled **Sohr** * born Jan. 6, 1486, Schwiebus, Silesia [now in Poland] died June 10, 1556, Magdeburg, Archbishopric of Magdeburg [Germany] composer, teacher, and writer on music, one of the first musicians to concern himself with the needs of the [][Reformed churches] and to publish musical treatises in the vernacular. Agricola was self-taught, called to music "from the plough," as his chosen surname suggests. He worked at Magdeburg from roughly 1519 and by 1527 became choirmaster at the first Protestant school there, a position he held for the remainder of his life. He published several treatises on music theory, most notably his *Musica instrumentalis deudsch* (1529). Much of the German musical vocabulary that he invented is still in use. His books give a valuable picture of the musical life of his time, particularly his descriptions of early 16th-century musical instruments. His printed volumes include sacred music and many instrumental pieces that are transcriptions of vocal part-songs. Unfortunately, most of his unpublished compositions are lost.

Afonso I

*original name **Mvemba a Nzinga** , also called **Nzinga Mbemba** , also spelled **Afonso I Mvemba a Nzinga** * born *c.* 1460 died 1542 ruler of [Kongo] (historical kingdom in west-central Africa) and the first of a line of Portuguese vassal kings that lasted until the early 20th century. He is sometimes called "The Apostle of Kongo" for his role in making Kongo a Christian kingdom. Nothing is known of his early life; most of what is known of his later life originates from a remarkable series of letters he wrote between 1509 and 1541 to various kings and government officials in Lisbon and Rome. He was the son of Nzinga a Nkuwu, the first Christian king of Kongo. In 1491 he and his father were baptized by Portuguese priests and assumed Christian names, Afonso I and [João I], respectively. During his father's reign as king, Afonso served under him in various roles—including in an administrative capacity in Kongo's northeastern province of Nsundi, which he expanded in the late 1490s. Although he was removed from the Nsundi position *c.* 1500, he had been restored by the time his father died some years later. Upon his father's death, Afonso's supporters (including his mother) wanted him to ascend as Kongo's new king and summoned him to [Mbanza Kongo], the kingdom's capital. He managed to defeat his half brother, Mpanzu a Kitima, in battle there and succeeded as king sometime between 1506 and 1509, becoming the sixth *manikongo* (king of the Kongo).

Adrian IV

*original name **Nicholas Breakspear,** also known as **Hadrian IV** * born 1100?, Abbot's Langley, near St. Albans, Hertfordshire, Eng. died Sept. 1, 1159, Anagni, near Rome [Italy] the only Englishman to occupy the papal throne (1154-59). He became a canon regular of St. Ruf near Avignon, Fr., and in about 1150 Pope [][Eugenius III] appointed him cardinal bishop of Albano, Italy. Eugenius sent him in 1152 as legate to Scandinavia, where his mission to reorganize the hierarchy was so successful that on his return in 1154 he was elected pope (December 4). Adrian crowned [][Frederick I] Barbarossa as Holy Roman emperor in 1155, after Frederick had captured and handed over to him Arnold of Brescia, who had led a revolt in Rome. Although Arnold was hanged and burned at the stake in 1155 and his ashes scattered over the Tiber River, Adrian's conflict with the commune of Rome continued.

Agricola, Rodolphus

*original name **Roelof Huysman** * born 1443/44, Baflo, Groningen [now in The Netherlands] died Oct. 27, 1485, Heidelberg, Palatinate [Germany] Dutch humanist who, basing his philosophy on Renaissance ideas, placed special emphasis on the freedom of the individual and the complete development of the self, from both an intellectual and a physical standpoint. His ideas influenced Desiderius Erasmus, another Dutch humanist. Agricola studied in Groningen, Erfurt, Cologne, and Louvain, graduating from Louvain in 1465. While in his early 30s, he started to write, producing an oration in praise of philosophy (1476) and a biography of Petrarch (1477), the Italian poet and scholar. During the following five years, he traveled between universities in northwestern Germany and the Netherlands. In 1484 he accepted an invitation from the bishop of Worms, Johann von Dalberg, to lecture on classical literature in Heidelberg. In the same year he wrote *De formando studio,* a book on education.

Akihito

*original name **Tsugu Akihito** , era name **Heisei** * born December 23, 1933, Tokyo, Japan [![Photograph:Japanese Emperor Akihito, 2002.]] - Japanese Emperor Akihito, 2002. emperor of Japan from 1989. As scion of the oldest imperial family in the world, he was, according to tradition, the 125th direct descendant of Jimmu, Japan's legendary first emperor. Akihito was the fifth child and eldest son of Emperor Hirohito and Empress Nagako. During his early years he was reared in the traditional imperial manner, beginning his education at the Peers' School in 1940. He lived outside of Tokyo during the last years of World War II but returned to the Peers' School (from 1949 Gakushūin) after the war. Because of the changes the war had brought to Japanese society, not the least of which was the removal of the emperor's power to rule in any way other than ceremonially, Akihito's education was broadened to include training in the English language and in Western culture. His tutor was Elizabeth Gray Vining, an American Quaker. Like his father, he eventually took up marine biology as a field of endeavour. In 1952 Akihito came of age and was invested as heir to the Japanese throne. Seven years later, breaking a 1,500-year-old tradition, he married a commoner, []Shōda Michiko, who was the daughter of a wealthy businessman. Michiko was a graduate of a Roman Catholic university for women in Tokyo. Their first child, Crown Prince Naruhito, was born on February 23, 1960; he was followed by Prince Akishino (b. November 30, 1965) and Princess Nori (b. April 18, 1969).

Aga Khan IV

*personal name **Karim al-Husayn Shah** * born December 13, 1936, Geneva, Switzerland elder son of Prince Aly Khan by his first wife, Joan Yarde-Buller, the daughter of the 3rd Baron Churston. Educated in Switzerland and at Harvard University, he was chosen as successor to the imamate of the Nizārī Ismāʿīlī sect by his grandfather, the [Aga Khan III], whom he succeeded in 1957. The new Aga Khan initiated visits to his scattered Ismāʿīlī peoples in the first year of his reign. He became a strong leader, ordering his followers to become citizens of the countries in which they resided and to leave countries where they faced trouble and persecution. He was known for his business acumen, and his extensive private holdings included hotels, airlines, and newspapers. Through organizations such as the Aga Khan Foundation, the imamate funded aid agencies offering educational, health, and housing services in South Asia and East Africa. The Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development (AKFED) invested in development programs to promote manufacturing, tourism, and financial services. He also continued his family's extensive horse-breeding enterprise.

Aga Khan III

*personal name **Sultan Sir Moḥammed Shah** * born November 2, 1877, Karachi, India [now in Pakistan] died July 11, 1957, Versoix, Switzerland only son of the [Aga Khan II]. He succeeded his father as imam (leader) of the Nizārī [Ismāʿīlī] sect in 1885. [![Photograph:Aga Khan III, a noted horse racing enthusiast, at the Longchamp racetrack in Paris, 1935.]] - Aga Khan III, a noted horse racing enthusiast, at the Longchamp racetrack in Paris, *c.* 1935. Under the care of his mother, who was born into the ruling house of Iran, he was given an education that was not only Islamic and Oriental but also Western. In addition to attending diligently to the affairs of his own community, he rapidly acquired a leading position among India's Muslims as a whole. In 1906 he headed the Muslim deputation to the British viceroy, [Lord Minto], to promote the interests of the Muslim minority in India. The [Morley-Minto reforms] of 1909 consequently provided for separate Muslim electorates. The Aga Khan served as president of the All-India [][Muslim League] during its early years and initiated the fund for raising the Muslim college at [Aligarh to university] status, which was effected in 1920.

Aga Khan II

*personal name **ʿalī Shāh** * died August 1885, Poona, India eldest son of the Aga Khan I. In 1881 he succeeded his father as imam, or spiritual leader, of the Nizārī Ismāʿīlīte sect of Shīʿite Muslims, and, during his short imamate, sought to improve the conditions of the community.

Aga Khan I

*personal name **Ḥasan ʿalī Shāh** * born 1800 died April 1881 imam, or spiritual leader, of the Nizārī Ismāʿīlīte sect of the Shīʿite Muslims. He claimed to be directly descended from ʿAlī, the son-in-law of the Prophet Muḥammad, and ʿAlī's wife Fāṭimah, Muḥammad's daughter, and also from the Fāṭimid caliphs of Egypt. He was the governor of the Iranian province of Kerman and was high in the favour of Fatḥ ʿAlī Shāh. The title Aga Khan (chief commander) was granted him in 1818 by the shah of Iran. Under []Moḥammad Shāh, however, he felt his family honour slighted and rose in revolt in 1838 but was defeated and fled to India. He helped the British in the first Anglo-Afghan War (1839-42) and in the conquest of Sindh (1842-43) and was granted a pension. After he had settled in Bombay, he encountered some opposition from a minority of his followers, who contested the extent of his spiritual authority and in a lawsuit challenged his control over the community's funds, but he won his case (1866).

Alba Fucens

*present-day **Albe** * ancient fortified hilltop town of the Aequi in central Italy. It was settled by Rome as a Latin colony in 303 BC and was important for its domination of the Via Valeria, which linked Rome with the Adriatic Sea. Alba Fucens was situated on a hill with three distinct summits, all of which were enclosed within the city walls. Its strong position made it important in the [Social War] and in the civil wars of the 1st century BC. Captured kings were often interned there. Much survives of the main circuit of walls, and excavation has revealed the whole of the town centre. The gateways, which survive, were so placed as to expose the right, or unprotected, side of an attacking force. An elevated area in a northern corner had a separate line of walls.

Albacete

*provincia* in the *comunidad autónoma* ("autonomous community") of Castile-La Mancha, southeast-central Spain. It occupies the southeastern end of the Meseta Central (plateau). Albacete is the driest interior province of the Iberian Peninsula, with as little as 2 inches (50 mm) annual rainfall in some areas. The south is mountainous or hilly and is crossed by the Júcar and Segura rivers, which are the chief local sources of power and water for irrigation. The Sierra de Alcaraz rises in the west. Albacete is a stock-raising province, but wheat growing is increasing steadily, with a corresponding decline in livestock. Cheese is sent to all parts of Spain; vines, which have suffered much from phylloxera, and olives are cultivated; the peaches of the Cabriel and Júcar valleys supply canning factories in Valencia. Other products include saffron, esparto grass, and pine lumber. Industry is concentrated in the provincial capital, Albacete. Important towns include Almansa, Hellín, and La Roda. A large portion of the province is accessible only by road, although there are good railway connections with Madrid and Alicante. Area 5,762 square miles (14,924 square km). Pop. (1988 est.) 348,058.

Aho, Juhani

*pseudonym **of Johannes Brofeldt** * born Sept. 11, 1861, Lapinlahti, Finland, Russian Empire died Aug. 8, 1921, Helsinki, Finland novelist and short-story writer who began as a realist but toward the end of his life made large concessions to Romanticism. A country clergyman's son, Aho studied at Helsinki University, worked as a journalist, and was an active member of the liberal group Nuori Suomi ("Young Finland").

AE

*pseudonym of **George William Russell** * born April 10, 1867, Lurgan, County Armagh, Ire. died July 17, 1935, Bournemouth, Hampshire, Eng. poet, artist, and mystic, a leading figure in the Irish literary renaissance of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Russell took his pseudonym from a proofreader's query about his earlier pseudonym, "AEon." After attending the Metropolitan School of Art, Dublin, where he met the poet William Butler Yeats, Russell became an accounts clerk in a drapery store but left in 1897 to organize agricultural cooperatives. Eventually he became editor of the periodicals *The Irish Homestead* (1904-23) and *The Irish Statesman* (1923-30). In 1894 he published the first of many books of verse, *Homeward: Songs by the Way.* His first volume of *Collected Poems* appeared in 1913 and a second in 1926. He maintained a lifelong interest in theosophy, the origins of religion, and mystical experience. *The Candle of Vision* (1918) is the best guide to his religious beliefs.

Alain-Fournier

*pseudonym of **Henri-Alban Fournier** * born Oct. 3, 1886, La Chapelle-d'Angillon, Cher, France killed in action Sept. 22, 1914, in the vicinity of Épargue, near Verdun [![Photograph:Alain-Fournier, drawing by André Lhote]] - Alain-Fournier, drawing by André Lhote French writer whose only completed novel, *Le Grand Meaulnes* (1913; *[The Wanderer]*, or *The Lost Domain*), is a modern classic.

Aimard, Gustave

*pseudonym of **Olivier Gloux** * born Sept. 13, 1818, Paris, France died June 20, 1883, Paris French popular novelist who wrote adventure stories about life on the American frontier and in Mexico. He was the main 19th-century French practitioner of the [western] novel. At the age of 12 Aimard went to sea as a ship's boy and subsequently witnessed local wars and conspiracies in Turkey, the Caucasus, and South America. After taking part in the Revolution of 1848 in Paris, he traveled to North America in 1854 as part of an unsuccessful armed expedition to Sonora, Mexico. In 1870 he fought in the siege of Paris during the Franco-German war.

Alain

*pseudonym of **Émile-auguste Chartier** * born March 3, 1868, Mortagne, Fr. died June 2, 1951, Le Vésinet, near Paris French philosopher whose work profoundly influenced several generations of readers. Graduating in philosophy, he taught at *lycées* in a number of towns, including Rouen, where he became involved in politics and began contributing a daily short article of 600 words to a Radical newspaper. The high literary quality of these articles soon attracted attention and they were collected and published (1908) in a book that came to be regarded as a classic. Appointed to teach philosophy at the Lycée Henri Quatre, in Paris, Alain became the mentor of most of the teachers of philosophy of the next generation in France. In defiance of public opinion he foretold and denounced World War I; on its outbreak, however, he enlisted in the artillery. Refusing promotion, he spent the whole war in the ranks; and it was in the front line or in battery telephonists' dugouts that he wrote *Mars, ou la guerre jugée* (1921; *Mars; or, The Truth About War,* 1930), *Quatre-vingt-un Chapîtres sur l'esprit et les passions* (1917), and *Système des beaux-arts* (1920). Later he resumed his post at the Lycée Henri Quatre. His most important publications over the ensuing years were *Les Idées et les âges* (1927), *Entretiens au bord de la mer* (1931), *Idées* (1932), *Les Dieux* (1934), *Histoire de mes pensées* (1936), and *Les Aventures de coeur* (1945). When age and painful disease made it impossible for him to teach any longer, he retired to a little house in the neighbourhood of Paris, where his disciples could visit him. In 1951 he was awarded the Grand Prix National de Littérature, of which he was the first recipient; this was the only honour that he accepted.

ALBANIA

A republic in the western Balkan Peninsula of southeastern Europe, Albania is situated on the Adriatic Sea. Area: 28,748 sq km (11,100 sq mi). Pop. (1994 est.): 3,374,000. Cap.: Tirana. Monetary unit: lek, with (Oct. 7, 1994) a free rate of 100.09 leks to U.S. \$1 (159.20 leks = £1 sterling). President in 1994, Sali Berisha; prime minister, Aleksander Meksi. During 1994 Albania's postcommunist recovery continued but with more progress in some areas than others. Greek-Albanian relations deteriorated, and Athens blocked European Union loans to Tirana, impeding Albania's much-needed integration into Europe. Domestically, Albania not only halted economic decay but registered growth; gross domestic product grew by 8%, agricultural production increased an estimated 8% over 1993 levels, and inflation continued its downward spiral. Unemployment, however, remained the country's Achilles' heel; more than 300,000 workers were unemployed. Some \$400 million sent home by Albanian emigrants played a vital role in boosting the domestic economy by increasing the volume of disposable income. For most, economic hardship and widespread poverty were the norm. Albania's foreign debt continued to soar and was expected to exceed \$600 million. The political climate was relatively stable, but hostility between ruling and opposition forces continued to surface. The Socialist Party of Albania (PSS) and other political groups accused Pres. Sali Berisha of becoming increasingly authoritarian. Berisha sought to end a constitutional impasse in October, however, when he called for a national referendum, the first of its kind. Surprisingly, the November vote went against Berisha, perpetuating the deadlock with the Socialists and likely delaying moves toward closer ties with Western Europe. The trials of PSS leader Fatos Nano and former communist leader Ramiz Alia resulted in prison terms of 12 and 9 years, respectively.

ALBANIA

A republic in the western Balkan Peninsula of southeastern Europe, Albania is situated on the Adriatic Sea. Area: 28,748 sq km (11,100 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 3,412,000. Cap.: Tirana. Monetary unit: lek, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 93.65 leks to U.S. \$1 (148.05 leks = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Sali Berisha; prime minister, Aleksander Meksi. Pres. Sali Berisha's ruling Democratic Party (PDS) withstood the damaging effects of defeat in the November 1994 constitutional referendum but still faced formidable political, economic, and social problems in 1995. Following the referendum defeat, the PDS replaced incompetent and corrupt personnel at all party levels. The leading opposition Socialist Party (the former communist party) threatened the PDS's hold on power, while the PDS cited notable successes in economic and foreign affairs and predicted victory in the parliamentary elections scheduled for March 1996. Albania's admission as the 36th member to the Council of Europe was a huge political success and came after the country proved it had made substantial progress in implementing economic, political, and social reforms. At the same time, the administration came under sharp criticism for not allowing the judiciary to function independently. A new penal code and penal procedure came into force, however, enhancing the country's commitment to upholding human rights. Among the 49 new legislative decisions approved by the People's Assembly in 1995 were land and property laws that positively affected the flow of domestic and foreign investments, especially in the field of agriculture. The process of privatization continued, with some 1,400 small-sized enterprises privatized (only some middle- and large-sized companies awaited privatization). Albania's \$700 million foreign debt was substantially reduced. As a result of an agreement between Albania and 41 Western banks, the country's debt owed to those institutions dropped from \$500 million to \$100 million on September 1. On the domestic front gross domestic product grew by an estimated 6%, and the budget deficit was expected to be reduced to 7%. Inflation dropped to about 10%; the national currency, the lek, stabilized (\$1 to 90 leks); and unemployment hovered at 260,000 (about 18%), despite the fact that an estimated 500,000 workers were employed abroad. The agricultural, construction, and private-service sectors registered high rates of growth--15%, 90%, and 25%, respectively. The industrial sector remained the weakest economic link, with continued production losses. Exports also lagged.

Agee, Tommie Lee

American baseball player (b. Aug. 9, 1942, Mobile, Ala.—d. Jan. 22, 2001, New York, N.Y.), helped lead the New York Mets to a World Series championship in 1969. Agee was the centre fielder for the so-called Miracle Mets during the team's surprising run to the title following years of mediocrity; in the first game of the series, he made two crucial catches that some observers ranked among the most spectacular plays in World Series history. Agee had won the American League Rookie of the Year award with the Chicago White Sox in 1966 before being traded to the Mets in 1968. The Mets traded Agee to the Houston Astros in 1973, and he retired from baseball that year. Agee had a career batting average of .255, with 130 home runs.

ALBANIA

A republic in the western Balkan Peninsula of southeastern Europe, Albania is situated on the Adriatic Sea. Area: 28,748 sq km (11,100 sq mi). Pop. (1996 est.): 3,249,000. Cap.: Tiranë. Monetary unit: lek, with (Oct. 11, 1996) a free rate of 108.10 leks to U.S. \$1 (170.29 leks = £ 1 sterling). President in 1996, Sali Berisha; prime minister, Aleksander Meksi. The third postcommunist parliamentary elections, held on May 26, 1996, plunged Albania into its deepest political crisis since the demise of communist rule in 1991. The opposition, led by the Socialist Party (the former Communist Party), charged that Pres. Sali Berisha's Democratic Party of Albania (DPA) used intimidation and fraud to capture a large election majority. Riot police violently broke up a protest rally, and the opposition parties boycotted all further activities related to the national elections, giving the DPA de facto control over the People's Assembly, the executive, and the judiciary. On July 11 a new Cabinet was formed comprising 16 ministries (1 without portfolio), 7 state secretaries, and 1 Cabinet secretary-general. The enlarged new executive body had four female members, the widest female representation in the history of the country. Gross domestic product (GDP) grew by an estimated 8%, while inflation rose by about 4-5%, mainly owing to the introduction of a value-added tax. Unemployment dropped to a total of 170,000, or about 13%. The agricultural and especially the construction and private-service sectors continued to register robust two-digit growth. The Albanian economy nevertheless remained unproductive, since GDP was primarily attributable to the growth of small businesses and not to industry. Remittances from Albanian émigrés in Greece, Italy, Germany, and the U.S. still accounted for an estimated 20% of GDP. Early in the year Albania received an aid package from the U.S. worth \$100 million.

AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan is a landlocked Islamic republic in central Asia. Area: 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi). Pop. (1993 est.): 20,269,000 (excluding Afghan refugees estimated to number about 1.5 million in Pakistan and 2.3 million in Iran). Cap.: Kabul. Monetary unit: afghani, with (Oct. 4, 1993) a free rate of 1,520 afghanis to U.S. \$1 (2,304 afghanis = £1 sterling). President in 1993, Burhanuddin Rabbani; prime minister, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar (designated on March 8, sworn in on June 17). [Afghanistan] marked the first anniversary of the fall of the communist regime and the birth of an Islamic government, but in general the country had little to celebrate in 1993. One year after a rebel coalition triumphantly ousted the communist president, Mohammad Najibullah, and declared an Islamic government on April 28, 1992, Afghanistan remained a battleground, with rival factions fighting for power and pounding the capital with rockets. An estimated 10,000 people were killed, 750,000 were displaced, and many neighbourhoods in Kabul were devastated. Most UN officials and foreign diplomats left Afghanistan. Although the fighting lessened somewhat in the latter half of 1993, it was still unclear if the nation, which withstood 14 years of civil war, ultimately would be governable. Meanwhile, Najibullah, who had received a promise of safe passage from the UN when it negotiated his abdication, remained in the UN office in Kabul, suffering from a kidney ailment. The UN had been unable to secure his freedom. Continuing hostilities also delayed the homecoming of an estimated 3.8 million refugees in Iran and Pakistan, the largest refugee population in the world. The UN believed it would take until the end of 1995 for the 1.5 million Afghans remaining in Pakistan to return home. In early January a national assembly of tribal and religious leaders confirmed the acting president, approved the creation of a parliament and a new army, and set a strict Islamic path for Afghanistan. Despite allegations of vote buying, bribery, and threats of renewed civil war, the assembly voted to keep Burhanuddin Rabbani as president. The 53-year-old Islamic scholar was sworn in on January 2. Five of the 10 main rebel groups denounced the council as unrepresentative, however, and described Rabbani's reelection as a declaration of war. The 1,335-member assembly further ordered that only Muslims work for the government, banned all non-Muslim organizations, and declared that radio and television had to conform to Islamic law.

AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan is a landlocked Islamic state in central Asia. Area: 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 18,129,000 (excluding Afghan refugees estimated to number about 1.6 million in Pakistan and about 1.6 million in Iran). Cap.: Kabul. Monetary unit: afghani, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 4,442 afghanis to U.S. \$1 (7,022 afghanis = £1 sterling). President in 1995, Burhanuddin Rabbani; prime minister, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. A new national force that called itself Taleban (Persian for "students") brought a degree of calm to parts of Afghanistan in 1995, in part by neutralizing several powerful leaders and their supporters. The dispute over control of Kabul was not resolved, however, and regions of the country remained divided. Early in the year, Pres. Burhanuddin Rabbani, whose extended term had expired, offered to relinquish power if an acceptable replacement could be found. Efforts by Mahmoud Mestiri and other UN mediators to bring the contending factions together and select a successor to Rabbani came to naught. The military-political situation was so unstable that serious negotiations were impossible. The armed group Taleban had appeared in southern Afghanistan in late 1994. The group's first accomplishment was the defeat of local commanders who had hijacked a truck convoy traveling from Pakistan to Central Asia. These mainly Pashtun students secured the release of the convoy and within days took control of Kandahar; later they extended their control to neighbouring provinces. While maintaining a low profile in a council in Kandahar, the Taleban declared that their goal was to disarm all factions and create a united, Islamic government in Afghanistan.

Aerosmith

American [heavy metal] band. One of the biggest arena-rock attractions of the late 1970s, Aerosmith became even more popular with its career revival in the mid-1980s. Principal members were Steven Tyler (byname of Steven Tallarico; b. March 26, 1948, New York, New York, U.S.), Joe Perry (b. September 10, 1950, Boston, Massachusetts), Brad Whitford (b. February 23, 1952, Winchester, Massachusetts), Tom Hamilton (b. December 31, 1951, Colorado Springs, Colorado), and Joey Kramer (b. June 21, 1950, New York). Formed in 1970, the Boston-based band played bluesy, swaggering rock most reminiscent of the [Rolling Stones]. (Indeed, vocalist Tyler—the band's driving force, along with guitarist Perry—resembled Mick Jagger.) Their later work also incorporated country music influences. *Toys in the Attic* (1975) and *Rocks* (1976) were multimillion sellers, but substance abuse and a dearth of creativity led to a period of inactivity for the band in the early 1980s. In 1986, two years after the return of Perry (who had left the band in 1979), Aerosmith returned to the limelight when [Run-D.M.C.] made a rap version of the band's 1975 hit "Walk This Way." Converted to sobriety, Aerosmith produced Grammy-winning songs in 1990, 1993, and 1994, won numerous music video awards, and reached number one with *Get a Grip* (1993) and *Nine Lives* (1997). In 2001 Aerosmith was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan is a landlocked Islamic state in central Asia. Area: 652,225 sq km (251,825 sq mi). Pop. (1996 est.): 22,664,000 (including Afghan refugees estimated to number about 1.6 million in Pakistan and about 1.4 million in Iran). Cap.: Kabul. Monetary unit: afghani, with (Oct. 11, 1996) a free rate of 4,750 afghanis to U.S. \$1 (7,483 afghanis = £1 sterling). President in 1996, Burhanuddin Rabbani; prime minister, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. In September 1996 the long power struggle between Afghanistan's armed factions appeared to have taken a decisive turn when Taliban militias captured Kabul. Despite the fundamentalist nature of the Taliban movement, many hoped that it might mean an end to the deadly rivalry between Afghan factions, which had killed 25,000-45,000 Afghans, mostly civilians, since the collapse of Afghanistan's communist government in April 1992. The Taliban (Persian for "students") emerged at the end of 1994, soon taking control of Afghanistan's southern city of Kandahar and neighbouring areas. The "students" were recruited from schools set up among Afghan refugees in Pakistan during the years following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. From the time of the first Taliban successes, Pakistan denied any official support, but most observers discounted such denials, noting the modern logistic support and sophisticated communications equipment at the disposal of the "students." With a reputation more for zeal than for experience, they offered to rid the country of the corruption and lawlessness that had flourished during the years of Soviet occupation and that had continued after the Soviet withdrawal left Afghanistan divided among warring factions and local warlords. Within a year they had overrun Herat and western Afghanistan. For most of the next year, they remained outside Kabul, launching frequent rocket attacks on the city. In June Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, whose Hezb-i-Islami forces had bombarded the government in Kabul until driven from their positions by the Taliban, returned to rejoin the government as prime minister. He immediately attempted to open contacts with northern Afghanistan's powerful warlord, Gen. 'Abd ar-Rashid Dostam. From his power base in Mazar-e Sharif, Dostam continued to control a virtually independent northern Afghanistan.

Alan Freed

Alan Freed did not coin the phrase *[][rock and roll];* however, by way of his radio show, he popularized it and redefined it. Once slang for sex, it came to mean a new form of music. This music had been around for several years, but Freed's primary accomplishment was the delivery of it to new—primarily young and white—listeners. Besides exposing his audience to [blues], [rhythm and blues], [swing], and [doo-wop], he brought black and white fans together at his dance concerts. He began staging his shows in [Cleveland], Ohio, where he had joined WJW in 1951 and soon reigned as the "King of the Moon Doggers." Moving to New York City and WINS in 1954, he continued to produce lucrative concerts. For his efforts, he drew charges of "race-mixing" and the attention of vigilant police. A disturbance at a concert in Boston in 1958 resulted in criminal charges against Freed and his departure from WINS. In 1960 he was enveloped in the congressional hearings on payola (money or gifts given to deejays by representatives of record companies in return for playing their records), and his career was in jeopardy. After relocating to Los Angeles, where he worked at KDAY for a short time, he was indicted on charges of tax evasion in 1964 and died in 1965. [Ben Fong-Torres]

Agar, John

American actor (b. Jan. 31, 1921, Chicago, Ill.—d. April 7, 2002, Burbank, Calif.), first achieved fame when he married (1945) Shirley Temple but then became an actor and appeared with her in two films. After they divorced in 1949, he continued working in movies, at first appearing especially in westerns, including *She Wore a Yellow Ribbon* (1949), and war movies, including *The Sands of Iwo Jima* (1949), and later becoming a familiar face in such low-budget science-fiction fare as *Revenge of the Creature* (1955) and *The Mole People* (1956).

Afghanistan

Area: 645,807 sq km (249,347 sq mi) Population (2006 est.): 24,592,000 (excluding 2,600,000 Afghans [[refugees] and nonrefugees] in Pakistan and about 650,000 Afghan refugees in Iran at the beginning of the year)

Afghanistan

Area: 645,807 sq km (249,347 sq mi) Population (2007 est.): 27,145,000 (including 2,400,000 Afghans [[refugees] and nonrefugees] in Pakistan and about 1,000,000 Afghan refugees in Iran)

Adler, Mortimer Jerome

American educator, philosopher, editor, and writer (b. Dec. 28, 1902, New York, N.Y.—d. June 28, 2001, San Mateo, Calif.), influenced by the ideas espoused by his heroes, Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas, championed the notion that a liberal education—the study of the great literature of the Western world—could provide the foundation of education for all people and lead to an understanding of the human condition. To that end he, along with Robert Maynard Hutchins, created (1947) the Great Books Foundation, which led members of the public in reading and meeting to discuss classic works. He was a cofounder and regular lecturer at the Aspen (Colo.) Institute. He also had a long association with Encyclopædia Britannica, during which he counted the compilation of the 54-volume *Great Books of the Western World* (1952) and its *Syntopicon,* a two-volume index based on 102 great ideas, and the restructuring of the *Encyclopædia Britannica* for its 15th edition (1974) among the numerous projects he guided; he served on the board of editors from its inception in 1948 and was its chairman from 1974 until 1995, when he retired. Adler dropped out of high school at age 15 and was working for the *New York Sun* when he determined that he would become a philosopher and enrolled in Columbia University, New York City. Although he completed the course work in three years, his refusal to take a required swimming test kept him from graduating (his bachelor's degree was, however, finally awarded in 1983). Nevertheless, he became (1923) a psychology instructor there, and in 1928 he was awarded a Ph.D. In 1930 Hutchins created the position of associate professor of the philosophy of law for Adler at the University of Chicago, and in 1942 Adler became a full professor. He left the university in 1952 and founded the Institute for Philosophical Research in San Francisco. Among the works created there was the two-volume *The Idea of Freedom* (1958 and 1961). The institute was moved to Chicago in 1963, and Adler then edited the 10-volume *Gateway to the Great Books* (1963) and the 20-volume *Annals of America* (1968) for Encyclopædia Britannica. In the early 1980s he conceived the Paideia Project, a plan for a humanist education in the elementary and secondary grades, which he put forth in the books *The Paideia Proposal: An Educational Manifesto* (1982), *Paideia Problems and Possibilities* (1983), and *The Paideia Program: An Educational Syllabus* (1984). Among the dozens of Adler's other books were *How to Read a Book* (1940; rev. ed., 1972), *The Difference of Man and the Difference It Makes* (1967), *How to Think About God* (1980), and *Six Great Ideas* (1981). Adler served (1988-91) as a professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and was a cofounder (1990) of the Center for the Study of Great Ideas in Chicago. His memoirs were published in *Philosopher at Large: An Intellectual Autobiography* (1977) and *A Second Look in the Rearview Mirror* (1992).

Advocate of Moral Reform

American periodical that, between 1835 and about 1845, campaigned to rescue [women] who were victims of moral and physical corruption and to reassert woman's centrality to family life. First published in New York City in 1835, the *Advocate of Moral Reform* gained some 20,000 subscribers over the next few years. Serving as a voice for members of the moral reform movement, the journal's mission was to bring a moral centre back to the group of women who had passed beyond the influence of ministers and family and into morally compromised situations. Using a variety of tactics to encourage wayward girls and fallen women to repudiate their ways, the *Advocate* also waged significant campaigns to check masculine seductive power over women, at times going so far as to print reports exposing individual seducers and lechers from particular communities. As both external and internal pressures increasingly questioned the methods of moral-reform activism, the *Advocate* began to temper its stance on the issue, choosing to focus on the influence of women within the home. Increasing efforts to foster effective education and family values, the periodical—along with the movement itself—came to recognize the limitations of the vigilant moral reform campaign. As is evident from the reaction to an article written by abolitionist [][Sarah Grimké] in 1838, many readers were committed to the cause of moral enlightenment, but most women ultimately were forced to rely on male authority figures. When asked by Grimké to overthrow clerical dominance and end the "degradation and bondage" enforced on women by men, the response from *Advocate* readers was a resounding "No." Slowly the movement was overtaken by a growing focus on emancipation, and in the mid-1840s the journal ceased publication.

Albert, Carl Bert

American politician (b. May 10, 1908, McAlester, Okla.—d. Feb. 4, 2000, McAlester), served as speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1971 to 1976. He twice stood briefly next in line for the presidency—in 1973 after Spiro Agnew resigned as vice president and again in 1974 after the resignation of Pres. Richard M. Nixon. During his three decades (1946-76) in Congress, Albert played a key role in many behind-the-scenes negotiations and was instrumental in helping pass historic civil rights legislation during the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson.

Albania

Area: 28,703 sq km (11,082 sq mi) Population (2003 est.): 3,166,000 (not including Albanians living abroad)

Albania

Area: 28,703 sq km (11,082 sq mi) Population (2004 est.): 3,136,000 (not including Albanians living abroad)

Albania

Area: 28,703 sq km (11,082 sq mi) Population (2005 est.): 3,130,000 (not including Albanians living abroad)

Albania

Area: 28,748 sq km (11,100 sq mi) Population (1997 est.): 3,293,000 Capital: Tiranë Chief of state: Presidents Sali Berisha until July 23 and, from July 24, Rexhep Mejdani

Afghanistan

Area: 645,807 sq km (249,347 sq mi) Population (2003 est.): 28,717,000 (including Afghan refugees estimated to number about 1,100,000 in Pakistan and about 1,000,000 in Iran, many of whom have returned home)

Afghanistan

Area: 645,807 sq km (249,347 sq mi) Population (2004 est.): 20,869,000 (excluding 2,150,000 Afghan refugees, numbering about 1,100,000 in Pakistan and about 850,000 in Iran at the beginning of the year)

Afghanistan

Area: 645,807 sq km (249,347 sq mi) Population (2005 est.): 23,867,000 (excluding 1,900,000 Afghan refugees, numbering about 950,000 in Pakistan and about 950,000 in Iran at the beginning of the year)

Alan Freeman

Australian Alan ("Fluff") Freeman was an announcer on Melbourne's 3KZ when he visited the [][United Kingdom] on vacation in 1957; he stayed on to become one of British radio's most distinctive and durable broadcasters. Freeman was heard initially on [Radio Luxembourg] but joined the [British Broadcasting Corporation] (BBC) in 1961 as the host of *Records Around Five,* where his trademark "At the Sign of the Swinging Cymbal" theme was first heard. Within months he moved to a new chart show, *[]Pick of the Pops*. Rescheduled in 1962 from Saturdays to a Sunday afternoon slot, *Pick of the Pops* became a pop radio institution, which Freeman, with his catchphrase opening, "Greetings, pop pickers," hosted for the next 10 years. Although he continued to be associated with current (and oldies) chart-based programs, from the 1970s through the '90s on Radio 1, Capital Radio, and Virgin Radio, Freeman also championed heavy metal on a succession of award-winning rock shows. *Pick of the Pops* was reborn in 1997 on BBC Radio 2, where Freeman's lifelong love of classical music also found an outlet. [John Pidgeon]

Adler, Robert

Austrian-born American physicist born Dec. 4, 1913 , Vienna, Austria died Feb. 15, 2007 , Boise, Idaho as head of the research division of Zenith Radio Corp. (now Zenith Electronics), invented the first practical wireless remote control device for the television set. Adler's device, which was introduced by Zenith in 1956, relied on ultrasound radio frequencies to communicate simple commands to the TV set. Other inventions by Adler, who held almost 200 U.S. patents, included the gated-beam tube, which improved sound reception, and a synchronizing circuit that improved signal reception at the edges of a television station's broadcast area. Adler was awarded the Edison Medal of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers in 1980, among many other honours. He won (1996-97) an Emmy Award for the development of the wireless remote control.

Agfa-Gevaert NV

Belgian corporate group established in 1964 in the merger of Agfa AG of Leverkusen, West Germany, and []Gevaert Photo-Producten NV of Mortsel, Belgium. The merger established twin operating companies, one German (Agfa-Gevaert AG) and one Belgian (Gevaert-Agfa NV, which in 1971 became Agfa-Gevaert NV). Long known for its development and production of photographic film and photofinishing equipment, Agfa sold its consumer film and photofinishing business in 2004. Its core businesses comprise medical imaging technology, microfilm and motion-picture film, document-management systems, and commercial prepress services such as the preparation of graphics for product labels, billboards, or magazines. Agfa, an abbreviation for []Aktiengesellschaft für Anilinfabrikation ("Corporation for Aniline Manufacture"), was founded as a dye company in 1867 at Rummelsburger See near Berlin; it began producing photographic film in 1908. From 1925 to 1945 it was a part of the German cartel [IG Farben]; in 1951 it became a partly owned subsidiary of [][Bayer AG], one of the successors to IG Farben. The history of Gevaert began in 1890, when Lieven Gevaert (1868-1935) started manufacturing photographic paper in Antwerp. In 1920 the company he founded became Gevaert Photo-Producten NV. Two of the group's principal factories—located in Leverkusen (near Cologne), Germany, and Mortsel (near Antwerp), Belgium—produce photographic film and equipment, audiotape, and photocopying and duplicating systems. The group also has subsidiaries and production plants in other western European countries, the United States, Latin America, Japan, China, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as distributors worldwide. [Bayer AG] held a controlling interest in the group from 1981 until 1999, when Agfa's stock shares were publicly listed. Bayer sold its remaining interest in the company in 2002.

Albery family

British family of theatre managers and playwrights whose members helped build the London theatre into a prime tourist attraction. []James Albery (b. 1838—d. 1889) was a dramatist whose work included *Dr. Davy,* produced at the Lyceum (1866), and *Two Roses,* produced at the Vaudeville (1870). Albery's wife was actress Mary Moore (b. 1861—d. 1931), who after his death became Lady Wyndham when she married []Sir Charles Wyndham (1916), founder of Wyndham's Theatre (1899) and the New Theatre (1903; renamed Albery, 1973). The Wyndhams managed both theatres in addition to the Criterion Theatre. After the death of Charles (1919) and Lady Wyndham, Bronson Albery (in full []Sir Bronson James Albery, b. March 6, 1881, Greenhithe, Kent, Eng.—d. July 21, 1971, London), the second son of Mary Moore and James Albery, assumed joint control of the family theatres with Charles Wyndham's son, Howard. Previously, Bronson earned renown for his productions of *The Knight of the Burning Pestle* (1920), *David Garrick* (1922), and *Saint Joan* (1924), which broke all existing attendance records at the Queen's Theatre. He established the Arts Theatre Club (1927) and served on a variety of theatre committees, most notably as president of the Society of West End Theatre Managers (1941-45, 1952-53). He was knighted in 1949. In 1962 Bronson passed on his theatre holdings to his son, Donald (in full []Sir Donald Arthur Rolleston Albery, b. June 19, 1914, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 14, 1988, Monte Carlo, Monaco), whose producing debut was with Graham Greene's *The Living Room* (1953). It was followed by two decades of hits, including *Waiting for Godot* (1955); *The Rose Tattoo,* *A Taste of Honey,* *The Hostage,* and *The World of Suzie Wong!* (all in 1959); *Fings Ain't Wot They Used T' Be,* *A Passage to India,* and *Oliver!* (all in 1960); *Beyond the Fringe* and *Celebration* (both in 1961); and *Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?* (1964). He also mounted many productions in New York City and served as director of the British company Anglia Television (1958-78). He was knighted in 1977. Additional Reading {#272963.toc} ------------------

Akrotiri

British military enclave in south-central Cyprus that was retained as a "sovereign base area" by the United Kingdom under the London Agreement of 1959 granting the independence of Cyprus. Located southwest of Limassol, the enclave comprises Akrotiri Peninsula, the southernmost part of the island, and a small coastal area north of Episkopi Bay. The enclave has a hospital, a weather station, and an airfield. Akrotiri and [][Dhekélia] sovereign base to the northeast (together totaling 99 square miles [256 square km]) are used as British training facilities and staging areas between Britain and southern Asia and the Far East. They are also support areas for United Nations forces on Cyprus. In the late 1970s, controversy arose in Cyprus over the reported use of Akrotiri by the United States as a station for monitoring Soviet activities.

Aedui

Celtic tribe of central Gaul (occupying most of what was later the French *région* of Burgundy), chiefly responsible for the diplomatic situation exploited by [][Julius Caesar] when he began his conquests in that region in 58 BC. The Aedui had been Roman allies since 121 BC and had been awarded the title of "brothers." In about 60 they were defeated by the German Ariovistus (*see* [Sequani]) and appealed to Rome for help. This appeal provided a pretext for Julius Caesar's continuing his war in Gaul in 58. The Aedui supported Caesar until near the end of the war, although they temporarily joined the rebellion of [Vercingetorix] in 52. Under [Augustus] they became a *civitas foederata* ("allied community") and moved from their hilltop of Bibracte (present-day Mont Beuvray) to a new capital at Augustodunum (present-day [][Autun]), which became a prosperous and cultivated city. In AD 21 the Aedui joined the Gallic leader Sacrovir in his revolt, but they soon gave up. In 48 the Aedui elite, increasingly Romanized, became the first Gallic community to be allowed to provide senators for Rome. [E. Badian]

Akhenaton

Introduction ------------ *also spelled **Akhnaton** , or **Ikhnaton** , also called **Amenhotep Iv** , or **Neferkheperure Amenhotep** , Greek **Amenophis** * flourished 14th century BC, Egypt [![Photograph:Akhenaton, detail of the sandstone pillar statue from the Aton temple at Karnak, 1370 ; ...]] - Akhenaton, detail of the sandstone pillar statue from the Aton temple at Karnak, *c.* 1370 BC; ... king of Egypt (1353-36 BC) of the [18th dynasty], who established a new [][monotheistic] [][cult] of Aton (hence his assumed name, Akhenaton, meaning "One Useful to Aton"). [][Egyptian religion] and culture before Akhenaton's reign. {#184.toc} ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ The continued spread of *bird flu* raised global concerns. Some *bans* on beef imposed because of *BSE* were relaxed. Food *emergencies* severely affected several countries in Africa, and G-8 countries agreed to *large increases* in development aid. Agricultural Production\ and Aid {#250292.toc} ------------------------ ### Food Production. {#250293.toc}

Agence France-Presse (AFP)

French cooperative news agency, one of the world's great wire [][news services]. It is based in Paris, where it was founded under its current name in 1944, but its roots go to the Bureau Havas, which was created in 1832 by Charles-Louis Havas, who translated reports from foreign papers and distributed them to Paris and provincial newspapers. In 1835 the Bureau Havas became the []Agence Havas, the world's first true news agency. Stressing rapid transmission of the [news], Agence Havas established the first telegraph service in France in 1845. Between 1852 and 1919 the agency worked in close collaboration with an advertising firm, the Correspondance General Havas. Staff correspondents for the agency were stationed in many world capitals by the late 1800s. The German occupation of France suppressed Agence Havas in 1940, and many of its personnel were active in the underground. After the liberation of Paris in 1944, underground journalists emerged to set up AFP as a wire-service voice for liberated France. The postwar French government gave AFP the assets of Agence Havas, including the Paris building that became its headquarters. AFP quickly joined Reuters (United Kingdom), TASS (U.S.S.R.; later, ITAR-TASS of Russia), and the U.S. agencies Associated Press (AP) and United Press International (UPI) as one of the world's leading news agencies. In addition to having bureaus in major French cities, it has bureaus and correspondents in important world capitals. Besides having contracts with AP, Reuters, and ITAR-TASS for exchange of news reports, it sells a domestic French news report to most of the world's news agencies and provides its worldwide report to many of them. AFP also has a photo service and a number of specialized news reports, several concerned with African matters.

Adorno Family

Genoese family prominent in the politics of that city's "popular" (democratic) dogeship (1339-1528), when the old aristocracy was exiled and new families seized power. Branches of the family became prominent in Flanders and Spain. They acceded to real power in the 14th century when a revolution ended the rule of the old nobility in Genoa and eventually inaugurated that of two families, the Adorno and the Fregoso, who contended for the office of doge for a century and a half. The Adorno contributed six doges to the Republic of Genoa. Gabriele, elected in 1363, served for seven years, was named imperial vicar by the Holy Roman emperor Charles IV in 1368, and was driven from power two years later by an uprising led by Domenico Fregoso. Eight years later the Adorno returned to office with []Antoniotto I (d. 1397), who was alternately ousted and reinstated until he was elected doge by a large majority in 1394. Rising factional strife, however, forced him to turn the city over to King Charles VI of France. Another Adorno doge, Agostino (served 1487-99), a faithful supporter of the Sforza dukes of Milan, relinquished his office when Louis XII of France conquered Milan. His son []Antoniotto II came to power during the stormy early 16th century, ruling the city briefly in 1513 as vicar of the king of France, later transferring his allegiance to Spain, and becoming doge in 1522, when the marchese di Pescara took Genoa for the Holy Roman emperor Charles V. Antoniotto's five-year rule ended in 1527, when Genoa was conquered by [][Andrea Doria] for Francis I of France. Antoniotto retired to Milan, while Doria quarreled with the French king and recaptured Genoa for Charles V. A line of the Adorno in Flanders, founded by Obizzo (d. 1307), a crusader in the forces of Comte Guy de Dampierre, established itself in Bruges. Pietro (d. 1409) served as treasurer of the commune of Bruges, and his sons Giacomo and Pietro established in Bruges in 1428 the Church of Jerusalem, a replica of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Anselmo, son of the second Pietro, was treasurer of Bruges, traveled in Syria and Africa, and served as ambassador to Iran for Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and as counselor to King James II of Scotland. In Spain another branch of the family produced many soldiers and admirals.

Alberts, Bruce

If the new president of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), Bruce Alberts, had his way, scientific literacy would soon become one of the nation's leading concerns. A strong advocate of improving science education in primary and secondary schools, Alberts arrived (1993) at the prestigious organization in Washington, D.C., eager to promote this message. Only one year into his six-year term as president, he had already made his presence felt with his unpretentious manner and self-deprecating humour. Though a life devoted to scientific research could be demanding, Alberts combined a vital career as a research scientist with one as an administrator involved in educational projects. As a professor of biochemistry and biophysics at the University of California at San Francisco, Alberts spent many years investigating the role of certain proteins in chromosomal replication and served as department chairman. He was also coauthor of *Molecular Biology of the Cell* (1983), a widely used textbook. Alberts channeled his boundless energy and enthusiasm for science into the establishment of a variety of educational endeavours, including City Science, a program to improve science instruction in the San Francisco elementary-school system. He influenced national efforts to address scientific literacy by serving on the advisory board of the National Science Resources Center, a joint project of the NAS and the Smithsonian Institution, as well as on the board of the National Academy of Sciences' National Committee on Science Education Standards and Assessment. In 1988 he became head of the Commission on Life Sciences of the National Research Council (NRC--the operating arm of the NAS and its affiliated institutions, the National Academy of Engineering and the Institute of Medicine). Bruce Michael Alberts was born on April 14, 1938, in Chicago, Ill. He earned an A.B. in biochemical sciences from Harvard College in 1960 and received a doctorate in biophysics from Harvard University in 1965. Alberts taught at Princeton University until 1976, when he moved to the University of California at San Francisco. Elected to membership in the NAS in 1981, Alberts became its 20th president, succeeding geophysicist Frank Press. Alberts' major concern was running the NRC, which prepared hundreds of scientific, medical, and technical reports each year under contract from the government and private sources. In the midst of all that the post required, Alberts nonetheless maintained his passion for reforming science education and undertook the groundwork necessary for the NAS/NRC to move ahead toward the establishment of a national science-education program.

Ahn Hyun Soo

In February 2006 South Korean short-track speed skater Ahn Hyun Soo won four medals during the Winter Olympic Games in Turin, Italy—the most of any male competitor. His performances brought euphoric satisfaction to his homeland, where short track reigned as the number one sport, and left him with the highest medal total posted by a Korean athlete in a single Olympics. Ahn captured his first gold in the men's 1,500 m and then set an Olympic record en route to his second in the 1,000 m. He took a bronze medal in the men's 500 m. In the final event, the 5,000-m relay, he followed his usual strategy by holding off until the final laps. He then passed Canada, the defending Olympic champion, on the final lap and sprinted for the finish from an outside passing lane to give South Korea its sixth short-track gold medal and another Olympic record time. As the competition played out, Ahn held off the challenge of his biggest rival, American Apolo Anton Ohno, who won the 500 m but never seriously challenged Ahn in any other event. Ahn's dominance was a vindication of his losses at the 2002 Salt Lake City (Utah) Winter Olympics, where Ohno and Ahn had been among the favourites in the 1,000-m event. In the final, however, China's Li Jiajun caused a pileup that knocked out everyone except Australian Steven Bradbury (then skating in last place), who won the race by default. Ohno got up and lunged across the finish line to earn the silver medal, while Ahn finished fourth. Ahn was later disqualified in the 1,500-m semifinal and left Salt Lake City without a medal. Ahn was born in Seoul on Nov. 23, 1985, and started short-track skating at the age of eight. The first time that he watched short track on television, he saw countryman Chae Ji Hoon capture a gold and a silver medal at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Nor., and he vowed to follow his hero into the sport. Ahn, at 1.64 m (5 ft 4 in) and 54 kg (120 lb), was perfectly built for the fast speeds and tight corners of short track. In 2002 he won the overall world junior championships and finished second at the senior world championships. In the 2003 season, after his disappointing performance in Salt Lake City, Ahn recovered his momentum, setting world records at 1,500 m and 3,000 m and capturing the first of four consecutive world overall titles. When not in competition, Ahn trained and attended school at the Korean National Sports University in Seoul. He planned to study English in Australia or Canada when he retired from short track, but his success rate on the ice could delay that eventuality. Ron Reid

agnosticism

Introduction ------------ (from Greek *agnōstos*, "unknowable"), strictly speaking, the doctrine that humans cannot know of the existence of anything beyond the phenomena of their experience. The term has come to be equated in popular parlance with skepticism about religious questions in general and in particular with the rejection of traditional Christian beliefs under the impact of modern scientific thought. The word [agnosticism] was first publicly coined in 1869 at a meeting of the Metaphysical Society in London by T.H. Huxley, a British biologist and champion of the Darwinian theory of evolution. He coined it as a suitable label for his own position. "It came into my head as suggestively antithetical to the 'Gnostic' of Church history who professed to know so much about the very things of which I was ignorant." Nature and kinds of agnosticism {#38256.toc} ------------------------------- Huxley's statement brings out both the fact that agnosticism has something to do with not knowing, and that this not knowing refers particularly to the sphere of religious doctrine. Etymology, however, and now common usage, do permit less limited uses of the term. The Soviet leader Lenin, for instance, in his *Materialism and Empirio-Criticism* (1908), distinguished the extremes of true Materialism on the one hand and the bold Idealism of George Berkeley, an 18th-century Idealist, on the other. He recognized as attempted halfway houses between them the "agnosticisms" of the Scottish Skeptic David Hume and the great German critical philosopher Immanuel Kant—agnosticisms that here consisted in their contentions about the unknowability of the nature, or even the existence, of "things-in-themselves" (realities beyond appearances). ### Huxley's nonreligious agnosticism {#38257.toc}

Agricola, Georgius

Introduction ------------ *(Latin), German **Georg Bauer** * born March 24, 1494, Clauchau, Saxony died November 21, 1555, Chemnitz [![Photograph:Georgius Agricola, portrait from Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium medicorum ...]] - Georgius Agricola, portrait from *Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium medicorum* ...

Afro-Asiatic languages

Introduction ------------ *also called **Afrasian languages,** formerly called **Hamito-Semitic,** **Semito-Hamitic,** or **Erythraean languages,** * family of genetically related languages that developed from a common parent language which presumably existed about the 6th-8th millennium BC and was perhaps located in the present-day Sahara. The Afro-Asiatic group is the main language family of northern Africa and southwestern Asia and includes such languages as Arabic, Hebrew, Amharic, and Hausa. The total number of speakers is estimated to be more than 200,000,000. The term Hamito-Semitic, or Semito-Hamitic, was introduced by a German Egyptologist, [][Karl Richard Lepsius], in the 1860s. Although it has become traditional, it is an unfortunate label in suggesting that the family is divided into a group of Semitic and a group of Hamitic languages; in fact, the family has at least four other branches of the same order as the Semitic languages. The term Erythraean is inappropriate in implying that the family originated on both shores of the Red Sea, an assumption that cannot be proved; and Afro-Asiatic (proposed by an American linguist, [][Joseph Greenberg], in 1950) may be too comprehensive insofar as it suggests that all the languages of Africa and Asia are included. []Igor Diakonoff, a Russian linguist, has suggested the term Afrasian, meaning "half African, half Asiatic," which corresponds to the area of the actual distribution of the languages of this family since at least the 5th millennium BC.

air warfare

Introduction ------------ *also called **aerial warfare** * the tactics of military operations conducted by airplanes, helicopters, or other manned craft that are propelled aloft. Air warfare may be conducted against other [aircraft], against targets on the ground, and against targets on the water or beneath it. Air warfare is almost entirely a creation of the 20th century, in which it has become a primary branch of military operations. Through [][World War I] {#53044.toc} -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Powered aircraft were first used in war in 1911, by the Italians against the Turks near Tripoli, but it was not until the Great War of 1914-18 that their use became widespread. At first, aircraft were unarmed and employed for [reconnaissance], serving basically as extensions of the eyes of the ground commander. Soon, however, the need to deny such reconnaissance to the enemy led to air-to-air combat in which each side tried to gain superiority in the air. [][Fighter] planes were armed with fixed, forward-firing machine guns that allowed the pilot to aim his entire aircraft at the enemy, and the effective range of these weapons (no more than about 200 yards) meant that the first aerial combat took place at very short range.

aerospace engineering

Introduction ------------ *also called **aeronautical engineering,** or **astronautical engineering,** * field of engineering concerned with the design, development, construction, testing, and operation of vehicles operating in the Earth's atmosphere or in outer space. In 1958 the first definition of aerospace engineering appeared, considering the Earth's atmosphere and the space above it as a single realm for development of flight vehicles. Today the more encompassing aerospace definition has commonly replaced the terms aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering. The design of a flight vehicle demands a knowledge of many engineering disciplines. It is rare that one person takes on the entire task; instead, most companies have design teams specialized in the sciences of aerodynamics, propulsion systems, structural design, materials, avionics, and stability and control systems. No single design can optimize all of these sciences, but rather there exist compromised designs that incorporate the vehicle specifications, available technology, and economic feasibility. History {#64692.toc} -------

airplane

Introduction ------------ *also called **aeroplane** or **plane** * any of a class of fixed-wing [aircraft] that is heavier than air, propelled by a screw propeller or a high-velocity jet, and supported by the dynamic reaction of the air against its wings. The essential components of an airplane are a [wing] system to sustain it in flight, tail surfaces to stabilize the wings, movable surfaces to control the attitude of the plane in flight, and a power plant to provide the thrust necessary to push the vehicle through the air. Provision must be made to support the plane when it is at rest on the ground and during [takeoff] and [landing]. Most planes feature an enclosed []body ([][fuselage]) to house the crew, passengers, and cargo; the [cockpit] is the area from which the pilot operates the controls and instruments to fly the plane. Principles of aircraft flight and operation {#64145.toc} -------------------------------------------

air-cushion machine

Introduction ------------ *also called **ground-effect machine,** or **hovercraft,** * any of the machines characterized by movement in which a significant portion of the weight is supported by forces arising from air pressures developed around the craft, as a result of which they hover in close proximity to the Earth's surface. It is this proximity to the surface that chiefly distinguishes such craft from aircraft, which derive their lift from aerodynamic forces created by movement through the air. Two main classes of air-cushion vehicles exist: those that generate their own pressure differential irrespective of forward speed; and those, more closely related to true aircraft, that require forward speed before the pressure differential can be generated. The former are classed as [aerostatic craft] (ACVs); the latter are called []aerodynamic ground-effect machines (GEMs). History {#64181.toc} -------

aesthetics

Introduction ------------ *also spelled **esthetics** * the philosophical study of beauty and taste. To define its subject matter more precisely is, however, immensely difficult. Indeed, it could be said that self-definition has been the major task of modern aesthetics. We are acquainted with an interesting and puzzling realm of experience: the realm of the beautiful, the ugly, the sublime, and the elegant; of taste, criticism, and fine art; and of contemplation, sensuous enjoyment, and charm. In all these phenomena we believe that similar principles are operative and that similar interests are engaged. If we are mistaken in this impression, we will have to dismiss such ideas as beauty and taste as having only peripheral philosophical interest. Alternatively, if our impression is correct and philosophy corroborates it, we will have discovered the basis for a philosophical aesthetics. This article seeks to clarify the nature of modern aesthetics and to delineate its underlying principles and concerns. Although the article focusses on Western aesthetic thought and its development, it surveys some of the seminal features of Marxist and Eastern aesthetics. The nature and scope of aesthetics {#59170.toc} ----------------------------------

AIDS

Introduction ------------ *byname of **acquired immunodeficiency syndrome** * [![Photograph:Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), colour-enhanced electron microscope image, 24,000× ...]] - Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), colour-enhanced electron microscope image, 24,000× ... transmissible disease of the [][immune system] caused by the human immunodeficiency [virus] ([HIV]). HIV is a lentivirus (literally meaning "slow virus"; a member of the retrovirus family) that slowly attacks and destroys the immune system, the body's defense against infection, leaving an individual vulnerable to a variety of other infections and certain malignancies that eventually cause death. AIDS is the final stage of HIV infection, during which time fatal infections and cancers frequently arise. The emergence of HIV/AIDS {#225029.toc} -------------------------

Akbar

Introduction ------------ *in full **Abū-ul-fatḥ Jalāl-ud-dīn Muḥammad Akbar** * born Oct. 15, 1542, Umarkot, Sind, India died 1605, Āgra [![Photograph:Akbar, miniature portrait from the Akbar-nāmeh by Abū-ul-Fazl, c. 1600; ...]] - Akbar, miniature portrait from the *Akbar-nāmeh* by Abū-ul-Fazl, *c.* 1600; ...

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ Agricultural Production and Aid {#230481.toc} ------------------------------- ### Food Production. {#230482.toc} In 2003 global food production recovered from its 2002 drop but remained below 2001 levels. Severe weather conditions throughout the world hurt crops. At 883,780,000 metric tons, world coarse grain production for the 2003 crop was above the 869,910,000 metric tons of the 2002 crop but below the 892,420,000 metric tons of 2001. World rice production, at 391,300,000 metric tons (milled basis), was below the 398,600,000 metric tons of 2001 but above the 380,090,000 metric tons produced in 2002. World wheat output, at 550,510,000 metric tons, was below the 566,840,000 metric tons of 2002 and considerably below 2001's production of 581,860,000 metric tons. World oilseed production grew to 344,930,000 metric tons versus 328,960,000 metric tons in 2002 and 324,900,000 metric tons in 2001. That increase occurred despite the dry weather that reduced the U.S. soybean crop. World beef production in 2003 was 49,789,000 metric tons, slightly below the 51,033,000 metric tons of 2002 but above the 2001 level. Global pork production expanded from 86,030,000 metric tons in 2002 to 87,204,000 metric tons, while poultry meat production, at 52,833,000 metric tons, was unchanged from the previous year.

Adobe Systems Incorporated

Introduction ------------ American developer of printing, publishing, and graphics software. Adobe was instrumental in the creation of the desktop publishing industry through the introduction of its [PostScript] printer language. Its headquarters are located in San Jose, California. Founding of Adobe {#92967.toc} ----------------- The company was founded in 1982 by []John Warnock and []Charles Geschke. While employed at Xerox Corporation's Palo Alto (California) Research Center (PARC), the two computer scientists had developed a programming language specially designed to describe the precise position, shape, and size of objects on a computer-generated page. This page description language, later known as PostScript, described such objects as letters and graphics in mathematical terms, without reference to any specific computer or printer; any device capable of interpreting the language would be able to generate a representation of the page at any resolution the device supported. When Xerox declined to bring the technology to market, Warnock and Geschke formed their own company to do so, naming it after a creek near their homes. [][Desktop publishing] revolution {#92968.toc} --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- In 1983 Apple Computer, Inc. (now [][Apple Inc.]), acquired 15 percent of Adobe and became the first licensee of PostScript. In 1985 Apple introduced the first Macintosh-compatible PostScript printer, the []LaserWriter, based on a laser-print engine developed by Canon Inc. The LaserWriter included PostScript renditions of several classic typefaces and a PostScript interpreter—in effect, a built-in computer dedicated to the task of translating PostScript commands into marks on each page.

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ INTERNATIONAL ISSUES {#92487.toc} -------------------- World agricultural markets in 1998 were dominated by two events, the economic turbulence in Asia and the El Niño weather phenomenon. Asian problems lowered the value of world agricultural trade and raised concerns about the health of the global economy. The El Niño event, during which the waters in the Pacific Ocean off South America warm and alter global weather patterns, caused drought in some regions and floods in others but did not reduce total global food supplies compared with 1997. The combined effects of these forces, however, resulted in a difficult year for farmers in many parts of the world. [![Table I]]According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), world agricultural production rose 0.2% in 1998. (*See* [Table I].) Even with the small increase, agricultural production reached a record level. For 1998 the growth in food production in the less-developed countries kept pace with the rise in population so that per capita food production was slightly higher. Developed countries experienced a decline in per capita production, which either reduced their surplus for export or increased their import needs.

Albanian language

Introduction ------------ Indo-European language spoken in [][Albania] and by smaller numbers of ethnic Albanians in other parts of the southern Balkans, along the east coast of [][Italy] and in Sicily, in southern Greece, and in Germany, Sweden, the United States, Ukraine, and Belgium. Albanian is the only modern representative of a distinct branch of the Indo-European language family. The origins of the general name Albanian, which traditionally referred to a restricted area in central Albania, and of the current official name Shqip or Shqipëri, which may well be derived from a term meaning "pronounce clearly, intelligibly," are still disputed. The name Albanian has been found in records since the time of Ptolemy. In Calabrian Albanian the name is Arbresh, in Modern Greek Arvanítis, and in Turkish Arnaut; the name must have been transmitted early through Greek speech. Dialects {#74918.toc} -------- The two principal dialects, [Gheg] in the north and [Tosk] in the south, are separated roughly by the Shkumbin River. Gheg and Tosk have been diverging for at least a millennium, and their less extreme forms are mutually intelligible. Gheg has the more marked subvarieties, the most striking of which are the northernmost and eastern types, which include those of the city of Shkodër (Scutari), the northeastern Skopska Crna Gora region of Macedonia, Kosovo, and the isolated village of []Arbanasi (outside Zadar) on the Croatian coast of Dalmatia. Arbanasi, founded in the early 18th century by refugees from the region around the Montenegrin coastal city of Bar, has about 2,000 speakers.

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ International Issues {#91988.toc} -------------------- [![Table 1]](For Selected Indexes of World Agricultural and Food Production, *see*[Table 1].) World agricultural production in 1997 was 1% above the previous high recorded in 1996, according to statistics compiled by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Crop production remained about the same as in 1996, but livestock production increased nearly 2%. Food products accounted for the increase in agricultural output; production of nonfood agricultural products such as fibres and industrial products remained the same as in 1996. The increase in food production in 1997 kept pace with world population growth. Since 1990, world agricultural production per capita had increased 4%.

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ National and International Issues {#213729.toc} --------------------------------- [![Table I]]In 1999 world agricultural markets were affected by continued large food supplies and the lingering effects of Asian financial problems. Prices for major agricultural commodities such as wheat, corn (maize), soybeans, and pork were the lowest in recent decades. World agricultural production and food output were 1% above 1998 levels, and few countries experienced reduced agricultural and food production. (*See* [Table I].) The few exceptions included Japan, which was liberalizing its agricultural import restrictions, and Russia, still labouring under economic and political turmoil. The increase in food output was less than the rise in global population, so per capita food production fell slightly in 1999. ### U.S. Policy. {#213730.toc} During 1999 the U.S. provided additional support to farmers to compensate for low commodity prices. Legislation passed in 1996 was intended to provide farmers with fixed annual support payments through 2002. Those laws anticipated rising global commodity prices, but because prices had remained low, farmers had to ask for additional support. During 1998 and 1999 several billions of dollars of additional emergency relief were given to farmers. Until 1999 swine farmers had received no support, but during the fall of 1998 and the spring of 1999, prices for live swine fell to levels unseen since the Great Depression. Some experts blamed overproduction by swine growers for the depressed pork prices, while others blamed limits on slaughter capacity or an increased concentration of meatpacking firms. The problems in the swine sector led to a debate over the effects of increased concentration of agricultural processing industries generally. Many farmers believed that concentration disadvantaged independent farmers, and they pressed for legislation to limit mergers of agricultural processing plants. ### Agenda 2000. {#213731.toc}

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ National and International Issues {#229154.toc} --------------------------------- ### Food Production. {#229155.toc} The year 2002 saw mounting concerns over global food supplies as harvests declined in many areas of the world. North America, Africa, and Australia experienced drought that significantly reduced crop output. Also contributing to the production decline in Africa was continued political instability. Total grain output in the United States fell 25,900,000 metric tons, or 8%, owing to drought. Output in other countries fell 52,070,000 metric tons, or 2.6%. With global consumption nearly constant, ending stocks fell owing to the lower output. World output of oilseeds fell slightly, less than 1%, because the reduction in U.S. output was offset by increases elsewhere. World meat output rose 2.9% in 2002. The tightening global supply-and-demand balance caused strong price increases for major agricultural commodities. ### Food Aid. {#229156.toc}

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ National and International Issues {#232494.toc} --------------------------------- [![Table I]][![Table III]]World agricultural and food production (see [Table I]) declined in 1993, according to preliminary estimates of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Excessive rain and flooding severely damaged feed-grain and oilseed crops in the U.S., and economic disruptions in the former Soviet Union and, to a lesser extent, Eastern Europe continued to obstruct the expansion of agricultural production and trade. The drought in southern Africa, which brought famine to much of the region in 1992, was broken, but food supplies remained scarce in several areas. Other countries in Africa were still afflicted with or not yet recovered from war or civil strife. Food-aid commitments (For Shipments of Food Aid in Cereals, see [Table III]) in 1992-93 reached a record 15.1 million tons of cereals as donors responded to emergencies. The FAO published an important assessment of the likely course of the world food situation, especially as affecting the less developed countries (LDCs) through the first decade of the 21st century, that had both optimistic and sobering elements. Trade issues affecting agriculture captured the headlines during much of the year. Agricultural issues were critical to U.S. acceptance of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and to the conclusion of the Uruguay round of multilateral trade negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The agricultural provisions of NAFTA had less effect on trade between the U.S. and Mexico than provisions for other sectors, but modifications of some provisions, particularly those dealing with sugar, were vital to the agreement's passage. An 11th-hour agreement resolving long-standing differences between the U.S. and the European Community (EC) on agriculture made possible the completion of the GATT negotiations and U.S. submission of the pact to Congress before expiration of the "fast-track" negotiation authority on December 15. ### Food Emergencies. {#91032.toc}

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ Starvation, genetically modified organisms, "mad cow" disease, and weather-related problems all captured headlines in the year 2000 and raised questions about the world's food supply. National and International Issues {#215223.toc} --------------------------------- ### Food Production. {#215224.toc} Agricultural markets throughout the world enjoyed ample supplies and low prices in 2000. Though total agricultural and food production was about 1% greater than in 1999, global per capita food production was slightly lower than in 1999. (*See* [Table I].) Both developed and less-developed countries (LDCs) experienced increased output. For developed nations the output increase was greater than their population increase, so per capita production rose. The output increase in the LDCs was not as great as the population increase, and, consequently, per capita output fell.

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ World Markets {#235015.toc} ------------- World agricultural markets in 2004 reflected crop supplies in 2003 and 2004. Early 2004 prices were strong because 2003 global crop production was low. The 2003-04 world grain production was 1,847,000,000 metric tons, with oilseed production at 336,730,000 metric tons. Larger 2004 production resulted in lower crop prices in the fall. Global grain production in the 2004-05 crop year rose to 2,005,240,000 metric tons, and oilseed production was 390,540,000 metric tons. Between spring and fall oilseed prices halved and grain prices fell roughly one-third. Food Emergencies. {#235016.toc} ----------------- Chronic [hunger] continued to afflict 850 million people, and several countries faced food crises. North Korea again required external food assistance. Several African states had difficulties owing to political discord or insurgencies. In Zimbabwe, for example, the government's land-reform program contributed to declining farm output, and in northern Uganda fighting caused farmers to abandon crops and flee to refugee camps. A food crisis accompanied the ethnic and political violence in the Darfur region of The Sudan. Rainfall was sparse and infrequent, so crops suffered. Lack of support by the Sudanese government hindered international relief efforts and left millions in jeopardy. The World Food Programme was able to feed 1.3 million Sudanese in September but reached only 1.1 million in October because many people remained in areas inaccessible to relief efforts. Expectations were for continued need by 1.45 million refugees in 2005 and by perhaps 2.8 million Darfuri villagers under threat of starvation until the 2005 crops could be harvested. Meanwhile, Ethiopia tried to combat chronic hunger created by earlier civil strife and drought by relocating farmers from the highlands to more productive areas. [Locusts]. {#235017.toc} ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Alabama

Introduction ------------ [![Flag]] [![Art]] [![Map/Still]] constituent state of the United States of America, admitted in 1819 as the 22nd state. Alabama forms a roughly rectangular shape on the map, elongated in a north-south direction. It is bordered by [Tennessee] to the north, [Georgia] to the east, and [Mississippi] to the west. The [Florida] panhandle blocks Alabama's access to the [Gulf of Mexico] except in Alabama's southwestern corner, where [Mobile Bay] is located. [Montgomery] is the state capital. [![Photograph:Oakleigh Historic House, an antebellum mansion, now a museum in Mobile, Ala.]] - Oakleigh Historic House, an antebellum mansion, now a museum in Mobile, Ala. The state offers much topographical diversity. The rich agricultural valley of the [Tennessee River] occupies the extreme northern part of the state. In northeastern Alabama the broken terrain of the southwestern fringe of the [Appalachian Mountains] begins and continues in a southwesterly progression across the northern half of the state. Below that the band of prairie lowland known as the [Black Belt] has rich soils that once cradled a rural cotton-producing way of life central to the state's development. Farther south stretch piney woods and then coastal plains until one reaches the moss-draped live oaks of Mobile and the white beaches of the gulf. The landscape of Alabama has been the scene of many of the major crises in the settlement of the continent and in the development of the country. It was a battleground for European powers vying for the lands of the New World, for the fights between the European settlers and the indigenous communities, for the struggles between [North] and [South] during the [American Civil War], for the [civil rights movement], and for other forces of economic and social change that have extensively altered many aspects of the Deep South in the years since the mid-20th century. Although Alabama continues to reside in the lower segment nationally in many significant social and economic rankings, there has been improvement in some areas, particularly in ethnic relations, including the integration of schools and the election of African Americans to political offices. Nevertheless, Alabamians and outsiders alike tend to agree that the state retains a distinctive way of life, rooted in the traditions of the Old South. Area 51,700 square miles (133,902 square km). Pop. (2000) 4,447,100; (2005 est.) 4,557,808. [][Land] {#78299.toc} -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Alaska

Introduction ------------ [![Flag]] [![Art]] constituent state of the United States of America. It lies at the extreme northwest of the North American continent and is the largest peninsula in the Western Hemisphere. Its 591,004 square miles (1,530,700 square km) include some 15,000 square miles (38,800 square km) of fjords and inlets, and its three faces to the sea have about 34,000 miles (54,400 km) of indented tidal coastline and 6,600 total miles (10,600 km) of coast fronting the open sea. Alaska borders the Arctic Ocean on the north and northwest, the Bering Strait and the Bering Sea on the west, and the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Alaska on the south. The land boundaries on the east cut across some 1,150 miles (1,850 km) of high mountains to separate the state from the Canadian Yukon Territory and British Columbia province. Rimming the state on the south is one of the Earth's most active earthquake belts. In the [][Alaska Range] north of Anchorage, [][Mount McKinley] (Denali), at 20,320 feet (6,194 metres), is the highest peak in North America. The capital is [][Juneau], which lies in the southeast in the panhandle region. When it became the 49th state on January 3, 1959, Alaska increased the nation's size by nearly 20 percent. The new area included vast stretches of unexplored land and untapped resources. At the time Secretary of State [William H. Seward] negotiated its purchase from Russia in 1867, however, [][Alaska] was known as Seward's Folly. Its settlement and exploitation have been hindered by its distance from the rest of the nation and by geographic and climatic impediments to travel and communications; Alaska continues to be the country's last frontier. More than half of the state's inhabitants live in the Greater [][Anchorage] area. The question of development versus preservation has been heightened by commercial and ecological uses of land: the Alaska Highway gas-pipeline project, Native Alaskans' land claims, noncommercial whaling by native peoples, and related matters. The conflicts between conservationists and petroleum companies over the [Trans-Alaska Pipeline], which runs from the oil-rich North Slope on the Arctic Ocean to [][Valdez] in the south, was a continuation of the century-long effort to find a balance between conservation and development in this enormous land. Physical and human geography {#79212.toc} ----------------------------

Alberta

Introduction ------------ [![Flag]] [![Map/Still:Alberta cities.]] - Alberta cities. [![Photograph:Mountain reflected in Lake Louise, Banff National Park, Alberta, Can.]] - Mountain reflected in Lake Louise, Banff National Park, Alberta, Can. most westerly of [Canada]'s three [Prairie Provinces], occupying the continental interior of the western part of the country. To the north the 60th parallel (latitude 60° N) forms its boundary with the [Northwest Territories], to the east the 110th meridian (longitude 110° W) forms the boundary with its prairie neighbour, [Saskatchewan], to the south the 49th parallel forms the international boundary with the U.S. state of [Montana], and to the west the boundary with [British Columbia] is formed by the 120th meridian and the crest of the [Rocky Mountains]. The province is about 750 miles (1,200 km) in extent from north to south and about 400 miles (640 km) across at the greatest width. Alberta was established as a district of the North-West Territories in 1882 and was enlarged to its present boundaries on becoming a province in 1905. The provincial government has its seat in [][Edmonton].

Aegean civilizations

Introduction ------------ [![Map/Still:Principal sites associated with Aegean civilizations.]] - Principal sites associated with Aegean civilizations. the Stone and [][Bronze Age] civilizations that arose and flourished in the area of the [][Aegean Sea] in the periods, respectively, about 7000-3000 BC and about 3000-1000 BC. The area consists of [][Crete], the Cyclades and some other islands, and the Greek mainland, including the Peloponnese, central Greece, and Thessaly. The first high civilization on European soil, with stately palaces, fine craftsmanship, and writing, developed on the island of Crete. Later, the peoples of the mainland adapted the Cretan civilization to form their own, much as the Romans adapted the civilization of later Greece. The Bronze Age civilization of Crete has been called [][Minoan], after the legendary King Minos of Knossos, which was the chief city of the island throughout early times. The Bronze Age of the Cyclades is known as [Cycladic], that of the mainland as [Helladic], from Hellas, the Greek name for Greece. Early, middle, and late stages have been defined in each of these, with further subdivisions according to recognizable changes in the style of pottery and other products that are associated with each separate culture. The civilization that arose on the mainland under Cretan influence in the 16th century BC is called [Mycenaean] after Mycenae, which appears to have been one of its most important centres. The term Mycenaean is also sometimes used for the civilizations of the Aegean area as a whole from about 1400 BC onward. Dating of the Aegean Bronze Age {#26722.toc} -------------------------------

African pouched rat

Introduction ------------ [![Photograph:Giant pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus).]] - Giant pouched rat (*Cricetomys gambianus*). any of five species of African [rodents] characterized by cheek pouches that are used for carrying food back to their burrows, where it is eaten or stored. All are terrestrial and have gray to brown coats with white or gray underparts, but the three genera differ in size, behaviour, and geographic distribution. The smaller species are sometimes called pouched mice. Natural history {#226067.toc} --------------- The two species of []giant pouched rat (genus *Cricetomys*) are hunted in the wild and eaten by native peoples. Gentle animals, they are easily tamed and raised in captivity and thus have been studied to determine their marketability as a reliable source of food. Both species (*[]C. gambianus* and *[]C. emini*) are large, weighing nearly 3 kg (6.6 pounds) and having bodies up to 42 cm (16 inches) long. Their long heads have large ears; the scantily haired tail is longer than the body and is white on the terminal half. Predominantly nocturnal, giant pouched rats are omnivorous and are found throughout sub-Saharan Africa, except for southern South Africa. Habitats in which they live include forests and woodlands, as well as gardens, orchards (where they climb fruit trees during the day), and sometimes houses. Although these rats occasionally den in abandoned termite mounds, they live mostly in burrows dug in moist and shady areas. Litter size ranges from one to five.

African religions

Introduction ------------ [![Photograph:Gun, the Fon god of iron and war, iron; in the Musée de l'Homme, Paris. Height 165 cm.]] - Gun, the Fon god of iron and war, iron; in the Musée de l'Homme, Paris. Height 165 cm. religious beliefs and practices of the peoples of Africa. It should be noted that any attempt to generalize about the nature of "African religions" risks wrongly implying that there is homogeneity among all African cultures. In fact, Africa is a vast continent encompassing both geographic variation and tremendous cultural diversity. Each of the more than 50 modern nations that occupy the continent has its own particular history, and each in turn comprises numerous ethnic groups with different languages and unique customs and beliefs. African religions are as diverse as the continent is varied. Nevertheless, long cultural contact, in degrees ranging from trade to conquest, has forged some fundamental commonalities among religions within subregions, allowing for some generalizations to be made about the distinguishing features of religions indigenous to Africa. (With the exception of the influence of Christianity on New Religious Movements in Africa, religions that were introduced to Africa from elsewhere, such as [Islam] and [Christianity], are not covered in this article.) Worldview and [divinity] {#234646.toc} ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ No single body of religious beliefs and practices can be identified as African. It is possible, however, to identify similarities in worldviews and ritual processes across geographic and ethnic boundaries. Generally speaking, African religions hold that there is one [creator] God, the maker of a dynamic universe. Myths of various African peoples relate that, after setting the world in motion, the Supreme Being withdrew, and he remains remote from the concerns of human life. According to a myth of the [][Dinka] of [][The Sudan], God withdrew from the world after the first woman lifted her pestle to pound millet and struck the sky. The story, which is found in many traditions across the continent, explains that, although this withdrawal introduced toil, sickness, and death, it freed humans from the constraints of God's immediate control. [![Photograph:Dogon sacred cult site, Mali.]] - Dogon sacred cult site, Mali.

African dance

Introduction ------------ [![Photograph:Rock painting of a dance performance, Tassili-n-Ajjer, Alg., attributed to the Saharan period of ...]] - Rock painting of a dance performance, Tassili-n-Ajjer, Alg., attributed to the Saharan period of ... performing art deeply woven into the social fabric of Africa and generally involving aspects of music and theatre as well as rhythmic bodily movement. See also [African music] and [mask]. The cultural position of [][dance] {#57097.toc} --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- In African societies, dance serves a complex diversity of social purposes. Within an indigenous dance tradition, each performance usually has a principal as well as a number of subsidiary purposes, which may express or reflect the communal values and social relationships of the people. In order to distinguish between the variety of dance styles, therefore, it is necessary to establish the purpose for which each dance is performed. [![Photograph:A Gelede masquerader dancing in the courtyard of the Ibara palace in Abeokuta, Nigeria.]] - A Gelede masquerader dancing in the courtyard of the Ibara palace in Abeokuta, Nigeria.

adolescence

Introduction ------------ [![Photograph:Three youths running down a street together.]] - Three youths running down a street together. transitional phase of growth and development between [childhood] and [adulthood]. In many societies adolescence is narrowly equated with [][puberty] and the cycle of physical changes culminating in reproductive maturity. Western societies understand adolescence in broader terms that encompass [][psychological], social, and moral terrain as well as the strictly physical aspects of maturation. In these societies the term adolescence typically refers to the period between the ages of 12 and 20 and is roughly equivalent to the word teens.

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ [![Table I]](For Selected Indexes of World Agricultural and Food Production, *see* [Table I].) A world food crisis was averted in 1996 by the recovery of grain production. Grain stocks were expected to increase from the record-low levels recorded at the end of the 1995-96 marketing year. Increased stocks would provide added security against any crop failure in 1997. The increase in grain production was widespread among less-developed countries (LDCs). As a result, food-aid needs were expected to drop in late 1996 and into 1997 as the larger crop was harvested and prices declined. Also noteworthy in 1996 were the World Food Summit, where nations committed themselves to efforts to reduce the number of undernourished people by half by 2015, and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)--"mad cow" disease--which shocked beef producers and consumers in the United Kingdom. The shock (but not the disease) was felt throughout the European Union (EU) and beyond. World agriculture in 1996 was also affected by longer-term forces. World markets for food and feed gradually had become more integrated. Nations continued to reform their domestic agricultural policies and reduce trade barriers. Part of the reform was needed to meet commitments to the Uruguay round trade agreement. One important example was new agricultural legislation in the United States. As a result of recent reforms, producers and consumers in many nations were responding more quickly to world market forces. This was demonstrated by the many farmers who shifted large areas of cropland from other uses to grain production in 1996. Many barriers to integrated world markets still remained, however.

Agriculture and Food Supplies

Introduction ------------ [![Table I]]The major world food developments in 1995 involved declining grain production per capita and increasing meat production. Both developments were continuations of multiyear trends. It was estimated that global grain stocks declined to record low levels in 1995, and they were expected to decline further by the end of the 1995-96 marketing year. In response, world grain prices increased sharply. The world food system continued to be affected by the two major regions that were moving in opposite directions. In China personal incomes were rising rapidly, and the population demanded more meat in its diet. In the republics of the former Soviet Union, however, incomes and meat consumption had dropped dramatically. These longer-run changes had major impacts on world food production (*see* [Table I]) and consumption in 1995. As in past years, nature and humans continued to create food emergencies in many countries--notably in Africa. The most important agricultural policy event of the year, however, may have been the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The gap between world food-aid needs and food-aid deliveries from donor nations widened in 1995, and the gap was expected to grow in 1996. Global food-aid needs increased, while aid shipments from donor nations declined. Aid needs existed in Africa, Asia, the former Soviet republics, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Latin America. Chronic food shortages and emergencies were caused by a combination of natural and man-made disasters in 1995. Conditions were made worse by higher prices for grain imports and lower grain export subsidies from the United States and the European Union (EU). The decline in food-aid shipments was caused by smaller aid budgets, mainly in the United States, and higher grain prices. INTERNATIONAL ISSUES {#91527.toc} -------------------- ### Food-Aid Needs. {#92951.toc}

aerospace industry

Introduction ------------ assemblage of manufacturing concerns that deal with vehicular flight within and beyond the Earth's atmosphere. (The term aerospace is derived from the words aeronautics and spaceflight.) The aerospace industry is engaged in the research, development, and manufacture of flight vehicles, including unpowered [gliders] and sailplanes (*see* [gliding]), lighter-than-air craft (*see* [balloon] and [airship]), heavier-than-air craft (both fixed-wing and rotary-wing; *see* [airplane] and [military aircraft]), missiles (*see* [rocket and missile system]), space [launch vehicles], and [spacecraft] (manned and unmanned). Also included among its concerns are major flight-vehicle subsystems such as propulsion and [avionics] (aviation electronics) and key support systems necessary for the testing, operation, and maintenance of flight vehicles. In addition, the industry is engaged in the fabrication of nonaerospace products and systems that make use of aerospace technology. Character of the industry {#225628.toc} ------------------------- Technological progress is the basis for competitiveness and advancement in the aerospace industry. The industry is, as a result, a world leader in advancing science and technology. Aerospace systems have a very high value per unit weight and are among the most complex, as measured by the number of components in finished products. Consequently, it is economically and politically prestigious for a country to possess an aerospace industry. Among the world's largest manufacturing industries in terms of monetary value of product output and employment, the aerospace industry is characterized by a relatively small number of large firms and numerous international partnerships at every level. For the major aerospace countries, their own military establishments and, in some cases, foreign militaries constitute the largest customers. The next most important buyers are the world's commercial airlines, primarily American, European, and Asian-Pacific Rim carriers. Most general aviation (primarily private, business, and nonairline commercial) aircraft are sold in the United States, with Europe becoming a growing marketplace and special-use markets developing in the Middle East and Latin America.

agricultural technology

Introduction ------------ application of techniques to control the growth and harvesting of animal and vegetable products. Soil preparation {#67765.toc} ---------------- Mechanical processing of soil so that it is in the proper physical condition for planting is usually referred to as tilling; adding nutrients and trace elements is called fertilizing. Both processes are important in agricultural operations. ### Tilling {#67766.toc} [][Tillage] is the manipulation of the [][soil] into a desired condition by mechanical means; tools are employed to achieve some desired effect (such as pulverization, cutting, or movement). []Soil is tilled to change its structure, to kill weeds, and to manage crop residues. Soil-structure modification is often necessary to facilitate the intake, storage, and transmission of water and to provide a good environment for seeds and roots. Elimination of weeds is important, because they compete for water, nutrients, and light. Crop residues on the surface must be managed in order to provide conditions suitable for seeding and cultivating a crop.

Aeschylus

Introduction ------------ born 525/524 BC died 456/455 BC, Gela, Sicily first of classical Athens' great tragic dramatists, who raised that emerging art to great heights of poetry and theatrical power. Life and career {#26754.toc} --------------- Aeschylus grew up in the turbulent period when the Athenian democracy, having thrown off its tyranny (the absolute rule of one man), had to prove itself against both self-seeking politicians at home and invaders from abroad. Aeschylus himself took part in his city's first struggles against the invading Persians. Later Greek chroniclers believed that Aeschylus was 35 years old in 490 BC when he participated in the Battle of Marathon, in which the Athenians first repelled the Persians; if this is true it would place his birth in 525 BC. Aeschylus' father's name was Euphorion, and the family probably lived at Eleusis (west of Athens).

agriculture, history of

Introduction ------------ history of the practice of cultivating the soil, harvesting crops, and raising livestock from its origins in prehistoric times to the present. [Agriculture] was long believed to have begun in a single centre in the Middle East, about 4000 BC. Modern dating techniques have since disproved this hypothesis; they indicate agriculture already in progress about 7000 BC, and archaeologists have uncovered evidence of animal domestication thousands of years earlier. It has also been shown that some plants were probably cultivated in the New World, which suggests that agricultural development took place simultaneously in many areas and thus did not spread from a single originating centre. This article discusses developments in crop and stock farming in the ancient societies of the Middle East and the Mediterranean, in China and India, in Roman and medieval Europe, and in more recent times, after the introduction of power machinery and scientific farming methods in the 19th and 20th centuries. Origins of agriculture {#10759.toc} ----------------------

agency

Introduction ------------ in law, the relationship that exists when one person or party (the principal) engages another (the agent) to act for him—*e.g.,* to do his work, to sell his goods, to manage his business. The law of agency thus governs the legal relationship in which the agent deals with a third party on behalf of the principal. The competent agent is legally capable of acting for this principal vis-à-vis the third party. Hence, the process of concluding a [][contract] through an agent involves a twofold relationship. On the one hand, the law of agency is concerned with the external business relations of an economic unit and with the powers of the various representatives to affect the legal position of the principal. On the other hand, it rules the internal relationship between principal and agent as well, thereby imposing certain duties on the representative (diligence, accounting, good faith, etc.). The two relationships need not be in full conformity. Thus, an agent's effective powers in dealing with outsiders may extend to transactions that he is under a duty to his principal not to undertake, leading to a situation characterized as "apparent authority." Agency is recognized in all modern [][legal systems] as an indispensable part of the existing social order. It fulfills the most diverse functions in both public and private law; in particular, it assists in organizing the division of labour in the national and international economy by making it possible for a principal greatly to extend his individual sphere of activity by having one or more persons act for him. In addition to the individual principal, a principal may be composed of a group of persons carrying on a trade or business by way of a partnership, a registered company, or another kind of corporate entity. The need for legal []representation in some form has therefore increased as business units have come to involve transactions conducted at a distance (through the use of factors, or commercial agents) or have grown in size (as in the case of the firm, the house, and the corporation). Continental law additionally allows the use of legal representatives, such as the father, mother, guardian, or curator (*curateur, tuteur*), to enable minors, insane persons, and other legally incapacitated persons to act. Although a similar category of "authority by law" is not unknown in common law, powers based on family relationships are scarce and appear in only a few cases. Historical development {#21701.toc} ---------------------- ### Roman law {#21702.toc}

air law

Introduction ------------ the body of law directly or indirectly concerned with civil aviation. Aviation in this context extends to both heavier-than-air and lighter-than-air aircraft. Air-cushion vehicles are not regarded as aircraft by the [][International Civil Aviation Organization] (ICAO), but the practice of individual states in this regard is not yet settled. The earliest legislation in air law was a 1784 decree of the Paris police forbidding balloon flights without a special permit. Because of the essentially international character of aviation, a large part of air law is either [][international law] or international uniform law (rules of national law that have by agreement been made internationally uniform). Insofar as international air law is concerned, it need hardly be mentioned that an international agreement or an amendment thereto is binding only on states that are parties to it. Airspace {#39247.toc} -------- ### [][Sovereignty] {#39248.toc}

Adventist

Introduction ------------ member of any of a group of Protestant Christian churches arising in the United States in the 19th century and distinguished by their doctrinal belief that the personal, visible return of Christ in glory (*i.e.,* the Second Coming) is close at hand. Adventism is rooted in Hebrew and Christian prophetism, messianism, and millennial expectations recorded in the Bible. Adventists believe that at Christ's Second Coming he will separate the saints from the wicked and inaugurate his millennial (1,000-year) kingdom. *See* [millennium]. History {#149.toc} ------- It was in an atmosphere of millennialist revival in the United States that [][William Miller] (1782-1849), a founder of the Adventists, began to preach. Miller, while an officer in the U.S. Army in the War of 1812, had become a skeptic. After a conversion, he began to study the books of Daniel and Revelation and to preach as a Baptist, the faith of his father. He concluded that Christ would come sometime between March 21, 1843, and March 21, 1844, and was encouraged in his views by a number of clergymen and numerous followers. Miller was accused of fanaticism because of his millenarianism, and he stressed the coming of Christ in conjunction with a fiery conflagration, which distressed his hearers. Christ, however, did not return on the first appointed date, so Miller and his followers set a second date, Oct. 22, 1844. The quiet passing of this day led to what is called the "Great Disappointment" among Adventists and the convening of a Mutual Conference of Adventists in 1845 to sort out problems. Those who met, however, found it difficult to shape a confession and form a permanent organization.

aging

Introduction ------------ progressive physiological changes in an organism that lead to senescence, or a decline of biological functions and of the organism's ability to adapt to metabolic stress. Aging takes place in a [][cell], an organ, or the total organism with the passage of time. It is a process that goes on over the entire adult life span of any living thing. [][Gerontology], the study of the aging process, is devoted to the understanding and control of all factors contributing to the finitude of individual life. It is not concerned exclusively with debility, which looms so large in human experience, but deals with a much wider range of phenomena. Every species has a life history in which the individual life span has an appropriate relationship to the reproductive life span and to the mechanism of reproduction and the course of development. How these relationships evolved is as germane to gerontology as it is to evolutionary biology. It is also important to distinguish between the purely physicochemical processes of aging and the accidental organismic processes of disease and injury that lead to death. Gerontology, therefore, can be defined as the science of the finitude of life as expressed in the three aspects of [][longevity], aging, and death, examined in both evolutionary and individual (ontogenetic) perspective. Longevity is the span of life of an organism. [][Aging] is the sequential or progressive change in an organism that leads to an increased risk of debility, disease, and death; senescence consists of these manifestations of the aging process. [![Art:The relation of survivorship curves (A) to age-specific mortality rate curves (B). These curves ...]] - The relation of survivorship curves (A) to age-specific mortality rate curves (B). These curves ...

agricultural sciences, the

Introduction ------------ sciences dealing with food and fibre production and processing. They include the technologies of soil cultivation, crop cultivation and harvesting, animal production, and the processing of [][plant] and animal products for human consumption and use. [][Food] is the most basic human need. The domestication and cultivation of plants and animals beginning almost 10,000 years ago were aimed at ensuring that this need was met, and then as now these activities also fit with the relentless human drive to understand and control the Earth's biosphere. Over the last century and a half, many of the world's political leaders have recognized what India's Jawaharlal Nehru did, that "Most things except agriculture can wait." Scientific methods have been applied widely, and the results have revolutionized agricultural production. Under the conditions of prescientific agriculture, in a good harvest year, six people can produce barely enough food for themselves and four others. Advanced technologies have made it possible for one farmer in the United States, for example, to produce food for more than 100 people. The farmer has been enabled to increase yields per acre and per animal; reduce losses from diseases, pests, and spoilage; and augment net production by improved processing methods. Until the 1930s, the benefits of agricultural research derived mostly from labour-saving inventions. Once the yield potentials of the major economic crops were increased through agricultural research, however, crop production per acre increased dramatically. Between 1940 and 1980 in the United States, for example, per-acre yields of corn tripled, those of wheat and soybeans doubled, and farm output per hour of farm work increased almost 10-fold as capital was substituted for labour. New techniques of preserving food products made it possible to transport them over greater distances, in turn facilitating adjustments among locations of production and consumption, with further benefits to production efficiency (see [food preservation]).

agricultural economics

Introduction ------------ study of the allocation, distribution, and utilization of the resources used, along with the commodities produced, by farming. Agricultural economics plays a role in the economics of development, for a continuous level of farm surplus is one of the wellsprings of technological and commercial growth. Agriculture is the source of livelihood for more than half of the world's population. In some countries more than four-fifths of the inhabitants support themselves by farming, while in the more industrialized countries the proportion ranges much lower—to less than 3 percent in both the United States and Great Britain. In general one can say that, when a large fraction of a nation's population depends on agriculture for its livelihood, average incomes are low. This does not mean that a nation is poor because most of its population is engaged in agriculture; it is closer to the truth to say that because a country is poor most of its people must rely upon agriculture for a living. Agriculture and economic development {#68039.toc} ------------------------------------ As a country develops economically, the relative importance of agriculture declines. The primary reason for this was shown by the 19th-century German statistician Ernst Engel, who discovered that as incomes increase the proportion of income spent on food declines. For example, if a family's income were to increase by 100 percent, the amount it would spend on food might increase by 60 percent; if formerly its expenditures on food had been 50 percent of its budget, after the increase they would amount to only 40 percent of its budget. It follows from this that, as incomes increase, a smaller fraction of the total resources of society is required to produce the amount of food demanded by the population. ### Progress in farming {#68040.toc}

advanced ceramics

Introduction ------------ substances and processes used in the development and manufacture of ceramic materials that exhibit special properties. As is pointed out in the article [ceramic composition and properties], ceramics are traditionally described as inorganic, nonmetallic solids that are prepared from powdered materials, are fabricated into products through the application of heat, and display such characteristic properties as hardness, strength, low electrical conductivity, and brittleness. Advanced ceramics represent an "advancement" over this traditional definition. Through the application of a modern materials science approach, new materials or new combinations of existing materials have been designed that exhibit surprising variations on the properties traditionally ascribed to ceramics. As a result, there are now ceramic products that are as tough and electrically conductive as some metals. Developments in advanced ceramic processing continue at a rapid pace, constituting what can be considered a revolution in the kind of materials and properties obtained. With the development of advanced ceramics, a more detailed, "advanced" definition of the material is required. This definition has been supplied by the 1993 []Versailles Project on Advanced Materials and Standards (VAMAS), which described an advanced ceramic as "an inorganic, nonmetallic (ceramic), basically crystalline material of rigorously controlled composition and manufactured with detailed regulation from highly refined and/or characterized raw materials giving precisely specified attributes." A number of distinguishing features of advanced ceramics are pointed out in this definition. First, they tend to lack a glassy component; *i.e.,* they are "basically crystalline." Second, microstructures are usually highly engineered, meaning that grain sizes, grain shapes, porosity, and phase distributions (for instance, the arrangements of second phases such as whiskers and fibres) are carefully planned and controlled. Such planning and control require "detailed regulation" of composition and processing, with "clean-room" processing being the norm and pure synthetic compounds rather than naturally occurring raw materials being used as precursors in manufacturing. Finally, advanced ceramics tend to exhibit unique or superior functional attributes that can be "precisely specified" by careful processing and quality control. Examples include unique electrical properties such as superconductivity or superior mechanical properties such as enhanced toughness or high-temperature strength. Because of the attention to microstructural design and processing control, advanced ceramics often are high value-added products.

African architecture

Introduction ------------ the [][architecture] of native Africa, particularly of sub-Saharan Africa. In areas where Islam and Christianity linked Africa to the rest of the world in precolonial times, architecture predominates among the visual arts. Included here are parts of western and eastern Africa, taking in the magnificent mosques, built of mud, of Djénné and Mopti in Mali, the rock-hewn churches of Ethiopia, and the Islamic monuments of coastal eastern Africa. But for the rest, in areas where pastoral cultures predominate, stress in the visual arts is laid upon personal adornment and upon the aesthetic values of cattle. Discussions of architecture in these regions focus chiefly on rural housing types and compound structures. This article mostly treats the architecture of sub-Saharan Africa. For a technical exploration of architecture as an art and a technique, see [architecture]. For a discussion of the visual art of Africa, see [African art]. For a discussion of ancient Egyptian architecture, see [Egyptian art and architecture]. For a treatment of the later architecture of Egypt and other parts of North Africa, which were heavily influenced by Islam, see [Islamic arts: Visual arts]. [![Photograph:Aerial view of the ruins of Great Zimbabwe.]] - Aerial view of the ruins of Great Zimbabwe. Of the [][buildings] of the continent south of the Sahara, only the ruins of [][Great Zimbabwe] are widely known. This complex of stone enclosures, particularly those popularly termed the elliptical building and the acropolis, was built on sites established as early as the 3rd century AD. The first [Shona] phase of building was probably begun six centuries later and continued until the 15th century when, under the [Mwene Matapa], or "Ravager of the Lands," in this gold-bearing district, Zimbabwe reached its peak.

administrative law

Introduction ------------ the legal framework within which public administration is carried out. It derives from the need to create and develop a system of public administration under law, a concept that may be compared with the much older notion of justice under law. Since administration involves the exercise of power by the executive arm of [][government], administrative law is of constitutional and political, as well as juridical, importance. There is no universally accepted definition of administrative law, but rationally it may be held to cover the organization, powers, duties, and functions of public authorities of all kinds engaged in administration; their relations with one another and with citizens and nongovernmental bodies; legal methods of controlling public administration; and the rights and liabilities of officials. Administrative law is to a large extent complemented by [][constitutional law], and the line between them is hard to draw. The organization of a national legislature, the structure of the courts, the characteristics of a cabinet, and the role of the head of state are generally regarded as matters of constitutional law, whereas the substantive and procedural provisions relating to central and local governments and judicial review of administration are reckoned matters of administrative law. But some matters, such as the responsibility of ministers, cannot be exclusively assigned to either administrative or constitutional law. Some French and American jurists regard administrative law as including parts of constitutional law. The law relating to public health, education, housing, and other public services could logically be regarded as part of the corpus of administrative law; but because of its sheer bulk it is usually considered ancillary. Defining principles {#36912.toc} -------------------

African music

Introduction ------------ the musical sounds and practices of all indigenous peoples of Africa, including the Berber in the Sahara and the San (Bushmen) and Khoikhoin (Hottentot) in Southern Africa. The music of European settler communities and that of Arab North Africa are not included in the present discussion. For the music of Islamic Africa, see [Islamic arts: Music]. History {#57065.toc} ------- It is widely acknowledged that African music has undergone frequent and decisive changes throughout the centuries. What is termed traditional music today is probably very different from African music in former times. Nor has African music in the past been rigidly linked to specific ethnic groups. The individual musician, his style and creativity, have always played an important role. The material sources for the study of African music history include archaeological and other objects, pictorial sources (rock paintings, petroglyphs, book illustrations, drawings, paintings), oral historical sources, written sources (travelers' accounts, field notes, inscriptions in Arabic and in African and European languages), musical notations, sound recordings, photographs and motion pictures, and videotape.

Africa

Introduction ------------ the second largest continent, after Asia, covering about one-fifth of the total land surface of the Earth. The continent is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, and on the south by the mingling waters of the Atlantic and Indian oceans. Africa's total land area is approximately 11,724,000 square miles (30,365,000 square km), and the continent measures about 5,000 miles (8,000 km) from north to south and about 4,600 miles (7,400 km) from east to west. Its northern extremity is Al-Ghīrān Point, near Al-Abyaḍ Point (Cape Blanc), Tunisia; its southern extremity is Cape Agulhas, South Africa; its farthest point east is Xaafuun (Hafun) Point, near Cape Gwardafuy (Guardafui), Somalia; and its western extremity is Almadi Point (Pointe des Almadies), on Cape Verde (Cap Vert), Senegal. In the northeast, Africa was joined to Asia by the [][Sinai Peninsula] until the construction of the Suez Canal. Paradoxically, the coastline of Africa—18,950 miles (30,500 km) in length—is shorter than that of Europe, because there are few inlets and few large bays or gulfs. Off the coasts of Africa a number of islands are associated with the continent. Of these [Madagascar], one of the largest islands in the world, is the most significant. Other smaller islands include the [Seychelles], [Socotra], and other islands to the east; the [Comoros], [Mauritius], [Réunion], and other islands to the southeast; [Ascension], [St. Helena], and [Tristan da Cunha] to the southwest; [Cape Verde], [the Bijagós Islands], [Bioko], and [São Tomé and Príncipe] to the west; and the [Azores] and the [Madeira] and [Canary] islands to the northwest.

Alaskan mountains

Introduction ------------ three principal mountain groups—the Brooks Range, Alaska Range, and Aleutian Range—found in Alaska. [![Map/Still:The Alaskan mountain ranges and the Mackenzie and Yukon river basins and their drainage networks.]] - The Alaskan mountain ranges and the Mackenzie and Yukon river basins and their drainage networks. The mountain ranges of Alaska give their state a rugged and beautiful terrain across its entire expanse. They include the highest peak in [][North America] and are characterized by glaciers, earthquakes, and continuing volcanic activity. Structurally, the ranges are northwestward continuations of the [][Rocky Mountains] and the Pacific mountain system of North America. Still little explored for vast stretches, Alaska's mountains contain, or lie close to, largely untapped mineral resources. The most northerly of the three major Alaskan mountain groups are the [][Brooks Range] and the []Arctic foothills, which extend the Rocky Mountains in an east-west arc from the Canadian border across northern Alaska. Central Alaska is characterized by highlands and basins drained by the great Yukon and Kuskokwim river systems. This area has been likened by some to a moister and colder version of the arid Great Basin region of the western United States.

Agnelli, Umberto

Italian business executive (b. Nov. 1, 1934, Lausanne, Switz.—d. May 27, 2004, Turin, Italy), saved the Fiat automobile company from financial ruin by slashing its \$3.5 billion debt in half after he succeeded his brother Giovanni as corporate chairman when the latter died in January 2003. Agnelli implemented a number of cost-cutting measures, injected new financing, boosted sales with the creation of several new Fiat models, and prevented General Motors from buying out the company. These actions were instrumental in preserving the Agnelli family dynasty, which had controlled Fiat for more than a century. Outside the automobile business, Agnelli earned (1959) a law degree from the University of Turin and served (1976-79) as a Christian Democrat senator. He became chairman of the Juventus association football (soccer) team at age 22 and was the team's honourary chairman at the time of his death.

Afṭasid dynasty

Muslim Berber dynasty that ruled one of the party kingdoms (*ṭāʾifah*s) at [][Badajoz] in western Spain (1022-94) in the period of disunity after the demise of the Umayyad caliphate of Córdoba. The Lower Frontier (modern central Portugal) had enjoyed a measure of autonomy after the death of the Umayyad caliph al-Ḥakam II (976), when it was ruled by his freed slave, []Sābūr (976-1022). In 1022, at Sābūr's death, his minister ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn Maslamah, who was known as []Ibn al-Afṭas, seized control of the kingdom and, assuming the title Al-Manṣūr Billāh ("Victorious by God"), ruled fairly peacefully until 1045. But trouble with the neighbouring ʿAbbādids of Sevilla (Seville), which had begun at the end of al-Manṣūr's rule, consumed the energies of his son []Muḥammad al-Muẓaffar (reigned 1045-60). Constant warfare weakened Badajoz sufficiently to allow the Christian king [][Ferdinand I] of Castile and Leon to extort tribute from al-Muẓaffar and then to capture the frontier garrisons of Viseu and Lamego (1057). Ferdinand also took [][Coimbra] and the surrounding area as far north as the Douro River (1063), in present Portugal. []ʿUmar al-Mutawakkil (reigned 1068-94) was also forced to pay tribute to [][Alfonso VI] of Castile and Leon; and he made an unsuccessful attempt to annex Toledo, which was held by a rival Muslim dynasty (1080). When Toledo was eventually taken by Alfonso in 1085, al-Mutawakkil and several other Muslim kings appealed to the [][Almoravids] of North Africa for assistance. Almoravid armies defeated Alfonso at [al-Zallāqah] near Badajoz (October 23, 1086), establishing a foothold in Spain. Hence, al-Mutawakkil tried to bargain for Alfonso VI's support, but Badajoz fell to the Almoravids in 1094, and al-Mutawakkil and two of his sons were executed.

Afrīdī

Pashtun tribe inhabiting the hill country from the eastern spurs of the Safīd Range to northern Pakistan. The Afrīdīs, whose territory straddles the [][Khyber Pass], are of uncertain origin. Fighting between the Afrīdīs and the troops of the Mughal dynasty of India occurred frequently in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 18th century the Afghan ruler Aḥmad Shāh Durrānī employed Afrīdīs in his armies, and his grandson Shāh Shojāʿ (reigned 1803-09) received both support and asylum from them. British encounters with the Afrīdīs began during the first [][][Anglo-Afghan War] (1839-42), notably when General George Pollock fought against them during his march to Kabul. After the British annexation of the Punjab in 1849, various methods were tried to keep the Khyber Pass open, including allowances, punitive expeditions such as those of 1878 and 1879 against the Kohāt and Khyber Afrīdīs, and the use of tribal militia (the Khyber Rifles). In 1893 the Afrīdīs of the Khyber region came under control by the [][Durand Line], which divided the tribal region between Afghanistan and British India. During the 1930s the Indian [][Congress Party] enlisted Afrīdī support for the militant anti-British [][Red Shirt Movement], an amalgam of pan-Islāmism and Indian nationalism. With independence, the Afrīdī lands in the North-West Frontier Province became a part of [][Pakistan], which thereafter faced an Afghan-supported movement for an independent Pakhtunistan, or Pashtun state.

Alba, Fernando Álvarez de Toledo y Pimentel, 3er duque de (3rd duke of), Alba also spelled Alva born Oct. 29, 1507, Piedrahita, Old Castile, Spain died Dec. 11, 1582, Lisbon [Portugal]

Photograph:Fernando ?lvarez de Toledo, 3rd duke de Alba, oil painting by Sir Antony More, 1549; in the ? Fernando ?lvarez de Toledo, 3rd duke de Alba, oil painting by Sir Antony More, 1549; in the ? Spanish soldier and statesman famous for his conquest of Portugal (1580) and notorious for his tyranny as governor-general of the Netherlands (1567?73). In the Netherlands he instituted the Council of Troubles (nicknamed the Council of Blood), which set aside local laws and condemned thousands. Alba was born into a rich family with a long record of service to the kings of Castile. In 1524 he joined the Spanish forces fighting the French at Fuenterrab? and so distinguished himself that he was appointed governor of the town after its capture. Subsequent campaigns made him the most thoroughly professional military commander of his age. He insisted on rigorous training and discipline for his troops and developed the tactical use of firearms. He was a master of logistics, and his greatest asset was an unshakable self-confidence that enabled him to resist the rash counsels of his more impetuous officers. He commanded a part of Emperor Charles V's army in the successful expedition against Tunis in 1535, and in 1546?47 he commanded the imperial armies against the German Protestant princes of the Schmalkaldic League. By his victory at M?hlberg (April 24, 1547) Alba placed Charles V at the pinnacle of his power. Alba was made commander in chief of the imperial forces in Italy in 1552 and, after the succession of Philip II of Spain, he was made viceroy of Naples (1556). In the last phase of the Franco-Spanish War in Italy, he outmaneuvered the Duke of Guise and forced Pope Paul IV to come to terms with Spain (1557).

Aeroflot

Russian airline that was formerly the national airline of the Soviet Union. The Soviet state airline was founded in 1928 under the name Dobroflot and was reorganized under the name Aeroflot in 1932. Dobroflot, or Dobrovolny Flot, grew out of two former airlines: Dobrolyot, founded in 1923, and Ukvozdukhput, or Ukrainian Airways, founded in 1925. These airlines together connected such cities as Moscow, Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod), Kiev, Kharkov (Kharkiv), and Odessa. After Dobroflot was reorganized as Aeroflot in 1932, progress was rapid; by 1935 its routes spanned the Soviet Union from Leningrad (St. Petersburg) to Vladivostok, with a network also extending southward to the Black Sea, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. Aeroflot was responsible for all civil aviation in the Soviet Union. It flew all international and domestic routes in the country, and, in addition to transporting passengers and freight, it was responsible for such operations as crop spraying, aerial surveying, airborne rescue work, and flying ambulance services. Aeroflot used only aircraft made in the Soviet Union. It began the world's first civilian jet air service in 1956 (using Soviet Tu-104 aircraft) and helped develop the world's first supersonic airliner, the Soviet Tu-144, which first flew in 1968. By the late 1980s Aeroflot's fleet of 1,300 airliners and several thousand smaller planes were serving 3,600 cities and towns in the Soviet Union and flying international routes to more than 100 countries. By 1990, when Aeroflot carried a total of 138 million passengers, it was the world's largest airline, with about 15 percent of all civil air traffic. It flew to all continents, including, on occasion, Antarctica.

African National Congress (ANC)

South African political party and black nationalist organization. Founded in 1912 as the South African Native National Congress, it had as its main goal the maintenance of voting rights for Coloureds (persons of mixed race) and black Africans in Cape Province. It was renamed the African National Congress in 1923. From the 1940s it spearheaded the fight to eliminate [][apartheid], the official South African policy of racial separation and discrimination. The ANC was banned from 1960 to 1990 by the white South African government; during these three decades it operated underground and outside South African territory. The ban was lifted in 1990, and [][Nelson Mandela], the president of the ANC, was elected in 1994 to head South Africa's first multiethnic government. In the late 1920s the ANC's leaders split over the issue of cooperation with the Communist Party (founded in 1921), and the ensuing victory of the conservatives left the party small and disorganized through the 1930s. In the 1940s, however, the ANC revived under younger leaders who pressed for a more militant stance against segregation in South Africa. The ANC Youth League, founded in 1944, attracted such figures as [Walter Sisulu], [][Oliver Tambo], and Mandela, who galvanized the movement and challenged the moderate leadership. Under the presidency of [][Albert Luthuli], the ANC after 1952 began sponsoring nonviolent protests, strikes, boycotts, and marches against the apartheid policies that had been introduced by the [][National Party] government that came to power in 1948. Party membership grew rapidly. A campaign against the pass laws (blacks were required to carry passes indicating their employment status) and other government policies culminated in the Defiance Campaign of 1952. In the process ANC leaders became a target of police harassment: in 1956 many of its leaders were arrested and charged with treason (known as the Treason Trial, 1956-59). In 1960 the [][Pan-African Congress] (PAC), which had broken away from the ANC in 1959, organized massive demonstrations against the pass laws during which police killed 69 unarmed demonstrators at [Sharpeville] (south of Johannesburg). At this point the National Party outlawed both the ANC and the PAC. Denied legal avenues for political change, the ANC first turned to sabotage and then began to organize outside of South Africa for guerrilla warfare. In 1961 an ANC military organization, [Umkhonto we Sizwe] ("Spear of the Nation"), with Mandela as its head, was formed to carry out acts of sabotage as part of its campaign against apartheid. Mandela and other ANC leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964 (the Rivonia Trial). Although the ANC's campaign of guerrilla warfare was basically ineffective because of stringent South African internal security measures, surviving ANC cadres kept the organization alive in Tanzania and Zambia under Tambo's leadership. The ANC began to revive inside South Africa toward the end of the 1970s, following the [][Soweto] uprising in 1976, when the police and army killed more than 600 people, many of them children. About 1980 the banned black, green, and gold tricolour flag of the ANC began to be seen inside South Africa. South Africa descended into virtual civil war during the 1980s. The administration of F.W. de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC in 1990, and its leaders were released from prison or allowed to return to South Africa and conduct peaceful political activities. Nelson Mandela, the most important of the ANC's leaders, succeeded Oliver Tambo as president in 1991. Mandela led the ANC in negotiations (1992-93) with the government over transition to a government elected by universal suffrage. In April 1994 the party swept to power in the country's first such election, winning more than 60 percent of the vote for seats in the new National Assembly. Mandela, who headed a government of national unity, was inaugurated as South Africa's first black president on May 10, 1994. After the withdrawal of the National Party from the government in 1996, the ANC entered into an alliance with its previous rival, the [][Inkatha Freedom Party], led by [][Mangosuthu Buthelezi]. Mandela stepped down as ANC president in 1997, and in June 1999 his successor, [][Thabo Mbeki], became the second black president of South Africa. The party celebrated its 90th anniversary in 2002 and continued its domination of South African politics.

Alacaluf

South American Indian people, very few (about 10) in number, living on the eastern coast of Isla Wellington in southern Chile. Their culture closely resembles that of the extinct Chono (*q.v.*) to the north and the Yámana (*q.v.*) to the south. The Alacaluf environment is a wild and rugged mountainous region with hundreds of islands. Wind, rain, cold, and almost impenetrable rain forest limit subsistence patterns to food collecting, principally shellfish, sea mammals, and birds. Canoes are essential to the Alacaluf in their exploitation of the ocean resources. The Alacaluf do not establish permanent settlements but move along the beach in search of shellfish, living from day to day. The nuclear family of husband, wife, and unmarried children is the basic social, political, and economic unit; no larger organizational unit is known, although sometimes two or three families travel together. They build huts of skin or tree bark. Their aesthetic and religious ideas are not much developed, although they believe in spirits and practice simple forms of witchcraft.

AERIAL SPORTS

The [] realization of an 11-year-old girl's transcontinental flying dream and two more frustrating setbacks in the round-the-world hopes of a balloonist marked the year 1993 for better and worse in aerial sports. Victoria Van Meter of Meadville, Pa., became the youngest pilot ever to fly across the United States east to west and the youngest female ever to fly across the continent when she piloted a single-engine Cessna 172 from Augusta, Maine, to San Diego, Calif. Her flight, lasting from September 20 to 23 with four refueling stops, took her more than 4,640 km (1 km = 0.62 mi) through good but occasionally turbulent weather. "I got sick a little," she said. She was accompanied by her flight instructor, Bob Baumgartner, but did all the flying and navigating herself. The east-west crossing is the most difficult because it is against prevailing head winds. Larry Newman, who had crossed both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by balloon, had plans for a 35,200-km round-the-world helium balloon flight in 1993, starting at Reno, Nev., but was frustrated by failed launch attempts in January and again in November. The "Earthwinds Hilton" was a two-balloon craft consisting of a helium-filled top balloon and a compressed-air-filled bottom balloon, which acted as ballast; the hourglass-shaped craft had a height of 90 m (300 ft). On January 12 it was blown 16 km backward off course to the California-Nevada border, brushed the top of a mountain, and crash-landed in a snow-filled valley. On November 6 two members of Newman's inspection crew were preparing another launch from Reno when anchor bolts broke and the craft began ascending prematurely, compelling the two men to rip open the craft's enormous helium balloon to prevent a takeoff. At the 11th world hot-air-balloon championships at Larochette, Luxembourg, August 12-22, U.S. competitors swept the first four places: Alan Blount, 15,414 points; Owen Keown, 15,188 points; Joe Heartsill, 14,812 points; and David Levin, 14,622 points. William Bussey of the U.S. set a Class AX-8 hot-air-balloon world distance record of 1,215.9 km and a world duration record of 29 hr 14 sec with a flight in a Colt 105A from Amarillo, Texas, to Milbank, S.D., on January 25. On January 13, Jetta Schantz of the U.S. achieved a women's AX-7 world distance record of 468.9 km, flying her Raven S55A from Tulsa, Okla., to Gillett, Ariz.

Al-Aswānī, ʿAlāʾ

The appearance in 2002 of *ʿImārat Yaʿqūbiyyān* (*The Yacoubian Building*), the first novel by ʿAlāʾ al-Aswānī (Alaa Al Aswany), was in itself a novel event. The book attracted an unprecedented number of readers in Egypt and throughout the Arab world. The first edition sold out in 40 days, and nine more printings were subsequently ordered. The English version appeared in 2004 and was similarly successful. A paperback edition was scheduled for 2006. Aswānī was born on May 27, 1957, in Cairo, the son of a lawyer enamoured of literature who was credited with reviving the *maqāmah* (assemblies in rhymed prose) genre and who won the 1972 State Award for Literature for his novel *Al-Aswār al-ʿāliya* ("High Walls"). The younger Aswānī finished the French Lycée in Cairo and graduated with an undergraduate degree (1980) in dentistry from Cairo University. He received an M.S. in dentistry from the University of Illinois at Chicago, finishing in the record time of 11 months. Aswānī pursued dentistry and writing with equal fervour. He developed an interest in literature and culture early in life when his father allowed him to attend his literary gatherings. As a student Aswānī wrote short stories, plays, and newspaper articles dealing with politics and literary criticism. His father, however, strongly discouraged him from pursuing a career as a full-time writer. The list of Aswānī's publications included a novel, *Awrāq ʿIṣām ʿAbd al-ʿĀtī* (1989; "The Papers of ʿIṣām ʿAbd al-ʿĀti"), and two collections of short stories (1990 and 1997). *Nīrān ṣadīqah* ("Friendly Fires"), also containing some of his stories, was published in 2004. He also wrote a monthly article for the newspaper *Al-ʿArabī.* Aswānī was a staunch believer in reading national literatures in their original languages, and he studied Spanish to read the Spanish masterpieces. He also knew French and English. *The Yacoubian Building* was a story of social change in Egypt, presenting a pastiche of life—good and bad—in modern Cairo. It exposed corruption, abuse of power, and exploitation of the poor. Yacoubian was the name of an actual building situated in downtown Cairo where the elder Aswānī's law offices were located, though many of the details in the novel did not correspond exactly to the real Yacoubian Building. Aswānī wanted to name his novel *Wast al-balad* ("Downtown"), but the use of the catchy name Yacoubian was inspired and probably piqued the curiosity of many readers. The novel's success also did not escape the attention of Egyptian movie producers, and a film version was expected at the beginning of 2006. Aida A. Bamia

Agnew, Spiro Theodore

U.S. politician (b. Nov. 9, 1918, Baltimore, Md.--d. Sept. 17, 1996, Berlin, Md.), served as vice president (1969-73) under Pres. Richard Nixon until a tax-evasion scandal forced his resignation. After earning a law degree from the University of Baltimore, Agnew practiced until he was elected to public office in 1962. He served as executive of Baltimore county before becoming governor of Maryland in 1967. Agnew gained Nixon's attention when he chastised African-American leaders during riots in Baltimore following the assassination of the Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., accusing them of remaining silent while militants stirred up the crowds. Although he was virtually unknown to the public when Nixon chose him as his running mate in the 1968 election campaign, Agnew's colourful attacks on the media ("nattering nabobs of negativism") and antiwar demonstrators ("pusillanimous pussyfooters") won him national recognition. Shortly after he took office for his second term as vice president, however, a Baltimore grand jury investigated him (1973) on charges of extortion, bribery, and income-tax violations dating back to his tenure as governor. He resigned from office--only the second U.S. vice president to do so and the first because of legal difficulties--and pleaded nolo contendere to one count of income-tax evasion. He was fined and sentenced to unsupervised probation. After being disbarred (1974) by the state of Maryland, he turned to private business and became a consultant to foreign business concerns.

aisle

[![Art:Medieval cathedral arranged on a cruciform plan]] - Medieval cathedral arranged on a cruciform plan portion of a church or basilica that parallels or encircles the major sections of the structure, such as the nave, choir, or apse (aisles around the apse are usually called ambulatories). The aisle is often set off by columns or by an arcade. The name derives from the French for "wing," because in Romanesque architecture the aisles flanked only the nave and were often covered by roofs of lower height, thus forming wings. Although the aisle area may be used for seating, especially in more recent times, it was originally intended as a path to seats or to the front of the church. Today, the word also refers to any passageway that gives access to seating in a church, theatre, or other public structure.

Agnostus

[![Photograph:Agnostus, of Cambrian age, from Kinekulla, Swed.]] - *Agnostus,* of Cambrian age, from Kinekulla, Swed. genus of trilobites (an extinct group of aquatic arthropods) found as fossils in rocks of Early Cambrian to Late Ordovician age (those deposited from 540 to 438 million years ago). The agnostids were generally small, with only two thoracic segments and a large tail segment. *Agnostus* itself was only about 6 millimetres (0.25 inch) long and lacked eyes. The similarity of the anterior and posterior regions frequently makes the agnostids difficult to differentiate.

Albany Congress

[![Photograph:"Join, or Die," the first known American cartoon, published by Benjamin Franklin in his ...]] - "Join, or Die," the first known American cartoon, published by Benjamin Franklin in his ... conference in U.S. colonial history (June 19-July 11, 1754) at Albany, N.Y., which advocated a union of the British colonies in North America for their security and defense against the French, foreshadowing their later unification. The conference was convened by the British Board of Trade to help cement the loyalty of the [][Iroquois Confederacy], wavering between the French and the British in the early phases of the French and Indian War. After receiving presents, provisions, and promises of redress of grievances, 150 representatives of the tribes withdrew without committing themselves to the British cause. In addition, delegates from seven colonies advocated practical measures resulting in closer regulation of Indian affairs and westward migration of pioneers. Except to [plant the germ] of an important idea, an adopted proposal of [][Benjamin Franklin] to establish a colonial union with broad powers came to naught.

Aeolian harp

[![Photograph:Aeolian harp]] - Aeolian harp (from Aeolus, the Greek god of the winds), a type of box zither on which sounds are produced by the movement of wind over its strings. It is made of a wooden sound box about 1 metre by 13 cm by 8 cm (3 feet by 5 inches by 3 inches) that is loosely strung with 10 or 12 gut strings. These strings are all of the same length but vary in thickness and hence in elasticity. The strings are all tuned to the same pitch. In the wind they vibrate in aliquot parts (i.e., in halves, thirds, fourths...), so that the strings produce the natural overtones (harmonics) of the fundamental note: octave, 12th, second octave, and so on. For a more technical explanation of the phenomenon, *see* [sound: Standing waves]. The principle of natural vibration of strings by the pressure of the wind has long been recognized. According to legend, King David hung his [*kinnor*] (a kind of lyre) above his bed at night to catch the wind, and in the 10th century Dunstan of Canterbury produced sounds from a harp by allowing the wind to blow through its strings. The first known Aeolian harp was constructed by [][Athanasius Kircher] and was described in his *Musurgia Universalis* (1650). The Aeolian harp was popular in Germany and England during the Romantic movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries. Two attempts to devise a keyboard version using a bellows were the *anémocorde* (1789), invented by Johann Jacob Schnell, and the *piano éolien* (1837), by M. Isouard. Aeolian harps are also found in China, Indonesia, Ethiopia, and Melanesia.

Aesop

[![Photograph:Aesop, with a fox, from the central medallion of a kylix, 470 ; in the Gregorian ...]] - Aesop, with a fox, from the central medallion of a kylix, *c.* 470 BC; in the Gregorian ... the supposed author of a collection of Greek [][fables], almost certainly a legendary figure. Various attempts were made in ancient times to establish him as an actual personage. Herodotus in the 5th century BC said that he had lived in the 6th century and that he was a slave, and Plutarch in the 1st century AD made him adviser to Croesus, the 6th-century-BC king of Lydia. One tradition holds that he came from Thrace, while a later one styles him a Phrygian. An Egyptian biography of the 1st century AD places him on the island of Samos as a slave who gained his freedom from his master, thence going to Babylon as riddle solver to King Lycurgus, and, finally, meeting his death at Delphi. The probability is that Aesop was no more than a name invented to provide an author for fables centring on beasts, so that "a story of Aesop" became synonymous with "fable." The importance of fables lay not so much in the story told as in the moral derived from it. The first-known collection of the fables ascribed to Aesop was produced by Demetrius Phalareus in the 4th century BC, but it did not survive beyond the 9th century AD. A collection of fables that relied heavily on the Aesop corpus was that of [][Phaedrus], which was produced at Rome in the 1st century AD. Phaedrus' treatment of them greatly influenced the way in which they were used by later writers, notably by the 17th-century French poet and fabulist [][Jean de La Fontaine].

agateware

[![Photograph:Agateware sauceboat, Whieldon type, Staffordshire, England, c. 1750; in the Victoria and ...]] - Agateware sauceboat, Whieldon type, Staffordshire, England, *c.* 1750; in the Victoria and ... in pottery, 18th-century ware of varicoloured clay, with an overall marbled effect. It was sometimes called solid agate to distinguish it from ware with surface marbling. Agateware was probably introduced about 1730 by Dr. Thomas Wedgwood of Rowley's Pottery, Burslem, Staffordshire, Eng. The random mingling of coloured clays, such as red and buff, gave a broad veining to domestic and ornamental pieces. The English potter [Thomas Whieldon] greatly improved agateware in the 1740s by using white clays stained with metallic oxides. Repeated mixing of different layers of brown, white, and green or blue clay yielded a striated marbling throughout the substance; the clay "cake," difficult to manipulate without blurring, was shaped in two-part molds, polished after firing, and glazed. A typical golden-yellow glaze is on early ware, but after about 1750 it is transparent or blue gray, being tinted by the cobalt in the blue-stained clay. Whieldon's agateware commenced with snuffboxes and knife shafts; and [][Josiah Wedgwood] used the process at Etruria for classical onyx or pebbled vases closely imitating natural agate. Other makers of agateware were Thomas Astbury and Josiah Spode. It was an unsuitable medium for human figures but proved felicitous in models of cats or rabbits and for tableware. Its manufacture ceased in about 1780. Some agateware was made at continental factories—*e.g.*, Aprey près Langre (Haute Marne).

ageratum

[![Photograph:Ageratum houstonianum]] - *Ageratum houstonianum* any of about 45 species of annual herbs making up the genus *Ageratum* (family Asteraceae), and native to tropical South America. They have toothed, oval leaves that are opposite each other on the stem; compact clusters of blue, pink, lilac, or white flowers; and small, dry fruits. Dwarf varieties of the common garden []ageratum (*A. houstonianum*) are used as edging plants. Some ageratums are variously known as flossflower and pussy-foot.

Agni

[![Photograph:Agni with characteristic symbol of the ram, wood carving; in the Guimet Museum, Paris]] - Agni with characteristic symbol of the ram, wood carving; in the Guimet Museum, Paris (Sanskrit: "Fire"), fire-god of the Hindus, second only to Indra in the Vedic mythology of ancient India. He is equally the fire of the sun, of lightning, and of the hearth that men light for purposes of worship. As the divine personification of the fire of sacrifice, he is the mouth of the gods, the carrier of the oblation, and the messenger between the human and the divine orders. Agni is described in the scriptures as ruddy-hued and having two faces—one beneficent and one malignant. He has three or seven tongues, hair that stands on end like flames, three legs, and seven arms; he is accompanied by a ram. In the Rigveda he is sometimes identified with [][Rudra], the forerunner of the later god Śiva. Though Agni has no sect in modern Hinduism, his presence is invoked in many ceremonies, especially by []Agnihotrī Brahmans, and he is the guardian of the southeast.

agrimony

[![Photograph:Agrimony (Agrimonia gryposepala)]] - Agrimony (*Agrimonia gryposepala*) any plant of the genus *[]Agrimonia*, of the rose family (Rosaceae). The name particularly denotes *A. eupatoria*, an herbaceous, hardy perennial that is native to Europe but is widespread in other northern temperate regions, where it grows in hedge banks and the borders of fields. *A. eupatoria* grows to about 120 cm (4 feet) tall and has alternate feather-formed leaves that yield a yellow dye. The oval leaflets, about 2-6 cm (0.8-2.4 inches) long, have toothed margins. The small, stalkless yellow flowers are borne in a long terminal spike. The fruit is a bur about 0.6 cm in diameter and bears a number of hooks that enable it to cling easily to clothing or the coat of an animal. []*A. gryposepala,* a similar species, is widespread in the United States.

air lock

[![Photograph:Air locks for Boston Harbor Tunnel]] - Air locks for Boston Harbor Tunnel device that permits passage between regions of differing air pressures, most often used for passage between atmospheric pressure and chambers in which the air is compressed, such as [pneumatic caissons] and underwater [][tunnels]. The air lock also has been used as a design feature of []space vehicles; on March 18, 1965, the Soviet cosmonaut Aleksey [][Leonov] passed through an air lock to become the first man to walk in space. Sir Thomas []Cochrane patented an air lock in 1830 for use in harbour works; its application to bridge foundations was pioneered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, James Eads, and others; James Henry Greathead used it in tunneling in the 19th century. A typical modern air lock consists of a cylinder of steel plate with airtight doors located at both ends, one opening from the outside into the lock, the other from the lock into the compressed-air chamber, together with valves to admit or to exhaust compressed air. One of the doors must always be closed; before the other is opened, the pressure within the air lock must be equalized with that on the opposite side.

Airbus Industrie

[![Photograph:Airbus A320 short- to medium-range jetliner, which first flew in 1987 and went into commercial ...]] - Airbus A320 short- to medium-range jetliner, which first flew in 1987 and went into commercial ... European aircraft-manufacturing consortium formed in 1970 to fill a market niche for short- to medium-range, high-capacity jetliners and to compete with long-established American manufacturers. Full members include the German-French-Spanish-owned [][European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company] (EADS), with an 80 percent interest, and Britain's [][BAE Systems], with 20 percent. Belgium's Belairbus and Italy's Alenia are risk-sharing associate members in selected programs. Headquarters are near Toulouse, France. [![Photograph:Airbus A300-600ST Super Transporter Beluga cargo aircraft. Developed primarily to move wings and ...]] - Airbus A300-600ST Super Transporter Beluga cargo aircraft. Developed primarily to move wings and ... At the start of the 21st century, Airbus's 46 percent market share made it the world's second largest maker of commercial aircraft ([Boeing Company] led the industry). About 42,000 employees of the partner companies worked directly on Airbus aircraft in France, Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom. The consortium has more than 1,500 suppliers and holds cooperative agreements with numerous companies around the world. American companies are responsible for about a third of Airbus components. The partner companies perform much of the subassembly in their own factories. A fleet of special transport aircraft (the Airbus []Super Transporter Beluga, based on the A300-600 passenger aircraft) is used to airlift the subassemblies to one of two final assembly lines in France and Germany. The Airbus A300/A310 and A330/A340 aircraft families and the A320 aircraft are completed at a complex near Toulouse, while the A318, A319, and A321 aircraft are assembled in Hamburg. The Airbus program began in 1965 when the governments of France and Germany initiated discussions about forming a consortium to build a European high-capacity, short-haul jet transport. The following year French, German, and British officials announced that Sud Aviation (France), Arge Airbus (an informal group of German aerospace companies), and Hawker Siddeley Aviation (Britain) would study the development of a 300-seat airliner for the short-haul sector. Because engines meeting the Airbus requirements did not materialize, the initial design, designated the A300, was scaled to a 250-seat version.

aircraft carrier

[![Photograph:Aircraft carrier USS John F. Kennedy]] - Aircraft carrier USS *John F. Kennedy* naval vessel from which airplanes may take off and on which they may land. As early as November 1910, an American civilian pilot, [Eugene Ely], flew a plane off a specially built platform on the deck of the U.S. cruiser *Birmingham* at Hampton Roads, Va. On Jan. 18, 1911, in San Francisco Bay, Ely landed on a platform built on the quarterdeck of the battleship *Pennsylvania,* using wires attached to sandbags on the platform as arresting gear; he then took off from the same ship. The British navy also experimented with the carrier; during World War I it developed the first true carrier with an unobstructed flight deck, the HMS *[][Argus],* built on a converted merchant-ship hull. The war ended before the *Argus* could be put into action, but the U.S. and Japanese navies quickly followed the British example. The first U.S. carrier, a converted collier renamed the USS *[Langley],* joined the fleet in March 1922. A Japanese carrier, the *[]Hosyo,* which entered service in December 1922, was the first carrier designed as such from the keel up. Fundamentally, the carrier is an airfield at sea with many special features necessitated by limitations in size and the medium in which it operates. To facilitate short takeoffs and landings, airspeeds over the deck are increased by turning the ship into the wind. Catapults flush with the flight deck assist in launching aircraft; for landing, aircraft are fitted with retractable hooks that engage transverse wires on the deck, braking them to a quick stop.

Ajanta Caves

[![Photograph:Ajanta Caves in north-central Mahārāshtra, India]] - Ajanta Caves in north-central Mahārāshtra, India Buddhist rock-cut cave temples and monasteries, near Ajanta village, north-central Mahārāshtra state, western India, celebrated for their wall paintings. The temples are hollowed out of granite cliffs on the inner side of a 70-foot (20-metre) ravine in the Wagurna River valley, 65 miles (105 km) northeast of Aurangābād, at a site of great scenic beauty. The group of some 30 caves was excavated between the 1st century BC and the 7th century AD and consists of two types, *caitya*s ("sanctuaries") and *vihāra*s ("monasteries"). Although the sculpture, particularly the rich ornamentation of the *caitya* pillars, is noteworthy, it is the fresco-type paintings that are the chief interest of Ajanta. These paintings depict colourful Buddhist legends and divinities with an exuberance and vitality that is unsurpassed in Indian art.

Akan

[![Photograph:Akan tribal chief.]] - Akan tribal chief. ethnolinguistic grouping of peoples of the [Guinea Coast] who speak [Akan languages] (of the Kwa branch of the Niger-Congo family). They include the speakers of the Akyem, Anyi, Asante (Ashanti), Attié, Baule, Brong, Chakosi, Fante (Fanti), and Guang languages; some scholars also consider Twi a distinct [][Akan language]. Most Akan peoples live in [][Ghana], where they settled in successive waves of migration between the 11th and 18th centuries; others inhabit the eastern part of Côte d'Ivoire and parts of Togo. Yams are the staple food crop in the Akan economy, but plantains and taro also are important; cocoa and palm oil are major commercial resources. Traditional Akan society is composed of exogamous matrilineal clans, the members of which trace their descent from a common female ancestor; these clans are hierarchically organized and are subdivided into localized matrilineages, which form the basic social and political units of Akan society. Most Akan live in compact villages that are divided into wards occupied by the matrilineages and subdivided into compounds of extended multigeneration families. The village is a political unit under a headman, elected from one of the lineages, and a council of elders, each of whom is the elected head of a constituent lineage. The lineage head is the custodian of the lineage's [][stools], which are the symbols of unity between the spirits of the ancestors and the living members of the lineage; every lineage also has its own god or gods. There is a strong feeling of corporate responsibility among lineage members. Matrilineal descent also governs inheritance, succession, and land tenure. Paternal descent is also recognized and determines membership in the *[ntoro]*, a group sharing certain taboos, surnames, forms of etiquette, and ritual purification ceremonies.

Akosombo Dam

[![Photograph:Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in southeastern Ghana]] - Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in southeastern Ghana rock-fill dam on the [][Volta River], near Akosombo, Ghana, completed in 1965 as part of the Volta River Project. Its construction was jointly financed by the government of Ghana, the World Bank, the United States, and the United Kingdom. The dam rises 440 feet (134 m) above ground level and has a crest 2,201 feet (671 m) wide and a volume of 10,451,000 cubic yards (7,991,000 cubic m). The dam impounds [][Lake Volta;] this huge reservoir has a capacity of 124,000,000 acre-feet (153,000,000,000 cubic m) and is used for commercial fishing and navigation. The large electric-power-generating capacity (912 megawatts) of the Akosombo Dam meets Ghana's needs and provides a surplus for sale to neighbouring countries. The dam supplies electricity to a large, economically important aluminum smelter in the coastal town of Tema.

Alaskan Malamute

[![Photograph:Alaskan Malamute.]] - Alaskan Malamute. sled [][dog] developed by the Malemiut, an Eskimo (Inupiat) group from which it takes its name. The Alaskan Malamute is a strongly built dog, with a broad head, erect ears, and a plumelike tail carried over its back. Its thick coat is usually gray and white or black and white, the colours frequently forming a caplike or masklike marking on the head. The Alaskan Malamute stands about 23 to 25 inches (58 to 63.5 cm) high and weighs 75 to 85 pounds (34 to 39 kg). Characteristically loyal and friendly, it has been used to haul freight on sleds and has served on expeditions to Antarctica. [![table]]*See* the [table] of selected breeds of working dogs for further information.

agate

[![Photograph:Banded agate]] - Banded agate common semiprecious silica mineral, a variety of [chalcedony] (*q.v.*) that occurs in bands of varying colour and transparency. Agate is essentially quartz, and its physical properties are in general those of that mineral. *See* [silica mineral](table). Agate is found throughout the world. In the United States it is produced in several western states; Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Montana are the chief sources of gemstones. Most agates occur in cavities in eruptive rocks or ancient lavas. These agates have a banded structure, successive layers being approximately parallel to the sides of the cavity. It is probable that they have been formed as follows. During cooling of the lava, steam and other gases form bubbles. The bubbles overtaken by solidification are frozen in, forming cavities. Long after the rock has solidified, water—carrying [silica] (*q.v.*) in solution, probably as alkali silicate—penetrates into the bubble and coagulates to a silica gel. Soluble components of the iron-bearing rock diffuse into the silica gel and produce the regular layers of iron hydroxide. Finally the whole mass gradually hardens with loss of water and crystallization of much of the silica as quartz or chert. During crystallization, the coloured bands are not disturbed. Varieties of agate are characterized by peculiarities in the shape and colour of the bands, which are seen in sections cut at right angles to the layers. In riband agate the bands appear as straight lines in cross section. Such agate, with white bands alternating with bands of black, brown, or red, is called [][onyx] (*q.v.*). A ring or eye agate has concentric circular bands of different colours. A variety having included matter of a green colour, embedded in the agate and disposed in filaments and other forms suggestive of vegetable growth, is known as [][moss agate] (*q.v.*). The agate-working industry grew up centuries ago in the Idar-Oberstein district of Germany, where agates were abundant. After 1900 most agates were supplied by Brazil and Uruguay. Most commercial agate is artificially stained so that stones unattractive because of their dull-gray tints become valuable for ornamental purposes.

Aguascalientes

[![Photograph:Basilica Cathedral, Aguascalientes city, Mex.]] - Basilica Cathedral, Aguascalientes city, Mex. [![Map/Still]] *estado* (state), central [Mexico]. One of Mexico's smallest states, it is bounded to the west, north, and east by the state of [Zacatecas] and to the south and southeast by the state of [Jalisco]. The city of [Aguascalientes] is the state capital. The Chichimec were the original inhabitants of the region. The Spanish conquered Aguascalientes in the 16th century and expanded silver mining in the area. Under the Spanish and after independence, neighbouring territories fought over Aguascalientes, and for a time it was part of Zacatecas. It became a state in 1835. During the [Mexican Revolution] it was the scene of bitter fighting and was occupied by various factions. The state's relief is dominated by spurs of the [Sierra Madre] Occidental and the [Cordillera Neo-Volcánica] rising above the [Mesa Central]. High elevations, between some 3,300 and 9,800 feet (1,000 and 3,000 metres), contribute to a mild climate with light rainfall. The state's Calvillo and Aguascalientes rivers form part of the [Rio Grande de Santiago] system. Numerous hot springs are the basis for the state's name (from the Spanish, meaning "hot waters") and the playful label for its residents, *hidrocálidos*—from *hidro* (a prefix meaning "water") and *cálido* ("warm").

Aguascalientes

[![Photograph:Basilica Cathedral, Aguascalientes, Mex.]] - Basilica Cathedral, Aguascalientes, Mex. city, capital of [Aguascalientes] *estado* (state), central [Mexico]. It is located in the south-central part of the state on the [Mesa Central], 6,194 feet (1,888 metres) above sea level, on the left (east) bank of the Juchipila (Aguascalientes) River. Founded in 1575 and designated a town in 1661, Aguascalientes ("Hot Waters") was named for the area's once-numerous thermal baths, which were considered medicinal. It became the capital when the state was created during the 1850s, and it is now home to more than three-fifths of the state's population. Aguascalientes is sometimes called the "Perforated City," because of the labyrinth of tunnels dug beneath it by the area's pre-Columbian inhabitants. The city has long had important railroad repair shops, cotton and other textile factories, potteries, tobacco factories, distilleries, and other industries. Its diversified economy now also includes Japanese- and American-owned automobile plants, electronic assembly plants, pharmaceutical laboratories, and other high-technology industries. Aguascalientes has few extant colonial buildings. Among them is the Baroque-style 18th-century cathedral. The city is the site of the Autonomous University of Aguascalientes (1973). Its annual San Marcos Fair, held each spring, attracts large crowds. Aguascalientes has several notable museums; among them are one dedicated to [José Guadalupe Posada] (one of Mexico's best-known cartoonists) and a museum of contemporary art. Pop. (2000) city, 594,092; urban agglom., 707,516.

Alabama claims

[![Photograph:Battle between the Confederate blockade runner Alabama and the Union's Kearsarge in ...]] - Battle between the Confederate blockade runner *Alabama* and the Union's *Kearsarge* in ... maritime grievances of the [United States] against Great [Britain], accumulated during and after the American Civil War (1861-65). The claims are significant in [][international law] for furthering the use of arbitration to settle disputes peacefully and for delineating certain responsibilities of neutrals toward belligerents. The dispute centred on the Confederate cruiser *[Alabama],* built in England and used against the Union as a commerce destroyer, which captured, sank, or burned 68 ships in 22 months before being sunk by the USS *[]Kearsarge* off Cherbourg, Fr. (June 1864). At the outset of the war, a Federal blockade of Southern ports and coasts automatically extended belligerent status to the Confederacy. To protect its own interests, Britain took the lead among European countries in proclaiming its neutrality (May 14, 1861). The Confederacy immediately set about building a navy to engage the Union's naval power and to destroy its merchant marine. Along with several other ships, the *Alabama* was built or fitted out privately on British territory and put to sea despite the belated intervention of the British government. As early as October 1863, the U.S. minister to Great Britain, [][Charles Francis Adams], protested that the British must take responsibility for the damages caused by British-built Confederate raiders, but he conceded that his government would be willing to submit the matter to arbitration. Amid bombastic U.S. threats of annexing Canada, Anglo-American misunderstanding was exacerbated after the end of the Civil War by unsettled disputes over Canadian fisheries and the northwestern boundary. A proposed settlement in the Johnson-Clarendon Convention was angrily rejected by the United States. To avoid further deterioration of Anglo-American relations, a joint high commission was set up, and on May 8, 1871, the parties signed the [Treaty of Washington], which, by establishing four separate arbitrations, afforded the most ambitious arbitral undertaking the world had experienced up to that time. In addition, Great Britain expressed official regret over the matter.

Aizu-wakamatsu

[![Photograph:Cherry blossoms near Tsuruga Castle, Aizu-wakamatsu, Fukushima, Japan.]] - Cherry blossoms near Tsuruga Castle, Aizu-wakamatsu, Fukushima, Japan. city, [Fukushima] *ken* (prefecture), Honshu, Japan, in the centre of the Aizu basin, surrounded by volcanic mountains. A castle was built on the site in 1384. Much of the present city dates from 1590, when the castle was rebuilt and named []Tsuruga Castle. During the Tokugawa period (1603-1867), Aizu-wakamatsu was an important commercial and manufacturing centre, famous for its lacquer ware. It was held as a fief by a member of the Tokugawa family and was the scene of the last resistance to the Meiji Restoration (1868). During the final battle, the city was razed and the castle destroyed. In the late 19th century Aizu-wakamatsu became an administrative centre, and its commercial importance was strengthened with the arrival of a railway. Most of its industry continues to be traditional, with small-scale establishments producing lacquer ware, ceramic ware, sake (rice wine), decorative candles, and characteristic little paper oxen (*akabeko*). Larger plants for the production of lacquer ware have been built. Tourists are attracted by the city and the castle (rebuilt in 1965). On Mount Iimori, outside the city, is the cemetery for the samurai of the White Tiger Corps, who withstood the Meiji forces. Natural tourist attractions include the hot springs and maple groves at Mount Higashi, to the southeast. Pop. (2005) 131,389.

Alaca Hüyük

[![Photograph:Copper finial showing a stag and two steers, from Alaca Hüyük, c. 2400-2200 ...]] - Copper finial showing a stag and two steers, from Alaca Hüyük, *c.* 2400-2200 ... ancient Anatolian site northeast of the old [][Hittite] capital of Hattusa at Boğazköy, north-central Turkey. Its excavation was begun by Makridi Bey in 1907 and resumed in 1935 by the Turkish Historical Society. Inside a sphinx gate, traces of a large Hittite building were discovered. Below the Hittite remains was a royal necropolis of 13 tombs dating from about 2500 BC. Although material from the same period at [][Alişar Hüyük] (*q.v.*) seemed to indicate a relatively primitive community of farmers and traders, the tombs of Alaca Hüyük provide evidence of considerable cultural accomplishment and refinement. While the tomb pottery is comparatively primitive in style, there is ample evidence of the advanced accomplishments of Copper Age metallurgy. Filigree ornaments (*see* [photograph]), jewelry, bowls, jugs, and chalices of gold were found, and sheet gold or gold wire was freely used in ornamentation. Vessels and bands of silver, and bowls and statuettes of copper or bronze are also represented. Included in the tomb finds were female "idols"; these were probably early cult images of the typical Anatolian mother goddess. Although the ethnic identity of Alaca's preliterate inhabitants is uncertain, it is most plausible to assign them to the non-Indo-European population that preceded the arrival of the people now known as Hittites; archaeological parallels are available among Heinrich Schliemann's Trojan treasures from Troy (level II) and from the Early Bronze Age at Cyprus.

Afghan carpet

[![Photograph:Detail of an Afghan carpet from Russian Turkistan, late 19th century, featuring the ...]] - Detail of an Afghan carpet from Russian Turkistan, late 19th century, featuring the ... thick, heavy floor covering handwoven by [Turkmen] craftsmen in Afghanistan and adjacent parts of Uzbekistan. While most of the weavers could be broadly labeled Ersari Turkmen, rugs are also woven by Chub Bash, Kızıl Ayaks, and other small groups. The carpets are mostly of medium size, with a repeating octagonal figure called a *gul* (Persian: "flower" or "rose"); various *gul*s are associated with specific groups. The rugs almost always have a red field. The weavers also produce other trappings of the nomadic lifestyle, including tent bags and ceremonial pieces. Many non-Turkmen groups also live within Afghanistan, including Kirghiz, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Arabs, and Baluchi, but rugs of these peoples are labeled according to the ethnic group that wove them.

Agamemnon

[![Photograph:Electra and Orestes killing Aegisthus in the presence of their mother, Clytemnestra; detail of a ...]] - Electra and Orestes killing Aegisthus in the presence of their mother, Clytemnestra; detail of a ... in Greek legend, king of Mycenae or Argos. He was the son (or grandson) of [Atreus], king of Mycenae, and his wife Aërope and was the brother of [][Menelaus]. After Atreus was murdered by his nephew Aegisthus (son of Thyestes), Agamemnon and Menelaus took refuge with Tyndareus, king of Sparta, whose daughters, [][Clytemnestra] and [Helen], they respectively married. By Clytemnestra, Agamemnon had a son, [Orestes], and three daughters, [][Iphigeneia] (Iphianassa), [Electra] (Laodice), and Chrysothemis. Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus, and Agamemnon recovered his father's kingdom. When [Paris] (Alexandros), son of King Priam of [][Troy], carried off Helen, Agamemnon called on the princes of the country to unite in a [war of revenge against the Trojans]. He himself furnished 100 ships and was chosen commander in chief of the combined forces. The fleet assembled at the port of Aulis in Boeotia but was prevented from sailing by calms or contrary winds that were sent by the goddess [][Artemis] because Agamemnon had in some way offended her. To appease the wrath of Artemis, Agamemnon was forced to sacrifice his own daughter Iphigeneia. [![Video:On his long journey home, Odysseus visits the Land of the Departed Spirits, where he encounters the ...]] - On his long journey home, Odysseus visits the Land of the Departed Spirits, where he encounters the ... After the capture of Troy, [][Cassandra], Priam's daughter, fell to Agamemnon's lot in the distribution of the prizes of war. On his return he landed in Argolis, where [Aegisthus], who in the interval had seduced Agamemnon's wife, treacherously carried out the murders of Agamemnon, his comrades, and Cassandra. In *Agamemnon*, by the Greek poet and dramatist [Aeschylus], however, Clytemnestra was made to do the killing. The murder was avenged by Orestes, who returned to slay both his mother and her paramour.

Alamogordo

[![Photograph:First atomic bomb test, near Alamogordo, New Mexico, July 16, 1945.]] - First atomic bomb test, near Alamogordo, New Mexico, July 16, 1945. city, seat (1899) of Otero county, southern [New Mexico], U.S. It lies at the western base of the [Sacramento Mountains] and east of the Tularosa Basin. Founded by John A. and Charles B. Eddy in 1898 and named for its large cottonwood trees (Spanish: *alamo* "cottonwood," *gordo* "fat"), it became a division point on the [Southern Pacific Railroad] and developed as a lumber town and agricultural-market centre. The []Holloman Air Force Base was constructed there during World War II, and the first atomic bomb was exploded at the "Trinity Site" (60 miles [97 km] northwest) on July 16, 1945 (see [photograph]). The base later tested guided missiles, and it now houses aerospace research facilities. Scarcity of water has impeded Alamogordo's postwar development, but water is supplied from many wells and the 85-mile (137-kilometre) Bonito pipeline system. [White Sands National Monument], the International Space Hall of Fame (honouring space pioneers), and the Mescalero (Apache) Reservation are nearby. The city is headquarters for Lincoln National Forest. It is the site of the New Mexico School for the Visually Handicapped (1903) and of a branch of [New Mexico State University]. Inc. 1912. Pop. (1990) 27,596; (2000) 35,582.

Akbar period architecture

[![Photograph:Gateway to the 'Arab Sarā'ī, Delhi, c. 1560]] - Gateway to the 'Arab Sarā'ī, Delhi, *c.* AD 1560 building style that developed in India under the patronage of the Mughal emperor []Akbar (reigned 1556-1605). The style is best exemplified by the fort at [][Āgra] (built 1565-74) and the magnificent city of [][Fatehpur Sīkri] (1569-74), but fine examples are also found in the gateway to the []ʿArab Sarāʾī, Delhi (*c*. 1560), the Ajmer fort (1564-73), the Lahore fort with its outstanding decoration (1586-1618), and the Allahābād fort (1583-84), now largely dismantled. The architecture of the Akbar period is characterized by a strength made elegant and graceful by the rich decorative work. Many elements from the Hindu tradition were absorbed in the decorative work. The fortress-palace of Āgra is impressive for the massive enclosure wall, its entire length of 1 ^^1^^/~~2~~ miles (2 ^^1^^/~~2~~ kilometres) faced with dressed stone. The main entranceway, which is known as the Delhi gate, is attractively decorated with white marble inlay against the warm red sandstone.

Admiral carpet

[![Photograph:Heraldic shield with the coat of arms of Admiral Fadrique Enríquez, detail of an Admiral ...]] - Heraldic shield with the coat of arms of Admiral Fadrique Enríquez, detail of an Admiral ... any of a number of 14th- or 15th-century carpets handwoven in Spain, probably at Letur or at Liétor in Murcia. The carpets were made with the Spanish knot, tied on a single warp and set in staggered rows on adjacent warps. In most cases the carpets show heraldic shields with coats of arms against a background diaper (all-over pattern) of small octagons, many of which contain eight-pointed stars; the shields of some of these carpets bear the arms of members of the [Enríquez family], hereditary admirals of Castile, and others show the arms of Maria of Castile, queen of Aragon. Other Admiral carpets display merely the diapered ground without shields. The borders are complex, the outermost stripe usually a deformation of Kūfic script interspersed with tiny stylized animals, birds, and human figures. Many of these carpets originally were very long but were shortened in the course of their use in the convents upon which they were bestowed in the 15th century and where they were preserved until removed to museums. Admiral carpets appear in several Spanish paintings, in a fresco painted about 1346 at Avignon, and in Hans Holbein the Younger's painting *Solothurn Madonna* (1522; Museum of Fine Art, Solothurn, Switzerland).

Affenkapelle ware

[![Photograph:Hurdy-gurdy-playing monkey derived from one of Johann Joachim Kändler's Affenkapelle figures, ...]] - Hurdy-gurdy-playing monkey derived from one of Johann Joachim Kändler's Affenkapelle figures, ... (German: "Monkey Orchestra"), a series of figures created by the [][Meissen porcelain] factory in Saxony (now in Germany) about 1747 and imitated later. Believed to be a parody of the []Dresden Court Orchestra, the set was modeled by the German sculptors [][Johann Joachim Kändler] and []Peter Reinicke after fanciful [][singerie] (monkeys in human costume) engravings by the French artists Jean-Antoine Watteau and Christophe Huet. Each musician, dressed in delicately coloured formal 18th-century costume, stands on a gilded scrollwork base of leaves and flowers; a male monkey conducts, four females sing, and each of the others plays a musical instrument. In 1753 Meissen supplied the Marquise de Pompadour with a "concert" of 19 players, which is the largest known surviving group, though there is evidence that a whole set might have numbered 25. The figures belong to the most brilliant period of Meissen porcelain, and Kändler's mastery of expression clearly transcends mere caricature. Among the many imitations that exist, most far less elegant than the original, are a set of five musical monkeys that were made in Chelsea (London) and sold there in 1756; figures from Fürstenberg (Germany) and Derby (England); and, 100 years later, a spirited hurdy-gurdy-playing monkey made by the Russian Korniloff factory and directly inspired by one of Kändler's figures.

Akashi

[![Photograph:Municipal Astronomical Science Museum and planetarium at Akashi, Japan]] - Municipal Astronomical Science Museum and planetarium at Akashi, Japan city, [Hyōgo] *ken* (prefecture), Honshu, Japan. The city is adjacent to Kōbe on the Akashi Strait of the Inland Sea. It developed as a castle town, and many relics of the Jōmon and Yayoi periods remain on the nearby hills. Artifacts of the Jōmon period (4500-250 BC; a hunting and gathering society) include pottery with distinctive cord impressions. During the Yayoi period (250 BC-AD 250) immigrants from Korea introduced irrigation techniques and bronze and iron implements. Before World War II Akashi was a thriving city, its economy based on the aircraft industry. During the war, half of the population was lost to air raids in the old part of the city. The heavy steel industry, developed during the Korean War, revived Akashi as an industrial and residential district. The city was formerly a fishing centre, but the yield of marine products has decreased because of overfishing and marine pollution. The Japanese standard-time meridian, 135° E, passes through the city. Pop. (2005) 291,027.

ajaeng

[![Photograph:Musician playing an ajaeng, a type of bowed zither, in a ...]] - Musician playing an *ajaeng*, a type of bowed zither, in a ... large Korean bowed [zither] having seven strings. Its body is about 160 cm (62 inches) long and 25 cm (10 inches) wide and is made of paulownia wood. The *ajaeng*'s strings, made of twisted silk, are supported by separate movable bridges. The bow with which it is played, some 65 cm (25 inches) long, is fashioned from a peeled forsythia branch that has been hardened with pine resin. [![Audio:Excerpt of a performance on a sanjo ajaeng, a Korean bowed ...]] - Excerpt of a performance on a *sanjo ajaeng*, a Korean bowed ... The instrument, which is placed in a transverse position on the floor, is supported on its bowed end by a stand. The player sits on the floor behind it and moves the bow over the strings to the right of the bridges while the left hand varies pitch and vibrato by pressing the strings on the other side of the bridges. Characteristically the tone of the *ajaeng* is raspy, and its melodies are highly inflected and expressive. Derived from the Chinese *yazheng*, the *ajaeng* arrived in Korea from China during the Koryŏ dynasty (918-1392). Usually paired with the [*haegŭm*], it plays the traditional Korean court music of both the Chinese-derived (*t'ang-ak*) and the Korean (*hyang-ak*) styles, each of which has a characteristic [pentatonic] tuning. The modern *[]ajaeng sanjo* is basically a smaller version of the *ajaeng*, about 120 cm (47 inches) long, and it has eight strings. The *ajaeng sanjo* is used for a variety of genres, including *sanjo* (virtuosic solo music), folk songs, and shaman ensembles.

Alaska Range

[![Photograph:The Alaska Range reflected in Wonder Lake, Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska.]] - The Alaska Range reflected in Wonder Lake, Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska. segment of the [Pacific mountain system] that extends generally northward and eastward in an arc for about 400 miles (650 km) from the [Aleutian Range] to the Yukon boundary in southern [Alaska], U.S. [][Mount McKinley], which reaches an elevation of 20,320 feet (6,194 metres), near the centre of the range, in [Denali National Park and Preserve], is the highest point in [North America]. Many nearby peaks exceed 13,000 feet (4,000 metres), including Mounts Silverthrone, Hunter, Hayes, and Foraker. Drained by the [Yukon River] (north) and the [Pacific Ocean] (south), the mountains separate the interior tundra from the Pacific coastal region. The peaks present many challenges to climbers, and tourists are attracted by the enormous glaciers and Arctic scenery. The range is crossed at Isabel Pass by the Trans-Alaska Pipeline en route to its southern terminal at [Valdez]. *See also* [Alaskan mountains].

Adonis

[![Photograph:Venus and Adonis, oil on canvas by Jacopo Amigoni, 18th century. 216 ...]] - *Venus and Adonis*, oil on canvas by Jacopo Amigoni, 18th century. 216 ... in Greek mythology, a youth of remarkable beauty, the favourite of the goddess [][Aphrodite] (identified with Venus by the Romans). Traditionally, he was the product of the incestuous love Smyrna (Myrrha) entertained for her own father, the Syrian king Theias. Charmed by his beauty, Aphrodite put the newborn infant Adonis in a box and handed him over to the care of [][Persephone], the queen of the underworld, who afterward refused to give him up. An appeal was made to Zeus, the king of the gods, who decided that Adonis should spend a third of the year with Persephone and a third with Aphrodite, the remaining third being at his own disposal. A better-known story, hinted at in Euripides' *Hippolytus*, is that Artemis avenged her favourite, Hippolytus, by causing the death of Adonis, who, being a hunter, ventured into her domain and was killed by a wild boar. Aphrodite pleaded for his life with Zeus, who allowed Adonis to spend half of each year with her and half in the underworld. The central idea of the myth is that of the death and resurrection of Adonis, which represent the decay of nature every winter and its revival in spring. He is thus viewed by modern scholars as having originated as an ancient spirit of vegetation. Annual festivals called Adonia were held at Byblos and elsewhere to commemorate Adonis for the purpose of promoting the growth of vegetation and the falling of rain. The name Adonis is believed to be of Phoenician origin (from ʾ*adōn,* "lord"), Adonis himself being identified with the Babylonian god [][Tammuz]. Shakespeare's poem *Venus and Adonis* (1593) is based on Ovid's *Metamorphoses*, Book X.

aggressive mimicry

[![Video:An anglerfish (order Lophiiformes) luring and capturing prey.]] - An anglerfish (order Lophiiformes) luring and capturing prey. a form of similarity in which a predator or parasite gains an advantage by its resemblance to a third party. This model may be the prey (or host) species itself, or it may be a species that the prey does not regard as threatening. An example in which the prey itself serves as the model can be seen in the mimicry used by female [][fireflies] of the genus *[Photuris].* These insects imitate the mating flashes of the fireflies of the genus *[Photinus;]* the unlucky *Photinus* males deceived by the mimics are eaten. Another example is found in the brood parasitism practiced by the European [][cuckoo] (*Cuculus canorus*). The eggs of this species closely resemble those of several kinds of small birds, in whose nests the cuckoo lays its clutch. The hosts accept the eggs as their own and hatch and rear the young cuckoos. Aggressive mimicry in which the predator resembles a nonthreatening third party is exemplified by the American [zone-tailed hawk], whose resemblance to certain nonaggressive vultures enables it to launch surprise attacks against small animals. In other examples, the aggressor may even mimic the prey of its intended prey. [][Anglerfish], for example, possess a small, mobile, wormlike organ that can be waved on a slender rod in front of other fish; lured in by this organ, which they mistake for their own natural prey, smaller fish are eaten by the anglerfish.

Age, The

[][Australian] daily newspaper published in Melbourne and widely considered to provide some of the finest news coverage in the country. It has been highly regarded for its dedication to accuracy. Originally established as an eight-page weekly in 1854 by the brothers John and Henry Cooke, it became a daily after being sold to Ebenezer and David Syme in 1856. Under David Syme's leadership the paper grew with the state of Victoria and became noted for its serious tone and liberal orientation. *The Age* has consistently given particular attention to politics and economics. It has rarely hesitated to attack political leaders, among them Prime Minister Sir Robert Menzies (1894-1978), who nonetheless termed *The Age* his favourite paper.

Advance Australia Fair

[][national anthem] of Australia, adopted on April 19, 1984. It was first officially proposed in 1974 to replace "God Save the Queen," which had been the national anthem from 1788 to 1974 and which, in 1984, was designated the royal anthem, to be played at public appearances of members of the British royal family. The original music and lyrics were composed by a Scottish-born Australian, []Peter Dodds McCormick (1834?-1916), and first performed in Sydney in 1878. In 1977, in a countrywide public opinion poll to choose a national tune, "Advance Australia Fair" won out over three other contenders, including "Waltzing Matilda." Some of the original words, however, were altered for the official version—including the first line, changed from "Australia's sons, let us rejoice" to "Australians all, let us rejoice." > Australians all, let us rejoice,\ > For we are young and free;\ > We've golden soil and wealth for toil,\ > Our home is girt by sea.\ > Our land abounds in Nature's gifts\ > Of beauty rich and rare;\ > In history's page, let every stage\ > Advance Australia fair.\ > In joyful strains then let us sing,\ > "Advance Australia Fair."\ > Beneath our radiant Southern Cross\ > We'll toil with hearts and hands;\ > To make this Commonwealth of ours\ > Renowned of all the lands;\ > For those who've come across the seas\ > We've boundless plains to share;\ > With courage let us all combine\ > To Advance Australia fair.\ > In joyful strains then let us sing,\ > "Advance Australia Fair."\

air-sea interface

[]boundary between the [][atmosphere] and the [][ocean] []waters. The interface is one of the most physically and chemically active of the Earth's environments. Its neighbourhood supports most marine life. The atmosphere gains much of its heat at the interface in tropical latitudes by back radiation from the heated ocean. In turn, the atmosphere heats the ocean surface in higher latitudes. Atmospheric motion at the interface generates waves and currents. The atmosphere acquires most of its moisture and additional energy in the form of latent heat from the evaporation of water at the interface. Enormous quantities of oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the atmosphere and the ocean at the interface; this exchange aids and benefits from marine life processes. The impact of [][climate] at the interface controls the salinities and temperatures of surface ocean waters. The density of seawater is determined by these parameters and, in turn, controls to which depths in the ocean the water masses flow. [][Photosynthesis], the fundamental basis for oceanic life, takes place just below the interface, where the necessary ingredients of solar energy, carbon dioxide, and nutrient seawater salts are all available.

Admiral's Cup

[]racing trophy awarded to the winner of a biennial international competition among teams of sailing yachts; it was established in 1957 by the [Royal Ocean Racing Club] (RORC) of Great Britain. Teams of three yachts rated at 25 to 70 feet (8 to 21 m) by RORC rules (formerly 30 to 60 feet [9 to 18 m] waterline length) represent each nation in six races (five until 1987) off the southern coast of England, culminating in the 605-mile (975-kilometre) [][Fastnet Cup] Race. The Admiral's Cup is one of the most prized ocean-racing trophies.

Albert Canal

[waterway] connecting the cities of [Antwerp] and [Liège] in Belgium. The Albert Canal is about 130 km (80 miles) long. As completed in 1939, it had a minimum bottom width of 24 metres (80 feet) and could be navigated by 2,000-ton vessels having a maximum draft of 2.7 metres (9 feet). Enlargement of the canal began in 1960, and it can now handle push-tow units of 9,000 tons with a draft of 3.4 metres (11 feet). Traversing a highly industrialized area, the canal has six sets of triple locks and one single lock at Monsin (Liège), the fall from Liège to Antwerp being 56 metres (184 feet). [Michael Clarke]

adularia

a feldspar mineral and potassium aluminosilicate (KAlSi~3~O~8~). It commonly forms colourless, glassy, prismatic, twinned crystals in low-temperature veins of felsic plutonic rocks and in cavities in crystalline schists. Typical occurrences include the schists of the Alps. Some adularia show an opalescent play of colours and are called moonstone. Adularia and [][orthoclase] are similar, but adularia is pseudo-orthorhombic. Slight differences in refractive indices, specific gravity, temperature of their conversion to [][sanidine] (a high-temperature form of potassium feldspar), and axial angle, however, indicate the existence of two different species.

age set

a formally organized group consisting of every male (or female) of comparable age. In those societies chiefly identified with the practice, a person belonged, either from birth or from a determined age, to a named age set that passed through a series of stages, each of which had a distinctive status or social and political role. Each stage is usually known as an []age grade. Among the [][Nuer] of the southern Sudan, the age sets (formed among males only) constituted a system of social stratification in which there was equality among members of the same age set and deference and subordination between junior and senior age sets. The sets were formed at about 10-year intervals by initiation ceremonies that marked the passage from boyhood to manhood, and each individual remained for the rest of his life in the age set into which he had been initiated. The Nuer had no system of age grades apart from the original transition from boyhood to manhood, and there were no clearly defined activities assigned to each age set; a particular set advanced slowly to a position of acknowledged seniority as older sets died out. In other tribal societies, age grades were found having a more specific allocation of activities to age sets in each grade; thus, the age-grade system might provide for the military training of the young and the organization of military expeditions. The [][Nandi] tribe of Kenya had seven male age sets—two of boys, one of warriors, and four of elders. The warrior set, which was responsible for warfare and for tribal government, retained its position for about 15 years, after which it moved up to become one of the sets of elders, and the government was handed over to the next age set below it. Among five of the [][Plains Indians] tribes of North America (Blackfoot, Atsina [Gros Ventre], Arapaho, Mandan, Hidatsa), there were ceremonial societies organized on the age-grading principle. It has been suggested that the prominence of age grading in these tribes (contrasted with its absence among other Plains Indians) may be partly attributable to the absence of any extensive division of labour or economic inequality in these tribes. Whereas such tribes as the Crow had large numbers of horses (in a warring and buffalo-hunting culture that demanded horses) and made their possession the chief basis of individual wealth and social status, the five tribes were relatively poor in horses, and age grades provided the basis of social stratification.

affix

a grammatical element that is combined with a word, stem, or phrase to produce derived and inflected forms. There are three types of affixes: [prefixes], infixes, and [suffixes]. A prefix occurs at the beginning of a word or stem (*sub*-mit, *pre*-determine, *un*-willing); a suffix at the end (wonder-*ful,* depend-*ent,* act-*ion*); and an [infix] occurs in the middle. English has no infixes, but they are found in American Indian languages, Greek, Tagalog, and elsewhere. Examples of English inflectional suffixes are illustrated by the *-s* of "cats," the *-er* of "longer," and the *-ed* of "asked." *See also* [morphology].

agglutination

a grammatical process in which words are composed of a sequence of morphemes (word elements), each of which represents not more than a single grammatical category. This term is traditionally employed in the typological classification of languages. [][Turkish], Finnish, and Japanese are among the languages that form words by agglutination. The Turkish term *ev-ler-den* "from the houses" is an example of a word containing a stem and two word elements; the stem is *ev-* "house," the element *-ler-* carries the meaning of plural, and *-den* indicates "from." In Wishram, a dialect of [Chinook] (a North American Indian language), the word *ačimluda* ("He will give it to you") is composed of the elements *a-* "future," *-č-* "he," *-i-* "him," *-m-* "thee," *-1-* "to," *-ud-* "give," and *-a* "future." Agglutinating languages contrast with inflecting languages, in which one word element may represent several grammatical categories, and also with isolating languages, in which each word consists of only one word element. Most languages are mixtures of all three types.

air sac

any of the air-filled extensions of the [][breathing] apparatus of many animals. Air sacs are found as tiny sacs off the larger breathing tubes (tracheae) of insects, as extensions of the lungs in birds, and as end organs in the lungs of certain other vertebrates. They serve to increase respiratory efficiency by providing a large surface area for gas exchange. *See also* [pulmonary alveolus].

adynaton

a kind of [hyperbole] in which the exaggeration is so great that it refers to an impossibility, as in the following lines from [Andrew Marvell]'s ["To His Coy Mistress"]: > Had we but world enough, and time\ > This coyness, lady, were no crime.\ > We would sit down, and think which way\ > To walk, and pass our long love's day.\ > Thou by the Indian Ganges' side\ > Shouldst rubies find; I by the tide\ > Of Humber would complain. I would\ > Love you ten years before the flood\ > And you should, if you please, refuse\ > Till the conversion of the Jews.\

Aḥmadīyah

a modern Islāmic sect and the generic name for various Ṣūfī (Muslim mystic) orders. The sect was founded in Qādiān, the Punjab, India, in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Aḥmad (*c.* 1839-1908), who claimed to be the *mahdī* (a figure expected by some Muslims at the end of the world), the Christian Messiah, an incarnation of the Hindu god Krishna, and a reappearance (*burūz*) of Muḥammad. The sect's doctrine, in some aspects, is unorthodox: for example, it is believed that Jesus feigned death and resurrection but in actuality escaped to India, where he died at the age of 120; also, *jihād* ("holy war") is reinterpreted as a battle against unbelievers to be waged by peaceful methods rather than by violent military means. On the death of the founder, Mawlawi []Nur-ad-Din was elected by the community as *khalīfah* ("successor"). In 1914, when he died, the Aḥmadiyah split, the original, [Qadiani], group recognizing Ghulam Aḥmad as prophet (*nabī*) and his son []Hadrat Mirza Bashir-ad-Dīn Mahmud Aḥmad (b. 1889) as the second caliph, the new Lahore society accepting Ghulam Aḥmad only as a reformer (*mujaddid*). The Qadianis, residing chiefly in Pakistan (though there are communities in India and West Africa and to some extent in Great Britain, Europe, and the United States), are a highly organized community with a considerable financial base. They are zealous missionaries, preaching Aḥmadī beliefs as the one true Islām, with Muḥammad and Mirza Ghulam Aḥmad as prophets. In 1947, with the establishment of Pakistan, they officially relocated from Qādiān to Rabwah, Pakistan. The Lahore group are also proselytizers, though more concerned in gaining converts to Islām than to their particular sect. Led from its inception to his death in 1951 by Mawlana Muhammad Ali, the sect has been active in English- and Urdu-language publishing and in liberalizing Islām.

African Greek Orthodox Church

a religious movement in East []Africa that represents a prolonged search for a Christianity more African and, its adherents say, more authentic than the denominational mission forms transplanted from overseas. It began when an Anglican in Uganda, []Reuben Spartas, heard of the independent, all-black []African Orthodox Church in the United States and founded his own African Orthodox Church in 1929. In 1932 he secured ordination by the U.S. church's archbishop from South Africa, whose episcopal orders traced to the ancient Syrian Jacobite (Monophysite) Church of India. After discovering that the U.S. body was heterodox, the African Church added the term Greek and from 1933 developed an affiliation with the Alexandrian patriarchate of the []Greek Orthodox church that culminated in its coming under the control of the first Greek missionary archbishop for East Africa in 1959. Also included were similar but larger churches that had arisen in central and western Kenya. In 1966 tensions arising from missionary paternalism, inadequate material assistance, and young Greek-trained priests who were not particularly African-oriented led Spartas and his followers into secession. The new group, the []African Orthodox Autonomous Church South of the Sahara (with some 7,000 members in Uganda), made unsuccessful approaches to other Greek patriarchates. These East African churches have asserted their African autonomy, shared in nationalist political activities, and accommodated to African customs (such as polygamy, ritual purificatory circumcision of females, and divination). At the same time, their vernacular versions of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, use of vestments and icons, and identification with Eastern Orthodoxy represent a search for connection with the primitive church.

aerosol

a system of liquid or solid particles uniformly distributed in a finely divided state through a gas, usually air. Aerosol particles play an important role in the precipitation process, providing the nuclei upon which condensation and freezing take place. They participate in chemical processes and influence the electrical properties of the atmosphere. True aerosol particles range in diameter from a few millimicrometres to about 1 micrometre (equal to 10^-4^ cm). When smaller particles are in suspension, the system begins to acquire the properties of a true solution; for larger particles, the settling rate is usually so rapid that the system cannot properly be called a true aerosol. Nevertheless, the term is commonly employed, especially in the case of fog or cloud droplets and dust particles, which can have diameters of over 100 micrometres. In general, aerosols composed of particles larger than about 50 micrometres are unstable unless the air turbulence is extreme, as in a severe thunderstorm. Particles with a diameter of less than 0.1 micrometre are sometimes referred to as [Aitken nuclei].

affidavit

a written statement of fact made voluntarily, confirmed by the oath or affirmation of the party making it, and signed before a notary or other officer empowered to administer such oaths. Affidavits generally name the place of execution and certify that the person making it states certain facts and appeared before the officer on a certain date and "subscribed and swore" to the statement.

aid

a tax levied in medieval Europe, paid by persons or communities to someone in authority. Aids could be demanded by the crown from its subjects, by a feudal lord from his vassals, or by the lord of a manor from the inhabitants of his domain. A feudal lord could ask his vassals for an aid because they owed him help and counsel. In the course of time, however, the occasions on which a lord could ask for a subsidy came to be limited (1) to the knighting of his eldest son, (2) to the first marriage of his eldest daughter, (3) to the payment of his ransom, and sometimes (4) to his going on a crusade. These feudal aids were distinguished from the feudal [][relief], which was a tax due the lord by a new vassal upon entering into possession of a fief. They were also different, at least in origin, from [][scutage], which was a payment in lieu of military service by a feudal tenant. The aids that the lord of the manor could demand from the inhabitants of his domain, peasants as well as vassals, were called [][taille] (*q.v.*) and developed into the royal taille, or [][tallage], a direct tax levied by sovereigns. All over Europe princes had to resort to forms of direct taxation because the other revenues of the crown were insufficient, especially in emergencies. In Carolingian times (8th and 9th centuries), "gifts" were regularly offered to the king. In the later Middle Ages the crown negotiated with various sections of the population for aids. Thus in time of war, towns or communes would be asked for certain lump sums by the crown. It was up to them to collect the money from their citizens. Attempts to limit the amount that could be asked were occasionally made by communes but were never really successful against the overriding financial needs of the crown. Eventually these negotiations were carried on with representatives of the whole country meeting in "estates," where the amounts that could be obtained by the crown often depended on the relative strengths of the bargainers.

affective fallacy

according to the followers of [][New Criticism], the misconception that arises from judging a poem by the emotional effect that it produces in the reader. The concept of affective fallacy is a direct attack on impressionistic criticism, which argues that the reader's response to a poem is the ultimate indication of its value. Those who support the affective criterion for judging poetry cite its long and respectable history, beginning with Aristotle's dictum that the purpose of tragedy is to evoke "terror and pity." [][Edgar Allan Poe] stated that "a poem deserves its title only inasmuch as it excites, by elevating the soul." [][Emily Dickinson] said, "If I feel physically as if the top of my head were taken off, I know that is poetry." Many modern critics continue to assert that emotional communication and response cannot be separated from the evaluation of a poem. *See also* [New Criticism].

agribusiness

agriculture regarded as a business; more specifically, that part of a modern national economy devoted to the production, processing, and distribution of food and fibre products and by-products. In highly industrialized countries, many activities essential to agriculture are carried on separately from the farm. These include the development and production of equipment, fertilizers, and seeds; in some countries the processing, storage, preservation, and delivery of products have also been separated from basic []farming. In consequence, farming itself has become increasingly specialized and businesslike. Some business firms even raise crops, as in the case of a winery that operates its own vineyards or a large commercial producer of fast-frozen or canned vegetables that maintains its own farm. Many of these farms use extensive mechanization and computer technology to increase production. In recent years, conglomerate companies that are involved in nonagricultural businesses have entered agribusiness by buying and operating large farms. Some food-processing firms that operate farms have begun to market fresh produce under their brand names.

Air Canada

airline established by the Canadian Parliament in the Trans-Canada Air Lines Act of April 10, 1937. Known for almost 28 years as Trans-Canada Air Lines, it assumed its current name on January 1, 1965. Air Canada's headquarters are in Montreal. Initially flying a scheduled route between Vancouver, British Columbia, and Seattle, Washington, the airline so expanded its services through its own routes and through connectors that by the early 21st century it was reaching more than 90 communities throughout Canada and the United States, as well as points in Bermuda, the Caribbean, the United Kingdom, continental Europe, Asia, Australia, and South America. In 1966 it became the first North American airline to serve Moscow. As a crown corporation the company enjoyed a monopoly on Canadian domestic air transport from 1937 to 1959; in the 1960s and '70s, however, restrictions were gradually lifted, and other Canadian carriers began to compete for both domestic and international routes. To further deregulate, to acquire capital for upgrading its fleet, and to better operate in a competitive market, the company was partially privatized in 1988 by the sale of 45 percent of its shares to its employees and the general public; it was fully privatized the following year. In 2000 Air Canada became one of the world's largest commercial airlines after acquiring Canadian Airlines International, the second largest carrier in Canada.

Ajivika

an ascetic sect that emerged in India about the same time as [Buddhism] and [Jainism] and that lasted until the 14th century; the name may mean "following the ascetic way of life." It was founded by [Goshala Maskariputra] (also called Gosala Makkhaliputta), a friend of [Mahavira], the 24th [Tirthankara] ("Ford-maker," i.e., saviour) of Jainism. His doctrines and those of his followers are known only from Buddhist and Jain sources, which state that he was lowborn and died after a quarrel with Mahavira shortly before the [Buddha] died. The sect's opponents portrayed Ajivika as professing total determinism in the transmigration of souls, or series of rebirths. Whereas other groups believed that an individual can better his or her lot in the course of transmigration, the Ajivikas supposedly held that the affairs of the entire universe were ordered by a cosmic force called *[]niyati* (Sanskrit: "rule" or "destiny") that determined all events, including an individual's fate, to the last detail and that barred personal efforts to change or accelerate improvement toward one's spiritual destiny. As a result of this static and melancholy view of the human condition, the Ajivikas practiced austerities rather than pursue any purposeful goal. After a period of acceptance during the reign of the [Mauryan] dynasty (3rd century BCE), the sect declined, although followers lived on until the 14th century in the region that became the modern state of [Mysore]. Some later Ajivikas worshipped Goshala as a divinity, and the tenet of *niyati* developed into the doctrine that all change was illusory and that everything was eternally immobile.

Ai

ancient Canaanite town destroyed by the Israelites under their leader [][Joshua] (Joshua 7-8). Biblical references agree in locating Ai (Hebrew: *ha-ʿAy,* "The Ruin") just east of [][Bethel] (modern Baytīn in the West Bank). This would make it identical with the large early Bronze Age site now called At-[]Tall. Excavations there in 1933-35 by a French expedition uncovered a large temple and other remains of the 3rd millennium BC. That occupation ended about 2500 BC, and there was no later reoccupation except briefly in the 12th-11th century BC. The biblical events, however, are usually assigned to a period between about 1400 and 1200 BC. A widely accepted explanation is that early Israelite tradition identified the Canaanite town that was buried under the Israelite Bethel with the imposing ruins of the still earlier At-Tall, only 1.5 miles (2.4 km) to the east.

ʿAdullam

ancient city and modern development region, in the upper part of Ha-Shefela, central Israel. The mound of Tel ʿAdullam, or orbat ("Ruins of") ʿAdullam (Arabic: Tall Ash-Shaykh Madhkūr), 22.5 miles (36 km) southwest of Jerusalem, is generally accepted as the site of the ancient city. The earliest reference to ʿAdullam is in the book of Genesis, which tells of the activities of Judah, son of Jacob, in the area (Genesis 38). After the exodus from Egypt and the Israelite conquest, ʿAdullam was assigned to the tribe of Judah (Joshua 15:35). Later, during David's flight from King Saul, he and his followers took refuge in the fortified caves there (1 Samuel 22:1-4). Following the division of the Jewish kingdom (10th century BC), Solomon's son, Rehoboam, first king of Judah, fortified ʿAdullam, but it and the other fortified cities of Judah were taken by Pharaoh Sheshonk I (biblical Shishak), who ruled Egypt about 935-914 BC. In later centuries ʿAdullam was reoccupied by the Jews after the Babylonian Exile (early 6th century BC). During the Hasmonean revolt (2nd century BC), Judas Maccabeus took the fortified city from Gorgias, one of Antiochus IV Epiphanes' generals (2 Maccabees 12:38). In modern Israel the name []ʿAdullam is given to the planned development region in the former (1949-67) "Jerusalem corridor," west of the capital. This hilly area, on the boundary of Ha-Shefela and the Yehuda (Judaean) Mountains, includes the ancient site. Settlement commenced in 1958; several agricultural villages and rural subcentres were established. No main regional centre was built because of the area's proximity to Jerusalem, but most villages were clustered around three rural centres. Orchards are prominent in the northeastern part of the region, while field crops predominate in the southwest. Mixed light manufacturing has been located in some of the villages.

Alba Longa

ancient city of Latium, Italy, in the Alban Hills about 12 miles (19 km) southeast of Rome, near present Castel Gandolfo. Tradition attributes its founding (c. 1152 BC) to [][Ascanius], the son of the legendary Aeneas, thus making it, according to legend at least, the oldest Latin city, which in turn founded others, including Rome. Excavations have revealed cemeteries that date to the 10th century BC and provide valuable evidence of a prosperous Latin culture. Alba Longa headed a Latin league of uncertain extent until destroyed about 600 BC by Rome. Some distinguished families, including the Julian clan, were said to have migrated to Rome at that time. The name Albanum referred to the imperial villa in the Alban territory. The emperors formed a single estate out of a considerable part of this district, including apparently the whole of the lake, and [Domitian] (late 1st century AD) was especially fond of it. Under [Septimius Severus] it became a legionary camp. The imperial villa occupied the site of the present Villa Barberini at Castel Gandolfo, and considerable remains still exist.

Akkad

ancient region in what is now central Iraq. Akkad was the northern (or northwestern) division of ancient Babylonian civilization. The region was located roughly in the area where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers are closest to each other, and its northern limit extended beyond the line of the modern cities of al-Fallūjah and Baghdad. The early inhabitants of this region were predominantly Semitic, and their speech is called Akkadian. To the south of the region of Akkad lay [][Sumer], the southern (or southeastern) division of ancient Babylonia, which was inhabited by a non-Semitic people known as Sumerians. The name of Akkad was taken from the city of Agade, which was founded by the Semitic conqueror [][Sargon] in about 2300 BC. Sargon united the various city-states in the region and extended his rule to encompass much of Mesopotamia. After the fall of Sargon's dynasty in about 2150 BC, the central Iraq region was ruled by a state jointly composed of Sumerians and [][Akkadians.] Under the kings of Akkad, their Semitic language, known as Akkadian, became a literary language that was written with the cuneiform system of writing. Akkadian is the oldest Semitic dialect still preserved.

ʿAjjul, Tall al-

ancient site in southern Palestine, located at the mouth of the Ghazzah Wadi just south of the town of Gaza (modern Ghazzah). The site, often called "ancient Gaza," was excavated between 1930 and 1934 by British archaeologists under the direction of Sir Flinders []Petrie. Although the earliest remains on the site date back perhaps as far as 2100 BC, the town seems to have reached its zenith during the Middle Bronze Age (*c.* 2300-*c.* 1550 BC), especially during the 17th and 16th centuries, when it was probably controlled by the [][Hyksos] (15th Dynasty) rulers of Egypt. Included in the remains of that period were a great Hyksos-style fosse (defense ditch), portions of several private dwellings, and a large building covering an area of about a half an acre. If, as seems probable, the building is to be identified as a palace, it is the largest palace of that period yet discovered in Palestine. The palace was succeeded by four other large buildings, the last of which probably dated from about 1200 BC.

Alastor

any of certain avenging deities or spirits, especially in Greek antiquity. The term is associated with [Nemesis], the goddess of divine retribution who signified the gods' disapproval of human presumption. [Percy Bysshe Shelley]'s poem *[Alastor; or, The Spirit of Solitude]* (1816) was a visionary work in which he warned idealists (like himself) not to abandon "sweet human love" and social improvement for the vain pursuit of evanescent dreams. It describes the early wanderings of such an idealist, his search for ideal love, and his eventual lonely death.

albatross

any of more than a dozen species of large seabirds that collectively make up the family Diomedeidae (order Procellariiformes). Because of their tameness on land, many albatrosses are known by the common names mollymawk (from the Dutch for "foolish gull") and gooney. Albatrosses are among the most spectacular gliders of all birds, able to stay aloft in windy weather for hours without ever flapping their extremely long, narrow wings. In calm air an albatross has trouble keeping its stout body airborne and prefers to rest on the water surface. Like other oceanic birds, albatrosses drink seawater. Although they normally live on squid, they also are seen to accompany ships to feed on garbage. Albatrosses come ashore only to breed. This activity occurs in colonies that are usually established on remote oceanic islands, where groups and pairs exhibit mating behaviour that includes wing-stretching and bill-fencing displays accompanied by loud groaning sounds. The single large, white egg, laid on the bare ground or in a heaped-up nest, is incubated by the parents in turn. The growth of the young albatross is very slow, especially in the larger species; it attains flight plumage in 3 to 10 months, then spends the next 5 to 10 years at sea, passing through several pre-adult plumages before coming to land to mate. Albatrosses live long and may be among the few birds to die of old age. Seamen once held albatrosses in considerable awe; they held that killing an albatross would bring bad luck, a superstition reflected in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner." In spite of this superstition, the birds were often taken on baited hooks by sailors for meat. The foot web could be fashioned into a tobacco pouch, and the long hollow bones were used as pipestems. At one time professional plume hunters even raided breeding grounds. The North Pacific species were slaughtered in large numbers for their feathers, which were used in the millinery trade and as swansdown. Some of the best-known albatrosses are the following.

aholehole

any of several species of fishes constituting the family Kuhliidae (order Perciformes). Various members of the genus *[]Kuhlia* inhabit marine or fresh waters in the Indo-Pacific region, whereas representatives of the other two genera are restricted to freshwater or brackish habitats of Australia. Superficially the aholeholes resemble the freshwater sunfishes (family Centrarchidae) and are presumably closely related. The []Hawaiian aholehole (*Kuhlia sandvicensis*) is restricted to coastal waters throughout the Hawaiian Islands. Its maximum length is about 30 cm (12 inches). Some species in the family reach lengths of 45 cm (18 inches).

aerosol container

any package, usually a metal can or plastic bottle, designed to dispense its liquid contents as a mist or foam. This type of container was developed in 1941 by the American chemist []Lyle D. Goodhue and others for dispensing insecticides. Since that time a wide variety of products ranging from disinfectants to whipping cream have been packaged in aerosol containers. The most common type of aerosol container consists of a shell, a valve, a "dip tube" that extends from the valve to the liquid product, and a liquefied-gas [][propellant] under pressure. The liquid product is generally mixed with the propellant. When the valve is opened, this solution moves up the dip tube and out the valve. The propellant vaporizes as it is released into the atmosphere, dispersing the product in the form of fine particles. In foam packs, such as shaving cream, the propellant and product are present together as an emulsion. On release, the liquid vaporizes, whipping the whole into a foam. [][Chlorofluorocarbons], often called Freons, were used extensively as propellants in aerosol-spray products manufactured in the United States until 1978, when the federal government banned most uses of those compounds because of their potentially harmful environmental effect. Scientific studies indicated that chlorofluorocarbons released into the air rise up to the stratosphere, where they catalyze the decomposition of [ozone] molecules. The stratospheric ozone helps shield animal life from the Sun's intense ultraviolet radiation, and it was feared that a significant reduction of atmospheric ozone by chlorofluorocarbons could lead to higher rates of radiation-induced skin cancer in humans. In compliance with the federal ban, American and European manufacturers have substituted [][hydrocarbons] and carbon dioxide for chlorofluorocarbons in most aerosol products. They also have developed aerosol containers that use air pressure produced by hand-operated pumps instead of a propellant.

Ahīr

cattle-tending caste widespread in northern and central India. Considerable historical interest attaches to this caste, because its members are thought to be identical with the [Ābhīras] of Sanskrit literature, who are mentioned repeatedly in the great epic the *Mahābhārata.* Some scholars contend that these cattlemen, scattered over southern Rājasthān and Sind (now part of Pakistan), played a role of importance in the early development of the god Krishna as the cowherd, which has continued to be a significant aspect of the Krishna legend.

airframe

basic structure of an [][airplane] or spacecraft excluding its power plant and instrumentation; its principal components thus include the [][wings], [][fuselage], tail assembly, and landing gear. The airframe is designed to withstand all aerodynamic forces as well as the stresses imposed by the weight of the fuel, crew, and payload. Most airframes of early airplanes consisted of a fuselage of truss design constructed of narrow hardwood boards or steel tubing and braced with wires. This basic framework supported the wing structure, which was composed of spars with ribbing. Both the fuselage and wings were covered by a skin of cotton fabric. Airframe construction was radically improved during the 1930s. The aerodynamically contoured fuselage shell characteristic of all modern aircraft was introduced at this time, and high-strength, lightweight metals (chiefly aluminum alloys, magnesium, and some stainless steel and titanium) replaced wood and fabric throughout the airframe.

African Methodist Episcopal Church

black [Methodist] church in the United States, formally organized in 1816. It developed from a congregation formed by a group of blacks who withdrew in 1787 from St. George's Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia because of restrictions in seating; blacks had been confined to the gallery of the church. Those who withdrew formed the Free African Society, the forerunner of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, and built Bethel African Methodist Church in Philadelphia. In 1799 [][Richard Allen] was ordained its minister by Bishop [Francis Asbury] of the [Methodist Episcopal Church]. In 1816 Asbury consecrated Allen bishop of the newly organized African Methodist Episcopal Church, which accepted Methodist doctrine and discipline. The church speaks of Richard Allen, William Paul Quinn, David A. Payne, and Henry M. Turner as the "Four Horsemen" instrumental in the establishment of the church. The church is Methodist in church government, and it holds a general conference every four years. In 1991 the church claimed 3,500,000 members and 8,000 congregations. Its headquarters are in Washington, D.C.

African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church

black [Methodist] church in the United States, organized in 1821; it adopted its present name in 1848. It developed from a congregation formed by a group of blacks who in 1796 left the John Street Methodist Church in New York City because of discrimination. They built their first church (Zion) in 1800 and were served for many years by white ministers of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1821 a conference attended by representatives of six black churches and presided over by a white Methodist minister elected a black bishop, []James Varick. After the American Civil War the church grew rapidly in the North and the South. Foreign-mission programs were established in South America, Africa, and the West Indies. The church is Methodist in doctrine and church government; a general conference is held every four years. In 1998 the church reported more than 1,250,000 members and almost 3,000 congregations. Its headquarters are in Charlotte, North Carolina.

Albert I

born *c.* 1255 died May 1, 1308, Brugg, Switz. duke of Austria and German king from 1298 to 1308 who repressed private war, befriended the serfs, and protected the persecuted Jews. The eldest son of King Rudolf I of the House of Habsburg, Albert was invested with the duchies of Austria and Styria in 1282. After Rudolf's death (1291), the electors, determined to prevent the German crown from becoming a hereditary possession of the Habsburgs, checked Albert's aspirations by choosing [][Adolf] of Nassau as German king. Albert, however, drew the electors into an alliance and engineered the deposition (June 23, 1298) of Adolf, who was defeated in battle and slain on July 2, 1298, at Göllheim. Albert's election, proclaimed at Mainz before the battle, was repeated at Frankfurt on July 27; he was crowned at Aachen on August 24.

Akindynos, Gregorios

born *c.* 1300, , Bulgaria died *c.* 1349 Byzantine monk and theologian who was the principal opponent of Hesychasm, a Greek monastic movement of contemplative prayer. He was eventually condemned for heresy. A student of the monk-theologian Gregory [][Palamas], Akindynos absorbed from him the []Hesychast theory of ascetical contemplation, a method of Eastern mysticism that used repetitive formulas and mental concentration through specific bodily postures to achieve inner peace and divine union through a vision of God. The theologically conservative Akindynos at first sided with Palamas but later attempted to convince him of certain errors in the Hesychast theory. Abetted by the accession of Emperor John V Palaeologus in 1341 and encouraged by the patriarch of Constantinople, John XII Calecas, Akindynos recorded in 1343 the history of the Hesychast dispute and by 1344 had composed seven treatises against Palamas' doctrine. Aspiring to be bishop of Thessalonica, Akindynos propagated anti-Palamite views there. In 1347, however, he was condemned by a synod after the pro-Palamas emperor John VI Cantacuzenus came to power and in 1351 was posthumously anathematized (solemnly cursed or banned) by being placed on the official list of heretics.

Albany, Robert Stewart, 1st duke of

born *c.* 1340 died September 1420, Stirling Castle, Stirling, Scot. regent of Scotland who virtually ruled Scotland from 1388 to 1420, throughout the reign of his weak brother Robert III and during part of the reign of James I, who had been imprisoned in London. The third son of Robert II of Scotland, he was made high chamberlain of Scotland in 1382 and won a military reputation in campaigns against England. Chosen guardian of Scotland in 1388, he retained the control of affairs after his brother John became king as Robert III in 1390. In April 1398 he was created duke of Albany (of the first creation). In 1399, however, his nephew David, duke of Rothesay, the heir to the crown, succeeded him as governor. Uncle and nephew soon differed, and in March 1402 the latter died in prison at Falkland. While Albany and the Earl of Douglas were certainly responsible for the imprisonment of Rothesay, the cause of his death is unknown, though contemporary suspicion pointed to the uncle's guilt. Restored to the office of governor, the Duke was chosen regent of the kingdom after the death of Robert III in 1406, because the new king, James I, was a prisoner in London. Albany continued, with no great success, to prosecute the war with England, which had been renewed a few years before. Albany died at Stirling Castle and was buried in Dunfermline Abbey. His son, Murdac (or Murdoch) Stewart, succeeded him as 2nd duke of Albany and regent but was seized in 1425 on the orders of James I on unrecorded charges and tried and executed. The dukedom of the first creation became extinct.

Albany, John Stewart, 2nd duke of

born *c.* 1484 died June 2, 1536 regent of Scotland during the reign of James V and advocate of close ties between France and Scotland. His father, Alexander Stewart (*c.* 1454-85), the 1st duke of Albany of the second creation, died when he was scarcely more than an infant, and he was raised in France by his mother, Anne de la Tour d'Auvergne. In 1515, at the request of the Scottish Parliament, he came to Scotland from France. Inaugurated regent in July, he organized resistance to the English influence of the widow of James IV, Queen Margaret Tudor, whom he took prisoner at Stirling in August. He was declared heir to the throne on Nov. 13, 1516. Returning to France in 1517 he concluded the []Treaty of Rouen, which renewed the alliance between France and Scotland and stipulated that a daughter of Francis I of France should marry James V of Scotland. Returning to Scotland at the close of 1521, he immediately became the object of English attacks. He reconciled himself temporarily with Margaret and was accused by the English government of scheming to marry her himself. This was denied by the Scots, and the English demand for the regent's dismissal was refused. War with England broke out in September 1522, but Albany had little success in the field and retired to France. Returning again in September 1523, he failed once more and finally left Scotland on May 20, 1524. His regency was expressly terminated by the declaration of Parliament later that year.

Africanus, Sextus Julius

born *c.* AD 180, , Jerusalem died *c.* 250 first Christian historian known to produce a universal chronology. His life is not well documented, but evidence indicates that Africanus traveled considerably in Asia, Egypt, and Italy and later lived chiefly at Emmaus, in Palestine, where he served as prefect. He was named regional ambassador to Rome about 222, when he became a protégé of the emperor Severus Alexander. Africanus' greatest work was *[]Chronographiai* (221), a five-volume treatise on sacred and profane history from the Creation (which he placed at 5499 BC) to AD 221. Relying on the Bible as the basis of his calculations, he incorporated and synchronized Egyptian and Chaldaean chronologies, Greek mythology, and Judaic history with Christianity. His work raised the prestige of early Christianity by placing it within a historical context. He also wrote a critical work on genealogies of Christ as found in Matthew and Luke.

Agis IV

born *c.* 263 BC died 241 Spartan king (244-241) who failed in his attempt to reform Sparta's economic and political structure. Agis succeeded his father, Eudamidas II, at the age of 19. Drawing upon the tradition of the Spartan lawgiver [][Lycurgus], Agis sought to reform a system that distributed the land and wealth unequally and burdened the poor with debt. He proposed the cancellation of debts and the division of the Spartan homeland into 4,500 lots for citizens. By this time the number of full citizens had dwindled to 700. Full citizenship was to be extended to many perioeci (voteless freemen) and foreigners, and 15,000 lots were to be distributed to the remaining perioeci. In addition to pursuing these reforms, Agis sought the restoration of the Lycurgan system of military training. Agis was supported by his wealthy mother and grandmother, who surrendered their property; by his uncle []Agesilaus; and by []Lysander, who was an ephor (magistrate with the duty of limiting the power of the king) in 243. When the rich, led by the other king, []Leonidas II, defeated these proposals, Leonidas was deposed. The ephors of 242 tried to restore him to his throne, but they were replaced by a board headed by Agesilaus.

Alaric

born *c.* 370, , Peuce Island [now in Romania] died 410, Cosentia, Bruttium [now Cosenza, Italy] chief of the [][Visigoths] from 395 and leader of the army that sacked Rome in August 410, an event that symbolized the fall of the Western Roman Empire. A nobleman by birth, Alaric served for a time as commander of Gothic troops in the Roman army, but shortly after the death of the emperor Theodosius I in 395, he left the army and was elected chief of the Visigoths. Charging that his tribe had not been given subsidies promised by the Romans, Alaric marched westward toward Constantinople (now Istanbul) until he was diverted by Roman forces. He then moved southward into Greece, where he sacked Piraeus (the port of Athens) and ravaged Corinth, Megara, Argos, and Sparta. The Eastern emperor Flavius [][Arcadius] finally placated the Visigoths in 397, probably by appointing Alaric *magister militum* ("master of the soldiers") in Illyricum. In 401 Alaric invaded Italy, but he was defeated by the Roman general [][Flavius Stilicho] at Pollentia (modern Pollenza) on April 6, 402, and forced to withdraw from the peninsula. A second invasion also ended in defeat, though Alaric eventually compelled the Senate at []Rome to pay a large subsidy to the Visigoths. After Stilicho was murdered in August 408, an antibarbarian party took power in Rome and incited the Roman troops to massacre the wives and children of tribesmen who were serving in the Roman army. These tribal soldiers thereupon defected to Alaric, substantially increasing his military strength.

Agesilaus II

born *c.* 444 BC died 360, Cyrene, Cyrenaica [now in Libya] king of [][Sparta] from 399 to 360 who commanded the Spartan army throughout most of the period of Spartan supremacy (404-371) in Greece. An excellent military tactician, he is usually cited as the embodiment of the aggressive Spartan spirit that sought to further Spartan interests at the expense of Hellenic unity. Agesilaus was born into the Eurypontid house (one of the two royal families of Sparta) and was the son of King Archidamus II. He succeeded Agis II with aid from Lysander. At the time that he assumed power, Sparta, which had defeated Athens in 404, was at war with Persia in Asia Minor. Sailing to Ephesus in 396, Agesilaus made a three months' truce with the Persians; during this interim he managed to shake off Lysander's control over him. Agesilaus then raided Phrygia in 396 and 394 and Lydia in 395. Meanwhile, a coalition of Thebes, Athens, Argos, and Corinth engaged Sparta in the [Corinthian War] (395-387). Agesilaus was recalled to fight in Greece (394), but he had been unable to prevent the formation of the huge Persian fleet that, after his departure, overwhelmingly defeated the Spartan navy at Cnidus. The Spartan king scored a minor victory over the coalition in 394 and fought near Corinth in 391-390 and in Acarnania in 389. The [Peace of Antalcidas] (387), which ended the war, included a clause guaranteeing the Greek cities their independence. Agesilaus used this clause as an excuse to force the dissolution of [][Thebes's] [][Boeotian League]. In two sieges (378 and 377) he reduced Thebes to near starvation. By refusing to allow the Thebans, at the peace conference of 371, to sign the treaty on behalf of all Boeotia, he precipitated the war with Thebes that began with the severe defeat of the other Spartan king, Cleombrotus, at the [][Battle of Leuctra] in 371. This disaster signified the end of Spartan ascendancy and the beginning of a decade of Theban supremacy in Greece. Sparta was put on the defensive. Agesilaus twice rescued the city from attacks by the Theban commander Epaminondas but took no part in the subsequent Battle of Mantineia.

Agathon

born *c.* 445 BC died *c.* 400 BC, Macedonia Athenian tragic poet whose first victory at the festival of the [Great Dionysia], in which plays were presented and judged, was gained in 416 BC. The event is made, by Plato, the occasion for his dialogue *[Symposium],* and the banquet, which is the setting of the dialogue, is placed in Agathon's house. Aristotle, in the *Poetics,* ascribes to Agathon a play, possibly *The Flower,* in which the characters, instead of being derived from the stock of Greek mythology, were his own invention, and he changed the traditional function of the choral lyrics so that they became musical interludes in the action of the play instead of offering comment upon it. [][Aristophanes], in his play *The Thesmophoriazusae,* includes a parody of Agathon, but in another of his plays, *The Frogs,* calls him "a good [*agathos*] poet sorely missed by his friends." Agathon spent his last years at the court of Archelaus of Macedonia. Only some 40 lines of his writing are extant.

Agatho, Saint

born *c.* 577, Sicily died Jan. 10, 681, Rome; feast day January 10 pope from 678 to 681. A cleric well-versed in Latin and Greek, he was elected pope in June 678. He judged that [][St. Wilfrid], bishop of York, had been unjustly deprived and ordered his restoration, and he received the submission of Exarch Theodore of Ravenna, whose predecessors had aspired to autonomy. Through legates, he participated in the sixth ecumenical council (680-681), in Constantinople, which condemned Monothelitism (belief that Christ had only one will) and accepted his definition of two wills, divine and human, in Christ. Agatho prevailed upon the Byzantine emperor Constantine IV to abolish the tax formerly exacted at the consecration of a newly elected pope, which helped establish good relations between Rome and Constantinople. Agatho died during a plague that ravaged Rome.

Aimoin

born *c.* 965 died after 1008 French Benedictine monk whose history of the Franks was highly esteemed in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. After his arrival at the Abbey of Fleury-sur-Loire (between *c.* 980 and 985), near Orléans, Aimoin wrote about St. Benedict, completing the second and third books of the *Miracula Sancti Benedicti* in 1005 (the first book had been the work of an earlier writer). He also wrote the biography of the abbot []Abbo (d. 1004), who suggested that Aimoin compose a history of the Franks. His *[]Historia Francorum,* or *Libri IV de gestis Francorum,* was compiled from texts from the Merovingian period that were rewritten by Aimoin in better Latin. Later, 12th-century historians expanded and refined his history of the Franks. His biographies of Abbon and St. Benedict offer more direct testimony on his time, for instance his description of Abbo's two trips to Rome, made because of political disagreements between the French king and the church. It is one of the many important historical events of the 10th century recounted in his works.

Ahidjo, Ahmadou

born , August 1924, Garoua, Cameroon died Nov. 30, 1989, Dakar, Senegal first president of the United Republic of Cameroon, who served from 1960 to 1982. He presided over one of the few successful attempts at supraterritorial African unity: the joining of the southern half of the former British Cameroons with the larger French-speaking Cameroon. A Muslim from the northern part of Cameroon, Ahidjo was a radio operator in the French colonial administration from 1941/42 to 1953. He was elected to the Cameroon territorial assembly in 1947 and reelected in 1952 and 1956. His early political career also included several years in France (1953-56) as the Cameroon member of the Assembly of the French Union. In the first Cameroon government (1957), he was vice premier and minister of the interior; when the first premier fell in early 1958, he formed his own party, the []Cameroonian Union, and became the new premier. Meanwhile, since 1956 the more radical, nationalist [Union of the Populations of Cameroon], which advocated immediate independence from France, had taken up arms against the French administration. Ahidjo, like his predecessor, used French troops to put down the rebels, but he also offered amnesty to those who would surrender. Many refused, however, and sporadic outbreaks of violence haunted Ahidjo for years. His initial program included immediate internal autonomy, a definite timetable for full independence, reunification with the British Cameroons, and cooperation with the French. He was able to attain independence in 1960 and the unification with the southern, British Cameroons in 1961, following a plebiscite.

Aetius, Flavius

born , Durostorum, Moesia Inferior [modern Silistra, Bulgaria] died September 21, 454 Roman general and statesman who was the dominating influence over [][Valentinian III] (emperor 425-455). The son of a *magister equitum* ("master of the cavalry"), Aetius in his youth spent some time as a hostage with the Visigothic leader [Alaric], and later with the Huns, thus acquiring valuable knowledge of the leading tribal peoples of his day. From 423 to 425 he supported the usurper John in Italy. After successful battles in Gaul against the Visigoths and the Franks, Aetius was appointed in 430 *magister utriusque militiae* ("master of both services"). On the death of his rival Bonifacius in 432, he quickly gained almost complete control over the young emperor Valentinian III. Aetius thereby became the dominant personality in the Western Empire. He was consul three times (432, 437, 446), a unique distinction for one who was not a member of the emperor's family, and it was said that envoys from the provinces were no longer sent to the emperor, but to Aetius. He was given the title of patrician in 435, and for several years thereafter fought continuously and successfully in Gaul against rebels and hostile tribes. In 435-437 he mercilessly destroyed the Burgundian kingdom at Worms (an event remembered in the *Nibelungenlied*, a German epic poem written c. 1200) and in 437-439 checked the Visigoths at Toulouse. He returned to Italy in 440. In 451 he joined with the Visigoths in defeating Attila in the [Battle of the Catalaunian Plains], but when Attila invaded Italy in the following year, Aetius could do little to oppose him. At the height of his power Aetius was murdered by Valentinian at the instigation of [Petronius Maximus], the future emperor.

Ahmet Paşa Bursali

born , Edirne?, Ottoman Empire died 1496/97, Bursa one of the most important figures in 15th-century Turkish literature. Born into a prominent family, Ahmet Paşa received a classical Islāmic education and was appointed as a teacher in the madrasah (religious college) in the city of Bursa. In 1451 he became judge of the city of Edirne. With the accession of Sultan Mehmet II (1451-81), he became *qāḍī ʿasker* ("military judge") and tutor to the sultan and took part in the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. After falling out of favour with the sultan, he spent many years in virtual exile in Bursa and then as governor of a number of Ottoman cities. With the accession of Sultan Bayezid II (1481-1512), however, he continued his career in government service until his death in 1496/97. Principally a panegyrist, Ahmet Paşa wrote mainly qasida (odes) and ghazels (lyrics) and is considered the first master of classical poetry in Ottoman literature. The melodious poems in his divan, or collection of poems, had a strong influence on later Ottoman classical poets, securing for him an important place in Turkish literary history.

Aidan, Saint

born , Ireland died Aug. 31, 651, Bamburgh, Northumberland, Eng.; feast day August 31 apostle of Northumbria, monastic founder, first bishop of Lindisfarne, or [][Holy Island], off the coast of Northumberland. Aidan was a monk at Iona, an island of the Inner Hebrides in Scotland, when King Oswald of Northumbria requested that he be made bishop of the newly converted Northumbrians. Consecrated in 635, Aidan settled on Lindisfarne, where he established his church, monastery, and see near the royal stronghold of Bamburgh. Under his direction and that of his successors, Lindisfarne flourished as a leading ecclesiastical centre until the Danish invasions began in 793. From Lindisfarne, Aidan evangelized northern England. He founded churches, monasteries, and, on Lindisfarne, a school for the training of ministers, among whom were Chad (first bishop of Lichfield), his brother Cedd (who converted the East Saxons), and Eata, abbot of Melrose. The Anglo-Saxon historian and theologian Bede praised Aidan for his learning, charity, and simplicity of life.

Afranius, Lucius

born , Picenum [Italy] died 46 BC, Africa province [now in Tunisia] Roman general, a devoted adherent of [][Pompey the Great]. Afranius's hometown, Picenum, was a Pompeian stronghold. He served under Pompey against Sertorius and then held a praetorship and a command in a Gallic province, where he earned a triumph. He again served under Pompey as a legate against Mithradates VI. In 60 BC he was consul, as Pompey's candidate, but he did not succeed in defending Pompey's interests. In 55 BC Pompey, as consul, was assigned Spain as a province and sent Afranius and Marcus Petreius to govern it for him as legates. They were still there when civil war broke out between Caesar and Pompey in 49 BC. When [][Caesar] invaded Spain, they were compelled to surrender to him at Ilerda (49 BC). Caesar dismissed them on their promise not to serve again in the war. Afranius, however, went to join Pompey, and, at the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC), he had charge of Pompey's camp. On Pompey's defeat, Afranius, despairing of pardon from Caesar, went to Africa; he took part in the [][Battle of Thapsus] (46 BC), at which Caesar defeated the supporters of Pompey and gained control of Roman Africa. Although he escaped from the field with a strong body of cavalry, Afranius was afterward taken prisoner and was killed (according to varying accounts) either by seditious soldiers or at the command of Caesar.

Ailly, Pierre d'

born 1350, Compiègne, France died Aug. 9, 1420, Avignon French theologian, cardinal, and advocate of church reform whose chief aim was to heal the [][Great Schism] of the Western church (1378-1417). He advocated the doctrine of [][conciliarism]—the subordination of the pope to a general council—and in 1381 he suggested convoking such a council in an effort to end the schism. D'Ailly studied at the College of Navarre of the University of Paris, where he became a doctor of theology (1380). He became master of the college in 1384 and later was made chancellor of the university and the king's confessor and almoner (1389). He displeased the university, however, by supporting the antipope [][Benedict XIII], who appointed him bishop of Le Puy (1395) and then bishop of Cambrai (1397). He gradually broke with Benedict, who, with the Roman pope Boniface IX, refused to abdicate to heal the schism. D'Ailly then returned to his earlier conciliar doctrine, which steadily became more extreme. D'Ailly played a prominent part in the [][Council of Pisa] (1409), which declared Benedict and the new Roman pope Gregory XII deposed and elected a third, the conciliar pope Alexander V, who was succeeded the following year by John XXIII. John made d'Ailly a cardinal (1411), bishop of Orange, and his legate to Germany (1413). The schism nevertheless persisted, there being now three popes instead of two, and d'Ailly favoured calling a new general council, which was convened at Constance (1414-18). He was influential in the decisions of the []Constance council, which called for the abdication of John XXIII, condemned the Hussites (heretical followers of the Bohemian reformer Jan Hus), supported conciliarism, and accepted a compromise on the roles of the council and the cardinals in order to elect a new pope, Martin V (November 1417). The possibility that d'Ailly might be elected pope was ruled out by a hostile coalition of Italians, Germans, and English. He subsequently retired to Avignon, where he was legate for Martin.

Agostino Di Duccio

born 1418, Florence died 1481?, Perugia, Papal States [![Photograph:Musician Angels, relief by Agostino di Duccio; in the Oratorio di San Bernardino, Perugia, Italy]] - Musician Angels, relief by Agostino di Duccio; in the Oratorio di San Bernardino, Perugia, Italy early Renaissance sculptor whose work is characterized by its linear decorativeness. His early work shows the influence of Donatello and Michelozzo, whom he assisted in adorning SS. Annunziata in Florence. Agostino's name is associated mainly with the wealth of sculptured decoration for the Tempio Malatestiano at Rimini, a building designed by L.B. Alberti. The only work in the Tempio with which he can certainly be associated is the Arca degli Antenati, and it is likely that his share was limited to the sculptures in the chapels of S. Sigismondo, the Sibyls, and the Infant Games and to some decorative carvings. Whether or not he also carved the much-superior reliefs in the chapels of the Planets and the Liberal Arts, he was profoundly influenced by the Neo-Attic style on which these were based. Agostino's other major work was the series of reliefs he executed for the facade of the Oratory of []S. Bernardino at Perugia (*c.* 1457-61). His style—with its linear emphasis, cursive drapery, and flat, schematic forms—lacks the fundamentally naturalistic intention of most Florentine sculpture of his time and owes its mannerisms largely to the Humanist environment of Rimini.

Adrets, François de Beaumont, baron des

born 1512/13, Château of La Frette, Isère, Fr. died Feb. 2, 1587, La Frette French military leader of the [Wars of Religion], notorious for his cruelty. During the reign of Henry II of France, Adrets served with distinction in the royal army and became colonel of the "legions" of Dauphiné, Provence, and Languedoc. In 1562, however, he joined the Huguenots, probably from motives of ambition and personal dislike of the Roman Catholic house of Guise. His campaign against the Roman Catholics in 1562 was eminently successful. In June of that year Adrets was master of the greater part of Dauphiné. But his brilliant military qualities were marred by his atrocities. He exacted fierce reprisals on the Roman Catholics after their massacres of the Huguenots at Orange. The garrisons that resisted him were butchered, and at Montbrison, in Forez, he forced 18 prisoners to precipitate themselves from the top of the keep. Having alienated the affections of the Huguenots by his pride and violence, Adrets entered into communication with the Roman Catholics and declared himself openly in favour of conciliation. On Jan. 10, 1563, he was arrested on suspicion by some Huguenot officers and confined in the citadel of Nîmes. He was liberated at the Edict of Amboise in the following March and, distrusted alike by Huguenots and Roman Catholics, retired to the Château of La Frette, where he died, a Roman Catholic, 23 years later.

Ainsworth, Henry

born 1571, Swanton Morley, Norfolk, Eng. died 1622?, Amsterdam, Neth. Nonconformist theologian, Hebrew scholar, and a leader of the English [][Separatist] colony in Amsterdam. At first a Puritan, Ainsworth joined the Separatists who broke entirely with the Church of England. Driven abroad in the persecution of 1593, he settled in Amsterdam. When part of the London church of which Francis Johnson (then in prison) had been pastor was reassembled in Amsterdam, Ainsworth was chosen as its doctor, or teacher. In 1596 he drew up a confession of the church's faith, which he reissued in Latin in 1598. With Johnson, who rejoined the group in 1597, he composed in 1604 *An Apology or Defence of Such True Christians as Are Commonly but Unjustly Called Brownists* (after the Separatist Robert Browne). In 1610 Ainsworth was forced reluctantly to withdraw, with a large part of the church, from Johnson and his followers after a dispute over church government in which Ainsworth argued for congregational autonomy. From 1616 until his death, he devoted himself to writings that utilized his command of Hebrew, publishing *Annotations* on several Old Testament books.

Āghā Moḥammad Khān

born 1742, Gorgān, Iran died 1797, near Shusha founder and first ruler of the [][Qājār dynasty] of Iran. Following the disintegration of the Ṣafavid empire in 1722, Qājār tribal chieftains became prominent in Iranian affairs. At the age of six Āghā Moḥammad was castrated on the orders of ʿĀdil Shāh to prevent him from becoming a political rival, but this disability did not hinder his career. In 1757 he became the de facto governor of the Azerbaijan province of northern Iran; the next year he succeeded his father as chief of the []Qavānlū clan of the Qājārs. In 1762 he was captured by a rival chieftain and sent as a prisoner to Shīrāz, where he spent the next 16 years as a political hostage. In 1779 Āghā Moḥammad escaped and fled to Astarābād, the centre of Qavānlū authority. By 1785, when [][Tehrān] was made the capital, he was the dominant political figure in northern Iran. In 1796 Āghā Moḥammad led a successful expedition against the Christian Kingdom of [Georgia], which was then reincorporated into Iran. Crowned the same year as *shāhanshāh* ("king of kings"), he conquered Khorāsān, the last centre of resistance to his authority; its blind ruler, [Shāh Rokh] (the grandson of Nāder Shāh), was tortured to death.

Affleck, Thomas

born 1745, Aberdeen, Aberdeenshire, Scot. died March 5, 1795, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S. American cabinetmaker considered to be outstanding among the Philadelphia craftsmen working in the [][Chippendale] style during the 18th century. Affleck is especially noted for the elaborately carved forms produced by his shop. Probably trained in England, Affleck settled in Philadelphia by invitation in 1763, producing tables, chairs, sofas, and case furniture for Gov. John Penn and other leading Philadelphia citizens. Affleck was a Quaker and a Loyalist and as such would not get involved in the American Revolution (1775-83). He was arrested as a Tory in 1777 and banished to Virginia for more than seven months. Nevertheless, he continued to receive important commissions. His son, Lewis G. Affleck, was unable to maintain the business after his father's death. Works attributed to Affleck, showing the Marlborough-style leg (a straight, grooved type having a block foot) are in the Philadelphia Museum of Art; the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

Aix-les-Bains

city and Alpine spa, Savoie *département,* [Rhône-Alpes] *région,* southeastern [France], southwest of [Geneva]. A summer and winter resort with a beach on []Bourget Lake (France's largest lake) and an aerial cableway up fir-covered Mount Revard (5,125 feet [1,562 metres]), it is a fashionable Alpine spa maintaining the sedate luxury of the Victorian era. Its sulfur and alkaline springs were exploited by the Romans, to whom they were known as Aquae Gratianae, and they are still the basis of modern health resorts. Pop. (1999) 25,732; (2005 est.) 26,500.

Agnihotri, Shiv Narayan

born 1850, near Kānpur, India died 1923, Lahore [now in Pakistan] Hindu founder of an atheistic society called []Deva Samaj ("Society of God"). At the age of 16 Agnihotri entered the government-sponsored Thompson Engineering College in Roorkee and in 1873 took a position as a drawing master in the Government School of Lahore. He and his wife became active members of the [][Brahmo Samaj] (literally, "Society of Brahmā," also translated as "Society of God"), a Hindu reform movement founded in Bengal. In 1882 Agnihotri resigned his teaching position to work full-time for the Brahmo Samaj. Agnihotri's imperious nature and arrogance, however, irritated other members, and he finally resigned to form a new society, the Deva Samaj, which he ruled as *deva guru* ("divine teacher"). The Deva Samaj was at first a theistic society; but later it reemerged as an atheistic society, emphasizing ethical conduct and confession of sins but denying the existence of gods.

Ahmed Haşim

born 1884, Baghdad died June 4, 1933, Istanbul writer, one of the most outstanding representatives of the [][Symbolist movement] in Turkish literature. Born into a prominent family, Haşim developed his knowledge of French literature and his fondness for poetry at Galatasaray Lycée in Constantinople (now Istanbul). After briefly studying law, he worked for the government tobacco offices. Later he served as an official government translator. After military service in World War I, he worked for the Ottoman Public Debt Administration and then held various teaching positions. In 1924 and 1928 he made trips to Paris during which he met leading French literary figures. Haşim's early poetry was written in classical Ottoman style, but, after his study of the poetry of Charles Baudelaire and the Symbolist poetry of Arthur Rimbaud, Stéphane Mallarmé, and others, his poetic style changed. In 1909 he joined the [Fecr-i âti] ("Dawn of the Future") literary circle but gradually drew apart from this group and developed his own style. Haşim, following the French masters, strove to develop the Turkish Symbolist movement. In a 1924 article on Turkish literature for the French publication *Mercure de France,* he stated that poetry is the intermediary language between simple speech and music. His poetry at times seems intentionally obscure; nevertheless, he creates images and moods of great beauty and sensitivity. Among his most famous poetry collections are *Göl saatleri* (1921; "The Hours of the Lake") and *Piyale* (1926; "The Wine Cup").

Agathocles

born 361 BC, Thermae Himeraeae, Sicily died 289 tyrant of [][Syracuse], in Sicily, from 317 to *c.* 304 and self-styled king of Sicily after *c.* 304. A champion of Hellenism, he waged war unsuccessfully against Carthage. Agathocles moved from his native town to Syracuse about 343 and served with distinction in the army. Twice banished for attempting to overthrow the oligarchical party, he returned in 317 with an army, banished or murdered about 10,000 citizens (including the oligarchs), and set himself up as tyrant. Agathocles then embarked on a long series of wars. His first campaigns (316-*c.* 313), against the other Sicilian Greeks, brought a number of cities, including Messana, under his control. [][Carthage], however, fearing for its own possessions in Sicily, sent a large force to the island. Thus the struggle that had gone on between the Sicilian Greeks and Carthage intermittently since the 6th century was renewed. In 311 Agathocles, defeated and besieged in Syracuse, saved himself by breaking through the blockade and attacking his enemy's homelands in Africa with considerable success until his defeat in 307. The peace he concluded in 306 was not unfavourable, for it restricted Carthaginian power in Sicily to the area west of the Halycus (Platani) River. Agathocles continued to strengthen his rule over the Greek cities of Sicily. By *c.* 304 he felt secure enough to assume the title king of Sicily, and he extended his influence into southern Italy and the Adriatic.

Aeschines

born 390 BC died *c.* 314 BC Athenian []orator who advocated peace with [][Philip II] of Macedonia and who was a bitter political opponent of the statesman [][Demosthenes]. Aeschines was brought up in humble circumstances, and in the early part of his career he worked as a tragic actor and held minor posts in the state service. In 346 BC he, like Demosthenes, was a member of the embassies to Philip II that resulted in the peace of Philocrates between Athens and Macedonia. During the negotiations Aeschines had sought to reconcile the Athenians to Macedonia's expansion into Greece, and consequently, after the peace had been concluded, Demosthenes and []Timarchus prepared to prosecute him for treason. In retaliation Aeschines successfully indicted Timarchus for gross immorality, and at his own trial in 343 he was acquitted by a narrow majority. In 339, by provoking the council of the [Amphictyonic League] to declare a sacred war against the town of [][Amphissa], in []Locris, Aeschines gave Philip a pretext on which to enter central Greece as the champion of the Amphictyonic forces. The eventual result was the establishment of Macedonian hegemony over central Greece (including Athens) after the Battle of Chaeronea (338). The bitter hostility between Aeschines and Demosthenes worsened in the years that followed. In 336 Aeschines brought suit against a certain []Ctesiphon for illegally proposing the award of a crown to Demosthenes in recognition of his services to Athens. The case, tried in 330, concluded with the overwhelming defeat of Aeschines, largely, no doubt, because of Demosthenes' brilliant speech for Ctesiphon ("On the Crown"). Aeschines left Athens for Rhodes, where he is said to have taught rhetoric.

Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius

born 63 BC? died , March, 12 BC, Campania [Italy] [![Photograph:Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, marble portrait bust, early 1st century ; in the Louvre, Paris.]] - Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, marble portrait bust, early 1st century BC; in the Louvre, Paris. powerful deputy of [][Augustus], the first Roman emperor. He was chiefly responsible for the victory over Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and during Augustus' reign he suppressed rebellions, founded colonies, and administered various parts of the Roman Empire. Of modest birth but not a modest man, Agrippa was disliked by the Roman aristocracy. In his own interest he scrupulously maintained a subordinate role in relation to Augustus, but he felt himself inferior to no one else. Virtually nothing is known of his early life until he is found as the companion of Octavian (the future emperor Augustus) at Apollonia, in Illyria, at the time of Julius Caesar's murder in 44. Octavian, the adopted son of Caesar, returned with Agrippa to Italy to make his political claim as Caesar's heir. In 43 Agrippa is thought to have held the office of tribune of the plebs; presumably in this capacity he prosecuted the tyrannicide [][Cassius], then absent in the East.

Adrian II

born 792, Rome [Italy] died *c.* Dec. 13, 872 [![Photograph:Pope Adrian II, detail from a fresco, 11th century; in the lower basilica of San Clemente, Rome.]] - Pope Adrian II, detail from a fresco, 11th century; in the lower basilica of San Clemente, Rome. pope from 867 to 872. A relative of two previous popes, Stephen V and Sergius II, he had been called to the papacy twice before but declined. He accepted the call on Dec. 14, 867. Under his vigorous predecessor, St. Nicholas I, the papacy had reached a high point that Adrian could not maintain. Vacillatory and lacking continuity, he was snubbed by Charles II the Bald, king of France. He readmitted King [][Lothar II] of Lorraine to communion, but Lothar's early death (869) created a difficult problem of succession in which Adrian ineffectually intervened. Adrian also had difficulties with the powerful Archbishop Hincmar of Reims, Fr., by steadfastly upholding the unlimited right of bishops to appeal to the pope.

Adso of Montier-en-Der

born 910/915, Burgundy died 992 Benedictine monk and abbot whose treatise on the [][Antichrist] became the standard work on the subject from the mid-10th to the 13th century. Born of a noble family, Adso was an [oblate] at the important monastery of Luxeuil, where he also received his education. He was later called to teach at the monastery of St. Èvre in Toul, and in 935 he entered the monastery at Montier-en-Der. In 968, when he became abbot of Montier-en-Der, he began to introduce reforms there in the tradition of the monastery at Gorze. Adso had contacts with the leading religious and political figures of his day, notably Gerberga, the wife of [Louis IV] of France and sister of [Otto I] of Germany; Gerbert of Aurillac (the future Pope [Sylvester II]); and Abbo of Fleury, who asked Adso to compile a verse edition of the second book of the *[Dialogues]*, a hagiographic and doctrinal text composed by Pope [Gregory I]. In 990 Adso became the abbot of the monastery of St. Bénigne in Dijon. His death two years later occurred while he was on pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Adso was a man of letters as well as a reformer. He was well acquainted with classical literature and collected a significant personal library. Along with his verse edition of the *Dialogues*, which is now lost, he wrote other works in verse and several poems and hymns. He was also the author of a number of saints' lives, including the life of Bishop Mansuestus of Toul (485-509). His hagiographic works in particular reveal his devotion to the religious reform current in his day.

Ahenobarbus, Lucius Domitius

born 98 died 48 BC, Pharsalus, Macedonia [now Fársala, Greece] a leader of the [Optimates] (conservative senatorial aristocracy) in the last years of the Roman Republic. Ahenobarbus repeatedly resisted the designs of the powerful politicians and generals [][Julius Caesar], [Pompey the Great], and [Marcus Crassus], who in 60 BC combined to control elections and legislation. (Some modern writers, but no ancient sources, call this combination the [First Triumvirate].) In 58 Ahenobarbus unsuccessfully tried to prosecute Caesar. Then, as candidate for the consulship of 55, he pledged to remove Caesar from the command in Gaul. In response to this threat, the three dynasts decided to make Pompey and Crassus consuls for that year. Ahenobarbus had to wait until 54; then, as consul with Appius Claudius Pulcher, he got involved in an election scandal that shocked Rome. In January 49, after Pompey had broken with Caesar, the Senate outlawed Caesar and appointed Ahenobarbus to replace him in Gaul. Caesar then crossed the Rubicon and marched on Rome, precipitating the civil war of 49-45. Against the advice of Pompey, Ahenobarbus attempted to stop the invading army at Corfinium in central Italy (present-day Corfinio), but he was defeated and captured by Caesar. Almost as soon as Ahenobarbus was released on a promise not to continue fighting, he organized armed resistance against Caesar at Massilia (present-day Marseille), and managed to escape before the city fell. Ahenobarbus next joined the Pompeians in Greece and died trying to get away after their defeat at [Pharsalus]. [E. Badian]

Akimov, Nikolay Pavlovich

born April 16 [April 3, Old Style], 1901, Kharkov, Ukraine, Russian Empire [now Kharkiv, Ukraine] died Sept. 6, 1968, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R. [![Photograph:Akimov, self-portrait]] - Akimov, self-portrait scenic designer and producer, known for the diversity of his bold experiments in stage design and dramatic interpretation—most especially for his cynical reinterpretation of *[][Hamlet]* (1932), in which the king's ghost was represented as a fiction cunningly devised by Hamlet, Ophelia was portrayed as intoxicated rather than mad, and her drowning was depicted as the result of a drunken orgy. Akimov's design career began in 1922. He worked chiefly with Russian dramas, in which he combined cinematic with theatrical methods. His notorious version of *Hamlet,* his first venture as a producer, caused vehement reaction and was eventually withdrawn from distribution. From 1935 to 1949 and after 1955, Akimov was chief producer of the Leningrad Comedy Theatre. He also became professor and head of the faculty for design and production at the Leningrad Theatrical Institute from 1960.

Ahmed I

born April 18, 1590, Manisa, Ottoman Empire died Nov. 22, 1617 Ottoman sultan from 1603 to 1617, whose authority was weakened by wars, rebellions, and misrule. The rebellions he was able to suppress; he executed some of the viziers and exiled many palace dignitaries for bribery and intrigue; and he introduced a new regulation for the improvement of land administration. The peace of [Zsitvatörök] (1606) that he signed with Austria was a blow to Ottoman prestige, and he was compelled to extend commercial privileges to France, Venice, and the Netherlands within his domains. Ahmed was pious and made many donations, especially to the holy places of Mecca and Medina. He built the great Blue Mosque near the Church of Hagia Sophia. Of his seven sons, Osman II, Murad IV, and İbrahim I eventually succeeded to the throne.

Ahlfors, Lars Valerian

born April 18, 1907, Helsinki, Fin. died Oct. 11, 1996, Pittsfield, Mass., U.S. Finnish mathematician who was awarded one of the first two Fields Medals in 1936 for his work with [Riemann surfaces.] He also won the Wolf Prize in 1981. Ahlfors received his Ph.D. from the University of Helsinki in 1932. He held an appointment there from 1938 to 1944, then went to the University of Zürich, Switz. He joined the faculty at Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., U.S., in 1946, remaining there until his retirement. Ahlfors was awarded the Fields Medal at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Oslo, Nor., in 1936. He was cited for methods he had developed to analyze [Riemann surfaces] of inverse functions in terms of covering surfaces. His principal contributions were in the theory of Riemann surfaces, but his theorems (the Ahlfors finiteness theorem, the Ahlfors five-disk theorem, the Ahlfors principal theorem, etc.) touch on other areas as well, such as the theory of finitely generated Kleinian groups. In 1929 he resolved a conjecture of Arnaud Denjoy on entire functions. Later Ahlfors worked on quasi-conformal mappings and, with Arne Beurling, on conformal invariants.

Adler, Kurt (Herbert)

born April 2, 1905, Vienna, Austria died Feb. 9, 1988, Ross, Calif., U.S. Austrian-born American conductor and administrator who transformed the [San Francisco Opera] into one of the nation's leading opera companies. Adler was educated in Vienna at the Academy of Music, the Conservatory, and the University of Vienna. In the decade following his debut as a conductor at Vienna's Max Reinhardt Theatre (1925-28), he conducted in various opera houses across Europe and assisted Arturo Toscanini at the 1936 Salzburg Festival. In 1938 he fled from the German annexation of Austria and emigrated to the United States, where he became guest conductor at the Chicago Opera (1938-43) and an American citizen (1941). Adler left Chicago when Gaetano Merola, the founder of the San Francisco Opera, hired him to join his staff as a chorus director and conductor (1943-53). After Merola's death, Adler assumed control of the company as artistic director (1953-57) and general director (1957-81). Under his leadership, the San Francisco Opera shed its modest regional status to become an international company with a bold, innovative repertory. He expanded the budget, doubled the length of the regular season, added spring and summer seasons, enlisted new artists, and fostered inventive programs such as the San Francisco Opera Auditions (1954), the Merola Opera Program (1957), and the Brown Bag Opera (1974). During his tenure, the San Francisco Opera gave two world and 18 American premieres and introduced many notable artists to the American opera stage, including singers Boris Christoff, Birgit Nilsson, Leontyne Price, and Elisabeth Schwarzkopf and conductor Sir Georg Solti. Adler recorded albums with such opera greats as tenors Luciano Pavarotti and Placido Domingo. After his retirement in 1981, the San Francisco Opera named him general director emeritus.

Ahlin, Lars

born April 4, 1915, Sundsvall, Swed. died March 11, 1997, Stockholm influential Swedish novelist of the mid-20th century. Ahlin's family struggled financially, and he left school at age 13 to work, although he later attended several folk high schools. He eventually settled in Stockholm, where he began his career as a writer. The early novel *[]Tåbb med manifestet* (1943; "Tåbb with the Manifesto") presents many of the central ideas of Ahlin's writings. In it a young proletarian finds the communist ideology unsatisfactory, rejects the notion of social rather than individual value, and reaches a better understanding of himself and the world through a secularized Lutheran theology wherein man is perceived without preconceptions and is judged according to his deeds. The search for grace through love, usually experienced with humiliation and suffering, is traced in a number of subsequent novels, of which *Min död är min* (1945; "My Death Is My Own"), *Kanelbiten* (1953; "The Cinnamon Girl"), and *Natt i marknadstältet* (1957; "Night in the Market Tent") are the best known. His most experimental work is *Om* (1946; "If, About, Around"). Ahlin published several more books in the 1980s, including an autobiographical novel, *Sjätte munnen* (1985; "The Sixth Mouth"). *Det florentinska vildsvinet* ("The Florentine Boar"), his last novel, appeared in 1991. Ahlin received a number of literary distinctions, among them the Selma Lagerlöf Medal in 1988.

Ahmed II

born Aug. 1, 1642 died Feb. 6, 1695, Edirne, Ottoman Empire Ottoman sultan (1691-95) whose reign was marked by the continuing war with the [Holy League] (Austria-Poland-Venice). Soon after his accession to the throne, Ahmed's forces were defeated by the Austrians at [Slankamen], Hung. The able grand vizier (chief minister) [][Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Paşa] died in the battle, and the Ottomans suffered substantial territorial losses in Hungary. In 1692 the Venetians attacked Crete and in 1694 captured Chios. In addition, Ahmed faced unrest in his Arab provinces of Syria, Hejaz, and Iraq. To find land for the nomadic Turkmen tribes, Ahmed encouraged tribal settlement in Anatolia and Syria and put an end to certain abuses in the Ottoman land administration system. Generally, however, Ahmed, who had been imprisoned in the palace before his accession, was unable to show any independence and remained under the influence of his courtiers.

Albert II

born Aug. 16, 1397 died Oct. 27, 1439, Neszmély, Hung. German king from 1438, king (Albert) of Hungary, king (Albrecht) of Bohemia, and duke (Albrecht) of Luxembourg. As a member of the Habsburg dynasty he was archduke (Albert V) of Austria from infancy (1404). On the death of his father-in-law, the Holy Roman emperor Sigismund, Albert was crowned king of Hungary (Jan. 1, 1438), elected king of Germany (March 18), and, despite opposition, actually crowned king of Bohemia (June 29). Calling a diet at Nürnberg (1438), he ended all feuds based on the right of private warfare and appointed arbiters to settle disputes. He further divided Germany into administrative circles, again with the maintenance of peace in mind. Although he died the following year during a campaign against the Turks, the rule of Albert's successors was stabilized through implementation of his measures.

Alberdi, Juan Bautista

born Aug. 20, 1810, San Miguel de Tucumán, Río de la Plata [now in Argentina] died June 18, 1884, Paris, France [![Photograph:Alberdi, portrait by an unknown artist]] - Alberdi, portrait by an unknown artist Argentine political thinker whose writings influenced the assembly that drew up the constitution of 1853. Alberdi was one of the best-known of the "[]Generation of '37," an intellectual movement of university students who debated politics, social theories, and philosophy. An opponent of the dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, Alberdi went into exile in 1838, studying law in Uruguay and also living in Chile and in Europe. After the overthrow of Rosas in 1852, Alberdi wrote his major book, *[]Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina* ("Bases and Starting Points for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic"), which was the decisive influence on the Argentine constitution of 1853. It emphasized the need for a federal government and argued for attracting foreign capital and immigrants; his approach was encapsulated by his dictum "Gobernar es poblar" ("To govern is to populate").

Ajdukiewicz, Kazimierz

born Dec. 12, 1890, Tarnopol, Pol., Austria-Hungary [now Ternopil, Ukraine] died April 12, 1963, Warsaw, Pol. Polish logician and semanticist who was the chief contributor to the Warsaw school of philosophy and [][logic], which analyzed the relationship of language and knowledge. He is credited with developing in 1920 the first deductive theory for the study of logic based on syntax. Obtaining a doctorate from the University of Lviv (Lvov), where he studied philosophy, physics, and mathematics, Ajdukiewicz lectured in philosophy at the universities of Lviv, Poznań, and Warsaw (1921-61). His principal works include *Z metodologii nauk dedukcyjnych* (1921; "On the Methodology of the Deductive Sciences"), articles in the periodical *Studia Logica,* and a collection of his articles from 1920 to 1939 and 1946 to 1964 entitled *Język i poznanie,* 2 vol. (1960-65; "Language and Knowledge").

Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich Theodor Hoch

born Dec. 13, 1724, Rostock, Mecklenburg-Schwerin [Germany] died Aug. 10, 1802, Dorpat, Russia physicist who discovered (1756) [][pyroelectricity] in the mineral [][tourmaline] and published (1759) the first mathematical theory of electric and magnetic phenomena. Aepinus studied medicine and briefly taught mathematics at the University of Rostock, where his father was a professor of theology. In 1755 he became director of the astronomical observatory in Berlin and a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1757 he moved to Russia, where he was appointed a full member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (now the Russian [Academy of Sciences]) in St. Petersburg. After retiring in 1798, he settled in Dorpat. In *Tentamen theoriae electricitatis et magnetismi* (1759; "An Attempt at a Theory of Electricity and Magnetism"), Aepinus described known electric and magnetic effects on the basis of a mathematical assumption analogous to that of [Newton's law of gravitation]—i.e., that attractive and repulsive forces between charges act at a distance and decrease in proportion to the inverse square of the distance between charged bodies. Following and improving on [Benjamin Franklin]'s theories of electricity, Aepinus assumed that just one electric (and one magnetic) "fluid" is normally present in all material bodies and that the relative abundance or deficiency of fluid is manifested as positive or negative electric charges, respectively.

Alberti, Rafael

born Dec. 16, 1902, Puerto de Santa María, Spain died Oct. 28, 1999, Puerto de Santa María Spanish writer of Italian Irish ancestry, regarded as one of the major Spanish poets of the 20th century. Alberti studied art in Madrid and enjoyed some success as a painter before 1923, when he began writing and publishing poems in magazines. His first book of poetry, *Marinero en tierra* (1925; "Sailor on Land"), recalled the sea of his native Cádiz region and won a national prize. A member of the so-called Generation of 1927, Alberti helped to celebrate the tercentenary of [Luis de Góngora] in 1927, and Góngorist influence is apparent in the work published in that period, *El alba del alhelí* (1927; "The Dawn of the Wallflower") and *Cal y canto* (1928; "Quicklime and Song"). With his next book, the somewhat [Surrealist] *Sobre los ángeles* (1929; *Concerning the Angels*), Alberti established himself as a mature and individual voice. In the 1930s Alberti's work became overtly political; he wrote plays, traveled widely, joined the Communist Party—from which he was later expelled—and founded a review, *Octubre.* He fought for the Republic in the [Spanish Civil War] and afterward fled to Argentina, where he worked for the Losado publishing house and resumed both his poetry and his earlier interest, painting. In 1941 he published a collection of poems, *Entre el clavel y la espada* ("Between the Carnation and the Sword"), and in 1942 a book of drama, prose, and poetry about the Civil War, *De un momento a otro* ("From One Moment to Another"). He published a collection of poems inspired by painting, *A la pintura* (1945; "On Painting"), and collections on maritime themes, such as *Pleamar* (1944; "High Tide"). After 1961, he lived in Italy, returning to Spain in 1977. Alberti's autobiography, *La arboleda perdida* (*The Lost Grove*), was published in two volumes, the first in 1942 and the second in 1975.

Agassiz, Alexander (Emmanuel Rodolphe)

born Dec. 17, 1835, Neuchâtel, Switz. died March 27, 1910, at sea []marine zoologist, oceanographer, and mining engineer who made important contributions to systematic zoology, to the knowledge of ocean beds, and to the development of a major copper mine. Son of the Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz, he joined his father in 1849 in the U.S., where he studied engineering and zoology at Harvard University. His early research on echinoderms (*e.g.,* starfish) resulted in his most significant work in the area of systematic zoology, the *[]Revision of the Echini* (1872-74). From 1866 to 1869 Agassiz was the superintendent of a copper mine near Lake Superior, at Calumet, Mich.; he eventually became president of the mine, retaining that position until his death, by which time he had changed an initially unprofitable operation into the world's foremost copper mine. Agassiz instituted modern machinery and safety devices, pension and accident funds for miners, and sanitary measures for surrounding communities. He donated large sums to the Harvard Museum, of which he was curator from 1874 to 1885, and to other institutions engaged in advancing the study of biology.

Agazzari, Agostino

born Dec. 2, 1578, Siena [Italy] died April 10, 1640, Siena Italian composer famous for his treatise, *[]Del sonare sopra 'l basso con tutti li stromenti e dell'uso loro nel conserto* (1607; "On Playing Upon the Thoroughbass with All the Instruments and Their Use in an Ensemble"), one of the earliest instruction books for performing from the [][thoroughbass]. Agazzari was chapelmaster of the German College in Rome in 1602-03 and the Roman Seminary in 1606. In that same year he became a member of the famous Accademia degli Intronati at Siena. He returned to his native Siena in 1607, where he was organist for a time at the Siena cathedral and served as chapelmaster there until his death. He composed in both the *stile antico* ("old style") of the late Renaissance and the *stile moderno* of the early Baroque. His works include a pastoral opera, *Eumelio*(1606), five books of [madrigals], numerous [motets], and masses, psalms, and other sacred music. In his thoroughbass treatise, he distinguishes between "foundation" instruments (organ, lute, harpsichord, theorbo, and harp) and "ornament," or melody, instruments (lute, theorbo, harp, cittern, bass lira, violin, guitar, spinet, and pandora). The significance of that distinction lies in its recognition that, whereas in [Renaissance music] all voices of a composition had usually been of equal importance, in [Baroque music] a new and significant concept was emerging—that of the contrasted roles of the upper (melody) and lower (bass) parts. Agazzari gave practical instructions for the use of [counterpoint] in the improvising of melody parts upon the thoroughbass.

Aitken, Robert Grant

born Dec. 31, 1864, Jackson, Calif., U.S. died Oct. 29, 1951, Berkeley, Calif. [![Photograph:Aitken]] - Aitken American astronomer who specialized in the study of [][double stars], of which he discovered more than 3,000. From 1891 to 1895 Aitken was professor of mathematics and astronomy at the University of the Pacific, Stockton, Calif. In 1895 he joined the staff of Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, Calif., as assistant astronomer, becoming associate director in 1923 and director in 1930; he retired in 1935. He published *The Binary Stars* (1918) and *New General Catalogue of Double Stars Within 120° of the North Pole* (1932).

Ahmed, Iajuddin

born Feb. 1, 1931, Nayagaon, Bangl. 17th president of Bangladesh. Ahmed was elected unopposed on Sept. 5, 2002, and retained this office, acting as caretaker of a military-backed interim government established to address a state of emergency declared in January 2007. Born in the Mushinganj District of Bangladesh (then India), Ahmed pursued his higher education at Dhaka University. After earning a master's degree in 1954, he traveled to the United States to continue his studies, earning a second master's degree in 1958 and a doctorate in 1962 from the University of Wisconsin. He returned to Bangladesh as an assistant professor at Dhaka University, becoming a full professor in the Department of Soil Science in 1973. Ahmed held many leadership positions at Dhaka University, including chair of the Department of Soil Science (1968-69, 1976-79), provost of Salimullah Muslim Hall (1975-83), and dean of the Faculty of Biological Science (1989-91). He married a zoologist, Anwara Begum; they had three children. In 1991 Ahmed joined the Ministry of Food and Culture as adviser to the caretaker government of Bangladesh, and from 1991 to 1993 he chaired the Public Service Commission. From 1995 to 1999 he chaired the University Grants Commission, and in 2002 he became vice chancellor at the State University of Bangladesh. In September 2002 he ran unopposed for the country's presidency. Facing unrest and violent street protests by opposition parties claiming voter registration discrepancies, Ahmed declared a state of emergency in January 2007, giving power to a military-run caretaker government. Although his presidential term was slated to end in September 2007, he continued as head of the government under a constitutional provision requiring a sitting president to remain in office until a successor has been elected.

Adler, Stella

born Feb. 10, 1901, New York, N.Y., U.S. died Dec. 21, 1992, Los Angeles, Calif. American actress, teacher, and founder of the []Stella Adler Conservatory of Acting in New York City (1949), where she tutored performers in "the method" technique of acting (*see* [Stanislavsky method]). Adler was the daughter of classical Yiddish stage tragedians Jacob and [Sara Adler], who formed the organization deemed largely responsible for promoting Yiddish theatre in the early 20th-century United States, the Independent Yiddish Art Company. She made her stage debut at age four in one of her father's productions. After that, she received little formal schooling and no formal acting training; instead she studied with her father by watching other actors and learning her craft by observation and performance. In 1919 Adler made her international debut in London, where she remained for a year. Returning to New York City, she played feature roles and performed in vaudeville, later touring Europe and South America as the head of a repertory company. Between 1927 and 1931 she performed more than 100 roles. In 1931 Adler joined the innovative [Group Theater], whose actors were trained in "method acting," a system propounded by Russian actor and theatre director [Konstantin Stanislavsky] and based on the idea that actors perform by invoking affective memory or a personal memory of the emotion they are trying to portray.

Ainsworth, William Harrison

born Feb. 4, 1805, Manchester, Lancashire, Eng. died Jan. 3, 1882, Reigate, Surrey [![Photograph:William Harrison Ainsworth, detail of a portrait by Daniel Maclise, c. 1834; in the National ...]] - William Harrison Ainsworth, detail of a portrait by Daniel Maclise, *c.* 1834; in the National ... English author of popular historical romances. Ainsworth initially studied law but left it for literature, publishing his first novel anonymously in 1826. His first success came with the novel *Rookwood* (1834), featuring the highwayman Dick Turpin, which led many reviewers to hail him as the successor to Sir Walter Scott. *Jack Sheppard* (1839), the story of an 18th-century burglar, was equally successful, but it helped to stir up fierce reaction against the []"Newgate" school of novel writing—of which Ainsworth and [Edward Bulwer-Lytton] were considered exemplars—for its supposed glamorization of crime. Thereafter Ainsworth switched to historical novels based on places rather than criminals, including *The Tower of London* (1840), *Old St. Paul's, a Tale of the Plague and the Fire* (1841), *Windsor Castle: An Historical Romance* (1843), and *The Lancashire Witches* (1849). In a long career that extended to 1881, he published some 40 novels.

Adler, Alfred

born February 7, 1870, Penzing, Austria died May 28, 1937, Aberdeen, Aberdeenshire, Scotland [![Photograph:Alfred Adler.]] - Alfred Adler. psychiatrist whose influential system of individual psychology introduced the term inferiority feeling, later widely and often inaccurately called [][inferiority complex]. He developed a flexible, supportive [psychotherapy] to direct those emotionally disabled by inferiority feelings toward maturity, common sense, and social usefulness. Throughout his life Adler maintained a strong awareness of social problems, and this served as a principal motivation in his work. From his earliest years as a physician (M.D., University of Vienna Medical School, 1895), he stressed consideration of the patient in relation to the total environment, and he began developing a humanistic, holistic approach to human problems.

Adler, Nathan Marcus

born Jan. 15, 1803, Hanover [Germany] died Jan. 21, 1890, Brighton, East Sussex, Eng. [![Photograph:Nathan Adler]] - Nathan Adler chief rabbi of the British Empire, who founded []Jews'College and the []United Synagogue. Adler became chief rabbi of Oldenburg in 1829 and of Hanover in 1830. On Oct. 13, 1844, he was elected chief rabbi in London. There he originated and carried out his scheme for a Jewish college for teachers (Jews' College, still in existence), which was founded in London on Nov. 11, 1855, with Adler himself as its first president. In 1860 he formulated a plan to establish a United Synagogue to bring all the British congregations under a central administration; this idea was realized in 1870, when Parliament passed the United Synagogue bill.

Agung, Abulfatah

died 1692 ruler of the powerful Javanese sultanate of Bantam from 1651 to 1683. Agung encouraged English and French trade but successfully opposed Dutch expansion into the area in the early part of his reign. In the 1670s, however, when he attempted to change the succession to his throne from his older son Sultan []Haji to his younger son, Haji revolted and with Dutch help seized the throne. Haji had to pay war costs and grant a trade monopoly to the Dutch. Agung ended his days in captivity, and Bantam came under Dutch domination.

Aeschbacher, Hans

born January 18, 1906, Zürich, Switzerland died January 27, 1980, Zürich Swiss sculptor of severe and massive abstract forms. Trained as a printer, Aeschbacher taught himself to draw and paint and began sculpting about age 30. His earliest pieces were figurative and were composed mainly from terra-cotta and plaster. By 1945 he was working essentially with stone, and his sculptures became increasingly abstract, geometrical, and austere. With *Abstract Faces* (1945), Aeschbacher eliminated representational detail from his unified architectonic stone volumes. His predominant use of porous lava rock in the mid-1950s relieved some of the rigidity of his forms. Though his sculptures of the late '50s were less austere, Aeschbacher soon returned to the massive scale (some pieces 15 feet [4.5 metres] high) and stern geometry of his previous work. *Explorer I*, placed at the Zürich-Kloten Airport, is exemplary.

Agre, Peter

born January 30, 1949, Northfield, Minnesota, U.S. American doctor, corecipient of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2003 for his discovery of []water channels in cell membranes. He shared the award with [Roderick MacKinnon], also of the United States. In 1974 Agre earned an M.D. degree from Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. In 1981, following postgraduate training and a fellowship, he returned to Johns Hopkins, where in 1993 he advanced to professor of biological chemistry. In 2000 he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences. In the 1980s Agre began conducting his pioneering research on water channels in cell membranes. First mentioned by scientists in the mid-1800s, these specialized openings allow water to flow in and out of cells. They are essential to living organisms, and scientists sought to find the channels, determine their structure, and understand how they worked. In 1988 Agre was able to isolate a type of protein molecule in the cell membrane that he later came to realize was the long-sought water channel. His research included comparing how cells with and without the protein in their membranes responded when placed in a water solution. He discovered that cells with the protein swelled up as water flowed in, while those lacking the protein remained the same size. Agre named the protein []aquaporin. Researchers subsequently discovered a whole family of the proteins in animals, plants, and even bacteria. Two different aquaporins were later found to play a major role in the mechanism by which human kidneys concentrate urine and return the extracted water to the blood.

Akintola, Samuel Ladoke

born July 10, 1910, Ogbomosho, Nigeria died Jan. 14, 1966, Ibadan, Nigeria administrator and politician, premier of the Western Region of Nigeria and an early victim of the January 1966 military coup. Like many other African nationalists Akintola was a teacher in the 1930s and early 1940s and a member of the Baptist Teachers' Union and the Nigerian Youth Movement. He left teaching to study public administration and law in England and returned to Nigeria in 1950. He became a legal adviser to the [Action Group], the dominant Western Region party, and by 1954 was deputy leader under [][Oba Femi Awolowo]. He was simultaneously active in the federal government; he became minister of labour in 1952 and later held the portfolios of health, communications, and aviation. In 1959 Akintola became premier of the Western Region, coming to be recognized as a representative of conservative, business-oriented interests, who was content to concentrate party efforts on the region—in diametrical opposition to Awolowo's growing interest in democratic socialism and to his attempt to win minority tribe votes in the North. In mid-1962 Awolowo's supporters repudiated Akintola as a party leader and had him replaced as premier. The Northern-dominated federal government, however, hostile to Awolowo, declared a state of emergency in the region and restored Akintola to his post (1963). He formed the Nigerian []National Democratic Party but was never able to win the votes of the majority of the region. His blatantly rigged election in 1965 was undoubtedly an immediate cause of the January 1966 coup in which he was slain.

Afanasev, Aleksandr Nikolayevich

born July 11 [July 23, New Style], 1826, Boguchar, Voronezh province [now in Russia] died Sept. 23 [Oct. 5], 1871 []historian and scholar of Russian folklore known for his compilation of Russian folktales. Afanasev studied law at Moscow University. His early work included a study of Russian satirical journals of the late 18th century (1859) and commentaries on contemporary Russian literature. During the period 1866-69 he brought out his *Poeticheskiye vozzreniya slavyan na prirodu* (*[]The Slav's Poetical Views of Nature*) in three volumes, which provided the first synthesis of the theories of the []Mythological school, a 19th-century Romantic literary movement that drew its inspiration from folklore. The Mythological school was grounded in the aesthetic philosophy of F.W. von Schelling and the brothers August Wilhelm and Friedrich von Schlegel, who saw in mythology a form of "natural religion." Afanasev is best remembered for his []*Narodnyye russkiye skazki* ("Russian Popular Fairy Tales"), compiled between 1855 and 1864 and including over 600 tales. His *Narodnyye russkiye legendy* ("Russian Popular Legends") was banned by the government censor until 1914, and his *Lyubimyye Skazki* ("Beloved Fairy Tales") collection, which included children's stories satirizing landowners and members of the clergy, was originally published anonymously in Geneva.

Alanbrooke (of Brookeborough), Alan Francis Brooke, 1st Viscount, Baron Alanbrooke of Brookeborough

born July 23, 1883, Bagnères-de-Bigorre, France died June 17, 1963, Hartley Wintney, Hampshire, England [![Photograph:Alan Francis Brooke (Lord Alanbrooke), chief of the British Imperial General Staff during World War ...]] - Alan Francis Brooke (Lord Alanbrooke), chief of the British Imperial General Staff during World War ... British field marshal and chief of the Imperial General Staff during [World War II]. He was educated in France and at the Royal Military Academy (Woolwich) and served in the Royal Artillery during [World War I]. Between the World Wars, he distinguished himself in staff duties and was in charge of military training at the War Office (1936-37). Alanbrooke began service in World War II as commander of the II Army Corps in France. After the retreat to Dunkirk, he was responsible for covering the evacuation (May 26-June 4, 1940) of the British Expeditionary Force. (*See* [World War II: The evacuation from Dunkirk].) In July he took command of the Home Forces, and he served in that capacity until he was promoted to chief of staff by Prime Minister [Winston Churchill] in December 1941. He held this post until 1946. As chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, Alanbrooke represented the members' views ably and firmly to the prime minister and to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff and thus exercised strong influence on Allied strategy. Alanbrooke was also recognized as a brilliant field commander, though he was never given any of the great overseas commands—including, to his great frustration, command over the Allied invasion of western Europe.

Airy, Sir George Biddell

born July 27, 1801, Alnwick, Northumberland, Eng. died Jan. 2, 1892, Greenwich, London English scientist who was astronomer royal from 1835 to 1881. Airy graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1823. He became Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge in 1826 and Plumian professor of astronomy and director of the Cambridge observatory in 1828. In 1835 he was appointed the seventh astronomer royal—*i.e.,* director of the [][Royal Greenwich Observatory], a post he would hold for more than 45 years. Airy completely reorganized the Greenwich observatory, installing new apparatus and rescuing thousands of lunar observations from oblivion. Most importantly, he modernized the observatory's system for making extremely precise observations of stellar positions. He wielded great power within the British scientific community, and he opposed government support of pure science, arguing that original research was best left to private individuals and institutions. Modern scholars absolve him of the charge that his hesitation to publicize the calculations of John C. Adams in 1845 somewhat delayed the discovery of Neptune.

Adler, Dankmar

born July 3, 1844, Stadtlengsfeld, Prussia [Germany] died April 16, 1900, Chicago, Ill., U.S. [![Photograph:Chicago Stock Exchange designed by Dankmar Adler, 1897, demolished 1972]] - Chicago Stock Exchange designed by Dankmar Adler, 1897, demolished 1972 architect and engineer whose partnership with Louis [][Sullivan] was perhaps the most famous and influential in American architecture. Adler immigrated to the United States in 1854 and settled in Detroit, where he began his study of architecture in 1857. Later he moved to [][Chicago], where he became a draftsman in the office of Augustus Bauer. The American Civil War interrupted his career, and upon his return to Chicago in 1865 he held a succession of positions in the offices of Bauer, A.J. Kinney, and Edward Burling. The first of his important buildings was the Central Music Hall in Chicago, in which he made initial use of his knowledge of acoustics.

Ahmed Vefik Paşa

born July 6, 1823, Constantinople [now Istanbul] died April 2, 1891, Constantinople Ottoman statesman and scholar who presided over the first Ottoman Parliament (1877) and who is known for his contributions to Turkish studies. Born into a family of diplomats, Ahmed Vefik was appointed (1849) imperial commissioner in the Danubian principalities and later ambassador to Persia and to France. He presided over the first Turkish Parliament (1877) and was twice appointed grand vizier (chief minister) for brief periods in 1878 and 1882. In 1879 he became the *vali* (governor) of Bursa, where he sponsored important reforms in sanitation, education, and agriculture and established the first Ottoman theatre. Ahmed Vefik spent his leisure translating Molière's plays and compiling Turkish dictionaries and historical and geographical manuals. He edited the first *Salnâme* ("Year Book") of the Ottoman Empire (1847), and in 1876 he published *[]Lehƈe-i Osmanî* ("Language of the Ottomans"), a concise dictionary that emphasized pure Turkish and formed a basis for the works of other Turkish scholars.

Albert, Heinrich

born July 8, 1604, Lobenstein, Saxony [Germany] died Oct. 6, 1651, Königsberg, Prussia [now Kaliningrad, Russia] German composer of a famous and popular collection of 170 songs, the most representative examples of German solo song from the early Baroque period. Albert studied composition with his cousin Heinrich Schütz at Dresden. While he attended the University of Leipzig his musical activities were encouraged by Johann Hermann Schein. By 1631 he was cathedral organist at Königsberg. His *[]Arien* (1638-50), published in eight volumes, are generally strophic settings for one or more voices and continuo, with texts by his friend Simon Dach, himself, and other contemporary poets. The songs are also important for the study of basso continuo performance practice, for some of the continuo parts are realized in score notation. He also composed a cantata and several motets.

Akerlof, George A.

born June 17, 1940, New Haven, Connecticut, U.S. American economist who, with [A. Michael Spence] and [Joseph E. Stiglitz], won the Nobel Prize for Economics in 2001 for laying the foundation for the theory of markets with asymmetric information. Akerlof studied at Yale University (B.A., 1962) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Ph.D., 1966). In 1966 he began teaching at the University of California, Berkeley, becoming Goldman Professor of Economics in 1980. His research often drew from other disciplines, including psychology, anthropology, and sociology, and he played an important role in the development of behavioral economics. Akerlof's study of [][markets] with asymmetric information concentrated on those in which sellers of a product have more information than buyers about the product's quality. Using the example of a secondhand-car market, he demonstrated that this could lead to "adverse selection" of poor-quality products, such as a defective car known as a "lemon." In his 1970 seminal work "[The Market for Lemons: Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism]," Akerlof explained how private or []asymmetric information prevents markets from functioning efficiently and examined the consequences. He suggested that many economic institutions had emerged in the market in order to protect themselves from the consequences of adverse selection, including secondhand-car dealers who offered guarantees to increase consumer confidence. In the context of less-developed countries, Akerlof's analysis explained that [interest rates] were often excessive because moneylenders lacked adequate information on the borrower's creditworthiness.

Ahtisaari, Martti

born June 23, 1937, Viipuri, Fin. [now Vyborg, Russia] [![Photograph:Martti Ahtisaari (centre) joining hands with Indonesia's Hamid Awaludin (left) and the ...]] - Martti Ahtisaari (centre) joining hands with Indonesia's Hamid Awaludin (left) and the ... Finnish politician and noted mediator who was president of Finland (1994-2000). Ahtisaari graduated from the University of Oulu in 1959 and in the early 1960s worked in Pakistan on an educational project for the Swedish Agency for International Development. He returned to Finland and joined the Foreign Affairs Ministry in 1965; eight years later he was appointed ambassador to Tanzania, a post he held until 1976. Ahtisaari honed his diplomatic skills as the United Nations (UN) commissioner for Namibia (1977-81), a country torn by internal strife. He continued to represent Namibia during the 1980s while serving in several Finnish Foreign Ministry posts, and he led the UN team that supervised Namibia's transition to independence (1989-90). Ahtisaari was a key figure in the Bosnia and Herzegovina peace talks (1992-93). In 1994 Ahtisaari ran for the Finnish presidency, and his vision of Finland as an active participant in international affairs helped him win the election. He urged his nation's entry into the European Union (EU), and for the first half of 1999, Finland assumed the EU's rotating presidency. In June of that year, Ahtisaari used his diplomatic skills to help end the conflict in [][Kosovo] as he and Russian envoy Viktor Chernomyrdin persuaded President [Slobodan Milosevic] of Yugoslavia to accept a peace plan as a condition of stopping punitive bombings by the [North Atlantic Treaty Organization] (NATO). Often encountering resistance from Finland's Parliament, which preferred a more cautious foreign policy, as well as from his party, the Social Democrats, Ahtisaari did not run for reelection in 2000.

Adler, Victor

born June 24, 1852, Prague, Bohemia, Austrian Empire [now in Czech Republic] died Nov. 11, 1918, Vienna, Austria Austrian Social Democrat, founder of a party representing all the nationalities of Austria-Hungary. Born into a wealthy Jewish family, Adler studied medicine at the University of Vienna, receiving his degree in 1881. While there, he became a member of Georg von Schönerer's German nationalist organization, a movement he left when its anti-Semitic character became more pronounced. After meeting the German socialists [][Friedrich Engels] and August Bebel while traveling in Germany, Switzerland, and England (1883), Adler became a dedicated socialist. He remained a lifelong friend of and correspondent with Engels. Adler founded and headed the socialist weekly *[]Gleichheit* (1886-89, "Equality") and, after its ban, published the *[]Arbeiter Zeitung* ("Workers' Paper"), which became the socialists' main organ. He was chiefly responsible for founding the united [Social Democratic Party of Austria] (December 1888-January 1889), in which he remained a leading figure, and he made it into a multinational party advocating federalism and autonomy for the peoples of Austria-Hungary. He was elected to the Lower Austrian Landtag (Diet) in 1905 and quickly became a leader in the fight for universal suffrage (introduced in 1907).

Agnelli, Giovanni

born March 12, 1921, Turin, Italy died January 24, 2003, Turin chairman of the automobile manufacturing company [][Fiat SpA], Italy's largest private business enterprise, from 1966 to 2003. Grandson of Fiat's founder (also named [][Giovanni Agnelli]), the younger Giovanni was brought up in affluence and groomed by his grandfather to run the family business. His father had died when the boy was 14 years old, making Giovanni—the oldest son—next in line to take over control of Fiat from his grandfather. Agnelli resisted his grandfather's plea to take a safe job with Fiat during World War II, insisting instead on seeing combat with the Italian army—first against the Russians and later against the Germans. After the war, Agnelli accepted his grandfather's advice to enjoy life to the fullest before settling down, and for several years Giovanni Agnelli was one of the world's leading playboys. A serious car crash in 1952, however, put an end to his days of racing automobiles.

Albers, Josef

born March 19, 1888, Bottrop, Ger. died March 25, 1976, New Haven, Conn., U.S. [![Photograph:Josef Albers, photograph by Arnold Newman, 1948.]] - Josef Albers, photograph by Arnold Newman, 1948. painter, poet, sculptor, teacher, and theoretician of art, important as an innovator of such styles as Colour Field painting and [Op art]. From 1908 to 1920 Albers studied painting and printmaking in Berlin, Essen, and Munich and taught elementary school in his native town of Bottrop. In 1920 he enrolled at the newly formed [][Bauhaus], which was to become the most important design school in Germany. His most important creations of that period included compositions made of coloured glass, as well as examples of furniture design, metalwork, and typography. After 1925, when he became a "master" at the Bauhaus, Albers explored a style of painting characterized by the reiteration of abstract rectilinear patterns and the use of primary colours along with white and black.

Albert II Alcibiades

born March 28, 1522, Ansbach [Germany] died Jan. 8, 1557, Baden [![Photograph:Albert II Alcibiades, detail from a portrait by an unknown artist]] - Albert II Alcibiades, detail from a portrait by an unknown artist margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, member of the Franconian branch of the Hohenzollern family, and a soldier of fortune in the wars between the Habsburgs and the Valois dynasty of France. Albert served the Holy Roman emperor [][Charles V] until January 1552, when he joined his friend [][Maurice], elector of Saxony, in a league with Charles's enemy, Henry II of France. The allied forces drove Charles out of Innsbruck, and the Emperor's brother Ferdinand negotiated the Treaty of Passau (August 1552) with Maurice, thereby achieving a truce in the religious disputes within Germany. Albert, however, rejected the treaty and again offered his services to Charles, who was attempting to retake Metz from the French. In return, Charles ratified Albert's seizure of large German territories. By early 1553, however, Charles had handed over control of German affairs to Ferdinand. Maurice, who had allied himself with Ferdinand, then led a coalition against Albert, who was defeated at Sievershausen (July 9, 1553). Not long after, (December 1), the Imperial Chamber at Speyer outlawed Albert, and he sought asylum in France (June 1554). In 1556 Albert returned to Germany with plans of revenge but died before he could carry them out.

Adlersparre, Georg, Greve (Count)

born March 28, 1760, Hovermo, Sweden died September 23, 1835, near Kristinehamn political and social reformer who was a leader of the 1809 coup d'état that overthrew Sweden's absolutist king [][Gustav IV.] Holding the rank of lieutenant colonel in the army, Adlersparre led a faction of officers that, with another group, the "men of 1809," deposed Gustav IV on March 13, 1809, after several years of planning. A liberal, Adlersparre had been moved to conspire against the monarch by Gustav's refusal to summon a Riksdag (estates general) during a decade of excessive taxation and disastrous wars. After the coup, however, Adlersparre retreated somewhat from his earlier liberalism and championed the strong monarchy that the new constitution was soon to provide. He served in the Council of State (1809-10) and then as governor of the county of Skaraborg (1810-24). In 1814 he declined the post of governor-general of Norway (administered under the Swedish crown from 1814 to 1905), urging unsuccessfully that a Norwegian hold that office. Adlersparre also championed such social projects as prison reform.

Aksakov, Konstantin Sergeyevich

born March 29 [April 10, New Style], 1817, Novo-Aksakovo, Russia died Dec. 7 [Dec. 19], 1860, Zacynthus, Greece Russian writer and one of the founders and principal theorists of the [][Slavophile] movement. The son of the novelist Sergey Timofeyevich Aksakov, he entered Moscow University, where he was influenced by the work of the German philosopher G.W. Hegel. From the mid-1830s Aksakov focused, along with Yury F. Samarin and Aleksey S. Khomyakov, on the development of early Slavophile ideas. Aksakov praised the traditional spirituality of Russia, believing that the conventional wisdom and Christian virtues of the peasants should serve as a guide to Russia's privileged classes. He decried the European values that had been imposed by Peter the Great. Aksakov was a frequent contributor of essays and literary criticism to periodicals such as *Molva.* His brother [Ivan Sergeyevich Aksakov] (1823-86), who also was an early Slavophile, became a controversial journalist, newspaper publisher, and proponent of Pan-Slavism in the later 19th century.

Aiken, Howard Hathaway

born March 9, 1900, Hoboken, N.J., U.S. died March 14, 1973, St. Louis, Mo. mathematician who invented the [Harvard Mark I], forerunner of the modern electronic [][digital] [][computer]. Aiken did engineering work while he attended the University of Wisconsin, Madison. After completing his doctorate at Harvard University in 1939, he remained there for a short period to teach before undertaking war work for the U.S. Navy Board of Ordnance. With three other engineers—Clair D. Lake, B.M. Durfee, and F.E. Hamilton—Aiken began work in 1939 on an automatic calculating machine that could perform any selected sequence of five arithmetical operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and reference to previous results) without human intervention. The first such machine, the Mark I, was completed by Aiken and his partners in February 1944: 51 feet (15.3 m) long and 8 feet (2.4 m) high, it weighed 35 tons (31,500 kg) and contained about 500 miles (800 km) of wire and more than 3,000,000 connections. The Mark I was programmed to solve problems by means of a paper tape on which coded instructions were punched. Once so programmed, the calculator could be operated by persons with little training. The Mark I was used by the U.S. Navy for work in gunnery, ballistics, and design. Continuing his work, Aiken completed an improved all-electric Mark II in 1947. He also authored numerous articles on electronics, switching theory, and data processing.

Aelia Capitolina

city founded in AD 135 by the Romans on the ruins of [][Jerusalem], which their forces, under Titus, had destroyed in AD 70. The name was given, after the Second Jewish Revolt (132-135), in honour of the emperor Hadrian (whose nomen, or clan name, was Aelius) as well as the deities of the Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva). A sanctuary to Jupiter was built on the Temple Mount, and statues of Roman deities were erected in the city, in intentional violation of Old Testament law. The area was walled and a large foreign population imported; Jews were generally forbidden entrance to the city. The present walls of the Old City of Jerusalem follow the layout of the Roman walls. The name was used until Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the 4th century.

Ahmed, Fakhruddin Ali

born May 13, 1905, Delhi died Feb. 11, 1977, New Delhi statesman who was president of India from 1974 to 1977. The son of an army doctor from Assam, Ahmed was educated in India and studied history at the University of Cambridge, graduating in 1927. After returning to India, he was elected to the Assam legislature (1935). As Assam's minister of finance and revenue in 1938, he was responsible for some radical taxation measures. On the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the Congress Party had a confrontation with British power, and Ahmed was jailed for a year. Soon after release he was again imprisoned for another three and a half years, being released in April 1945. In 1946 he was appointed advocate general of Assam and held the post for six years. After a term in the national Parliament, he returned to Assam politics until Prime Minister Indira Gandhi included him in her first Cabinet in January 1966. He held a variety of portfolios—irrigation and power, education, industrial development, and agriculture. Ahmed became India's fifth president in 1974. He was a soft-spoken man of quiet humour.

Agnesi, Maria Gaetana

born May 16, 1718, Milan, Habsburg crown land [now in Italy] died January 9, 1799, Milan [![Photograph:Maria Gaetana Agnesi.]] - Maria Gaetana Agnesi. Italian mathematician and philosopher, considered to be the first woman in the Western world to have achieved a reputation in mathematics. Agnesi was the eldest child of a wealthy silk merchant who provided her with the best tutors available. She was an extremely precocious child who mastered Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and several modern languages at an early age, and her father liked to host gatherings where she could display her knowledge. *Propositiones philosophicae* ("Propositions of Philosophy"), a series of essays on natural philosophy and history based on her discussions before such gatherings, was published in 1738.

Albert

born May 17, 1490, Ansbach died March 20, 1568, Tapiau, East Prussia last grand master of the [][Teutonic Knights] from 1510 to 1525, first duke of Prussia (from 1525), a Protestant German ruler known chiefly for ending the Teutonic Knights' government of East Prussia and founding a hereditary dukedom in its place. Albert was the third son of Frederick of Hohenzollern, margrave of Ansbach-Bayreuth. In 1510 Albert was named grand master of the Teutonic Order and thus lord of East Prussia, which the order held under Polish suzerainty. A quarrel with the Poles, however, resulted in a war with Poland (1519-21) that caused considerable damage to East Prussia. During the truce that followed, the dispute remained unsettled. In 1523 the religious reformer Martin Luther advised Albert to dissolve the Teutonic Order and transform his Prussian holdings into a hereditary dukedom under the Polish crown, a solution accepted by King Sigismund I of Poland in 1525. The Holy Roman emperor Charles V in the 1530s placed Albert, now a Protestant, under the ban of the empire and demanded the return of East Prussia to the Teutonic Knights, but the faithful remnant of the latter, with scattered bases in Germany, could do nothing against Albert.

Albéniz, Isaac (Manuel Francisco)

born May 29, 1860, Camprodón, Spain died May 18, 1909, Cambo-les-Bains, France [![Photograph:Isaac Albéniz.]] - Isaac Albéniz. composer and virtuoso pianist, a leader of the Spanish []nationalist school of musicians. Albéniz appeared as a piano prodigy at age 4 and by 12 had run away from home twice. Both times he supported himself by concert tours, eventually gaining his father's consent to his wanderings. He studied at the Leipzig Conservatory in 1875-76 and, when his money ran out, obtained a scholarship to study in Brussels. From 1883 he taught in Barcelona and Madrid. He had previously composed facile salon music for piano, but about 1890 he began to take composition seriously. He studied with [][Felipe Pedrell], father of the nationalist movement in Spanish music, and in 1893 moved to Paris. There he came under the influence of Vincent d'Indy, Paul Dukas, and other French composers and for a time taught piano at the Schola Cantorum. He later developed Bright's disease and was a near invalid for several years before he died.

Akō

city, [Hyōgo] *ken* (prefecture), western Honshu, Japan. During the Heian period (794-1185), it was a seaside resort for courtesans from Kyōto. It became a castle town in the 17th century, when the powerful Ikeda clan took up residence. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the establishment of chemical factories and steel mills has transformed Akō into one of Japan's most polluted industrial cities. The city's traditional cotton-weaving and salt-making industries no longer have much significance. Akō is well known in Japan for its Kabuki theatre productions featuring swordplay and samurai, and the city attracts tourists to its annual Akō samurai festival in December. Inc. city, 1951. Pop. (2005) 51,794.

Afonso III

born May 5, 1210, Coimbra, Port. died Feb. 16, 1279, Lisbon fifth king of Portugal (1248-79), who supplanted his brother, King [][Sancho II], and completed the reconquest of the [][Algarve] from the Muslims. The younger son of Afonso II and Urraeca, daughter of Alfonso VIII of Castile, Afonso emigrated and became, by marriage, count of Boulogne. His elder brother, Sancho II, was deposed by order of the pope, who granted Afonso the crown. He returned to Portugal and was welcomed by the towns and the church. He reconquered the district of Faro in 1249 and shared the former Muslim region of Algarve with Castile. His reign saw the first meeting of the Portuguese Cortes (parliament) in which the commoners of the municipalities were represented. Despite the help that he received from the pope in becoming king, he took the same attitude as his predecessors about the repossession of church lands and was, like them, excommunicated. On his death, he was succeeded by his son Dinis.

Aichinger, Ilse

born Nov. 1, 1921, Vienna, Austria Austrian poet and prose writer whose work, often surreal and presented in the form of parables, reflects her preoccupation with the Nazi persecution of the Jews during World War II. Aichinger's education was interrupted by World War II when, because she was half Jewish, she was refused entrance to medical school. Although she eventually did begin medical school in 1947, she left to concentrate on writing. Her only novel, *Die grössere Hoffnung* ("The Greater Hope"; Eng. trans., *Herod's Children*), was published in 1948. In 1953 she married the German poet Günther Eich, whom she had met through her participation in the Gruppe 47, a postwar group of German-speaking writers. In addition to her novel, Aichinger's works include *Rede unter dem Galgen* (1951; "Speech Under the Gallows"; Eng. trans., *The Bound Man and Other Stories*); *Knöpfe* (1953; "Buttons"), a radio play in which workers in a button factory slowly turn into the products they make; *Plätze und Strassen* (1954;"Squares and Streets"), a series of meditations on places in Vienna; *Zu keiner Stunde* (1957; "Never at Any Time"), a collection of surreal dialogues; and the short-story collection *Schlechte Wörter* (1976; "Inferior Words"), in which language is sometimes seen as a barrier to communication.

Ahn Hyun Soo

born Nov. 23, 1985, Seoul, S.Kor. South Korean short-track speed skater, who was the top male medal winner at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. Ahn started short-track skating at age eight, inspired by countryman Chae Ji Hoon, who captured a gold and a silver medal at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Nor. At 5 feet 4 inches (1.64 metres) and 120 pounds (54 kg), Ahn was perfectly built for the fast speeds and tight corners of short track. In 2002 he won the overall world junior championships and finished second at the senior world championships. Later that year he made his Olympic debut at the Winter Games in Salt Lake City, Utah, but had disappointing results. Ahn was one of the favourites in the 1,000 metres, but in the final China's Li Jiajun caused a pileup that knocked out everyone except Australian Steven Bradbury (then skating in last place), who won the race by default; Ahn finished fourth. Ahn was later disqualified in the 1,500-metre semifinal and left Salt Lake City without a medal. During the 2003 season, however, he recovered his momentum, setting world records at 1,500 metres and 3,000 metres and capturing the first of five consecutive world overall titles. At the 2006 Winter Games, Ahn won the 1,500 metres to capture his first gold medal and then set an Olympic record in the 1,000 metres en route to his second gold. He took a bronze medal in the 500 metres. In the final event, the 5,000-metre relay, he followed his usual strategy by holding off until the final laps. He then sprinted for the finish from an outside passing lane to give South Korea its sixth short-track gold medal and another Olympic record time. As the competition played out, Ahn held off the challenge of his biggest rival, American Apolo Anton Ohno, who won the 500 metres but never seriously challenged Ahn in any other event.

Aguesseau, Henri-François d'

born Nov. 27, 1668, Limoges, Fr. died Feb. 5, 1751, Paris jurist who, as chancellor of France during most of the period from 1717 to 1750, made important reforms in his country's legal system. The son of Henri d'Aguesseau, intendant (royal agent) of Languedoc, he was advocate general to the Parlement (high court of justice) of Paris from 1690 until 1700. As attorney general in that Parlement from 1700 to 1717, he opposed papal intervention in the affairs of the French Roman Catholic Church and resisted (though unsuccessfully) the promulgation in France of the bull *[][Unigenitus]* (1713), which condemned the Jansenist faction in the church. Philippe []II, duc d'Orléans, regent for young King Louis XV (ruled 1715-74), made him chancellor and keeper of the seals in 1717, but Aguesseau's opposition to the government's financial policies caused the Duc to exile him to Fresnes in the following year. Recalled in 1720, Aguesseau reversed himself and helped promote acceptance of *Unigenitus.* Nevertheless, he again forfeited the chancellorship when Cardinal Guillaume Dubois became chief minister in 1722. In 1727 Aguesseau was reinstated as chancellor by the new chief minister, Cardinal André-Hercule de Fleury, who instructed him to continue the codification of French law begun under King Louis XIV (ruled 1643-1715).

Adrian (of Cambridge), Edgar Douglas Adrian, 1st Baron

born Nov. 30, 1889, London, Eng. died Aug. 4, 1977, Cambridge [![Photograph:Lord Adrian, 1956]] - Lord Adrian, 1956 British electrophysiologist who with [Sir Charles Sherrington] won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1932 for discoveries regarding the nerve cell. Adrian graduated in medicine in 1915 from Trinity College, Cambridge. After medical service during World War I, he spent the greater part of his professional life at Cambridge in research and teaching, and as master of Trinity College (1961-65) and chancellor of the University (1968-75).

Akenside, Mark

born Nov. 9, 1721, Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland, Eng. died June 23, 1770, London [![Photograph:Akenside, engraving by E. Fisher, 1772, after a painting by A. Pond, 1754]] - Akenside, engraving by E. Fisher, 1772, after a painting by A. Pond, 1754 poet and physician, best known for his poem *[]The Pleasures of Imagination,* an eclectic philosophical essay that takes as its starting point papers on the same subject written by Joseph Addison for *The Spectator.* Written in blank verse derived from Milton's, it was modelled (as its preface states) on the Roman poets Virgil (the *Georgics*) and Horace (the *Epistles*). A debt to Virgil is certainly apparent in the way in which Akenside invests an essentially unpoetic subject—the abstractions of philosophic thought—with poetic form, through studied elevation of language and with considerable grace. The influence of Horace is clear in the skillfully handled transitions from one theme to another and the tact with which the entire subject is treated. Later adopting the ode as his favourite poetic form, Akenside was more than willing to consider himself the English Pindar, one of several aspects of his character that was satirized in Tobias Smollett's novel *[The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle],* in which Akenside appears as the physician in scenes set on the European continent.

Agnelli, Umberto

born November 1, 1934, Lausanne, Switzerland died May 27, 2004, Turin, Italy Italian automotive executive and grandson of [][Giovanni Agnelli], the founder of [][Fiat SpA]. He served as the company's chairman from 2003 to 2004. After graduating from the University of Turin with a law degree in 1959, Agnelli joined the family's automotive enterprise, Fiat. He assumed the presidency of Fiat France in 1965 and in five years doubled sales in that country. When he was made president of Fiat International, he increased Fiat sales and made the car the most popular in western Europe and doubled its sales in the United States. These successes pulled Umberto out of the shadow of his brother [Giovanni], 13 years his senior and the president of the parent firm. After becoming Fiat's managing director, Agnelli instituted progressive reforms for company workers. He offered flextime, which allowed workers to choose their own hours within limits. He became vice-chairman of Fiat SpA in 1976 and president of Fiat Auto in 1980, resigning his post as managing director of the parent company. From 1976 to 1979 he also served as a senator in Italy. Following Giovanni's death in 2003, Agnelli became chairman of Fiat SpA. At the time, the company was in sharp decline, and Agnelli oversaw a number of measures that improved its financial situation.

Albert VII

born November 11, 1559, Wiener Neustadt, Austria died July 13, 1621, Brussels, Spanish Netherlands [now in Belgium] cardinal archduke of Austria who as governor and sovereign prince of the Low Countries (1598-1621) ruled the [][Spanish Netherlands] jointly with his wife, Isabella, infanta of Spain (*see* [][Isabella Clara Eugenia]). The son of the Holy Roman emperor Maximilian II, Albert was educated for an ecclesiastical career at the court of his uncle, King [][Philip II] of Spain. Although appointed archbishop and cardinal of Toledo (Spain) in 1577, Albert served Philip not as a prelate but as a soldier and diplomat; he governed Portugal as Philip's viceroy from 1581 (or 1585) to 1595. After the death of his elder brother, Ernest, governor of the Netherlands, in February 1595, he was appointed governor-general by Philip and given the task of subduing the rebellious Protestants in the seven United Provinces of the north. At Philip's insistence, Albert reluctantly obtained a papal release from holy orders and dispensation to marry Philip's daughter, the infanta Isabella. He received joint sovereignty of the Low Countries in 1598 as dowry for his marriage (April 1599) to Isabella. Because Albert could effect neither a military defeat of the United Provinces nor a political reconciliation, he and Isabella controlled only the 10 Roman Catholic provinces of the south. After several years of inconclusive fighting, an armistice was arranged with the Dutch in April 1607, and a []12-year truce began in 1609. During the truce period Albert strengthened the Catholic religion in the Spanish Netherlands and did much to promote the arts.

Ady, Endre

born November 22, 1877, Érmindszent, Hung., Austria-Hungary [now Ady Endre, Rom.] died January 27, 1919, Budapest, Hung. [![Photograph:Ady]] - Ady one of Hungary's greatest lyric poets. Ady was born into an impoverished but noble family. On leaving school he studied law for a time, but in 1899 he published an insignificant volume of verse, *Versek,* and from 1900 until his death he worked as a journalist. In 1903 he published another volume of poetry, *[]Még egyszer,* in which signs of his exceptional talent could be seen. With his next book, *[]Uj versek* (1906; "New Poems"), he burst into Hungarian literary life. Poetry in Hungary had been dormant at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, and imitations of Sándor Petőfi and János Arany were prevalent. None of the few original poets had been powerful enough to make an impression on the public, which was thus unprepared for the "new verses of a new era," as Ady described his work. These poems were revolutionary in form, language, and content; his unconventional though splendid language, with its unusual choice of adjectives, shocked the public. The outrage was furthered by the general tone of his poems. Ady's stay as a journalist in Paris had made Hungary seem to him narrow and materialistic, and in these poems he unleashed a storm of violent and insulting attacks upon his country. Though the artistic value of the "new poems" is beyond question, Ady became the target of onslaughts that soon developed into a political struggle, Ady being supported by the left-wing radicals, who hailed him as a prophet, and abused by right-wing nationalists.

Albert III Achilles

born November 24, 1414, Tangermünde, Brandenburg [now in Germany] died March 11, 1486, Frankfurt am Main [![Photograph:Albert III Achilles, engraving by Peter Rollos, 1628.]] - Albert III Achilles, engraving by Peter Rollos, 1628. elector of Brandenburg, soldier, and administrative innovator who established the principle by which the mark of Brandenburg was to pass intact to the eldest son. The third son of Frederick of Hohenzollern, elector of Brandenburg, Albert received his family's Ansbach lands upon Frederick's death in 1440. He added Bayreuth at his brother John's death (1464), and when his brother Frederick II abdicated in 1470 he became elector of the mark of Brandenburg.

Agee, James

born November 27, 1909, Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S. died May 16, 1955, New York, New York American poet, novelist, and writer for and about motion pictures. One of the most influential American film critics in the 1930s and '40s, he applied rigorous intellectual and aesthetic standards to his reviews, which appeared anonymously in *Time* and signed in *The Nation*. Agee grew up in Tennessee's Cumberland Mountain area, attended Harvard University, and wrote for *Fortune* and *Time* after he graduated in 1932. *Permit Me Voyage*, a volume of poems, appeared in 1934. For a proposed article in *Fortune*, Agee and the photographer [][Walker Evans] lived for about six weeks among sharecroppers in Alabama in 1936. The article never appeared, but the material they gathered became a book, *[Let Us Now Praise Famous Men]* (1941), illustrated by Evans and accompanied by lyrical prose in which Agee dealt with both the plight of the people and his subjective reaction to it. Although his film criticism is not well-known, Agee's lively intelligence and discerning wit make his reviews as pleasureable to read as any writing with more serious intent. Like the best critics, he wrote as a fellow viewer rather than as an insider with superior opinions. Among his enthusiasms were his deep appreciation for the artistry of older filmmakers such as [Aleksandr Dovzhenko], [Jean Vigo], and [D.W. Griffith]. Agee was exceptionally sentient on the films of [John Huston], and most authorities believe that he single-handedly resurrected the silent comedies of actors such as [Harold Lloyd] and [][Buster Keaton]. Of the latter he wrote:

Albertini, Luigi

born Oct. 19, 1871, Ancona, Italy died Dec. 29, 1941, Rome Italian journalist, an early and outspoken opponent of Fascism, who made the *[][Corriere della sera]* (in Milan) one of the most respected and widely read daily newspapers in Europe. As a young man, Albertini lived in London, where he investigated labour conditions and studied the organization of *The Times*. Becoming business manager (1898) and editor (1900) of the *Corriere della sera,* he installed modern equipment and brought the paper's technical services up to date. Through the *Corriere* he defended individual freedoms and governmental authority, regarding both as necessary. Not a doctrinaire patriot, he favoured Italy's entry into World War I but disapproved of the poet and violent Italian nationalist Gabriele D'Annunzio's freebooting capture of Fiume (now Rijeka, Croatia) in September 1919 and the Italian annexations in Dalmatia. He supported the agreement of Rapallo (November 1920) between Yugoslavia and Giovanni Giolitti's Italian government. Although Albertini had criticized the earlier postwar governments in Italy for their weakness, he was not reassured by the more forceful regime of Fascism and was one of the few newspaper editors to resist Fascist threats and cajolery. In November 1925, because of his stand against the government, the owners of the *Corriere* dismissed him.

Adler, Renata

born Oct. 19, 1938, Milan, Italy Italian-born American journalist, experimental novelist, and film critic best known for her analytic essays and reviews for [*The New Yorker*] magazine and for her 1986 book that investigates the news media. Adler was educated at Bryn Mawr (Pennsylvania) College, the Sorbonne, and Harvard University. From 1962 to 1968 and from 1970 to 1982, she was a staff writer-reporter for *[][The New Yorker.]* Essays and reviews she wrote there are collected and published as *Toward a Radical Middle: Fourteen Pieces of Reporting and Criticism* (1969). From her controversial single-year tenure as film critic for [*The New York Times*] came a collection of reviews published as *A Year in the Dark: Journal of a Film Critic, 1968-69* (1970). Adler then turned to writing short stories, some of them published under the pseudonym Brett Daniels in *The New Yorker,* *Vanity Fair,* and other periodicals. In 1974 Adler won first prize in the [O. Henry]short-story awards competition. Adler reworked previously published short fiction into *Speedboat* (1976), her first novel, for which she won the [Ernest Hemingway] Prize (1976) for best first novel. Set primarily in New York City, *[]Speedboat* consists mainly of a series of disparate sketches and vignettes of impressions, musings, and slices of life, all distilled through the ironic and often detached sensibility of the protagonist Jen Fain. Like *Speedboat,* Adler's second novel, *Pitch Dark* (1983), is episodic and nonlinear; critical response to both was mixed. After graduating from Yale Law School, Adler also wrote the nonfiction work *Reckless Disregard: Westmoreland v. CBS et al., Sharon v. Time* (1986), an investigation into libel suits brought by American and Israeli generals against major American news organizations. In 1988 she published *Politics and Media,* a collection of essays.

Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud

born Oct. 28, 1956, Garmsar, Iran [![Photograph:Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, 2005.]] - Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, 2005. Iranian political leader who served as president of [Iran] (2005- ). Ahmadinejad, the son of a blacksmith, grew up in Tehrān, where in 1976 he entered the Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST) to study civil engineering. During the [Iranian Revolution] (1978-79), he was one of the student leaders who organized demonstrations. After the revolution, like many of his peers, he joined the [Revolutionary Guards], a religious militia group formed by Ayatollah [Ruhollah Khomeini]. Parallel to his service with the Revolutionary Guards in the [Iran-Iraq War] (1980-88), he continued his studies at IUST, eventually earning a doctorate in transportation engineering and planning. Following the war he served in various positions until 1993, when he was appointed governor of the newly established Ardabīl province. After his term as governor ended in 1997, he returned to IUST as a lecturer. Ahmadinejad helped establish []Abadgaran-e Iran-e Islami (Developers of an Islamic Iran), which promoted a populist agenda and sought to unite the country's conservative factions. The party won the city council elections in Tehrān in February 2003, and in May the council chose Ahmadinejad to serve as mayor. As mayor of Tehrān, Ahmadinejad was credited with solving traffic problems and keeping prices down.

Agus Salim, Hadji

born Oct. 8, 1884, Kota Gedang, Sumatra, Dutch East Indies [now Indonesia] died Nov. 4, 1954, Yogyakarta, Indon. Indonesian nationalist and religious leader from an upper class Minangkabau family, who played a key role during the 1920s in moderating the messianic and communist element in the Muslim nationalist movement in the Dutch East Indies. Agus Salim received a Dutch education through secondary school, after which he dealt with Dutch consular affairs in Jiddah, Arabia, where he became interested in reformist and modernist movements in Islām. In 1915 Salim joined the [][Sarekat Islam] (Islamic Association) and soon became a leading influence in that Indonesian nationalist group. His opposition to the messianic cult that had grown up around the group's central figure, Omar Said Tjokroaminoto, led to a de-emphasis of mystical elements in the organization. Salim, an evolutionary socialist, played an important role in the political conflicts of the early 1920s. His opposition to the use of force in resisting colonialism made him relatively acceptable to Dutch leaders. In 1921 he was the main noncommunist spokesman in the discussions over control of the labour movement that led to the communist withdrawal from Sarekat Islam. After 1923 the organization came increasingly under Salim's control, and he directed it away from political activity and toward the pan-Islāmic movement. During the birth of Indonesian independence, Salim served briefly in 1946-47 as vice minister of foreign affairs.

Alamán, Lucas

born October 1792, Guanajuato, Mex. died June 2, 1853, Mexico City politician and historian, the leader of Mexican conservatives for nearly 30 years and the spokesman for a strong, centralized government that would support industrialization, educational expansion, and agricultural modernization. Living during a corrupt and brutal period of Mexican politics, he stood out as an honest and honourable political figure. Born in an area of extensive gold and silver mining, Alamán was trained as a mining engineer. He served in 1819 as the Mexican deputy in the Cortes (Spanish Parliament) and sought money and technical assistance for the Mexican mining industry. In Europe he developed a lifelong admiration for the stability of British political institutions. Returning to an independent Mexico in 1822, Alamán served first as foreign minister under [][Guadalupe Victoria] (1824-29), then as the powerful and influential chief minister of Anastasio Bustamante (1829-32). Alamán's career was marked by his frequent controversies with the United States and his ambitious, but unfulfilled, economic and political plans. He slowed down migration from the United States into Texas (at that time part of Mexico) and interfered with the signing of a trade treaty. His economic schemes, which attempted to force Mexico into rapid industrialization, were perhaps utopian for the primitive Mexican economy and remained only as plans on paper.

Agrippa von Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius

born Sept. 14, 1486, Cologne died Feb. 18, 1535, Grenoble, Fr. [![Photograph:Agrippa von Nettesheim, engraving by an unknown artist, 1527]] - Agrippa von Nettesheim, engraving by an unknown artist, 1527 court secretary to Charles V, physician to Louise of Savoy, exasperating theologian within the Catholic Church, military entrepreneur in Spain and Italy, acknowledged expert on occultism, and philosopher. His tempestuous career also included teaching at Dôle and Pavia universities, appointment as orator and public advocate at Metz (until denounced for defending an accused witch), banishment from Germany in 1535 (after battling with the inquisitor of Cologne), and imprisonment in France (for criticizing the Queen Mother). Agrippa's *[]De occulta philosophia* added impetus to Renaissance study of magic and injected his name into early Faust legends. In this book he explained the world in terms of cabalistic analyses of Hebrew letters and Pythagorean numerology and acclaimed magic as the best means to know God and nature. About 1530 Agrippa outraged Charles V by publishing a scathing attack on occultism and all other sciences ("Of the Vanitie and uncertaintie of artes and sciences," trans. 1569) and thus served the Renaissance revival of Skepticism. Agrippa was jailed and branded as a heretic. After scuttling every type of scientific knowledge, he found peaceful refuge in a simple biblical piety.

Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn

born September 835 died March 884, Egypt the founder of the Ṭūlūnid dynasty in Egypt, and the first Muslim governor of Egypt to annex Syria. As a child Aḥmad was taken into slavery and placed in the private service of the ʿAbbāsid caliph (the titular leader of the Islāmic community) at Baghdad. Later he studied theology in the city of Tarsus. He rose in the administrative structure of the ʿAbbāsid government and in 868 became a lieutenant in the service of the governor of Egypt. In Egypt he saw that the real centre of authority lay with the minister of finance, and during the next years he struggled to bring that department under his control. He was successful, and himself became vice governor. Using a rebellion in Palestine as a pretext, he purchased a large number of slaves to increase the strength of his army, which formed the basis of his personal authority. In 882, using the pretext of a holy war against the Byzantine Empire, he annexed Syria. Aḥmad never went so far as to declare formal independence from the ʿAbbāsid caliph, but the autonomy of his rule was clearly a threat to the authority of the latter, and he ceased to send any tribute to the ʿAbbāsid government. The Caliph himself was preoccupied with other problems and was unable to spare the military forces necessary to bring Aḥmad into submission.

aerodynamics

branch of physics that deals with the motion of air and other gaseous fluids and with the forces acting on bodies passing through such a fluid. Aerodynamics seeks, in particular, to explain the principles governing the flight of aircraft, rockets, and missiles. It is also concerned with the design of automobiles, high-speed trains, and ships, as well as with the construction of such structures as bridges and tall buildings to determine their resistance to high winds. Observations of the flight of birds and projectiles stirred speculation among the ancients as to the forces involved and the manner of their interaction. They, however, had no real knowledge of the physical properties of air, nor did they attempt a systematic study of those properties. Most of their ideas reflected a belief that the air provided a sustaining or impelling force. These notions were based to a large degree on the principles of hydrostatics (the study of the pressures of liquids) as they were then understood. Thus, in early times, it was thought that the impelling force of a projectile was associated with forces exerted on the base by the closure of the flow of air around the body. This conception of air as an assisting medium rather than a resisting force persisted for centuries, even though in the 16th century it was recognized that the energy of motion of a projectile was imparted to it by the catapulting device. Near the end of the 15th century, [][Leonardo da Vinci] observed that air offered resistance to the movement of a solid object and attributed this resistance to compressibility effects. [][Galileo] later established the fact of air resistance experimentally and arrived at the conclusion that the resistance was proportional to the velocity of the object passing through it. In the late 17th century, [][Christiaan Huygens] and [][Sir Isaac Newton] determined that air resistance to the motion of a body was proportional to the square of the velocity. Newton's work in setting forth the laws of mechanics marked the beginning of the classical theories of aerodynamics. He considered the pressure acting on an inclined plate as arising from the impingement of particles on the side of the plate that faces the airstream. His formulation yielded the result that the pressure acting on the plate was proportional to the product of the density of the air, the area of the plate, the square of the velocity, and the square of the sine of the angle of inclination. This failed to account for the effects of the flow on the upper surface of the plate where low pressures exist and from which a major portion of the lift of a wing is produced. The idea of air as a continuum with a pressure field extending over great distances from the plate was to come much later.

Alaska, Gulf of

broad inlet of the North Pacific on the south coast of Alaska, U.S. Bounded by the [Alaska Peninsula] and [Kodiak Island] (west) and Cape Spencer (east), it has a surface area of 592,000 square miles (1,533,000 square km). The coast is deeply indented by fjords and other inlets, including [Cook Inlet] and [Prince William Sound] (on either side of the Kenai Peninsula). The gulf receives the Susitna and Copper rivers. Large glaciers cast off huge icebergs, which are taken out to sea by the Alaska Current. Rising from the gulf's shores in Alaska are the high Chugach, Kenai, Fairweather, and St. Elias mountains. Ports along the gulf include Anchorage, Seward, and North America's northernmost ice-free harbour, [][Valdez], which is the trans-Alaskan pipeline terminal. Oil has been found along Cook Inlet and beneath Controller Bay. In 1741 the first Europeans to enter the gulf were a Russian expedition led by Danish mariner [Vitus Bering].

adsorption

capability of all solid substances to attract to their surfaces molecules of gases or solutions with which they are in contact. Solids that are used to adsorb gases or dissolved substances are called adsorbents; the adsorbed molecules are usually referred to collectively as the adsorbate. An example of an excellent adsorbent is the charcoal used in gas masks to remove poisons or impurities from a stream of air. Adsorption refers to the collecting of molecules by the external surface or internal surface (walls of capillaries or crevices) of solids or by the surface of liquids. [Absorption], with which it is often confused, refers to processes in which a substance penetrates into the actual interior of crystals, of blocks of amorphous solids, or of liquids. Sometimes the word [][sorption] is used to indicate the process of the taking up of a gas or liquid by a solid without specifying whether the process is adsorption or absorption. Adsorption can be either physical or []chemical in nature. []Physical adsorption resembles the condensation of gases to liquids and depends on the physical, or [][van der Waals], force of attraction between the solid adsorbent and the adsorbate molecules. There is no chemical specificity in physical adsorption, any gas tending to be adsorbed on any solid if the temperature is sufficiently low or the pressure of the gas sufficiently high. In chemical adsorption, gases are held to a solid surface by chemical forces that are specific for each surface and each gas. Chemical adsorption occurs usually at higher temperatures than those at which physical adsorption occurs; furthermore, chemical adsorption is ordinarily a slower process than physical adsorption and, like most chemical reactions, frequently involves an energy of activation.

Agulhas, Cape

cape that is the southernmost point of the African continent, located 109 miles (176 km) southeast of Cape Town, S.Af. Its name, Portuguese for "needles," refers to the rocks and reefs that have wrecked many ships. A lighthouse was established there in 1849. The Agulhas Banks are excellent for trawling. The cape's meridian (20° E) is the official boundary between the Indian and Atlantic oceans.

Alameda

city, Alameda county, [California], U.S. It lies on a 6.5-mile- (11-km-) long by 1-mile- (1.6-km-) wide island in [San Francisco Bay], across the [][Oakland] Harbor Channel from [Oakland], with which it is connected by bridges and underground tunnels. The site was originally a peninsula that was part of Rancho San Antonio. Long the home of the Ohlone Indians, the locality was settled by the Spanish in the 1850s, and its name, which in Spanish means "grove of poplar trees," was chosen by referendum in 1853. Alameda's growth was stimulated by a ferry service to [San Francisco], the building of railroad bridges and terminals, and the establishment of one of the first municipally operated electrical-power plants in the United States. The Tidal Canal (1902) changed Alameda to an island with an industrialized waterfront dominated by shipbuilding, steel fabrication, and lumber milling. Port facilities attracted fishing and cargo vessels, and in 1940 it became the site of a large naval air station (now closed). The city is also home to many high-technology companies, earning it the nickname "Silicon Island." Alameda was among the first communities in California to choose the council-manager form of government, which was adopted later by most California cities. The College of Alameda opened in 1970. The aircraft carrier USS [Hornet], which first saw action in World War II and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1991, is maintained as a floating museum at Alameda Point. Inc. town, 1854; city, 1884. Pop. (1990) 76,459; (2000) 72,259.

Agadir

city, Atlantic port, southwestern [Morocco]. The city lies 6 miles (10 km) north of the mouth of the Sous valley. Possibly the site of the ancient Roman Portus Risadir, the city was occupied by the Portuguese from 1505 to 1541, when it fell to the Saʿdī sultanate. After the Moroccan Crisis of 1911, when the German gunboat Panther appeared offshore "to protect German interests," the city was occupied by French troops (1913). (*See* [Moroccan crises].) Modern growth began with the construction of the port (1914), development of the Sous plain, exploitation of inland mineral resources, and the fishing and fish-canning industries. In 1960 the city was virtually destroyed by two earthquakes, a tidal wave, and fire, which killed about 12,000 people. A new central city was built to the south of the old town. The city is linked by road with [Safi]and [Marrakech]; it also has an international airport. The region that surrounds Agadir is composed of the plain of the east-west-trending Sous valley, which itself is enclosed between the [High Atlas] (Haut Atlas) and [Anti-Atlas] mountains. Cereals (primarily barley), citrus fruits, olives, sheep, goats, and cattle are raised on the irrigated Sous plain, and sheep and goats are grazed in the mountains. Pop. (2004) 678,596.

Aix-en-Provence

city, Bouches-du-Rhône *département,* Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur *région,* southern [France], north of [Marseille]. Lying on the plain 1 mile (1.6 km) from the right bank of the Arc River, it is on the crossroads of main routes to Italy and the Alps. The conquering Roman proconsul Sextius Calvinus built a huge entrenched camp called Aquae Sextiae in the valley about 123 BC. In 102 BC, Marius routed the Teutons at the Battle of Aix. The Visigoths, Franks, Lombards, and finally Muslim invaders from Spain successively plundered the town. As the medieval capital of Provence, governed by the counts and dukes of Anjou, Aix flowered as a centre of learning and the arts. Its university, now the Universities of Aix-Marseille, was founded in 1409 and recognized by papal bull in 1413. In 1486 Provence passed to the French crown, and Aix became the seat of a *parlement*. North of the tree-lined Cours Mirabeau lies the old town, with Roman ruins and structures of the Middle Ages around the 11th-13th-century archdiocesan Saint-Sauveur Cathedral; southward is the "new" town, rich in fine 17th- and 18th-century houses, surrounded on all sides by recent urban growth. The [][hot] mineral springs—the most noted is the Thermes Sextius—are still used for rheumatic and vascular diseases. Serene, sun-dappled, and fountain-splashed, Aix is an agricultural centre, especially noted for Provençal olives and almonds from the countryside painted by Paul Cézanne, whose atelier is preserved as one of several city museums. Since the city functions principally as a residential suburb of Marseille, industrial development is light but includes food processing and electrical machinery. Pop. (1999) 134,222; (2005 est.) 139,800.

Albacete

city, capital of [Albacete] *provincia* (province), in the [Castile-La Mancha] *comunidad autónoma* (autonomous community), southeast-central [Spain]. Albacete is located in the historic La Mancha region, on the Don Juan River at its juncture with the María Cristina Canal. Of Moorish origin (Arabic: Al-Basīṭ), it was the scene of two battles between Christians and Moors, in 1145 and 1146. Refounded in 1365 as Albacete, it played an important part in the War of the Spanish Succession: the Battle of Almansa was won near there by King Philip V in 1707. Development came only after the construction in the 19th century of the María Cristina Canal, which drained malarial swamps to the south. The city is now a market centre for agricultural produce (fruit and saffron). Industry is primarily based on agriculture, but textile and metallurgical manufacturing play a large role in the economy. Knives and daggers from Albacete, now sold chiefly as souvenirs, are well known throughout Spain. Services and regional commerce are the most notable tertiary activities in Albacete. Albacete is divided into the upper town (Alto de Villa), or old quarter, and the lower, modern town (Villa de Abajo). Notable landmarks include the 16th-century San Juan Bautista Cathedral (restored after a fire in 1936) and a museum. A provincial museum displaying the work of regional and local artists was opened in 1978. Pop. (2006 est.) 155,506.

Albi

city, capital of [Tarn] *département,* [Midi-Pyrénées] *région*, in the [Languedoc], southern [France]. It lies along the Tarn River where the latter leaves the Massif Central for the Garonne Plain, northeast of Toulouse. Albi, or Albiga, was the capital of the Gallo-Roman Albigenses and later of the viscounty of Albigeois, which was a fief of the counts of Toulouse. An active centre of Catharism, the town gave its name to the Albigensian heresy, which led to the Albigensian Crusade (1209) and later to the development of the Inquisition. The city was captured in 1215, and the bishops subsequently lost their estates to the crown. By a convention (1264), temporal power was granted to the bishops (archbishops after 1678) until the French Revolution. The town's most important architectural glory is the Gothic []Sainte-Cécile Cathedral (1277-1512), which was constructed in brick, without flying buttresses. Between the cathedral and the river is situated the red brick []Berbie Palace, a 13th-century archbishop's palace that is now a museum where the works of Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, a native of Albi, are displayed. Below the palace is the 9th-century Old Bridge. The centre of the town is medieval. The Church of Saint-Salvi has a splendid cloister (11th-15th century). Albi serves as a base for exploration of the Tarn River gorges and has a tourist industry. The town also manufactures cement, dyes, flour, synthetic textiles, and glass. Pop. (1999) 46,274; (2005 est.) 48,100.

Akola

city, north-central Mahārāshtra state, western India, on the Mūrna River. An important road and rail junction in the Tāpti River valley, it is a commercial centre trading chiefly in cotton. There are also textile and vegetable-oil industries. In the past it was incorporated in turn into several local Muslim kingdoms. Akola is an important educational centre with several colleges affiliated with the University of Nāgpur. The chief crops grown in the surrounding area are rice, cotton, wheat, millet, and peanuts (groundnuts). The region's industries are agriculturally based; cotton ginning, oil processing, and cigarette manufacture are important. Pop. (1991 prelim.) city, 327,946.

Alagoinhas

city, northeastern [Bahia] *estado* (state), northeastern Brazil, lying 35 miles (56 km) inland from the Atlantic coast at 607 feet (185 metres) above sea level. It was elevated to city rank in 1880, and its municipality is one of the largest orange-producing regions in the state. Bananas, lemons, and cassava (manioc) are also cultivated, and dairying is widespread. Tanning, petroleum, and lumbering are also important. Products are exported by rail and road to [Salvador], the state capital, 70 miles (113 km) south, and to neighbouring communities. Pop. (2005 est.) 119,600.

Adrian

city, seat (1838) of Lenawee county, southeastern [Michigan], U.S., on the River Raisin, 40 miles (65 km) southwest of [Ann Arbor]. Addison J. Comstock settled the site in 1826 as Logan and renamed it in 1828 for the Roman emperor [Hadrian] (the *H* was dropped in 1838). With his father, Darius, Comstock built the Erie and Kalamazoo Railroad (1833-36, the first west of New York state) connecting Adrian and [Toledo], Ohio (some 30 miles [50 km] southeast); its cars were horse-drawn until replaced by a locomotive in 1837. Originally an agricultural centre, the city has acquired some light industry (notably the manufacture of auto parts and aluminum, plastics, and wood products). The Michigan Department of Corrections, which operates two prisons near Adrian, has been an important employer since the late 1980s. Adrian College was founded in 1859. The Adrian Dominican Sisters, a Roman Catholic religious congregation that ministers throughout the United States and Canada and in several overseas countries, is based in Adrian and sponsors several institutions there, including Siena Heights University (1919) and St. Joseph Academy (1896). Lake Hudson Recreation Area is about 12 miles (20 km) to the southwest. Inc. village, 1836; city, 1853. Pop. (2000) 21,574; (2005 est.) 21,784.

Albany

city, seat (1851) of Linn county, western [Oregon], U.S., in the Willamette Valley, at the juncture of the Willamette and Calapooia rivers, 26 miles (42 km) south of [Salem]. Established in 1848 by Walter and Thomas Monteith and named for the New York state capital, it became a shipping point for wool, grain, and cascara bark (which is used medicinally). The [Oregon and California (now Southern Pacific) Railroad]%20Railroad#9068923.toc) arrived in 1870. Lumber, wood pulp, paper, rare metals, and food-processing industries are the city's economic mainstays. The U.S. Bureau of Mines maintains the Albany Metallurgy Research Center there. Albany is the site of Linn-Benton Community College (1966). Eight picturesque covered bridges, built in the 1930s, are located in and around Albany. The city has three historic districts that are listed on the U.S. Department of the Interior's National Register of Historic Places: Monteith, Hackleman, and Downtown Commercial. The first two, named for families that followed the [Oregon Trail] to Albany, contain most of Albany's 350 stylistically varied Victorian houses. The Downtown Commercial district contains many original buildings and businesses. The Monteith House Museum is a restoration of Albany's first frame house (1849), and the Albany Regional Museum contains artifacts, photographs, and other memorabilia pertaining to Albany and the surrounding region. The city is host to the annual World Championship Timber Carnival (July 4), which includes logrolling, speed-climbing, and handsawing events; the carnival logo celebrates logger Tim Burr. Inc. 1864. Pop. (1990) 29,462; (2000) 40,852.

Albany

city, seat (1853) of Dougherty county, southwestern [Georgia], U.S. It lies along the Flint River at the head of navigation, about 90 miles (145 km) southeast of [Columbus]. Founded in 1836 by Colonel Nelson Tift, it was named for [Albany, New York], and was early established as a leading cotton market. In 1857 a railroad connected it with [Macon]. Later, six other rail lines converged on the point to make it a transportation hub. The city served as a Confederate food and cotton supplier during the [American Civil War]. Cotton growing declined in the Albany area after a serious boll weevil infestation in 1915. Subsequently, a wider variety of crops were raised, with emphasis on papershell pecans and Spanish peanuts (groundnuts) and on livestock. The city's economy is now based largely on services and diversified manufacturing (paper products, tires, food and beverages, and pharmaceuticals). Albany State University (1903) and Darton College (founded in 1963 as Albany Junior College), a two-year institution, are located in the city. Cultural institutions include the Albany Museum of Art and the Thronateeksa Heritage Plaza. The Parks at Chehaw, located just north of the city, include a wild animal park and are the site of the annual Chehaw National Indian Festival (May). A large U.S. Marine Corps supply depot is nearby and is a major employer. The Albany area has become renowned for its quail hunting. Singer [Ray Charles], trumpeter and band leader [Harry James], and track-and-field star [Alice Coachman] were natives of Albany. Inc. 1841. Pop. (1990) city, 78,122; Albany MSA, 112,561; (2000) city, 76,939; Albany MSA, 120,822.

Alamosa

city, seat (1913) of Alamosa county, southern [Colorado], U.S. It lies along the Rio Grande in the San Luis Valley, on the western flank of the [Sangre de Cristo Mountains]. Founded as Garland City near the site of a small encampment outside the gates of Fort Garland (1858), a cavalry post once commanded by [Christopher "Kit" Carson], Alamosa (Spanish: "Cottonwood") was a terminus of the [Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad]. It developed as a rail and highway centre from which vegetables, including the renowned Red McClure potatoes, are shipped. It is the seat of Adams State College (1921) and is the gateway to the Great Sand Dunes National Monument. Fort Garland is now a history museum. The Alamosa-Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge Complex, providing a habitat for migratory waterfowl, lies nearby, as does part of Rio Grande National Forest. Inc. 1878. Pop. (1990) 7,579; (2000) 7,960.

Albert Lea

city, seat of Freeborn county, southern [Minnesota], U.S. It lies about 90 miles (145 km) south of [Minneapolis], just north of the Iowa state line. The city is situated on Fountain and Albert Lea lakes in an agricultural area. Settled in 1855 and named for the U.S. Army lieutenant who had surveyed the region in 1835, it became the county seat in 1859 as the result of a race won by a local horse over one backed by the neighbouring town of Itasca (which no longer exists). Many of its citizens are of Scandinavian descent. At the crossroads of a highway and rail complex, it developed as a wholesale distribution centre for the surrounding farming region and later as a diversified industrial centre with large meatpacking plants. It remains a wholesaling centre with a prominent food-processing (especially meat) industry, and manufactures include store fixtures and machinery. Area agriculture is primarily corn (maize), soybeans, potatoes, and hogs. A community college campus is in the city. Myre-Big Island State Park is just east. Inc. 1878. Pop. (1990) 18,310; (2000) 18,356.

Alamein, El-

coastal town in northwestern Egypt, about 60 miles (100 km) west of Alexandria, that was the site of two major [battles] between British and Axis forces in 1942 during World War II. El-Alamein is the seaward (northern) end of a 40-mile-wide bottleneck that is flanked on the south by the impassable Qattara Depression. This crucial east-west corridor became a vital defensive line held by the British army, and marked the farthest point of penetration by German forces into Egypt. After the British had inflicted severe defeats on the Italian forces in [North Africa,] the German general [][Erwin Rommel] was chosen commander of Axis forces in Libya (February 1941). In January 1942 his forces started a new drive eastward along the North African coast to seize the Suez Canal. After losing Banghāzī in January, the British held the Germans in check until May. Then the German and Italian forces were able to destroy most of the British tank force, take Tobruk, and move eastward into Egypt, reaching the British defenses at El-Alamein (Al-ʿAlamayn) on June 30, 1942. Rommel attacked this line on July 1, but the next day the British commander, General Claude Auchinleck, counterattacked, and a battle of attrition developed. By mid-July Rommel was still at El-Alamein, blocked, and had even been thrown on the defensive, thus ending the first engagement. The British had stopped his drive to overrun Egypt and seize the canal. Both sides built up their forces in the ensuing pause, but the British, with more secure supply lines across the Mediterranean, were able to reinforce their army to much greater effect. Equally importantly, General [][Harold Alexander] took command of the British troops in this theatre in August, and General [][Bernard L. Montgomery] was named his field commander. On Oct. 23, 1942, the British 8th Army started a devastating attack from El-Alamein. Rommel's forces—vastly outnumbered, with fewer than 80,000 against the 230,000 British—managed to contain the the British attacks, but these battles of attrition left them fatally weakened. On November 4 Rommel ordered a retreat, and by November 6 the British had wound up the second battle and driven the Germans westward from Egypt back into Libya.

Akaroa

community, eastern South Island, [New Zealand]. It is situated on the shore of French Bay, inside Akaroa Harbour, which is a rocky inlet on the Banks Peninsula formed when the sea breached the erosion-enlarged crater of an ancient volcano. In 1838 a French whaler, Captain []Jean Langlois, agreed with the local Maori chiefs to buy 30,000 acres (12,000 hectares) of the peninsula. He returned to France to organize the []Nanto-Bordelaise Company (1839), which, backed by a warship, dispatched a settlement force. Arriving in 1840, the settlers found that the British had in the interim declared sovereignty over South Island. An agreement reached between the French and the British allowed the company to establish its settlement, which was sold to the New Zealand government in 1849. The settlement serves a fruit- and dairy-farming area. A summer resort and fishing port, Akaroa lies 52 miles (84 km) by road southeast of Christchurch. The town's name derives from the Maori for "long harbour." Pop. (2001) 576.

Akan languages

dialect cluster of the Nyo group within the [Kwa] branch of the [Niger-Congo language] family. Its principal members are []Asante (Ashanti), []Fante (Fanti), []Brong (Abron), and []Akuapem. The Akan cluster is located primarily in southern [][Ghana], although many Brong speakers live in eastern [Côte d'Ivoire]. Altogether speakers of Akan dialects and languages number more than seven million. Written forms of Asante and Akuapem (both formerly considered to be Twi), as well as Fante, were developed in the 19th century. The term Akan is sometimes used inexactly to refer to other related Kwa languages located west of the Volta River, including Anyi, Baule, and Nzema. Although these peoples share cultural features, they do not constitute a single language or dialect cluster. The term *Akan* is increasingly being used by both linguists and official bodies—such as the government of Ghana—to refer to the dialect cluster described above. Akan (the Asante dialect) serves as a trade language in many parts of Ghana, and several million people use it as a second language. [John T. Bendor-Samuel]

Ala'ud'din

died *c.* 1564, , probably Acheh, Sumatra [now in Indonesia] sultan of the Malay kingdom of [][Johore] from 1528. He is sometimes considered the cofounder of the kingdom with his father, Mahmud Shah, the last sultan of Malacca, who established Johore on the island of Bintang (southeast of Singapore) in 1512-13. Sometime after his father's death (1528), Ala'ud'din moved his capital to Johore Lama. The Achinese sacked Johore Lama in 1564 and took Sultan Ala'ud'din prisoner to die in Acheh (one account, however, gives Johore Lama as the place of death).

Agung

died 1645 third sultan of the [][Mataram] dynasty of central Java who brought his domain to its greatest territorial and military power. In the early years of Sultan Agung's reign, he consolidated the sultanate by subduing the autonomous trade-based coastal states of Padang and Tuban in 1619; Banjermasin, Kalimantan, and Sukadana in 1622; Madura in 1624; and Surabaya in 1625. Because the country's economy was based on agriculture, Agung, who was openly contemptuous of trade, maintained no significant naval forces. []Dutch troops had conquered Jacatra (now Jakarta) in 1619 and established there a base they named Batavia. In 1629 the sultan's forces attacked the city in an effort to drive out the Europeans, but superior Dutch naval forces maintained the Dutch position. This was the last major threat to the Dutch position in Java until after World War II. After failing to conquer Batavia, Agung turned against the [][Balinese], then controlling Balambangan in East Java, in a "holy war" against infidels. His campaign was successful in Java, but he was unable to extend his power to the island of Bali itself. Bali thus retained its identity as a Hindu state in the midst of the predominantly Muslim states of the archipelago. Internally Agung introduced reforms to bring the judicial system more in line with Qurʾānic precepts and reformed the tax system. By the mid-18th century, however, the Dutch were sufficiently strong to put an end to Mataram supremacy by bringing about a division of the realm into two lesser kingdoms centring on Surakarta and Jogjakarta.

Ahenobarbus, Gnaeus Domitius

died 31 BC Roman general who became one of the chief partisans of [][Mark Antony] after Antony defeated the assassins of Julius Caesar. With his father, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, he had been a member of the group that in 49 BC made an unsuccessful attempt to prevent Caesar from seizing power. After the assassination of Caesar in 44, the planning for which had been led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, Ahenobarbus was accused of participation in the plot and was convicted in absentia. He commanded the assassins' fleet. When they were defeated by the forces of Antony and Octavian (later the emperor Augustus) at Philippi in Macedonia in 42, Ahenobarbus held out as a privateer until he was reconciled with Antony in 40. From 40 until about 35 he served Antony as governor of Bithynia. He was consul at Rome in 32, when the final breach occurred between Antony and Octavian. Ahenobarbus then left Italy to join Antony in the east, but he opposed the Egyptian queen Cleopatra's dominance over Antony and deserted to Octavian shortly before Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31. Ahenobarbus died soon afterward, reputedly of remorse but in fact from a disease contracted before the battle.

Agis III

died 331 BC, near Megalopolis, Arcadia [Greece] Spartan king (338-331) who rebelled unsuccessfully against [][Alexander the Great]. A member of the Eurypontid house (one of the two royal families of Sparta), Agis succeeded to the throne of his father, Archidamus III. While Alexander was invading Anatolia, Agis, profiting from the Macedonian general's absence from Greece, led the Greek cities in revolt. With Persian money and 8,000 Greek mercenaries, he tried to hold Crete against Alexander. In 331 he raised a coalition in the Peloponnese and laid siege to Megalopolis. Alexander's regent, [][Antipater], made peace with the Thracians (with whom he had been warring), marched south, and won a hard-fought battle near Megalopolis (331). Agis was killed, and Spartan resistance was broken.

Aedesius

died 355 Greek philosopher whose ideas had their roots in Neoplatonism, a school of philosophy that grew out of the Idealism of Plato. Aedesius founded the so-called [Pergamum school] of philosophy, whose major concerns were [theurgy] (the magic practiced by some Neoplatonists who believed miracles could be worked by the intervention of divine and beneficent spirits) and the revival of polytheism. He was the pupil of [][Iamblichus] and the teacher of [][Maximus], Chrysanthius, Priscus, and Eusebius Myndius. None of his writings have survived, but there is an extant biography by Eunapius.

Agis II

died 400 or 398 BC king of Sparta after about 427 BC who commanded all operations of the regular army during most of the [][Peloponnesian War] (431-404) against Athens. In 418, while the inconclusive Peace of Nicias (421-415) was still in effect, Agis invaded the territory of Athens' ally Argos but inexplicably made a truce and withdrew after cutting the Argive army off from its city. He escaped heavy penalties for his failure to press his advantage by promising more successful enterprises. He restored Spartan prestige a few weeks later when he defeated the Argive alliance at Mantineia. In 413, after the war with Athens was formally resumed, Agis led the force that occupied Decelea in Attica. The historian [][Thucydides] stressed the influence Agis exerted from there over Spartan policy. Though this occupation caused great hardship to Athens, it was [][Lysander's] naval victory for Sparta that ended the war in 404. Agis took no part in the subsequent settlement at Athens. In 402 (or 400) war broke out between Sparta and [][Elis]. Agis forced Elis' surrender in the spring of 400 (or 398) but died shortly afterward.

Aethelred

died 716, Bardney, Eng. king of Mercia, who was a benefactor of many churches in his several provinces and at last retired to a monastery. He succeeded his brother [Wulfhere] in 675 and early on spent most of his time in warfare. In 676 he ravished Kent, taking Rochester. In 679, in a battle on the banks of the Trent, he defeated the Northumbrians, taking the province of Lindsey. Aelfwine, the brother of Ecgfrith, king of Northumbria, was slain on this occasion, but at the intervention of Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, Aethelred agreed to pay a wergild for the Northumbrian prince and so prevented further hostilities. Aethelred abdicated in 704, choosing his nephew Cenred as his successor. He then became abbot of Bardney.

Aethelbald

died 757, Seckington, Eng. king of the Mercians from 716, who became the chief king of a confederation including all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms between the River Humber and the English Channel. His predominance was made possible by the death of the strong king Wihtred of Kent (725) and the abdication of Ine of Wessex (726). During Aethelbald's reign, London passed from East Saxon to Mercian control. Although generous to the church, he was rebuked in a letter (746 or 747) from Boniface and other Anglo-Saxon missionary bishops in Germany for his loose living and his violation of ecclesiastical prerogatives. In 749 he freed churches from all public financial responsibilities except bridge repair and fortress building. His charters use the regnal style "king of Britain." He was murdered by his retainers.

Aethelbald

died 860 [![Photograph:Aethelbald (Ethelbald)]] - Aethelbald (Ethelbald) king of Wessex (from 855/856), the son of [][Aethelwulf], with whom he led the West Saxons to victory against the Danes at Aclea (851). He reportedly rebelled against his father either before (855) or on the latter's return from Rome in 856 and deprived him of Wessex, which he ruled until his death. On his father's death in 858 he married his stepmother, Judith.

Aethelberht

died 865/866 [![Photograph:Aethelberht (Ethelbert)]] - Aethelberht (Ethelbert) king of the West Saxons, or Wessex, who succeeded to the subkingdom of Kent during the lifetime of his father Aethelwulf and retained it until the death of his elder brother Aethelbald in 860, when he became sole king of Wessex and Kent, the younger brothers Aethelred and Alfred renouncing their claim. He ruled these kingdoms for five years. His reign was marked by two serious attacks from the []Danes, who destroyed Winchester in 860, in spite of the resistance of the ealdormen Osric and Aethelwulf. In 865 the Danes ravaged Kent.

Aethelred I

died April 871 [![Photograph:Aethelred I (Ethelred)]] - Aethelred I (Ethelred) king of Wessex and of Kent (865/866-871), son of Aethelwulf of Wessex. By his father's will he should have succeeded to Wessex on the death of his eldest brother Aethelbald (d. 860). He seems, however, to have stood aside in favour of his brother Aethelberht, king of Kent, to whose joint kingdoms he succeeded in 865 or 866. Aethelred's reign was one long struggle against the []Danes. In the year of his succession a large Danish force landed in East Anglia, and in the year 868 Aethelred and his brother Alfred went to help Burgred of Mercia against this host, but the Mercians soon made peace with their foes. In 871 the Danes encamped at Reading, where they defeated Aethelred and his brother, but later in the year the English won a great victory at a place called "Aescesdun." Two weeks later they were defeated at Basing but partially retrieved their fortune by a victory at "Maeretun" (perhaps Marden in Wiltshire), though the Danes held the field. In the Easter of this year Aethelred died, perhaps of wounds received in the wars against the Danes, and was buried at Wimborne.

Aethelberht I

died Feb. 24, 616 or 618 king of Kent (560-616) who issued the first extant code of Anglo-Saxon laws. Reflecting some continental influence, the code established the legal position of the clergy and instituted many secular regulations. Aethelberht's marriage to Bertha (or Berhta), daughter of Charibert, king of Paris, and a Christian, may account for the tolerant reception that he accorded Augustine and other missionaries dispatched to Kent by Pope Gregory I the Great in 597. Aethelberht gave them a dwelling at Canterbury and later may have accepted Christianity himself; he did not force it on his subjects. According to the English historian and theologian Bede, his kingdom included all of England south of the Humber, but probably only at the end of his reign.

Akzo Nobel NV

diversified Dutch manufacturer of paints, coatings, and chemicals. The company was formed from the merger of []Akzo NV and the Swedish firm Nobel Industries AB in 1994. Its headquarters are in Arnhem, Neth. Akzo NV had its origins in the German chemical manufacturer Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken, which was formed in 1899 and made rayon and paints. Vereinigte merged with a Dutch rayon manufacturer, Nederlandsche Kunstzijdefabriek, in 1929, and the new company assumed the name AKU. This firm merged with the major Dutch chemical company Koninklijke Zout-Organon NV (KZO) in 1969 to form Akzo NV, a major Dutch manufacturer of synthetic fibres, industrial chemicals, plastics, paint, adhesives, and pharmaceuticals. Akzo NV ran into financial difficulties in the 1970s owing to competition from East Asian fibre makers and rapidly rising prices for the petroleum-based feedstocks used to make chemicals and fibres. In response, Akzo deemphasized its fibre business and diversified further into paints and specialty chemicals. []Nobel Industries AB was created in 1984 by the merger of the Swedish chemical firm KemaNobel with the Swedish weapons maker Bofors. This merger reunited the two largest companies that had once been owned by Alfred Nobel, the 19th-century inventor of dynamite and founder of the Nobel Prizes. At the time of its merger with Akzo in 1994, Nobel Industries was a manufacturer of paints, adhesives, and specialty chemicals. The merger of Akzo with Nobel Industries created one of Europe's largest chemical and paint manufacturers.

alanine

either of two amino acids, one of which [](*α*-alanine) is a constituent of proteins. An especially rich source of *α*-alanine is silk fibroin, from which the amino acid was first isolated in 1879. Alanine is one of several so-called nonessential amino acids for birds and mammals; *i.e.,* they can synthesize it from pyruvic acid (formed in the breakdown of carbohydrates) and do not require dietary sources. []Beta-alanine is not found in proteins but occurs naturally in two peptides, carnosine and anserine, found in mammalian muscle. It is an important constituent of the vitamin pantothenic acid.

air brake

either of two kinds of braking systems. The first, used by railroad trains, trucks, and buses, operates by a piston driven by compressed air from reservoirs connected to brake cylinders. When air pressure in the brake pipe is reduced, air is automatically admitted into the brake cylinder. The first practical air brake for railroads was invented by [][George Westinghouse] (*q.v.*) in the 1860s. The term is also used to refer to the braking system used by aircraft and race cars. This brake consists of a flap or surface that can be mechanically projected into the airstream to increase the resistance of the vehicle to air and lower its speed.

alabastron

elongated, narrow-necked flask, used as a perfume or unguent container. The [][Greek] alabastron has no handles but often lugs (ear-shaped projections), sometimes pierced with string holes. There are three types of classical alabastron: a basic Corinthian bulbous shape about 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) high that appeared from the mid-7th century BC and was common in Greece (*see* ); a long, pointed version found in eastern Greek, Etruscan, and Italo-Corinthian pottery; and an Attic type, from 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm) high, with a rounded base and occasionally two small lugs, common from the late 6th to the early 4th century BC. All three types are found in pottery form. The last two types are justifiably named alabastron, as they were made of [][alabaster]. Examples of alabastrons in opaque glass exist from 1000 BC in Egypt, 600 BC in Assyria, and the 2nd century BC in Syria and Palestine. The earliest Egyptian alabastron is columnar, with a palm capital and a small plinth as a stand, and is circled with wavy bands of glass thread. Later examples, in dark-blue glass or milk glass, have a funnel-shaped opening or a broad disk-lipped neck; decoration consists of scallops, festoons, or, more commonly, ringed patterns, among which combed zigzags are especially effective.

Agadir Incident

event involving a German attempt to challenge French rights in Morocco by sending the gunboat *Panther* to Agadir in July 1911. The action incited the Second Moroccan Crisis (*see* [Moroccan crises]).

airglow

faint luminescence of the Earth's upper atmosphere that is caused by air molecules' and atoms' selective absorption of solar ultraviolet and X-radiation. Most of the airglow emanates from the region about 70 to 300 km (42 to 180 miles) above the surface of the Earth. Unlike the aurora, airglow does not exhibit structures such as arcs and is emitted from the entire sky at all latitudes at all times. The nocturnal phenomena is called [][nightglow]. []Dayglow and [][twilight glow] are analogous terms. Nightglow is very feeble in the visible region of the spectrum; the illumination it gives to a horizontal surface at the ground is only about the same as that from a candle at a height of 91 m (300 feet). It is possibly about 1,000 times stronger in the infrared region. Observations from the Earth's surface and data from rockets and satellites indicate that much of the energy emitted during nightglow comes from recombination processes. In one such process, radiant energy is released when oxygen atoms recombine to form molecular oxygen, O~2~, which had originally become dissociated upon absorbing sunlight. In another process, free electrons and ions (notably ionized atomic oxygen) recombine and emit light. In the daytime and during twilight, the process of resonance scattering of sunlight by sodium, atomic oxygen, nitrogen, and nitric oxide seems to contribute to airglow. Moreover, interactions between cosmic rays from deep space and neutral atoms and molecules of the upper atmosphere may play a role in both the nocturnal and daytime phenomena in the high latitudes.

alabaster

fine-grained, massive [gypsum] (*q.v.*) that has been used for centuries for statuary, carvings, and other ornaments. It normally is snow-white and translucent but can be artificially dyed; it may be made opaque and similar in appearance to marble by heat treatment. Florence, Livorno, and Milan, in Italy, and Berlin are important centres of the alabaster trade. The alabaster of the ancients was a brown or yellow onyx marble.

Aelfric

flourished *c.* 955-*c.* 1025, probably Eynsham, Oxfordshire, Eng. Anglo-Saxon prose writer, considered the greatest of his time. He wrote both to instruct the monks and to spread the learning of the 10th-century monastic revival. His *[]Catholic Homilies,* written in 990-992, provided orthodox sermons, based on the Church Fathers. Author of a Latin grammar, hence his nickname Grammaticus, he also wrote *[]Lives of the Saints*, *Heptateuch* (a vernacular language version of the first seven books of the Bible), as well as letters and various treatises.

Albalag, Isaac

flourished 13th century AD, northern Spain or southern France Jewish philosopher who rendered a Hebrew translation of parts of the *[Maqāṣid al-falāsifah]* ("Aims of the Philosophers"), a review of doctrines of earlier thinkers by the Arabic philosopher al-[][Ghazālī], to which Albalag added his own views and comments. In defending philosophy against the accusation that it undermined religion, Albalag espoused the doctrine of the []"double truth"—prophetic truth known through revelation and philosophic truth arrived at through reason. He believed philosophy and religion were in fundamental agreement but that religion was for the masses and philosophy for the few. He felt that philosophy need not bow to revelation when the results of its speculations disagree with revelation.

Akebia

genus of woody vines comprising two species native to Asia but introduced elsewhere for their ornamental foliage and fast growth. The genus belongs to the family Lardizabalaceae. [Five-leaf akebia], or chocolate vine (*A. quinata*), has five leaflets to each leaf arranged like the fingers on a hand; inconspicuous purplish flowers in small clusters; and oblong purple berries. []Three-leaf akebia (*A. trifoliata*) has three leaflets to a leaf. Both species are rampant twining vines often used for shading and screening on arbors and fences and for ground covering on embankments.

Agostino Di Giovanni

flourished 14th century late Gothic sculptor, best known for his work, with []Agnolo di Ventura, on the tomb of Guido Tarlati. Agostino is first heard of in Siena in 1310 and again lived there in 1340-43. After 1320 he was active with Agnolo at Volterra, where they executed a number of scenes from the lives of SS. Regulus and Octavian. The work of the two sculptors cannot be clearly differentiated. Between 1329 and 1332 they were jointly employed in the cathedral at Arezzo on the tomb of Tarlati. It displays a proficient technique, but its figures are stiff, heavy, and sometimes awkward. It is primarily important as a social document, delighting in the commonplaces of medieval life. Agostino and Agnolo also were active as architects, and a number of buildings in Siena, including the Porta Romana and the church of S. Francesco, are conjecturally ascribed to them.

Aḥmad Mūsā

flourished 14th century, Tabrīz, Azerbaijan painter active at the court of the Il Khans at Tabrīz. He is said to have learned painting from his father and to have "drawn the veil from the face of painting and invented the art of the Persian miniature." He was active under Abū Saʿīd (ruled 1316-35), the last of the Mongol sultans in fact as well as name. He illustrated a *Kalila wa Dimna* (book of animal fables) and a book of the Miʿrāj (the miraculous journey of the Prophet Muhammad), which are probably now preserved in part in the "[Conqueror's Albums]" of the imperial Ottoman library at the Topkapı Palace at Istanbul. Aḥmad Mūsā's most famous pupil was [Shams al-Dīn], who painted at the court of the Jalāyir sultans of Baghdad in the latter part of the 14th century.

Agasias

flourished 1st century BC, , Ephesus [now in Turkey] sculptor of Ephesus, known for his []"Borghese Warrior," a statue of a warrior on foot in combat with a warrior on horseback. Agasias is known to have been the son of one Dositheus, but otherwise the only record of him derives from the inscription on the pedestal of the statue. The approximate dating is derived from the style of the work, which, along with the "Apollo Belvidere," was discovered in the ruins of the imperial palace at Anzio (ancient Antium), Italy. This sculptor should not be confused with a presumed contemporary of the same name and also of Ephesus, whose father was Menophilus and who created a number of portrait statues found on the Greek island of Delos.

Agesander

flourished 1st century BC, Rhodes [![Photograph:"Laocoön," marble sculpture attributed to Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus of ...]] - "Laocoön," marble sculpture attributed to Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus of ... Greek sculptor who is credited by the 1st-century-AD Roman writer Pliny as the creator, with Polydorus and Athenodorus, of the group []"Laocoön." Nothing further is known of him except that inscriptions found at Lindus in Rhodes indicate that he was alive between 42 and 21 BC.

Agrippa

flourished 2nd century AD ancient Greek philosophical [][skeptic]. He is famous for his formulation of the five tropes, or grounds for the suspension of judgment, that summarize the method of argument of Greek skeptics generally. Agrippa's five arguments held that (1) there is a clash of opinions, both in daily life and in the debates of philosophers; (2) nothing is self-evident, because that which is called a proof is merely a second proposition itself in need of demonstration, and so on ad infinitum; (3) both perception and judgment are relative in a double sense: each is relative to a subject, and each is affected by concomitant perceptions; (4) dogmatic philosophers seeking to avoid the infinite regression merely offer hypotheses that they cannot prove; and (5) philosophers are caught in the double bind by trying to prove the sensible by the intelligible and the intelligible by the sensible. Doubting both the evidence of the senses and the possibility of understanding, Agrippa concluded that human beings have no starting point for obtaining knowledge. Agrippa's 5 arguments seem to have been based in part on the 10 tropes of the earlier skeptic [][Aenesidemus], but Agrippa's skepticism is more thorough and is not limited to the sense perceptions that Aenesidemus questioned.

Agatha, Saint

flourished 3rd century AD?, Sicily; feast day February 5 legendary Christian saint and martyr, cited in the martyrology of St. Jerome, the Calendar of Carthage (*c*. 530), and other works. Palermo and Catania both claim to be her birthplace. The traditional particulars of her martyrdom are of no historical value; according to them she resisted the advances of a Roman prefect sent by the emperor Decius to govern Sicily and was thereupon brutally tortured, her breasts being cut off (a condition reflected in her iconography). She was sent to the stake, but, according to some versions, as soon as the fire was lighted, an earthquake occurred, causing the people to insist upon her release; she then allegedly died in prison.

Aëtius

flourished 4th century Syrian bishop and heretic who, during the theological controversies over the Christian Trinity, founded the extreme Arian sect of the [Anomoean]s (*q.v.*). His name became a byword for radical heresy. Originating probably near Antioch, Aëtius studied there under Arian masters while supporting himself as a goldsmith and a physician, rendering gratuitous service to the poor. As a student he wandered from one Syrian school to another and cultivated an acute facility in Aristotelian dialectical argument. Identifying theology with formal logic, Aëtius methodically provoked his disputants and then reduced them to silence with extremely stringent and subtle arguments. A contemporary Syrian theologian, Epiphanius, records that Aëtius expounded his doctrine in 300 close-knit syllogisms, 47 of which still exist. Ordained a deacon at Antioch to teach Christian doctrine, Aëtius is said to have scandalized the faithful with his contention that from the aspect of divinity the Son was a totally different substance from the Father and was created from nothing. For this offense he was excommunicated. He then sought refuge with fellow Arians in Alexandria, Egypt, where he trained a disciple, Eunomius, also a bishop. Recalled to Antioch by the sympathetic Arian bishop Eudoxius, Aëtius nevertheless alienated the general membership of Arians by his extreme views and was condemned by some of his own heterodox colleagues at the church Council of Seleucia, near Antioch, in 359. The Arianizing Roman emperor Constantius II (337-361) thereupon exiled him to the wilderness of northeast Asia Minor. In 361 Aëtius was made a bishop by the emperor Julian the Apostate but never exercised territorial jurisdiction; he died in Constantinople *c.* 366.

Aftonian Interglacial Stage

major division of Pleistocene deposits and time (1,600,000 to 10,000 years ago) in North America. The Aftonian Interglacial, a time of relatively moderate climatic conditions, followed the Nebraskan Glacial Stage and preceded the Kansan Glacial Stage, both times of widespread continental glaciation and relative cold. The Aftonian was named for deposits studied near Afton, Iowa. In some places, the Aftonian deposits consist of ancient soils that may also include peat and windblown deposits; elsewhere, the deposits consist of sand and gravel deposited by streams.

Agnes, Saint

flourished 4th century, Rome [Italy]; feast day January 21 virgin and patron saint of girls, who is one of the most celebrated Roman martyrs. According to tradition, of uncertain value, Agnes was a beautiful girl, about 13 years old, who refused marriage, stating that she could have no spouse but Jesus Christ. Her suitors revealed her Christianity, and in punishment she was exposed in a brothel. Awed by her presence, all but one of the Roman youths left her untouched; in his attempt to violate her, the sole attacker was struck blind, whereupon she healed him with prayer. Suffering no harm, she was later murdered during the persecution of the Christians by the Roman emperor Diocletian and was buried beside the Via Nomentana. On her feast day two lambs are blessed in the Church of Sant'Agnese in Rome, and from their wool are made the [][pallia] sent by the pope to archbishops as tokens of jurisdiction.

Agoracritus

flourished 5th century BC, , Paros and Athens, Greece Greek sculptor said to have been the favourite pupil of Phidias. His most renowned work is the statue of Nemesis at Rhamnous, Greece, part of the head of which is in the British Museum, while fragments of the pedestal reliefs are in Athens.

Ahmose II

flourished 6th century BC king of the 26th dynasty (reigned 570-526 BC), a general who seized the throne during a revolt against King [][Apries]. The account of the 5th-century-BC []Greek historian [][Herodotus] reveals Ahmose as a shrewd and opportunistic ruler, who, while promoting Greek trade with Egypt, strictly regulated it. In 570, after Apries' unsuccessful campaign against Cyrene, in modern Libya, the Egyptian troops mutinied, and when Ahmose was sent to pacify them the mutineers proclaimed him king. In the ensuing civil war the Egyptians under his command defeated an invasion by Apries, who was supported by the Babylonian king Nebuchadrezzar II. Ahmose killed Apries in battle but later gave him a royal burial. Ahmose then turned to diplomacy, securing an alliance with Cyrene by marrying a woman of that country and also seeking alliances in Greece. Herodotus tells of his friendship with [][Polycrates], tyrant of Samos, and also mentions his donation toward rebuilding the temple at Delphi. Nonetheless, to regulate Greek influence in Egypt he confined merchants to the city of Naukratis in the Nile River delta, southwest of his own capital. His reign was a time of great prosperity in Egypt. Perhaps employing the fleet of his friend Polycrates, Ahmose reputedly subdued Cyprus, exacting tribute from it. Herodotus states that Ahmose allied himself with Croesus when the Lydian king was seeking assistance against Persia. Yet Persian power grew rapidly, and Ahmose died only about six months before King Cambyses' invasion of Egypt.

African violet

flowering plant of the genus *Saintpaulia* (family [Gesneriaceae]), especially *[]S. ionantha.* The genus consists of about 20 species native to higher elevations in tropical eastern Africa. The plants are small, hairy, usually stemless herbs with crowded, long-stalked leaves. African violet flowers are bilaterally symmetrical and violet, white, or pink in colour; they bloom throughout most of the year. Hundreds of horticultural varieties have been developed for their various flower colours and shapes, including half-sized miniatures.

Ahikar, The Story of

folktale of Babylonian or Persian origin, about a wise and moral man who supposedly served as one of the chief counselors of Sennacherib, king of Assyria (704-681 BC). Like the biblical Job, Ahikar was a prototype of the just man whose righteousness was sorely tested and ultimately rewarded by God. Betrayed by his power-hungry adopted son, Ahikar was condemned to death, suffered severely, but was finally restored to his former position. The work is classified as pseudepigraphal; *i.e.,* it is a noncanonical book that in style and content resembles authentic biblical works. A considerable number of translations (among them Syriac, Arabic, Armenian, Ethiopic, Old Turkic, Greek, and Slavonic) indicate that the story of Ahikar was immensely popular in antiquity. The writing follows the memoir style used by official state writers rather than the "wisdom" genre of literature. Nevertheless, the story of Ahikar and his proverbial wisdom influenced the development of Jewish wisdom literature early in the Hellenistic period (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD), as is shown by similar ethical doctrines in the Old Testament books of Psalms and Ecclesiastes and in the apocryphal books of Tobit and Ecclesiasticus.

AEG AG

former German electronics and electrical-equipment company. As one of Germany's leading industrial companies through much of the 19th and 20th centuries, AEG manufactured products for industrial and domestic use. The company was founded in Berlin in 1883 when the industrialist [][Emil Rathenau], with financial support from Siemens and Halske, another major German electrical company, founded the Deutsche Edison Gesellschaft für Angewandte Electricität ("German Edison Company for Applied Electricity"). In 1887 the company was renamed the Allgemeine Elektricitäts Gesellschaft (AEG), which became largely responsible for installing Germany's first [electric power] system. It strung transmission lines and built electric trolley systems across Germany before 1900. In 1941 AEG acquired Gesellschaft für Elektrische Unternehmungen AG, an electric holding company, thus tightening its grip on the German electrical market. In 1966 Telefunken AG, formerly an AEG subsidiary that manufactured audio and electronics equipment, was integrated into AEG, changing the company name in 1967 to AEG-Telefunken. In the latter part of the 20th century, AEG-Telefunken faced severe financial problems, which some analysts attributed to the company's decision to continue making high-priced consumer electronics goods (such as stereos and television sets) long after Telefunken's prices had been undercut by foreign competitors. Most of the company's Telefunken operations were sold in 1983, with other portions sold in 1985. The remaining firm, renamed AEG AG in 1985, produced electrical and telecommunications equipment, electronics components, office machines, computers, and home appliances. Swedish appliance manufacturer AB Electrolux acquired the AEG household appliance line in 1994. AEG brand appliances remained part of Electrolux's consumer durables division into the 21st century.

albedo

fraction of light that is reflected by a body or surface. It is commonly used in astronomy to describe the reflective properties of planets, satellites, and asteroids. Albedo is usually differentiated into two general types: []normal albedo and bond albedo. The former, also called normal reflectance, is a measure of a surface's relative brightness when illuminated and observed vertically. The normal albedo of snow, for example, is nearly 1.0, whereas that of charcoal is about 0.04. Investigators frequently rely on observations of normal albedo to determine the surface compositions of satellites and asteroids. The albedo, diameter, and distance of such objects together determine their brightness. If the asteroids Ceres and Vesta, for example, could be observed at the same distance, Vesta would be the brighter of the two by roughly 10 percent. Though Vesta's diameter measures less than half that of Ceres, Vesta appears brighter because its albedo is about 0.35, whereas that of Ceres is only 0.09. Bond albedo, defined as the fraction of the total incident solar radiation reflected by a planet back to space, is a measure of the planet's energy balance. (It is so named for the American astronomer [George P. Bond], who in 1861 published a comparison of the brightness of the Sun, the Moon, and Jupiter.) The value of bond albedo is dependent on the spectrum of the incident radiation because such albedo is defined over the entire range of wavelengths. Earth-orbiting satellites have been used to measure the Earth's bond albedo. The most recent values obtained are approximately 0.33. The Moon, which has a very tenuous atmosphere and no clouds, has an albedo of 0.12. By contrast, that of Venus, which is covered by dense clouds, is 0.76.

Ailsa Craig

granite islet, [South Ayrshire] council area, Scotland, at the mouth of the [Firth of Clyde] and 10 miles (16 km) off the coast of South Ayrshire, to which it belongs. It is nicknamed "Paddy's Milestone" for its location halfway between Glasgow and Belfast (Northern Ireland). The name Ailsa Craig is thought to derive from Gaelic words meaning "Fairy Rock." About 0.75 mile (1.2 km) long and 0.5 mile (0.8 km) wide, Ailsa Craig rises steeply to an elevation of 1,114 feet (340 metres) and is accessible only on the eastern side. Its rock has been used to make [][curling] stones (used in the Celtic sport, and hence known as "Ailsas") as well as paving stones. Some scanty grass supports goats and rabbits. The precipices have large breeding colonies of gannets and other seabirds.

Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn, Mosque of

huge and majestic red brick building complex built in 876 by the Turkish governor of Egypt and Syria. It was built on the site of present-day Cairo and includes a mosque surrounded by three outer *ziyadah*s, or courtyards. Much of the decoration and design recalls the ʿAbbāsid architecture of Iraq. The crenellated outside walls have merlons that are shaped and perforated in a decorative pattern. The courtyards are lined with arcades of broad arches and heavy pillars. In the mosque and the courtyard the arches are decorated with elaborate designs in carved stucco. The roofed oratory of the mosque is divided by pillars into five long aisles or naves originally ornamented with panels of carved wood. The building was restored several times, notably between 1296 and 1299, when the wall facing Mecca and the minaret—which has three floors, each in a different shape (square, spiral, and octagonal)—were rebuilt. It was used as a belt factory in the 18th century and was divided into shops in 1814. Classed as a historic monument in 1890, the mosque has since been completely restored.

Agarwālā

important mercantile caste in India, belonging to that group of merchants, bankers, landowners, and shopkeepers that are called Bania in northern and western India. According to caste tradition, its members are descended from a *[][nāga],* or snake goddess; hence, they do not molest snakes, and they observe a special form of snake worship that is peculiar to them. The caste goddess is Lakṣmī (Lakshmi), goddess of good fortune, who is thought to have blessed the original union of the snake goddess. The Gauḍa branch of northern Indian Brahmins act as priests for the Agarwālās, who tend to be orthodox in their conduct and diet. The majority are Vaiṣṇavas, worshippers of the god Vishnu, but about 14 percent of the caste members follow the Jaina religion.

Agricultural Adjustment Administration (\>AAA)

in American history, major New Deal program to restore agricultural prosperity by curtailing farm production, reducing export surpluses, and raising prices. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (May 1933) was an omnibus farm-relief bill embodying the schemes of the major national farm organizations. It established the Agricultural Adjustment Administration under Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace to effect a "domestic allotment" plan that would subsidize producers of basic commodities for cutting their output. Its goal was the restoration of prices paid to farmers for their goods to a level equal in purchasing power to that of 1909-14, which was a period of comparative stability. In addition, the []Commodity Credit Corporation, with a crop loan and storage program, was established to make price-supporting loans and purchases of specific commodities. Although benefit payments to farmers totaled \$1,500,000,000 by 1936, a rise in commodity prices was attributable mainly to severe drought conditions in 1933-36. In spite of its limited achievements, the early AAA program was favoured by most farmers. The Supreme Court declared the act unconstitutional in 1936, and Congress passed new agricultural legislation two years later based on the soil-conservation concept. While farmers' cash income doubled between 1932 and 1936, it took the enormous demands of World War II to reduce the accumulated farm surpluses and to increase farm income significantly.

adverse possession

in Anglo-American property law, holding of property under some claim of right with the knowledge and against the will of one who has a superior ownership interest in the property. Its legal significance is traced back to the English common-law concept known as [][seisin], a possession of land by one who owns the property at least for the period of his life, having a complete right to possession of the property as against all others. The possession by any other under some claim of right to the land was known as []disseisin. One who was disseised of his property could take the matter to the king's court through a legal action known as the assize of [novel disseisin]. If the land held by a disseisor was claimed by an heir of the original owner in seisin, the heir could bring a similar legal action known as the assize of [mort d'ancestor]. After the 17th century more expeditious legal actions were developed. In the United States, disseisin developed as the concept of adverse possession. Statutes of limitation in most of the U.S. states set time limits within which an owner can bring an action for possession, after which time an adverse possessor acquires a legal title to the land.

Admetus

in Greek legend, son of Pheres, king of Pherae in Thessaly. Having sued for the hand of []Alcestis, the most beautiful of the daughters of Pelias, king of Iolcos in Thessaly, Admetus was first required to harness a lion and a boar to a chariot. [][Apollo], who, for having killed the Cyclopes, was temporarily condemned to be a slave to Admetus, befriended him and yoked the animals for Admetus, who thus obtained Alcestis. Finding that Admetus was soon to die, Apollo persuaded the Fates to prolong his life, on the condition that someone could be found to die in his place. Alcestis consented, but she was rescued by Heracles, who successfully wrestled with Death at the grave. The death and resurrection of Alcestis form the subject of many ancient reliefs and vase paintings and of Euripides' *Alcestis*.

Aethra

in Greek mythology, daughter of King Pittheus of Troezen and mother of Theseus. Thinking to help fulfill the prophecy of the Oracle at Delphi regarding how the childlessness of King [Aegeus] of Athens would end, Pittheus (whose prospects for a son-in-law had recently vanished) plied Aegeus with wine and lured him into Aethra's bed. When Aegeus awoke and saw where he was, he placed as birth tokens a sword and a pair of sandals under a large rock, telling Aethra that if she bore a son who could lift the rock, she should send him to Athens with the items. In some versions, such as that of the dramatist [Euripides] in *Hippolytus*, [][Poseidon], the god of the sea, sired Aethra's son while the king of Athens slept. In any event, she gave birth to [][Theseus], who when the time came lifted the rock, retrieved the tokens, and went to Athens, where he would eventually succeed Aegeus as king. Theseus and his friend Perithoos kidnapped [][Helen] to make her Theseus's wife. Aethra guarded her while the two men went to the underworld. Helen's brothers, [Castor and Pollux], found the two women, rescued Helen, and made Aethra her slave; they then went to Sparta. Later, when [Paris] took Helen to Troy, Aethra accompanied them. After the fall of Troy, Theseus's sons, Acamos and Demophon, brought Aethra back to Athens. Aethra was often portrayed in 5th-century-BC art. Favourite scenes show her being chased by Poseidon or rescued by her grandsons.

aisling

in Irish literature, a poetic or dramatic description or representation of a vision. The [][Vision of Adamnán] is one of the best-known examples. In the 18th century the aisling became popular as a means of expressing support for the exiled Roman Catholic king James II of England and Ireland and for the restoration of the Roman Catholic Stuart line to the throne. The word is of Irish origin and means "a vision" or a "description of a vision."

Admiralty Islands

in Papua New Guinea, extension of the Bismarck Archipelago comprising a group of about 40 islands. The group lies in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, about 190 miles (300 km) off the northern coast of Papua New Guinea. The volcanic [][Manus Island] (*q.v.*) constitutes the majority of its land area and is the site of Lorengau, the islands' principal settlement. Possibly explored by the Spaniard Álvaro Saavedra in 1528, the group was sighted by the Dutch navigator Willem Schouten in 1616 and named by the British captain Philip Carteret in 1767. Constituted part of a German protectorate in 1884, the islands were captured by Australia in 1914 and were included in the territory mandated to that nation in 1921. They were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1944 and made part of the UN Trust Territory of New Guinea in 1946. When [][Papua New Guinea] attained its independence in 1975, the islands became part of that country. The economy of the Admiralty Islands is primarily agricultural, consisting of copra production and some coffee growing. Copper deposits were located on Manus Island in 1972. The indigenous population, which is Melanesian, engages in fishing and local trading. Many are adherents of the [][cargo cult] founded by the prophet Paliau after World War II. Pop. (1989 est.) 29,700, almost all of whom live on Manus Island.

Alabama Platform

in U.S. history, Southern political leader William L. [][Yancey's] response (1848) to the antislavery [Wilmot Proviso] (*q.v.*). The Alabama platform insisted that the U.S. government protect [][slavery] in territories ceded to the United States by Mexico and that no territorial legislature be allowed to prohibit slavery. The Democratic Party declined to adopt Yancey's platform at the national conventions of 1848 and 1860. After the 1860 convention nominated Stephen A. Douglas for the presidency, Southern party members broke away to nominate John C. Breckinridge to run on the Alabama Platform.

advertising coloration

in animals, the use of biological coloration to make an organism unique and highly visible as compared with the background, thereby providing easily perceived information as to its location, identity, and movement. Such advertisement may serve the function of attracting individuals in order to enter into some advantageous interaction (*e.g.,* courtship for reproductive purposes) or of warning or repelling other organisms.

age-area hypothesis

in anthropology, theory holding that the age of culture traits (elements of a culture) may be determined by examining their distribution over a large geographic area. The hypothesis states that widely distributed traits are older than those more narrowly distributed. It is based on the assumption that traits tend to diffuse outward in a circle from a single centre. Traits at the periphery are believed to have left the centre earlier than those closer to it and are therefore characteristic of an earlier period of the centre. There are several problems with this hypothesis. Diffusion may be more rapid in one direction than in another. Modification in traits may make it difficult to determine the point of origin. Population movements may also disturb the distribution of traits. Some elements (*e.g.,* sociopolitical units) may be more subject to ecological adaptive pressure than others. In several cases in which historical data are available, the data contradict reconstructions based on the age-area hypothesis. At best, the hypothesis may be used in a delimited and historically unified area to determine the probability, rather than the certainty, of historic developments.

aggregate

in building and construction, material used for mixing with cement, bitumen, lime, gypsum, or other adhesive to form concrete or mortar. The aggregate gives volume, stability, resistance to wear or erosion, and other desired physical properties to the finished product. Commonly used aggregates include sand, crushed or broken stone, gravel (pebbles), broken blast-furnace slag, boiler ashes (clinkers), burned shale, and burned clay. Fine aggregate usually consists of sand, crushed stone, or crushed slag screenings; coarse aggregate consists of gravel (pebbles), fragments of broken stone, slag, and other coarse substances. Fine aggregate is used in making thin concrete slabs or other structural members and where a smooth surface is desired; coarse aggregate is used for more massive members.

aggression

in international relations, an act or policy of expansion carried out by one state at the expense of another by means of an unprovoked military attack. For purposes of reparation or punishment after hostilities, aggression has been defined in international law as any use of armed force in international relations not justified by defensive necessity, international authority, or consent of the state in which force is used. Numerous treaties and official declarations since World War I, including the Covenant of the [][League of Nations] (article 10) and the Charter of the [][United Nations] (article 39), have sought to prohibit acts of aggression to ensure collective security among nations. Since World War I the acceptance by most states of obligations to refrain from the use of force has often made it necessary for international forums to consider the problem of aggression in hostilities that have occurred. In such cases the League of Nations and the United Nations have usually followed the procedure of ordering a [][cease-fire] and have considered a government an aggressor only if it failed to observe that order. Such cease-fire orders marked the ending of hostilities between [Turkey] and [Iraq] in 1925, between [][Greece] and [Bulgaria] in 1925, between [Peru] and [Colombia] in 1933, between Greece and its neighbours in 1947, between [The Netherlands] and [Indonesia] in 1947, between [India] and [Pakistan] in 1948, between [Israel] and its neighbours in 1949, between Israel, Great [Britain], [France], and [Egypt] in 1956, and between Israel, Jordan, and Egypt in 1970. None of these states was at the time declared an aggressor. On the other hand, [Japan] was found to be an aggressor in Manchuria in 1933, Paraguay in the Chaco area in 1935, North Korea and mainland China in Korea in 1950 and 1951, and the [][Soviet Union] in Hungary in 1956, because they refused to observe cease-fire orders. Other instances of military intervention have been widely considered aggression by opponents although not pronounced such by an international forum. These include the U.S.-supported Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba in 1961, U.S. military intervention in the Dominican Republic in 1965, U.S. actions in Vietnam, North Vietnamese actions in South Vietnam and elsewhere in Indochina, and the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 by the Soviet Union and its east European allies.

advocate

in law, a person who is professionally qualified to plead the cause of another in a court of law. As a technical term, advocate is used mainly in those legal systems that derived from the Roman law. In Scotland the word refers particularly to a member of the bar of Scotland, the Faculty of Advocates. In France *[avocats]* were formerly an organized body of pleaders, while the preparation of cases was done by *[avoués;]* today this distinction exists only before the appellate courts. In Germany, until the distinction between counselor and pleader was abolished in 1879, the *[]Advokat* was the adviser rather than the pleader. The term has traditionally been applied to pleaders in courts of canon law, and thus in England those who practiced before the courts of civil and canon law were called advocates. In the United States the term advocate has no special significance, being used interchangeably with such terms as attorney, counsel, or lawyer. *See also* [barrister]; [lawyer]; [solicitor].

adversary procedure

in law, one of the two methods of exposing [][evidence] in court (the other being the [inquisitorial procedure]; *q.v.*). The adversary procedure requires the opposing sides to bring out pertinent information and to present and cross-examine witnesses. This procedure is observed primarily in countries in which the Anglo-American legal system of [][common law] predominates. Under the adversary system, each side is responsible for conducting its own investigation. In criminal proceedings, the [prosecution] represents the people at large and has at its disposal the police department with its investigators and laboratories, while the defense must find its own investigative resources and finances. Both sides may command the attendance of witnesses by [subpoena] (*q.v.*). If the defendant is indigent, his attorney's opportunities for a broader investigation are limited by the provisions of the jurisdiction in which the trial is conducted. In criminal law under the adversary system, the accused need not be present in [][grand jury] indictment proceedings (no longer conducted in Great Britain and recommended by some authorities for eventual abolition in the United States). If an indictment is handed down by the grand jury, its proceedings are available to the defendant. Under [][civil law] the adversary system works similarly, except that both plaintiff and respondent must prepare their own cases, usually through privately engaged attorneys. In any adversary trial, the opposing sides present evidence, examine witnesses, and conduct cross-examinations, each in an effort to produce information beneficial to its side of the case. Skillful questioning can often produce testimony that can be made to take on various meanings. What seemed absolute in direct testimony can raise doubts under [cross-examination]. The skills of the attorneys are also displayed at the time of summation, especially in a jury trial, when their versions of what the jury has heard may persuade the jury to interpret the facts to the benefit of the side that is most persuasive.

advisory opinion

in law, the opinion of a judge, a court, or a law official, such as an attorney general, upon a question of law raised by a public official or legislative body. Advisory opinions adjudicate nothing and are not binding, though courts sometimes cite them as evidence of the law. Federal courts in the United States will not issue advisory opinions, but such opinions are issued occasionally by a few state courts and routinely by the attorneys general of the various states upon the request of the governor, legislators, or other state officials. The opinions typically refer to the legality of some contemplated official action. Advisory opinions originated very early in [English law] as a result of extralegal consultation of judges by the [king] or the [House of Lords] on questions that often were not even related to the law. The function of the opinions was wholly non- or extralegal.

air mass

in meteorology, large body of air having nearly uniform conditions of temperature and humidity at any given level of altitude. Such a mass has distinct boundaries and may extend hundreds or thousands of kilometres horizontally and sometimes as high as the top of the troposphere (about 10-18 km [6-11 miles] above the Earth's surface). An air mass forms whenever the atmosphere remains in contact with a large, relatively uniform land or sea surface for a time sufficiently long to acquire the temperature and moisture properties of that surface. The Earth's major air masses originate in polar or subtropical latitudes. The middle latitudes constitute essentially a zone of modification, interaction, and mixing of the [][polar] and tropical air masses. Air masses are commonly classified according to four basic source regions with respect to latitude. These are Polar (cold), Arctic (very cold), Equatorial (warm and very moist), and Tropical (warm). In the United States the major air mass types are typically continental Polar, maritime Polar, continental Tropical, and maritime Tropical. Continental Polar (cP) air usually forms during the cold period of the year over extensive land areas such as central Asia and northern Canada. It is likely to be stable and is characteristically free of condensation forms. When heated or moistened from the ground with strong turbulence, this type of air mass develops limited convective stratocumulus cloud forms with scattered light rain or snow showers. In summer strong continental heating rapidly modifies the coolness and dryness of the cP air mass as it moves to lower latitudes. Daytime generation of cumulus clouds is the rule, but the upper-level stability of the air mass is usually such as to prevent rain showers. Maritime Polar ([mP]) air masses develop over the polar areas of both the Northern and the Southern hemispheres. They generally contain considerably more moisture than the cP air masses. As they move inland in middle and high latitudes, heavy precipitation may occur when the air is forced to ascend mountain slopes or is caught up in cyclonic activity (*see* [][cyclone]).

Akashic record

in occultism, a compendium of pictorial records, or "memories," of all events, actions, thoughts, and feelings that have occurred since the beginning of time. They are said to be imprinted on []Akasha, the astral light, which is described by spiritualists as a fluid ether existing beyond the range of human senses. The Akashic records are reputedly accessible to certain select individuals—*e.g.,* a spiritualist medium who conducts a séance. Akasha allegedly transmits the waves of human willpower, thought, feeling, and imagination and is a reservoir of occult power, an ocean of unconsciousness to which all are linked, making prophecy and clairvoyance possible.

affirmative action

in the [][United States], an active effort to improve employment or educational opportunities for members of [][minority] groups and for [women]. Affirmative action began as a government remedy to the effects of long-standing [discrimination] against such groups and has consisted of policies, programs, and procedures that give preferences to minorities and women in job hiring, admission to institutions of higher education, the awarding of government contracts, and other social benefits. The typical criteria for affirmative action are race, disability, gender, ethnic origin, and age. Affirmative action was initiated by the administration of President [][Lyndon Johnson] (1963-69) in order to improve opportunities for [African Americans] while civil rights legislation was dismantling the legal basis for discrimination. The federal government began to institute affirmative action policies under the landmark [][Civil Rights Act of 1964] and an executive order in 1965. Businesses receiving federal funds were prohibited from using aptitude tests and other criteria that tended to discriminate against African Americans. Affirmative action programs were monitored by the Office of Federal Contract Compliance and the [Equal Employment Opportunity Commission] (EEOC). Subsequently, affirmative action was broadened to cover women and Native Americans, Hispanics, and other minorities and was extended to colleges and universities and state and federal agencies. By the late 1970s the use of racial quotas and minority set-asides led to court challenges of affirmative action as a form of "[reverse discrimination]." The first major challenge was *[][Regents of the University of California]* v. *Bakke* (1978), in which the [][U.S. Supreme Court] ruled (5-4) that quotas may not be used to reserve places for minority applicants if white applicants are denied a chance to compete for those places. Although the court outlawed quota programs, it allowed colleges to use race as a factor in making college admissions decisions. Two years later a fragmented court upheld a 1977 federal law requiring that 10 percent of funds for public works be allotted to qualified minority contractors. The Supreme Court began to impose significant restrictions on race-based affirmative action in 1989. In several decisions that year, the court gave greater weight to claims of reverse discrimination, outlawed the use of minority set-asides in cases where prior racial discrimination could not be proved, and placed limits on the use of racial preferences by states that were stricter than those it applied to the federal government. In *[]Adarand Constructors* v. *Pena* (1995), the court ruled that federal affirmative action programs were unconstitutional unless they fulfilled a "compelling governmental interest."

Aeolus

in the works of Homer, controller of the winds and ruler of the floating island of Aeolia. Because his children met no one outside their own family, Aeolus allowed them to mate with one another, to the relief of Canace and Macareus, who were already lovers. Aeolus made the brothers draw lots for the sisters; in some accounts—possibly confusing him with King Macar—Macareus drew the wrong sister, so that he left home and founded Lesbos. In the *[Odyssey]* Aeolus gave Odysseus a favourable wind and a bag in which the unfavourable winds were confined. Odysseus' companions opened the bag; the winds escaped and drove them back to the island. Although he appears as a human in Homer, Aeolus later was described as a minor god. The island of Aeolia is identified with present-day Lipari, off the coast of Sicily.

alarm signal

in zoology, a ritualized means of communicating a danger or threat among the members of an animal group. In many cases the signal is visual or vocal, but some animals—ants, bees, and certain fishes, for example—secrete chemical substances. Alarm communications frequently cross species boundaries. The hawking alarm calls of many small birds are similar and will cause most other birds to take cover. A visual alarm signal, common in mammals, is "[]flagging," the lifting of the tail to reveal its white undersurface. The white fur shows only in fright situations when the animal raises its tail as it bounds away. Biologists do not agree about the exact meaning of this common mammalian alarm response. While the alarm reaction usually takes the form of a freeze-or-flight response, it may, if the stimulus is within a critical distance, elicit an attack.

airspeed indicator

instrument that measures the speed of an aircraft relative to the surrounding air, using the differential between the pressure of still air ([]static pressure) and that of moving air compressed by the craft's forward motion ([]ram pressure); as speed increases, the difference between these pressures increases as well. Pressures are measured by a [Pitot tube], a U-shaped apparatus with two openings, one perpendicular to the flow of air past the aircraft and one facing directly into the flow. Mercury or a similar liquid fills the bend in the tube, forming parallel columns balanced by the air pressure on each side. When static and ram pressure are equal, the columns have the same height. As the ram pressure increases, mercury on that side of the tube is pushed back and the columns become imbalanced. The difference between the two columns can be calibrated to indicate the speed; this value, called the indicated airspeed, may be given in knots, miles per hour, or other units. Since the airspeed indicator is calibrated at standard temperature and pressure, its readings are inaccurate at different temperatures and altitudes. An (uncorrected) indicated airspeed is still used to estimate an aircraft's tendency to stall. Instruments that electronically correct for altitudinal differences and temperature give the true airspeed, which is used to calculate the aircraft's position. In faster aircraft, indicators that measure airspeed relative to the speed of sound, called [Machmeters], are used.

agglomerate

large, coarse, rock fragments associated with lava flow that are ejected during explosive volcanic eruptions. Although they closely resemble sedimentary conglomerates, agglomerates are pyroclastic igneous rocks that consist almost wholly of angular or rounded lava fragments of varying size and shape. Fragments are usually poorly sorted in a tuffaceous matrix, or appear in lithified volcanic dust or ash. Depending on the specific context, some geologists prefer to sort agglomerates into either [][bombs], [blocks], or breccia. Bombs and blocks are generally larger than 32 mm (1.25 inches) in size; although bombs are ejected in a molten state (becoming rounded upon solidification), blocks are erupted as solid angular or subangular fragments. Upon accumulation, blocks form []breccia, which are solid angular fragments larger than 64 mm.

Alberta Basin

large, petroleum-rich sedimentary basin along the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains in central Alberta, Canada. The basin was formed when the Earth's crust sank along the continental side of the Rocky Mountains during the Devonian period (408 to 360 million years ago). From that time until the Late Cretaceous period (97.5 to 66.4 million years ago), the region was covered by the sea at various intervals. Marine sediments gradually accumulated in the deepest parts of the basin, and large reefs composed of marine fossils and algae formed along its margins. Uplift of the region beginning about 65 million years ago halted sedimentation and exposed the basin deposits to erosional forces. The organic matter buried under layers of sediment and subjected to intense heat and pressure developed into oil and natural gas, which collected in the surrounding porous rock (*e.g.,* limestone reef remnants). Structural traps produced by the folding and faulting of rocks in the basin during the formation of the Rocky Mountains helped promote petroleum accumulation.

ʿAfula

largest city of the Plain of Esdraelon, or Valley of Jezreel (Hebrew: ʿEmeq Yizreʿel), northern Israel. Named for the Arab village of Al-ʿAffūla formerly at that site, it is sometimes called ʿIr Yizreʿel ("City of Jezreel"). It was founded in 1925 on lands acquired by the American Zion Commonwealth, a land-development organization, and was the first planned urban settlement of Jewish Palestine. The city is situated at the junction of two main roads leading to Galilee and the north. One is the coastal road from Tel Aviv-Yafo; the other is the hill road from Jerusalem via Nāblus and Janīn. The latter route is largely in the West Bank territory. At its foundation, most of the city's natural hinterland was occupied by collective or cooperative settlements. These were economically and socially independent of ʿAfula, and most of them also rejected urban society ideologically. As a result, the development of ʿAfula as a quasi-metropolitan centre was hindered. Only after 1948 did the population begin to grow, owing to the settlement of large numbers of Jewish immigrants. A new section, ʿAfula ʿIllit ("Upper ʿAfula"), was built on the slopes of Mount Ha-More, about 3 miles (5 km) from the old central business district. In 1972 ʿAfula received municipality status. ʿAfula has a large sugar-refining plant, textile mills, and a nylon-stocking factory. The Plain of Esdraelon's large regional hospital is there, as are a teachers' college and numerous government offices. Pop. (2000) 38,050; (2006 prelim.) 39,200.

Agassiz, Lake

largest of the ice-margin lakes that once covered what are now parts of [Manitoba], [Ontario], and [Saskatchewan] in Canada and [North Dakota] and [Minnesota] in the United States. It was present in the [Pleistocene Epoch] (approximately 1.8 million to 11,800 years ago) during the last two phases of the Wisconsin glacial age, when the [][Laurentide Ice Sheet] blocked the drainage of the northern [Great Plains] into what is today [Hudson Bay]. As a result, the waters of the [Saskatchewan] and other rivers backed up, forming the 1,100-km (700-mile)-long by 300-km (200-mile)-wide Lake Agassiz and the smaller lakes of Souris and Saskatchewan, which drained through various outlets (depending upon their water level) either into the [Mississippi River] (via the Minnesota River) or [Lake Superior]. With the retreat of the ice sheet after nearly 1,000 years, a channel to the north (now the [Nelson River]) drained the 285,000-sq-km (110,000-sq-mile) Lake Agassiz into Hudson Bay, leaving Lakes [Winnipeg], [Winnipegosis], and [Manitoba] and [Lake of the Woods] as remnants. The fine claylike silt that accumulated on the bottom of Agassiz is responsible for the fertility of the valleys of the [Red] and [Souris] rivers. The lake was named in 1879 after the Swiss-born naturalist and geologist [][Louis Agassiz], who conducted extensive studies on the movement of [glaciers].

Aestheticism

late 19th-century European arts movement which centred on the doctrine that art exists for the sake of its beauty alone, and that it need serve no political, didactic, or other purpose. The movement began in reaction to prevailing utilitarian social philosophies and to what was perceived as the ugliness and philistinism of the industrial age. Its philosophical foundations were laid in the 18th century by Immanuel Kant, who postulated the autonomy of aesthetic standards, setting them apart from considerations of morality, utility, or pleasure. This idea was amplified by J.W. von Goethe, J.L. Tieck, and others in Germany and by Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Thomas Carlyle in England. It was popularized in France by Madame de Staël, Théophile Gautier, and the philosopher Victor Cousin, who coined the phrase *l'art pour l'art* ("art for art's sake") in 1818. [![Photograph:Dante Gabriel Rossetti, photograph by Lewis Carroll, 1863.]] - Dante Gabriel Rossetti, photograph by Lewis Carroll, 1863. In England, the artists of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, from 1848, had sown the seeds of Aestheticism, and the work of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Edward Burne-Jones, and Algernon Charles Swinburne exemplified it in expressing a yearning for ideal beauty through conscious medievalism. The attitudes of the movement were also represented in the writings of Oscar Wilde and Walter Pater and the illustrations of Aubrey Beardsley in the periodical *The Yellow Book*. The painter [][James McNeill Whistler] raised the movement's ideal of the cultivation of refined sensibility to perhaps its highest point. Contemporary critics of Aestheticism included William Morris and John Ruskin and, in Russia, Leo Tolstoy, who questioned the value of art divorced from morality. Yet the movement focused attention on the formal aesthetics of art and contributed to the art criticism of Roger Fry and Bernard Berenson. Aestheticism shared certain affinities with the French Symbolist movement, fostered the Arts and Crafts Movement, and sponsored Art Nouveau.

airmail

letters and parcels transported by [][airplanes]. Airmail service was initiated in 1911 in []England between Hendon (northwest of London) and Windsor, to celebrate the coronation of George V. Service was irregular, however, and only 21 trips were made. Continuous regular air transport of letters between London and Paris was established in 1919, and a similar service for parcels in 1921. Other European air links soon followed. Regular airmail service in the [][United States] was begun in 1918 between Washington, D.C., and New York City, using War Department planes and pilots. The first transcontinental airmail service was established in 1920, between San Francisco and New York City. The superiority of air transport for long-distance continental and intercontinental mail routes soon became apparent. Airmail service was extended to Egypt, Karāchi, Singapore, and other parts of the British Empire in the 1920s and '30s. Regular transpacific airmail service, from San Francisco to the Philippines (with several stops in between), began in 1935, and regular airmail service across the North Atlantic began in 1939. Since 1946 airmail services have developed rapidly to provide a network connecting Europe and North America with all parts of the world. There are still areas, however, such as in Africa, in which airmail services are relatively poor or incomplete. Air transport of first-class mail without a surcharge has become common within Europe and the United States. Intercontinental air transport of mail is still usually accompanied by a surcharge.

alb

liturgical vestment worn in some services by Roman Catholic officiants, some Anglicans, and some Lutherans. A symbol of purity, it is a full-length, long-sleeved, usually white linen tunic secured at the waist by a cord or belt called a cincture. The equivalent vestment in the Eastern churches is the [sticharion]. Derived from the long white tunic (*tunica alba,* or *linea*) commonly worn in the Greco-Roman world, the alb was retained by the Christian clergy as a vestment after secular styles began changing in the 6th century AD. In the 10th century the plain alb was decorated with embroidery on the hem and cuff, and it was later decorated with four or five rectangular patches of embroidery called parures, apparels, or orphreys. Apparels became less common in the 16th century and were replaced by lace, which eventually covered most of the garment. In the 20th century, with the Roman Catholic liturgical renewal, the plain white linen alb came back into use.

Agamidae

lizard family composed of about 350 species in about 50 genera. Agamids typically have scaly bodies, well-developed legs, and a moderately long tail; average body size ranges from 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches), and the tail is 20 to 30 cm (8 to 12 inches) long, though the family varies widely. Agamids inhabit tropical rainforests and mountain forests as well as deserts and steppes throughout most of the Old World, but they are found primarily in Australia, southern Asia, and Africa. There are both ground-dwelling and arboreal species. For more information on some noteworthy members, *see* [agama], [*Chlamydosaurus*] (frilled lizard), [*Draco*] (flying lizard), and [moloch].

air spring

load-carrying component of an air suspension system used on machines, automobiles, and buses. A system used on buses consists of an air compressor, an air-supply tank, leveling valves, check valves, bellows, and connecting piping. Basically, an air-spring bellows is a column of air confined within a rubber and fabric container that looks like an automobile tire or two or three tires stacked on top of one another. The check valves admit additional air to the bellows from the air-supply tank to maintain vehicle height when the load is increased, and the leveling valves vent excess air from the bellows when the vehicle rises because of unloading. The vehicle thus remains at a fixed height regardless of load. Although an air spring is flexible under normal loads, it becomes progressively stiffer when compressed under an increased load. Air suspension was introduced on some luxury cars in the late 1950s, but it was dropped after several model years. Recently, new leveling systems have been developed for passenger cars, including air-adjustable rear shock absorbers; some air-spring systems operate without an air compressor.

Agusan River

longest river in Mindanao, Philippines. It rises in the southeast and flows northward for 240 miles (390 km) to enter Butuan Bay of the Bohol Sea. The river forms a fertile valley 40 to 50 miles (65-80 km) wide between the Central Mindanao Highlands (west) and the Pacific Cordillera (east). Important population centres are clustered around the bay and include Butuan, Cabadbaran, and Buenavista. Despite early Spanish contacts and missionary activities in the 17th century, most of the valley has remained sparsely settled by the Magahat, Mamanua, Manobo, Higahon, Mandaya, and Bagobo peoples. With the advent of logging and immigrant labourers, many of these groups have moved farther inland. Until the early 1960s, when a road was completed linking Butuan with Davao City to the south, the Agusan, which is navigable for 160 miles (260 km) by small craft, was the only access route to the interior. The productive forest industry is concentrated along the Agusan's swampy middle course. Lumberjacks, merchants, and traders live on huge log rafts anchored to giant trees. Vast plantations of coconut, rice, bamboo, and various fruits lie along its lower course. Rice is the leading food crop, and coconut is the main cash crop. Farming and subsistence fishing are other economic activities.

affective disorder

mental disorder characterized by dramatic changes or extremes of [mood]. Affective disorders may include manic (elevated, expansive, or irritable mood with hyperactivity, pressured speech, and inflated self-esteem) or depressive (dejected mood with disinterest in life, sleep disturbance, agitation, and feelings of worthlessness or guilt) episodes, and often combinations of the two. Persons with an affective disorder may or may not have psychotic symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, or other loss of contact with reality. In [][manic-depressive disorders], periods of mania and [][depression] may alternate with abrupt onsets and recoveries. Depression is the more common symptom, and many patients never develop a genuine manic phase, although they may experience a brief period of overoptimism and mild euphoria while recovering from a depression. The most extreme manifestation of [][mania] is violence against others, while that of depression is suicide. Statistical studies have suggested a hereditary predisposition to the disorder, which commonly appears for the first time in young adults. Manic-depressive disorders were described in antiquity by the 2nd-century Greek physician [][Aretaeus of Cappadocia] and in modern times by the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin. The current term is derived from *folie maniaco-mélancholique,* which was introduced in the 17th century. *See also* [manic-depressive psychosis].

Agent Orange

mixture of [][herbicides] that U.S. military forces sprayed in Vietnam from 1962 to 1971 during the [][Vietnam War] for the dual purpose of defoliating forest areas that might conceal Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces and destroying crops that might feed the enemy. The defoliant, sprayed from low-flying aircraft, consisted of approximately equal amounts of the unpurified butyl esters of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T). Agent Orange also contained small, variable proportions of [2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo]-p-dioxin—commonly called "[][dioxin]"—which is a by-product of the manufacture of 2,4,5-T and is toxic even in minute quantities. About 50 million litres (13 million gallons) of Agent Orange—containing about 170 kg (375 pounds) of dioxin—were dropped on Vietnam. Agent Orange was one of several herbicides used in Vietnam, the others including Agents White, Purple, Blue, Pink, and Green. The names derived from colour-coded bands painted around storage drums holding the herbicides. Among the Vietnamese, exposure to Agent Orange is considered to be the cause of an abnormally high incidence of miscarriages, skin diseases, cancers, birth defects, and congenital malformations (often extreme and grotesque) dating from the 1970s. Many U.S., Australian, and New Zealand servicemen who suffered long exposure to Agent Orange in Vietnam later developed a number of [][cancers] and other health disorders. Despite the difficulty of establishing conclusive proof that their claims were valid, U.S. veterans brought a class-action lawsuit against seven herbicide makers that produced Agent Orange for the U.S. military. The suit was settled out of court with the establishment of a \$180,000,000 fund to compensate some 250,000 claimants and their families. Separately, the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs awarded compensation to about 1,800 veterans.

air

mixture of gases comprising the Earth's atmosphere. The mixture contains a group of gases of nearly constant concentrations and a group with concentrations that are variable in both space and time. The atmospheric gases of steady concentration (and their proportions in percentage by volume) are as follows: ------------------------------------ ------------------------------------ nitrogen (N~2~) oxygen (O~2~) 78.084 20.946 ------------------------------------ ------------------------------------ The uniformity of composition is maintained by mixing associated with atmospheric motions; but, above a height of about 90 km (55 miles), diffusional processes become more important than mixing, and the lighter gases (hydrogen and helium, in particular) are more abundant above that level. Of the gases present in variable concentrations, [water vapour], ozone, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide are of principal importance. The typical concentration ranges of these gases (in percentage by volume) are as follows:

Albert Memorial

monument in [Kensington Gardens], in the [Greater London] borough of [Westminster]. It stands near the southern boundary of the park, between Alexandra Gate and Queen's Gate, just north of the [Royal Albert Hall]. The memorial honours [][Prince Albert] (d. 1861), consort of [Queen Victoria]. It was designed shortly after Albert's death by [George Gilbert Scott] (who was knighted for his work) and completed in 1872, although the central statue of Prince Albert was not placed upon it until 1876. The monument stands 175 feet (53 metres) high and is graced with scores of statues and sculpted figures that are, in scale, somewhat larger than life. It underwent major restoration work in the 1990s.

aileron

movable part of an airplane wing that is controlled by the pilot and permits him to roll the aircraft around its longitudinal axis. Ailerons are thus used primarily to bank the aircraft for turning. Ailerons have taken different forms through the years but are usually part of the wing's trailing edge, near the tip. Their efficiency in lateral control made obsolete the Wright brothers' system of wing warping.

Aeneas

mythical hero of Troy and []Rome, son of the goddess Aphrodite and Anchises. Aeneas was a member of the royal line at []Troy and cousin of [][Hector]. He played a prominent part in the war to defend his city against the Greeks, being second only to Hector in ability. [][Homer] implies that Aeneas did not like his subordinate position, and from that suggestion arose a later tradition that Aeneas helped to betray Troy to the Greeks. The more common version, however, made Aeneas the leader of the Trojan survivors after Troy was taken by the Greeks. In any case, Aeneas survived the war, and his figure was thus available to compilers of Roman myth. The association of Homeric heroes with Italy and Sicily goes back to the 8th century BC, and the Greek colonies founded there in that and the next century frequently claimed descent from leaders in the Trojan War. Legend connected Aeneas, too, with certain places and families, especially in Latium. As Rome expanded over Italy and the Mediterranean, its patriotic writers began to construct a mythical tradition that would at once dignify their land with antiquity and satisfy a latent dislike of Greek cultural superiority. The fact that Aeneas, as a Trojan, represented an enemy of the Greeks and that tradition left him free after the war made him peculiarly fit for the part assigned him, *i.e.,* the founding of Roman greatness. It was [][Virgil] who gave the various strands of legend related to Aeneas the form they have possessed ever since. The family of Julius Caesar, and consequently of Virgil's patron [][Augustus], claimed descent from Aeneas, whose son Ascanius was also called Iulus. Incorporating these different traditions, Virgil created his masterpiece, the *[Aeneid],* the Latin epic poem whose hero symbolized not only the course and aim of Roman history but also the career and policy of Augustus himself. In the journeying of Aeneas from Troy westward to Sicily, Carthage, and finally to the mouth of the Tiber in Italy, Virgil portrayed the qualities of persistence, self-denial, and obedience to the gods that, to the poet, built Rome. The *Aeneid* (written *c.* 29-19 BC) tells in 12 books of the legendary foundation of [][Lavinium] (parent town of Alba Longa and of Rome) by Aeneas after he left the burning ruins of Troy to found under supernatural guidance a new city with a glorious destiny in the West.

Agate Fossil Beds National Monument

natural "depository" of an extinct animal community on the [Niobrara River] in northwestern [Nebraska], U.S., 40 miles (64 km) north of Scottsbluff. The beds were laid down as sedimentary deposits about 20 million years ago ([Miocene Epoch]) and bear the remains of prehistoric mammals including *[]Menoceras* (two-horned rhinoceros), [][*Moropus*] (7 feet [2 metres] at the shoulders with a horselike head), and [][*Dinohyus*] (a large piglike beast). The site, named because of its proximity to rock formations containing agates, lies in the Carnegie and University hills. Established as a national monument in 1965, it covers an area of 5 square miles (13 square km). James H. Cook was the first white person to discover the fossil bones, about 1878, and he settled in the region in the 1880s.

Agnes Scott College

private institution of higher education for women in [Decatur], [Georgia], U.S. A liberal arts college allied with the [Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)]#9061275.toc), Agnes Scott College offers Bachelor of Arts degrees in some 30 disciplines; several interdisciplinary majors are offered as well, including art history-Bible and religion, art history-English literature, biology-psychology, international relations, and mathematics-economics. In the 1990s the college began offering a Master of Arts in teaching English as a second language, which was open to men and women. Agnes Scott College offers a Global Awareness program in which students study the culture, customs, and language of a foreign country and also spend a month there. The selection of host countries changes each year. Total enrollment is approximately 900. Agnes Scott College grew out of Decatur Female Seminary, organized in 1889 by members of Decatur Presbyterian Church, led by Reverend Frank Henry Gaines, who was the school's first president (1889-1923). The school was named for the mother of Colonel George Washington Scott, a Decatur industrialist who in 1890 donated land, equipment, the first building, and money for a permanent endowment to the school. The development of Christian character combined with high standards of scholarship were among the college's founding ideals. In 1907 it became the first accredited college or university in Georgia.

Álava

provincia, northern Spain. ?lava is the southernmost of the three Basque Country provincias of northern Spain and is located mainly on the southern slope of the Pyrenees Range. It is bounded by the Ebro River (southwest) and surrounds the enclaves of Trevi? and Ordu? belonging to Burgos and Vizcaya provincias, respectively. ?lava has an area of 1,176 square miles (3,047 square km). Formerly a lordship, it was incorporated into Castile in 1332. With Guip?zcoa and Vizcaya, it became one of the three component provincias of the Basque Country comunidad aut?oma (?autonomous community?) in 1980. The provincia consists of three distinct regions. In the northern woodlands sector, interspersed with isolated farms, lakes, and the valleys of the Urquiola, Bayas, and Omecillo rivers, the production of corn (maize) is the chief economic activity. The central heartland, as the Basque name ?lava (araiiar, ?set among the mountains?) implies, is an intermontane basin (of about 1,500 feet [460 m] elevation) called the Vitoria Plain. Chief crops cultivated on the plains area are wheat, barley, and oats; sugar beets predominate around the provincial capital, Vitoria (q.v.). The southern ?lavese Rioja, separated from the Vitoria Plain by the Cantabrian and Tolo? mountains, is known for its vineyards, orchards, and olive groves. Industry (powered by mostly hydroelectric dams) is concentrated in Vitoria. Pop. (1988 est.) 272,563.

Adour River

river in southwestern France. The Adour River rises in the central Pyrenees near Tourmalet Pass, just south of Midi de Bigorre Peak, and flows in a curve, north, then west, to enter the Bay of Biscay just below Bayonne after a course of 208 miles (335 km). Draining a basin of 5,800 square miles (15,000 square km), it traverses the scenic Campan Valley and, after passing Bagnères-de-Bigorre, crosses the Tarbes plain. Beyond Tarbes the river feeds many irrigation canals, the most important of which is the Canal d'Alaric, which follows the right bank. Within Landes *département* the Adour flows west and southwest and is joined on the left by the Larcis, Gabas, Louts, Luy, and Gave de Pau and on the right by the Midouze. The Adour, which is navigable upstream to Dax, enters the bay through an estuary made hazardous by a shifting sandbar.

Aire, River

river rising at Malham Tarn (lake), in North Yorkshire administrative county, historic county of Yorkshire, England. It drains the central Pennines and flows southeastward through West Yorkshire metropolitan county and across the southern part of North Yorkshire to meet the River Ouse at the border of the East Riding of Yorkshire. The upper reaches of the river are in a deep, troughlike valley known as []Airedale; the dale's scenic beauty makes it a tourist attraction, and its agriculture is concentrated on dairy and poultry production. After leaving the Pennines, the river crosses the Yorkshire coalfield and is joined by the River Calder, its major tributary. Leeds is the principal city on the river.

Ain River

river, eastern France, flowing 124 miles (200 km) southward from the Jura Plateau through Jura and Ain *départements.* The river emerges from its gorge near Pont-d'Ain, having powered several hydroelectric stations (the largest of which is the Barrage de Vouglans). The Ain then crosses the Dombes lowlands and joins the Rhône River. The river's principal affluents include the Bienne and Albarine.

Afram River

river, in southern Ghana, western Africa. It rises 16 miles (26 km) northwest of Mampong and flows southeast into Lake Volta (formerly the Afram was a tributary of the Volta River). The Afram is about 55 miles (90 km) long. The river is important for fishing, despite its running dry from October to March, and it collects nearly all the drainage of the [][Kwahu Plateau]. In the river valley the terrain is very flat and often flooded and swampy. Since the project to dam the Volta River for hydroelectric power (begun 1961; finished 1965), the lower Afram has become a busy arm of the impounded Lake Volta, serving as an important waterway.

Albany River

river, north central Ontario, Canada, rising in Lake St. Joseph at an elevation of 1,218 ft (371 m) and flowing generally eastward into James Bay. For 250 mi (400 km) of its 610-mi course, the river is navigable, and it served as an important route during the fur-trading days, when boats sailed inland from the Hudson's Bay Company post of Ft. Albany (established 1684) at the mouth. Its largest tributary is the Kenogami River, which is 200 mi long. The flow of the Ogoki River, a former tributary, has been diverted into Lake [][Nipigon] to increase the hydroelectric output at the Nipigon River power sites.

adultery

sexual relations between a married person and someone other than the spouse. Written or customary prohibitions or [][taboos] against adultery constitute part of the [marriage] code of virtually every society. Indeed, adultery seems to be as universal and, in some instances, as common as marriage. The [][Code of Hammurabi] (18th century BC) in Babylonia provided a punishment of death by drowning for adultery. In ancient Greece and in [Roman law], an offending [female] spouse could be killed, but [men] were not severely punished. The Jewish, Islamic, and Christian traditions are all unequivocal in their condemnation of adultery. The culpability of both men and women is more explicitly expressed in the [New Testament] and the [Talmud] than in the [Old Testament] or the [Qurʾān]. In strict interpretations of [][Islamic] law, or [Sharīʿah], men and women are equally liable to harsh punishments for adultery (Arabic: *zināʾ*; properly, any extramarital sexual intercourse), including death by stoning—a punishment still applied in the early 21st century in some countries, including Iran and Afghanistan. Because the term *adultery* implies distinctively Judeo-Christian and Islamic attitudes toward marriage, many contemporary anthropologists are cautious about using it in comparative contexts. There are many societies in which marriage is considered a less-permanent arrangement and in which extramarital sex is less sternly condemned. In other words, attitudes toward adultery vary widely between cultures. Whereas the traditional [Senufo] and [Bambara] of West Africa, for example, tacitly condone the honour crime of killing the adulterous female spouse and her companion, among the Kaka in Cameroon a man may have sexual relations with the wives of certain relatives with impunity. Wife lending was long a part of [Eskimo] hospitality. Nonincestuous extramarital relations are permitted by many South Sea island cultures, and among certain Pueblo Indian societies adultery is so common that it is tolerated if kept secret. Under ancient [][Hindu] law, marriage was an indissoluble sacrament, and not even a wife's adultery could sever the legal tie and dissolve the marriage act. In the modern Hindu code, [divorce] can be granted to either offended party if one spouse is living in adultery but not if there are only occasional violations.

Albany

southernmost town and seaport of [Western Australia]. It lies on the northern shore of []Princess Royal Harbour, King George Sound. The naturally broad, deep, sheltered harbour was visited and charted by George Vancouver in 1791. In 1826 the first European settlement in the state, a penal colony called Frederickstown (after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany), was established there by the British. Known as Albany by 1832, it became an important whaling base during the 1840s and, until its closure in 1978, was the last surviving shore-based whaling enterprise in the Southern Hemisphere. Beginning in 1852, it served as a coaling depot for ships sailing the Indian Ocean. Albany declined temporarily when the newly improved harbour at Fremantle opened in 1900; but with the more recent development of its hinterland, it has revived to become the leading port of the south coastal area. Albany lies along the Great Southern Railway and the South Western and Albany highways to Perth-Fremantle, 240 miles (386 km) northwest. The town serves an area of dairy, beef, lamb, fruit, and potato farming. Its industries include woolen mills, fish and meat canneries, and brick, tile, and superphosphate plants. Albany has a mild summer climate and serves as a resort for Perth and a retirement destination for the Wheat Belt. Pop. (2001) urban centre, 22,415.

aerospace medicine

specialized branch of medical science concerned with those medical problems encountered in human flight in the atmosphere (aviation medicine) and beyond the atmosphere (space medicine). The ultimate aim of this specialty is to promote the safety and effectiveness of humans while they are exposed to the [][stresses] of aerospace flight, such as extreme temperatures, low atmospheric pressure, radiation, noise, vibrations, oxygen deprivation, and the strong forces of acceleration and deceleration. Other hazards of space flight include weightlessness, motion sickness, pilot fatigue, discomfort from hunger or sleepiness due to the absence of the Earth's day-and-night cycle, and psychological disturbances caused by confinement and isolation. These problems, however, are generally prevented by intensive preflight training in high-powered simulators and by careful design of equipment and spacecraft. The 19th-century French physiologist [][Paul Bert] is generally regarded as the father of modern aviation medicine. His classic observations of the effects of both high and low air pressure on balloonists were used extensively beginning in World War II and prompted a broad and vigorous program of research. In 1948 the first unit for space research in the world was established in the United States, and as major technological advances were made in space flight, space medicine became recognized as an important medical specialty. Specialists in civil and military aerospace medicine establish and apply appropriate medical standards for the certification and selection of pilots and other flight personnel to assure that they have no physical limitations or medical conditions that could impair their performance. Physicians who are trained in aerospace medicine are known as flight surgeons.

air racing

sport of racing [][airplanes] either over a predetermined course or cross-country up to transcontinental limits. Air racing dates back to 1909, when the first international meet was held at Reims, Fr. Such meets played a large part in the development of airplane design. Air racing, very popular during the 1920s and '30s, was largely subsidized by airplane manufacturers interested in demonstrating their wares. Speed and long-distance records were continually being set, and famous trophy races included the Schneider (France), the King's Cup (England), and the Pulitzer, Thompson, and Bendix trophies in the United States. Of these races, only the last two survived after World War II. After World War II, largely because of increased costs, the advent of jets, and the preemption of the best planes by the military, air racing declined in popularity. []Formula One racing—in imitation of automobile racing as supervised by the Fédération de l'Automobile—in which specific wingspan, undercarriage, airframe weight, stock engine, and brake specifications are predetermined for each class of airplane, with a particular racecourse assigned for each class, originated in the United States in 1969 and has to a large extent superseded other forms of air racing.

Alabama, University of

state university with campuses at [Tuscaloosa] (main campus), [Birmingham], and [Huntsville]. All three branches offer a wide university curriculum and programs for bachelor's, master's, and doctorate degrees. The University of Alabama School of Law is in Tuscaloosa, and the School of Medicine is in Birmingham. Total enrollment at the three campuses is about 40,000. The university also has a centre at [Gadsden]. The Japan Program Center in Tuscaloosa provides students with the opportunity to study at Kansai University in [Ōsaka], Japan. The University of Alabama, the state's oldest public university, was originally located in Tuscaloosa. The U.S. government authorized land for the university in 1819, and it was chartered in 1820, when it received a land grant from the state. Instruction began in 1831. In 1860 the university became a military school, eventually providing officers for the Confederacy. Union cavalry destroyed much of the campus in 1865, and instruction could not be resumed until 1869. Women were first admitted to the university in 1893. The court-ordered end of racial segregation at the university in June 1963 was initially met with protest by Alabama governor [George C. Wallace]. The Huntsville campus opened in 1950, and the Birmingham campus joined the university in 1969. Alabama football (gridiron) teams have won a dozen national championships, six of them under coach [Bear Bryant].

Akwa Ibom

state, southeastern Nigeria. Its area formed part of Cross River state until 1987, when Akwa Ibom state was created. Akwa Ibom is bounded by the Cross River on the east and by the Bight of Biafra of the Atlantic Ocean on the south. There are extensive saltwater mangrove swamps along the coast and tropical rain forests and oil palms farther inland. The state's population consists mainly of Ibibio peoples who raise yams, rice, cowpeas, corn (maize), and cassava for subsistence and oil palms and cocoa as cash crops. Poultry, pigs, sheep, goats, and rabbits are raised. Shrimping along the coast and deep-sea fishing are also economically important. The state's mineral resources include lignite deposits and offshore oil fields. The inland city of [][Uyo] is the state capital and is the site of a university (founded 1983). Other major communities include Opobo and Oron near the coast and Ikot-Ekpene inland. Oron is the site of a museum of ethnography, founded in 1959. The Oron-Ikot-Ekpene highway and the Cross River are major arteries of transportation. Area 2,734 square miles (7,081 square km). Pop. (1991) 2,359,736; (1992 est.) 2,430,528.

Alaska Peninsula

stretch of land extending southwest from mainland [Alaska], U.S. It spreads for 500 miles (800 km) between the Pacific Ocean (southeast) and [Bristol Bay], an arm of the [Bering Sea]. The volcanic [][Aleutian Range] runs along its entire length; the majestic [Pavlof Volcano], near the peninsula's southwestern edge, rises to more than 8,260 feet (2,518 metres) and is the most active volcano in the Aleutian volcanic arc. McNeil River State Game Sanctuary, reachable only by plane, is home to a large population of wild brown bears. Other wildlife preserves on the peninsula are [Katmai National Park and Preserve], [Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve], and Becharof, Alaska Peninsula, and Izembek national wildlife refuges. The peninsula is very sparsely populated, though there are some small fishing villages.

air pocket

strong updraft or downdraft encountered by an aircraft in flight. *See* [updraft and downdraft].

agglutinin

substance that causes particles to congeal in a group or mass, particularly a typical antibody that occurs in the blood serums of immunized and normal human beings and animals. When an agglutinin is added to a uniform suspension of particles [](such as bacteria, protozoa, or red cells) that contains the specific surface structure (antigen) with which the agglutinin reacts, the suspended objects adhere to each other, form clumps, fall to the bottom, and leave the suspending diluent clear. This phenomenon of agglutination is a typical antigen-antibody reaction—highly specific, reversible, and involving small reacting groups on the surface of each. A particular antibody is usually in greatest amount (titre) in individuals who have been immunized with the specific antigen by infection or by other active immunizing procedures. For this reason, agglutination is used as an indirect test for past or present infection or immunization with the specific antigen, as indicated by the presence of agglutinins in the serum. Conversely, serums containing agglutinins to known antigens can be used to identify various bacteria, red cells, and other particulate materials containing the specific antigen. []Isohemagglutinins, substances that agglutinate the red blood cells of others of the same species, are also found in humans. Thus, there are four main blood groups, which differ with respect to two antigens, A and B, in the red blood cells and two isohemagglutinins, anti-A and anti-B, in the serum. Thus, in humans, type O has neither antigen but both agglutinins, type A has A antigen and anti-B agglutinin, type B has B antigen and anti-A agglutinin, and type AB has both antigens but neither agglutinin. *See also* [blood typing].

adjuvant

substance that enhances the effect of a particular medical treatment. Administration of one drug may enhance the effect of another. In [][anesthesia], for example, sedative drugs are customarily given before an operation to reduce the quantity of anesthetic drug needed. In [][immunology] an adjuvant is a substance that increases the body's reaction to a foreign substance. The reaction to [][diphtheria] toxoid—modified form of the toxin, or poisonous substance, produced by the organism that causes diphtheria—is increased, for example, if the toxoid is adsorbed (attached) to particles of aluminum hydroxide or aluminum phosphate.

afterpiece

supplementary entertainment presented after full-length plays in 18th-century England. Afterpieces usually took the form of a short comedy, farce, or pantomime, and were intended to lighten the solemnity of Neoclassical drama and make the bill more attractive to audiences. Long theatre programs that included interludes of music, song, and dance developed in the first 20 years of the 18th century, promoted primarily by [][John Rich] at []Lincoln's Inn Fields in order to compete with the Drury Lane. The addition of afterpieces to the regular program may also have been an attempt to attract working citizens, who often missed the early opening production and paid a reduced charge to be admitted later, usually at the end of the third act of a five-act play. Before 1747, afterpieces were generally presented with old plays, but after that date, almost all new plays were accompanied by afterpieces as well. Although farce and pantomime were the most popular forms of afterpiece, other kinds included processions, burlettas or burlesques, music, and ballad operas, which gained popularity after the success of John Gay's *Beggar's Opera* in 1728.

Agulhas Current

surface oceanic current that is part of the westward-flowing South Equatorial Current, which turns southward along the east coast of Africa and then eastward to join the flow from Africa to Australia. A small part of Agulhas water apparently continues westward around the [Cape of Good Hope] into the [Atlantic Ocean]. The [][Mozambique Current], between Madagascar and Africa, also feeds the Agulhas Current. Only 60 miles (100 km) wide, the Agulhas Current is estimated to flow at an average rate of 0.5 to 1.4 miles (0.8 to 2.2 km) per hour. Its velocity depends on variations in the equatorial current velocity, which in turn change with location, depth, and season. One of the fastest-flowing currents in any ocean, it reaches an estimated top speed of 5.8 miles (9.3 km) per hour off the southeast coast of South Africa. Because it is fed from lower latitudes, the Agulhas Current is warm, ranging in temperature from 57 to 79 °F (14 to 26 °C) at the surface. The average temperature is lower in southern sections near Antarctica. The Agulhas is noted as a major western boundary current in the southern hemisphere.

Alaska Current

surface oceanic current, a branch of the West Wind Drift that forms a counterclockwise gyre in the Gulf of Alaska. In contrast to typical sub-Arctic Pacific water, Alaska Current water is characterized by temperatures above 39° F (4° C) and surface salinities below 32.6 parts per thousand. Flow velocities at a depth of 16 feet (5 m) have been reported to be as high as 1.7 knots (1.9 miles per hour) for the southern portion of the current. Volume transport is estimated to be in the range of 350,000,000 to 700,000,000 cubic feet (10,000,000 to 20,000,000 cubic m) per second.

aerobics

system of physical conditioning that increases the efficiency of the body's intake of oxygen, thereby stimulating the cardiovascular system, developing endurance, and reducing body fat. Increased energy, lower blood pressure and cholesterol, greater suppleness, stronger bones, better posture, and decreased stress levels are other benefits that may accrue from aerobic activity. To be effective, aerobic training must include a minimum of three sessions per week. During each session, usually lasting an hour, the exerciser's heart rate must be raised to a training level for at least 20 minutes. (*See also* [exercise].) The concept of aerobics was pioneered in the United States by physician [Kenneth H. Cooper] and popularized in his books *Aerobics* (1968) and *The Aerobics Way* (1977). Cooper's system uses point charts to rate the aerobic value of various exercises for different age-groups. As individuals progressively upgrade the quantity and quality of their exercise, they can gauge the improvement in their physical condition through the point system. In the 1980s aerobics was popularized by [Jane Fonda] and Richard Simmons through workout videotapes and instructional programs. Sometimes called group fitness, aerobics is most often practiced in health and fitness clubs where groups of one to two dozen exercisers follow the lead of an instructor whose movements are synchronized to up-tempo popular music.

Alaska, University of

system of public land-, sea-, and space-grant universities in [Alaska], U.S., with campuses (regional university centres) in [Fairbanks] (main campus), [Anchorage], and [Juneau] (known as the University of Alaska Southeast). The university traces its origins to 1917, two years after the U.S. Congress set aside land for the creation of a college in Alaska. Instruction at what was then the Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines began in 1922, and the university, situated in Fairbanks, was renamed the University of Alaska in 1935. In 1959 the Fairbanks campus was the site of Alaska's constitutional convention and signing. The University of Alaska system was created in 1975 when the Anchorage and Juneau campuses were consolidated. Each regional university centre includes several community-based (mostly two-year) branch colleges. All campuses are coeducational and offer bachelor's and master's degree programs in several areas. The Fairbanks campus has doctorate programs in subjects uniquely suited to Alaska, including atmospheric sciences, fisheries, geology, geophysics, marine biology, oceanography, and space physics, as well as more standard subjects such as anthropology and mathematics. Total enrollment in the statewide system exceeds 30,000. The Fairbanks campus remains the major focus of the university, and it administers and coordinates programs throughout the system. Its College of Rural Alaska oversees several branch campuses including Bristol Bay (Dillingham), Chukchi ([Kotzebue]), Kuskokwim (Bethel), Northwest ([Nome]), and Interior-Aleutians and Tanana Valley (Fairbanks). Among the notable research institutes associated with the University of Alaska Fairbanks are the Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, the Geophysical Institute, the Institute of Marine Science, the Institute of Arctic Biology, and the International Arctic Research Center (1997; a U.S.-Japanese collaboration). The cultural and natural history collections of the University of Alaska Museum of the North, located on the campus, contain more than a million objects. The Anchorage campus, the system's largest, opened in 1954. Its regional campuses are Kenai Peninsula College (with sites in both Soldotna and [Homer]), Kodiak College ([Kodiak Island]), Matanuska-Susitna College (Palmer), and Prince William Sound Community College ([Valdez]). The University of Alaska Southeast opened in 1972. Its main site is in Juneau, and there are also campuses in [Ketchikan] and [Sitka].

air force

that military organization of a nation which is primarily responsible for the conduct of air warfare. The air force has the missions of gaining control of the air, supporting surface forces (as by bombing and strafing), and accomplishing strategic-bombing objectives. The basic weapon systems of air forces are such military airplanes as fighters, bombers, fighter-bombers, attack aircraft, reconnaissance craft, and training craft. Since the mid-20th century, the air forces of some of the world's major powers have also operated those nations' contingents of land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles, as well as of nuclear-armed long-range bombers. The army and naval branches of a nation's armed forces may also operate aircraft, but the air force usually remains the prime instrument of a nation's air power. The organization, command structure, and personnel grades within air forces vary from country to country. Air forces and air warfare are treated in a number of articles in the Macropaedia. For treatment of the history, types, and technological development of military aircraft, *see* [War, Technology of: *Military aircraft*]. For treatment of tactical and strategic considerations in aerial warfare, *see* [War, Theory and Conduct of: *Air tactics*]. Air warfare during the course of World Wars I and II is treated in [World Wars].

adoption

the act of establishing a person as parent to one who is not in fact or in law his child. Adoption is so widely recognized that it can be characterized as an almost worldwide institution with historical roots traceable to antiquity. In most ancient civilizations and in certain later cultures as well, the purposes served by adoption differed substantially from those emphasized in modern times. Continuity of the male line, which could be important for political, religious, or economic considerations, was the main goal of most adoptions. Thus most adopted persons were male and many were adult, and little attention was paid to their welfare. In contrast, modern adoption laws and practices aim to promote [][child welfare] and are regarded as an integral part of government efforts to protect the interests of the young. This new approach became common in Europe and the [][United States] in the period following World War I, when vast numbers of children were orphaned and the number of "illegitimate" births increased. The approach was later given scientific support by studies in psychology and sociology that stressed the beneficial influence of a stable family life on a child's development. The first modern adoption legislation, the[] Adoption of Children Act, was passed in the U.S. state of Massachusetts in 1851. It required judges to determine that adoptive parents had "sufficient ability to bring up the child" and that "it is fit and proper that such adoption should take effect." In [][Great Britain] adoption was not legally permitted until 1926; the delay in legislation can be attributed in part to the existence of other legal means for protecting and caring for homeless children. Several of the Commonwealth nations passed adoption laws well in advance of the British statute. In New Zealand, for example, the first law was enacted in 1895, and in Canada adoptions were first permitted in Nova Scotia in 1896. Adoption of minors for the purpose of creating permanent, comprehensive bonds between parents and children is a relatively recent phenomenon in France, dating from 1923. In Germany and the Scandinavian countries, adoption laws are part of comprehensive child-welfare legislation.

Agavaceae

the agave family of the flowering plant order Liliales, consisting of about 22 genera and at least 720 species of short-stemmed, often woody plants distributed throughout tropical, subtropical, and temperate areas of the world. Members of the family have narrow, lance-shaped, sometimes fleshy or toothed leaves that are clustered at the base of each plant. Most species have large flower clusters containing many flowers. The fruit is a capsule or berry. Plants of the genus *[Agave]* are important primarily for the fibres obtained from their leaves. [Sisal hemp], from *A. sisalana,* is the most valuable hard fibre. [][Henequen] fibre is obtained from *A. fourcroyoides* and [][cantala], or Manila-Maguey fibre, from *A. cantala.* Some species of *Agave* contain a sap that is fermented to produce a cheesy-smelling, intoxicating drink. The [][century plant] (*A. americana*) of southwestern North America is widely cultivated both indoors and outdoors for its 1.5- to 1.8-metre (5- to 6-foot) spiny leaves and 7.5- to 12-m flower cluster. The stemless plant produces its branched, yellow flower spike after 10 to 15 years and then dies, leaving small plants growing about its base. Many species of the genus *[][Yucca]* are popular as ornamentals for their woody stems and spiny leaves. Some species of*[]Nolina* and*[]Dasylirion,* similar to yuccas except for taller flower clusters and narrow leaves, also are cultivated. []Sotol (*Dasylirion acotrichum*), a short-stemmed plant, and *[]Nolina recurvata,* the base of which is swollen and bottle-shaped, are the most common ornamentals. Red-leaved and broad-veined varieties of the tropical species *[Cordyline indivisa], C. australis,* and []*C. terminalis* are popular greenhouse and indoor pot plants. Other ornamentals of the family belong to the genera *Dracaena* and *Sansevieria.* [][Tuberose] (*Polianthes tuberosa*) is cultivated for its volatile oil and has spikes of white flowers.

agrostology

the branch of [][botany] concerned with the study of [][grasses], especially their classification. In 1708 the German botanist Johann []Scheuchzer wrote *[]Agrostographiae Helveticae Prodromus,* a taxonomic paper on grasses that some authors consider to mark the birth of agrostology. Many systems of classification followed this brief beginning. The earliest were based purely on external morphology of the plant, but later systems take into consideration the results of cellular, embryological, physiological, and histological studies. Modern agrostologists investigate living populations of grasses to determine their genetic inheritance and adaptations to specific habitats. Biochemical studies are another promising tool in determining evolutionary relationships between groups of grasses.

air-conditioning

the control of temperature, humidity, purity, and motion of air in an enclosed space, independent of outside conditions. An early method of cooling air as practiced in India was to hang wet grass mats over windows where they cooled incoming air by evaporation. Modern air-conditioning had its beginnings in the 19th-century textile industry, in which atomized sprays of water were used for simultaneous humidification and cooling. In the early 20th century, Willis [][Carrier of Buffalo], N.Y., U.S., devised the "dew point control," an air-conditioning unit based on the principle that cooled air reaches saturation and loses moisture through condensation. Carrier also devised a system (first installed in 1922 at Graumann's Metropolitan Theater in Los Angeles) wherein conditioned air was fed from the ceiling and exhausted at floor level. The first fully air-conditioned office building, the Milam Building in San Antonio, Texas, U.S., was constructed in the late 1920s. The development of highly-efficient [refrigerant] gases of low toxicity known as [][Freons] (carbon compounds containing fluorine and chlorine or bromine) in the early 1930s was an important step. By the middle of that decade American railways had installed small air-conditioning units on their trains, and by 1950 compact units had become practical for use in single rooms. Since the late 1950s air conditioning has become more common in developed regions outside the United States. In a simple air conditioner, the refrigerant, in a volatile liquid form, is passed through a set of [][evaporator] coils across which air inside the room is passed. The refrigerant evaporates and, in the process, absorbs the heat contained in the air. When the cooled air reaches its saturation point, its moisture content condenses on fins placed over the coils. The water runs down the fins and drains. The cooled and dehumidified air is returned into the room by means of a blower.

aesthetic distance

the frame of reference that an artist creates by the use of technical devices in and around the work of art to differentiate it psychologically from reality. German playwright [][Bertolt Brecht] built his dramatic theory known in English as the [alienation effect] to accomplish aesthetic distance.

Agathis

the genus of the dammar pines, pinelike plants of the family Araucariaceae. *Agathis* species range from the Philippines to Australia and New Zealand. Elsewhere some are grown as ornamental plants in warm areas or in greenhouses. Several species yield hard resins or gums (including kauri copal, Manila copal, and dammar resin) used primarily in making varnishes and other products such as patent leather and sealing wax.

Alba

the kingdom formed by the union of the Picts and Scots under Kenneth I MacAlpin in 843. Their territory, ranging from modern Argyll and Bute to Caithness, across much of southern and central Scotland, was one of the few areas in the British Isles to withstand the invasions of the [][Vikings]. The ancient link with Ireland (from which the Celtic Scots had emigrated) was broken as a cordon of Scandinavian settlements were established in the Western Isles and Ireland. With southern England also conquered by the Norsemen and Danes, Alba was left isolated. With the withdrawal of the Norsemen, England, under the English, then launched invasions against Alba but were ultimately repelled by [][Malcolm II] at the [Battle of Carham] (1016/18). When Malcolm's grandson and successor [][Duncan I] came to the throne in 1034, he united Alba with Strathclyde, Cumbria, and Lothian. Thereafter, the name Alba began to fade away; and every king, at least in retrospect, was normally styled "king of Scots." The first extant recorded use was by Duncan II, the "*Rex Scotie,*" in 1094.

African Cup of Nations

the most prestigious [football] (soccer) competition in Africa. It is contested by national teams and is organized by the Confédération Africaine de Football (CAF). The competition's format has changed over time, with the number of teams increasing from 3 in 1957 to 16 in 1996. Growing participation also led to the introduction of qualifying rounds in 1968, the same year that CAF decided to hold the tournament biennially. The African Cup of Nations was first held in February 1957 in Khartoum, Sudan, where Egypt defeated the host nation in the final to win the []Abdel Aziz Abdallah Salem Trophy, named after its donor, an Egyptian who was the first CAF president. That trophy was permanently awarded to [Ghana] in 1978 when it became the first country to win the tournament three times. The next trophy, known as the []African Unity Cup, was awarded permanently to Cameroon in 2000 when that team claimed its third championship since 1978. In 2002 a new trophy called the []Cup of Nations was introduced. The competition has served as a showcase for the talents of African players. In the 1950s and 1960s, the tournament's attacking, entertaining style of play seized the imagination of African fans and attracted European talent scouts, agents, and journalists. Under the leadership of Ethiopian Ydnekachew Tessema, CAF president from 1972 until his death in 1987, the cup earned greater international prestige. Professionalism was allowed in 1980 and corporate sponsorships accepted in 1984. The cup's greatest performer has been Ivorian striker []Laurent Pokou, who holds the record for most career goals in the tournament (14) and who tallied five goals in a 6-1 victory over Ethiopia in 1970. Beyond the boundaries of the playing fields, the Cup of Nations has been a conduit for the articulation of political values and ideas. Having inherited colonial institutions devoid of indigenous symbols of national identity, many independent African governments invested considerable economic and political capital into national football teams in order to elicit pride and build unity among their diverse populations. For example, with the enthusiastic support of Ghana's first president, Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana won the cup in 1963 and 1965. In winning the 1996 tournament at home, [South Africa]'s racially mixed team seemed to symbolize football's power to bridge the gaping social and economic inequalities left by apartheid. In contrast, the [Algerian] government was unable to capitalize on Algeria's victory in the 1990 Cup of Nations, as fans celebrated the team's triumph in Algiers by chanting their support for the opposition Islamic Salvation Front.

adulthood

the period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturity have been attained. Adulthood is commonly thought of as beginning at age 20 or 21 years. Middle age, commencing at about 40 years, is followed by old [][age] at about 60 years. A brief treatment of development during adulthood follows. For full treatment, *see* [human development] and [human behaviour]. Physically, early and middle adulthood are marked by slow, gradual declines in body functioning, which accelerate as old age is reached. The muscle mass continues to increase through the mid-20s, thereafter gradually decreasing. The skeletal mass increases until age 30 or so, and then begins to decrease, first in the central skeleton (pelvis and spine) and last in the peripheral skeleton (fingers and toes). Throughout adulthood there is a progressive deposition of cholesterol in the arteries, and the heart muscle eventually grows weaker even in the absence of detectable disease. The production of both male and female hormones also diminishes with age, though this cannot be directly related to the gradual diminution in sexual activity that occurs in both males and females between 20 and 60. There is clear evidence that with increasing age adults display a slow, very gradual tendency toward decreasing speed of response in the execution of intellectual (and physical) tasks. Slowing rates of electrical activity in the older adult brain have been linked to the slowing of behaviour itself. This decline in the rate of central nervous system processing does not necessarily imply similar changes in learning, memory, or other intellectual functions. The learning capacity of young adults is superior to that of older adults, as is their ability to organize new information in terms of its content or meaning. Older adults, on the other hand, are equal or superior to young adults in their capacity to retain general information and in their accumulated cultural knowledge. *See also* [aging]; [old age].

advertising

the techniques and practices used to bring products, services, opinions, or causes to public notice for the purpose of persuading the public to respond in a certain way toward what is advertised. Most advertising involves promoting a good that is for sale, but similar methods are used to encourage people to drive safely, to support various charities, or to vote for political candidates, among many other examples. In many countries advertising is the most important source of income for the media (*e.g.,* newspapers, magazines, or television stations) through which it is conducted. In the noncommunist world advertising has become a large and important service industry. In the ancient and medieval world such advertising as existed was conducted by word of mouth. The first step toward modern advertising came with the development of printing in the 15th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century weekly newspapers in London began to carry advertisements, and by the 18th century such advertising was flourishing. The great expansion of business in the 19th century was accompanied by the growth of an advertising industry; it was that century, primarily in the United States, that saw the establishment of advertising agencies. The first agencies were, in essence, brokers for space in newspapers. But by the early 20th century agencies became involved in producing the advertising message itself, including copy and artwork, and by the 1920s agencies had come into being that could plan and execute complete advertising campaigns, from initial research to copy preparation to placement in various media. There are eight principal media for advertising. Perhaps the most basic medium is the newspaper, which offers advertisers large circulations, a readership located close to the advertiser's place of business, and the opportunity to alter their advertisements on a frequent and regular basis. Magazines, the other chief print medium, may be of general interest or they may be aimed at specific audiences (such as people interested in outdoor sports or computers or literature) and offer the manufacturers of products of particular interest to such people the chance to make contact with their most likely customers. Many national magazines publish regional editions, permitting a more selective targeting of advertisements.

admiral

the title and rank of a senior naval officer, often referred to as a flag officer, who commands a fleet or group of ships of a navy or who holds an important naval post on shore. The term is sometimes also applied to the commander of a fleet of merchant vessels or fishing ships. The title of admiral has an ancient lineage. It apparently originated before the 12th century with Muslim Arabs, who combined emir, or *[]amīr* ("commander"), the article *al*, and *baḥr* ("sea") to make *amīr-al-baḥr*. Shortened to *amiral*, the title was adopted for naval use by the Sicilians. The French copied the word from the Genoese during the Seventh Crusade (1248-54). The Latin word *admirabilis* ("admirable") may have contributed to the designation admiral for the commander of the Cinque Ports in England before the end of the 13th century. In Europe it became the title of a great officer of the crown: in France as *grand amiral*, in Spain as *almirante mayor*, and in England as [lord high admiral]. The noblemen who held these posts were not seamen and did not command at sea except on rare occasions; they were heads of departments that administered naval affairs. They were responsible for providing ships for war, and their duties usually brought them large fees. They also had jurisdiction in certain legal cases. By 1620 the word admiral was used in England to denote a commander at sea. In that year the fleet was formed into three squadrons with the admiral commanding the centre squadron, his ships flying red ensigns. The vice admiral in the van squadron flew white ensigns, and the rear admiral flew blue ensigns in his squadron.

Aizawl

town and capital of Mizorām state, northeastern India. It is situated on a ridge at an elevation of about 2,950 feet (900 m) and is the most populous town in the state. In the 1970s Aizawl was the scene of an armed attack on the government treasury and other offices by members of the []Mizo National Front. Aluminum utensils, handloomed textiles, and furniture are manufactured in the town. Electricity is generated by a diesel-power station, and there is an airport nearby. The surrounding region is a part of the Assam-Myanmar (Burma) geologic province, with north-south-aligned, steeply inclined hill ranges. The rapid Dhaleśwarī (Tiwang), Tuivawl, and Sonai (Tuirail) rivers and their tributaries crisscross the region. Timber and bamboo are collected from the dense hillside forests. The soil cover is generally thin except in the river valleys, where rice, corn (maize), beans, tobacco, cotton, pumpkins, oilseeds, and peanuts (groundnuts) are grown. Poultry raising, hunting, fishing, and animal husbandry supplement agriculture. Handweaving, blacksmithing, carpentry, basketmaking, and hat making are the main cottage industries. The Mizo Hills tribes of the region are mostly emigrants from Myanmar, and most have become Christians. The Border Roads Organization has built many paved roads in the area. Pop. (1991 prelim.) 154,343.

Aigues-Mortes

town, Gard *département*, [Languedoc-Roussillon] *région*, southeastern France, southwest of [Nîmes], on the Canal du Rhône à Sète, with its own 3.5-mile (6-km) canal to the Gulf of Lion. Its name comes from *aquae mortuae*, the "dead waters" of the surrounding saline delta marshland. Built by [][Louis IX] as the embarkation port for his two Crusades (seventh, 1248; eighth, 1270), the little town is enclosed by crenellated and tower-strengthened walls 25 to 30 feet (8 to 9 metres) high, which trace a rectangle roughly 0.5 by 0.25 mile (800 by 400 metres). The medieval town plan remains intact. Fishing is a source of revenue, although the port long ago silted up. The principal industry is the extraction and processing of marsh salt. Tourism is also important. Pop. (1990) 4,999; (1999) 6,012.

Ado-Ekiti

town, Ondo state, southwestern Nigeria. It lies in the Yoruba Hills, at the intersection of roads from Akure, Ilawe, Ilesha, Ila (Illa), and Ikare, and is situated 92 miles (148 km) east-northeast of Ibadan. An urban and industrial centre of the region, it was founded by the Ekiti people, a Yoruba subgroup whose members belonged to the Ekiti-Parapo, a late 19th-century confederation of Yoruba peoples that fought against Ibadan for control of the trade routes to the coast. Ado-Ekiti became the site of a large textile mill in 1967, its occupants having a long-standing tradition of cotton weaving. The town also produces shoes and pottery and is a collecting point for commercial crops such as tobacco, cacao, palm oil and kernels, and cotton. Yams, cassava, corn (maize), upland rice, fruits, pumpkins, palm produce, and okra are marketed locally. Ado-Ekiti town is the site of Ondo State University (1982) and a federal polytechnic college. Pop. (1996 est.) 359,400.

Ajaccio

town, capital of Corse-du-Sud *département*, [Corsica] *région*, France, and Mediterranean port, on the west coast of the island of Corsica. [Napoleon]'s birthplace, Maison Bonaparte, is now a museum, as is part of the town hall. The original settlement of Ajax was founded by the Romans 2 miles (3 km) north of the present site, to which the town was removed by the Genoese in 1492. Save for the period 1553-59, the town did not become French until 1768. From 1793 to 1811, Ajaccio was the capital of Liamone *département*, and in 1976 it was made capital of Corse-du-Sud *département*, one of the two into which the island was divided. Its economy rests largely on tourism, but there is some light industry, including the manufacture of aeronautical components. There is a small commerical port and yachting harbour as well as a science park. Ajaccio also has a long tradition as an administrative centre. It is the seat of a prefect and a bishopric. Regular air and ferry services connect Ajaccio to the French mainland. Pop. (1990) 58,949; (1999) 52,880.

Agen

town, capital of Lot-et-Garonne *département*, [Aquitaine] *région*, southwestern France. It lies along the Garonne River at the foot of Ermitage Hill (530 feet [162 metres]), northwest of [Toulouse]. Mentioned by Julius Caesar as Aginnum, capital of the Nitiobriges people, it was captured by the Frankish king Clovis (509) and was the centre of the countship of [Agenais]. Saints Faith (Foy) and Caprasius were martyred there in 303 under Diocletian. The Cathedral of Saint-Caprais has a 12th-century apse, and Notre-Dame-des-Jacobins is an example of 13th-century Dominican construction. The municipal museum of fine arts occupies a group of Renaissance mansions. A network of narrow medieval streets contrasts with wide modern boulevards. Agen was the home of the Scaligers, eminent medieval scholars, and of [Jacques Jasmin], the barber-poet. In addition to being an agricultural market centre, noted for fruits and vegetables, Agen is also a commercial and administrative centre with a branch of the University of Bordeaux. Food-processing industries and related services are important; pharmaceuticals and shoes are also manufactured there. Pop. (1990) 30,553; (1999) 30,170.

Aïn Temouchent

town, northwestern Algeria, on the right bank of the Wadi Sennêne. The town is bounded on the south by the Wadi Temouchent, with the Tessala Mountains in the background. Built on the site of the ruined Roman Albula and the later Arab settlement of Ksar ibn Senar, the town was founded in 1851 with the arrival of Spanish immigrants. It lies in a narrow valley and is surrounded by vineyards and orchards planted in fertile basaltic soils. Pop. (1998) 54,832.

Aguadilla

town, northwestern [Puerto Rico]. The town is a port on a wide bay formed on the south by the hills of Punta Higüero (Jiguera) and on the north by Punta Borinquen, the northwestern corner of the island. It was established as a town in 1775 and elevated to the royal rank of *villa* in 1861. The town is a processing and trading centre for a prosperous agricultural hinterland; products include cigars and straw hats. The town has an airport and a regional college of the University of Puerto Rico. Pop. (2000) town, 16,776; (2000) urban agglom., 299,086.

Alaşehir

town, western Turkey. It lies in the Kuzu River valley, at the foot of the Boz Mountain. Founded about 150 BC by a king of Pergamum, it became an important town of the Byzantine Empire. It was not taken by the Ottomans until after all other cities of Asia Minor had surrendered to Ottoman rule. Conquered by Timur (Tamerlane) in 1402, it was recaptured under the Ottoman sultan Murad II (reigned 1421-51). A part of the city was burned down during the Turkish War of Independence (1919-22). Alaşehir lies along the Afyon Karahisar-Manisa-İzmir railway. The surrounding area's products include tobacco, raisins, and fruits. A mineral spring yields a heavily carbonated water that is in great demand in İzmir. Pop. (1985) town, 29,484.

aerarium

treasury of ancient Rome, housed in the Temple of Saturn and the adjacent *tabularium* (record office) in the Forum. Under the republic (*c.* 509-27 BC) it was managed by two finance officials, the urban quaestors, and controlled by the Senate. In theory, all revenues were paid into the *aerarium*, and all public payments were made from it. In practice, in the late republic money was moved from the provinces to the *aerarium* only if the province, after paying the governor's allowance, produced a surplus. Conversely, money was paid out of the *aerarium* to a province only if the provincial revenue did not cover expenses. All accounts, however, had to be balanced with the *aerarium*, which was thus a central clearinghouse. It also served as an archive where laws, decrees, and *acta* of the Senate—as well as certain other kinds of documents—were stored and could be consulted by authorized persons. Under the principate (27 BC-AD 305) the *aerarium* gradually lost importance, as the emperors, under whose authority most public money was spent, came to use their own treasury (*fiscus*) for the receipt and disbursement of funds without accounting to the *aerarium*. The administration of the *aerarium* underwent various changes, but after AD 56 two prefects became the norm. In AD 6 the emperor Augustus founded a second treasury, the *[aerarium militare]* (military treasury). The old treasury was thereafter known as *aerarium Saturni*, eventually becoming the municipal treasury of the city of Rome. The new treasury's function was to pay bounties to discharged veterans or purchase land for them. It was supplied with funds from taxes (sales, inheritance, and property) collected by the emperor's procurators and was administered by three former praetors. [E. Badian]

Ahom

tribe that ruled much of Assam from the 13th century until the establishment of British rule in 1838. Their power in Assam reached its peak during the reign of King Rudra Singh (1696-1714). They originated in the Chinese province of Yunnan and began migrating into Indochina and northern Myanmar (Burma) in the first centuries AD. Their original language is now extinct, and they speak Assamese.

aigrette

tuft of long, white heron (usually egret) plumes used as a decorative headdress, or any other ornament resembling such a headdress. Such plumes were highly prized as ornaments in Middle Eastern ceremonial dress. Jeweled aigrettes, at first made in the form of a tuft of plumes, became an adornment for [][turbans] in Turkey, particularly during the Ottoman period (1281-1924). Jeweled aigrettes were listed in royal collections at the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th centuries. During the 18th century, they were popular with fashionable European women, who wore them pinned in their hair to hold masses of curls at the back of the head.

afterimage

visual illusion in which retinal impressions persist after the removal of a stimulus, believed to be caused by the continued activation of the visual system. The afterimage may be positive, corresponding in colour or brightness to the original image, or negative, being less bright or of colours complementary to the original. A common afterimage is the spot of light one sees after a camera flash has been fired. The afterimage is the most readily observed of the class of phenomena known as aftersensations, or aftereffects.

air gun

weapon based on the principle of the primitive blowgun that shoots bullets, pellets, or darts by expansion of compressed air. Most modern air guns are inexpensive []BB guns (named for the size of the shot fired). The best of these develop about half the muzzle velocity of light firearms, are accurate enough for marksmanship training at ranges up to 100 feet (30 m), and can kill small game. Darts with tranquilizing drugs may be fired to immobilize animals for handling or capture. An air-gun projectile seldom carries beyond 300 feet (92 m). Early weapons had a reservoir of compressed air that, when suddenly released by a trigger, projected a single bullet or charge of shot with limited range and accuracy. During the 16th century a spring was substituted for the reservoir. When the trigger released the spring, the latter actuated a piston that compressed air which in turn drove the missile through the bore or barrel of the gun. This is the principle used in most air "rifles," and it can also be used in air pistols. Later weapons were constructed on the older principle of a reservoir, but these use cylinders of compressed gas, usually carbon dioxide. A single cylinder will give a number of shots before replacement is necessary; []gas guns are comparable in power and accuracy to air guns.

Adams, Louisa

*née **Louisa Catherine Johnson** * born February 12, 1775, London, England died May 15, 1852, Washington, D.C., U.S. American [first lady] (1825-29), the wife of [][John Quincy Adams], sixth president of the United States. Louisa Johnson was born to Joshua Johnson, an American businessman from Maryland, and an Englishwoman, Katherine Nuth Johnson. Louisa was the only first lady born abroad. When she was three years old her parents moved to Nantes, France, where she received her early education and became fluent in French. In 1783 her family, now including six children, returned to London, and Louisa, the second child, enrolled briefly in boarding school. After her father's business suffered losses, Louisa and her sisters were forced to withdraw from school, thus ending their formal education. But they were tutored at home by a governess, and Louisa became an avid reader.

Adenauer, Konrad

Introduction ------------ born January 5, 1876, Cologne, Germany died April 19, 1967, Rhöndorf, West Germany [![Video:West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer greeting French President Charles de Gaulle.]] - West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer greeting French President Charles de Gaulle. [![Photograph:Konrad Adenauer.]] - Konrad Adenauer.

Adams, John Coolidge

American composer John Adams, whose works were among the most performed of contemporary composers, was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1997. He had already won a number of honours, including a Guggenheim fellowship in 1982 and the Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition in 1995. The latest honour, however, set an official seal of approval on his work. Adams was born on Feb. 15, 1947, in Worcester, Mass. He became proficient on the clarinet at an early age (sometimes free-lancing with the Boston Symphony Orchestra and performing with other groups) and by his teenage years was composing. His teachers at Harvard University (A.B., 1969; M.A., 1971) included Leon Kirchner and Roger Sessions. Adams was the first person in the history of the university to be allowed to submit a musical composition as a senior honours thesis. After graduation he moved to California, where from 1972 to 1982 he taught at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music. In 1978 he founded and directed the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra's series "New and Unusual Music," and he was composer in residence with the orchestra from 1982 to 1985. Although his early compositions were in an academic style, Adams soon began drawing on much broader sources, including pop, jazz, electronic music, and minimalism. His use of minimalist techniques--characterized by repetition and simplicity--came to be tempered by expressive, even neo-Romantic, elements. His works encompassed a wide range of genres and included *Shaker Loops* (1978), chamber music for string septet; *Harmonium* (1980), a cantata for chorus and orchestra using the poetry of John Donne and Emily Dickinson; *Grand Pianola Music* (1981-82), a reworking of early-20th-century American popular music for instrumental ensemble, three sopranos, and two pianos; *Harmonielehre* (1984-85), an homage to Arnold Schoenberg, whose music was the antithesis of minimalism, for orchestra; *Fearful Symmetries* (1988), for orchestra; and *Wound-Dresser* (1988), for baritone and orchestra. One of his especially popular orchestral works was *Short Ride in a Fast Machine* (1986). Adams's most ambitious works, however, were two operas, both created in collaboration with director Peter Sellars, poet Alice Goodman, and choreographer Mark Morris. The first, *Nixon in China* (1987), took as its subject the visit of U.S. Pres. Richard M. Nixon to China in 1972. The second, *The Death of Klinghoffer* (1991), was based on the hijacking by Palestinian terrorists of the cruise ship *Achille Lauro* in 1985 and the killing of a disabled Jewish passenger. Both operas received a number of performances, and both were recorded, with *Nixon in China* winning a Grammy in 1989. Both works also had their detractors, but a number of critics found them to be among the most significant of contemporary operas, arguing that they succeeded in melding the communicative and expressive requirements of the form with eclectic musical styles and minimalist techniques. Meanwhile, *The Chairman Dances*, subtitled "Foxtrot for Orchestra," which was written for *Nixon in China* but dropped from the final score, became one of Adams's most often played orchestral works.

Adiabene

petty kingdom that was a vassal state of the Parthian empire (247 BC-AD 224) in northern Mesopotamia (now Iraq). Its capital was Arba-ilu (Arbela; modern [][Irbīl]). In the 1st century AD its royal family embraced Judaism; the queen mother []Helena (d. AD 50), famous for her generosity to the Jews and the Temple, and her sons []Monobazus II and []Izates II were buried in the Tombs of the Kings at Jerusalem. Adiabene was frequently attacked by the Romans during their campaigns against the Parthians.

Adhémar of Monteil

*also called **Adhémar of Puy** , Adhémar also spelled **Adémar** or **Aimar** * died August 1, 1098, Antioch, Syria [now Antakya, Turkey] French bishop, papal legate, and a leader of the First [][Crusade]. Adhémar was bishop of Le Puy from 1077 and made a pilgrimage to the East in 1086-87. Responding to [Pope Urban II]'s call in November 1095 for a holy expedition to the East, he was appointed papal legate of the [Crusade]. Wounded and temporarily captured, he recovered and entered Constantinople (now Istanbul) with [Raymond IV of Toulouse] and his troops and had friendly audiences with the Byzantine emperor. With the patriarch Symeon II of Jerusalem, who was in exile in Cyprus, he appealed to the West for more Crusaders. Adhémar did not preach Western papal supremacy, despite Urban II's plans for such a policy, but, by effectively directing many battles, as well as organizing relief for poor pilgrims and ordering repentance fasts for the Crusaders, he proved to be a forceful, unifying leader. His death in Antioch from the plague deprived the Crusade of an important voice of reason and mediator of disputes.

ʿĀdil Shāhī Dynasty

(1489-1686), ruling family of the kingdom of [][Bijāpur], India, one of the two principal successor states to the Muslim sultanate of Bahmanī in the Deccan. The dynasty strongly resisted the Mughal advance southward in the 17th century until it was extinguished by Aurangzeb with the capture of Bijāpur in 1686. It was named after its founder, [Yūsuf ʿĀdil Shāh], said to have been a son of the Ottoman sultan Murad II. He introduced a form of Islām but practiced toleration. At the end of his reign, Goa was lost (1510) to the Portuguese. After constant wars a coalition of Bijāpurand with the three other Muslim Deccan states—Golconda, Bīdar, and Ahmadnagar—overthrew the Hindu Vijayanagar empire, threatening from the south, at Talikota in 1565. The dynasty's greatest period was during the reign of [Ibrāhīm ʿĀdil Shāh II] (1579-1626), who extended his frontier as far south as Mysore and was a skillful administrator and a generous patron of the arts. He reverted to the Sunnite form of Islām but remained tolerant of other religions, including Christianity. Thereafter, increasing weakness permitted Mughal encroachment and the successful revolt of the Marāthā Śivajī, who killed the Bijāpur general Afzal Khān and scattered his army. The dynasty left a tradition of cosmopolitan culture and artistic patronage, whose architectural remains are to be seen in the capital city of Bijāpur.

adhān

(Arabic: "announcement"), the []Muslim call to Friday public worship and to the five daily hours of prayer. It is proclaimed by the [][muezzin], a servant of the mosque chosen for good character, as he stands at the door or side of a small mosque or in the minaret of a large one. The *adhān* was originally a simple "Come to prayer," but, according to tradition, Muḥammad consulted his followers with a view to investing the call with greater dignity. The matter was settled when ʿAbd Allāh ibn Zayd dreamed that the faithful should be summoned by a crier. The standard Sunnite *adhān* can be translated as: "Allāh is most great. I testify that there is no god but Allāh. I testify that Muḥammad is the prophet of Allāh. Come to prayer. Come to salvation. Allāh is most great. There is no god but Allāh." The first phrase is proclaimed four times, the final phrase once, and the others twice, the worshipers making a set response to each phrase.

Aditi

(Sanskrit: "The Boundless"), in the Vedic phase of Hindu mythology, the personification of the infinite, and mother of a group of celestial deities, the [Ādityas]. As a primeval goddess, she is referred to as the mother of many gods, including Vishnu in his dwarf incarnation and, in a later reappearance, Krishna. She supports the sky, sustains all existence, and nourishes the earth. It is in the latter sense that she is often represented as a cow. Her sons, the Ādityas, are of uncertain number and identity. [][Varuṇa] is their chief, and they are called like him "Upholders of *ṛta* ('divine order')." One hymn names them as Varuṇa, Mitra, Aryaman, Dakṣa, Bhaga, and Amśa. Sometimes Dakṣa is excluded and Indra, Savitṛ (the sun), and Dhātṛ are added. Occasionally the term is extended to include all the gods. In later periods their number is increased to 12, and they are linked to the 12 solar months of the year. Āditya in the singular form is a name of the sun.

adelantado

(Spanish: "one who goes before"), representative of the kings of Castile (Spain) who in the early European Middle Ages headed military expeditions and, from the reign of Ferdinand III (1217-52) until the 16th century, held judicial and administrative powers over specific districts. [Greater adelantados] (*adelantados mayores*) served as appeal judges and in times of war were responsible for organizing their territories' armies. []Lesser adelantados (*adelantados menores*) held similar powers, but they were often stationed along the frontiers, becoming known as []frontier adelantados (*adelantados fronterizos*), and figured prominently in the military conquest of the Americas. In the 16th century the office was replaced by that of alcalde (magistrate).

adiaphorism

(from Greek *adiaphora,* "indifferent"), in Christian theology, the opinion that certain doctrines or practices in morals or religion are matters of indifference because they are neither commanded nor forbidden in the Bible. Two adiaphorist controversies occurred in [][Germany] after the Reformation. The first controversy arose over the religious compromise between the [][Lutheran] theologians of Wittenberg, primarily Philipp Melanchthon, and Saxony's civil and ecclesiastical leaders. The elector [][Maurice] of Saxony succeeded in making the Wittenberg theologians accept, for political reasons, the [Leipzig Interim] (December 1548), which sanctioned the jurisdiction of Roman Catholic bishops and observance of certain rites (such as extreme unction and confirmation), while all were to accept the doctrine of justification by faith, the added word "alone" being treated as one of the adiaphora. [][Matthias Flacius Illyricus], a Lutheran Reformer, passionately opposed this policy on the grounds that under political pressure no adiaphora could be accepted, and, therefore, no concession could be allowed. In practice the controversy was ended in September 1555 by the [][Peace of Augsburg], when Lutheranism was acknowledged as a legitimate religion in the empire. The theoretical question of adiaphora, however, continued to be debated by Protestants. The [Formula of Concord] (1577), a Lutheran confession, attempted to settle the matter by stating that rites and ceremonies that were matters of religious indifference could not be imposed during times of controversy. Another adiaphorist controversy took place in the field of morality in 1681, when [][Pietists] opposed the construction of a theatre in Hamburg. The Pietists denounced worldly amusements as anti-Christian, whereas Lutherans generally defended Christian freedom in such matters. Although the term "adiaphorism" was not explicitly applied in other disputes, analogous controversies occurred elsewhere. In England the [Vestiarian controversy] in the 1560s and '70s dealt with the question of whether clerical vestments—declared to be "popish" by some—were theologically important.

adenosine triphosphate

* **(ATP),** * energy-carrying molecule found in the cells of all living things. ATP captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it to fuel other cellular processes. Cells require chemical energy for three general types of tasks: to drive metabolic reactions that would not occur automatically; to transport needed substances across membranes; and to do mechanical work, such as moving muscles. ATP is not a storage molecule for chemical energy; that is the job of carbohydrates, such as glycogen, and fats. When energy is needed by the cell, it is converted from storage molecules into ATP. ATP then serves as a shuttle, delivering energy to places within the cell where energy-consuming activities are taking place. ATP is a nucleotide that consists of three main structures: the nitrogenous base, adenine; the sugar, ribose; and a chain of three phosphate groups bound to ribose. The phosphate tail of ATP is the actual power source which the cell taps. Available energy is contained in the bonds between the phosphates and is released when they are broken, which occurs through the addition of a water molecule (a process called hydrolysis). Usually only the outer phosphate is removed from ATP to yield energy; when this occurs ATP is converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), the form of the nucleotide having only two phosphates.

Adderley, Nathaniel

***"Nat"** * American cornetist-songwriter (b. Nov. 25, 1931, Tampa, Fla.—d. Jan. 2, 2000, Lakeland, Fla.), became a star in the 1959-75 quintet headed by his older brother, Cannonball Adderley, which was probably the most popular "soul jazz" group of its era. Although he began playing the trumpet in his teens, Nat switched in 1950 to the somewhat smaller cornet, playing it in the U.S. Army band that his brother led. After a year with Lionel Hampton's big band (1954-55), he played in Cannonball's first quintet (1956-57), then toured widely with J.J. Johnson's group and the Woody Herman band. Formed at the height of the popularity of hard bop, the second quintet, the Cannonball Adderley Quintet, in which Nat's warm, lyric improvising contrasted with his brother's flaring alto saxophone solos, was a success from the beginning. Meanwhile, Nat introduced his best-known tune, "Work Song," on one of his own albums in 1960; the song soon became a standard—Herb Alpert made a hit recording of it—and Nat's blues-drenched songs, including "Jive Samba" and "Sermonette," also became hits for Cannonball's group. The brothers collaborated on a musical about the mythical African American railroad man John Henry, originally recorded as "Big Man" (1975) and staged as *Shout Up a Morning* (1986). After Cannonball's death, Nat's retirement was only temporary; from 1976 he led his own groups, which usually included a Cannonball-styled altoist. A favourite of audiences, in part for his good-humoured presentation, and of fellow musicians, Nat played on nearly 100 albums as a leader and sideman. Diabetes led to the amputation of a leg (1997), which effectively ended his career.

Aden

*Arabic **ʿadan,** * city of Yemen. It is situated along the north coast of the Gulf of Aden and lies on a peninsula enclosing the eastern side of At-Tawāhī Harbour. The peninsula enclosing the western side of the harbour is called Little Aden. Aden has its earliest recorded mention in the Old Testament book of Ezekiel, where it is named alongside Canneh as one of the places with which Tyre had trading connections. Canneh and Aden were the two principal termini of the spice road of western Arabia, which was in use for about a millennium until the 3rd century AD. Later, Aden continued to function as a trading centre under Yemeni, Ethiopian, or Arab control. In the 16th century the Turks established themselves as rulers there. [][British] interest in Aden as a strategic base dates from Napoleon's conquest of Egypt, a conquest that was regarded as a menace to Britain's communications with India. About 1800 the British established a garrison at Aden, and in 1802 they signed a treaty with the harbour's ruler, the sultan of Laḥij. When steam navigation was introduced some years later, it became necessary to have a coaling station on the Red Sea route to India. Aden, which the British had captured in 1839 from the sultan, was chosen as the most suitable location and later became so heavily used as a coal-bunkering facility that it was nicknamed the "Coalhole of the East." Certain mainland areas were purchased by the British between 1868 and 1888, and in 1937 Aden became a British crown colony. In 1953 an oil refinery was built at Little Aden, on the western side of the bay.

Adela

*French **Adéle** * born 1062? died 1137 daughter of William I the Conqueror of England and mother of Stephen, king of England, whose right to the throne derived through her. Adela was married to Stephen, count of Meaux and Brie, in 1080 at Breteuil. Upon the death of his father in 1090, her husband succeeded to the countships of Blois and Chartres. She took an active interest in civil and ecclesiastical affairs and was instrumental in rebuilding the Cathedral of Chartres in stone. In 1095 she became regent when her husband, at her urging, took part in the First Crusade to the Holy Land. He returned in 1099 but left to join the Second Crusade in 1101 and was killed in battle at Ramula. Adela continued as regent during the minority of her sons and was increasingly active in public life.

Adelaide, Saint

*German **Adelheid die Heilige** , French **Sainte Adélaïde** , Italian **Santa Adelaide** * born *c.* 931 died Dec. 16, 999, Seltz, Alsace [now in France]; feast day December 16 consort of the Western emperor [][Otto I] and, later, regent for her grandson Otto III; one of the most influential women of 10th-century Europe, she helped strengthen the German church while subordinating it to imperial power. The daughter of Rudolf II (d. 937), king of Burgundy, and Bertha of Swabia, Adelaide was married (947) to [][Lothar], who succeeded his father, Hugh of Arles, as king of Italy in the same year. After Lothar died (950), Berengar of Ivrea, his old rival, seized the Italian throne and imprisoned Adelaide (April 951) at Garda. After her escape four months later, she asked the German king Otto I the Great to help her regain the throne. Otto marched into Lombardy (September 951), declared himself king, and married her (October/November 951). They were crowned emperor and empress by Pope John XII in Rome in 962. She promoted Cluniac monasticism and strengthened the allegiance of the German church to the emperor, playing an important role in Otto I's distribution of ecclesiastical privileges and participating in his Italian expeditions.

Adige River

*Italian **Fiume Adige,** Latin **Athesis,** German **Etsch,** * longest stream of Italy after the Po River. The Adige rises in the north from two Alpine mountain lakes below [][Resia Pass] and flows rapidly through the Venosta Valley south and east past Merano and Bolzano. Having received the waters of the Isarco River at Bolzano, the Adige turns south to flow through the Trentino-Alto Adige region in its middle course, known as the Lagarina Valley. Entering the Po lowland near Verona, it veers southeast and, after several long meanders, enters the Adriatic Sea just south of Chioggia and north of the Po River delta after a course of 255 miles (410 km). It drains a basin of 4,710 square miles (12,200 square km). In early Christian times the river's course was probably several miles farther north until, about AD 589, the river broke through its banks and built its present course. The dikes constructed during the past several centuries have had to be raised several times; the last 50 miles (80 km) or so of the river's course are entirely man-made. The Adige supplies hydroelectric power in its upper Alpine section and irrigation for the Veneto in its lower course. Floods, such as occurred in 1951 and 1966, do great damage and require constant control of the riverbank.

Adıvar, Halide Edib

*also called **(1901-10) Halide Salih** , original name **Halide Edib** , Edib also spelled **Edip** * born 1883, Istanbul died Jan. 9, 1964, Istanbul novelist and pioneer in the emancipation of women in Turkey. Educated by private tutors and at the American College for Girls in Istanbul, she became actively engaged in Turkish literary, political, and social movements. She divorced her first husband in 1910 because she rejected his taking a second wife (she married again in 1917, to a Turkish politician, Adnau Adıvar).

Adélie Coast

*also called **Adélie Land,** * part of the coast of Wilkes Land in eastern Antarctica, extending from Claire Coast (west) to George V Coast (east). The region is an ice-covered plateau rising from the Indian Ocean and occupying an area of about 150,000 square miles (390,000 square km). It was discovered in 1840 by the French explorer [][Jules-Sébastien-César Dumont d'Urville], who named it after his wife. The Adélie Coast is the basis of [][France's] claim on the continent between longitude 136° and 142° E; administratively it is a part of the French Southern and Antarctic Territories (*q.v.*). The French meteorological station Dumont d'Urville base was established in 1952 at Géologie Archipelago, replacing the original station of Port-Martin (founded 1950), which was destroyed by fire. This coast is characterized by strong and frequent katabatic winds that blow snow out to sea and drive sea ice away from the coastline.

adipose cell

*also called **Fat Cell,** * connective-tissue cell specialized to synthesize and contain large globules of fat. The chief chemical constituents of this fat are the neutral glycerol esters of stearic, oleic, and palmitic acids. The fat stored in these cells in part comes directly from the fats eaten and in part is manufactured within the body from fats and carbohydrates in the food and sometimes from protein. The main reservoir of fat in the body is the adipose tissue beneath the skin, called the panniculus adiposus. There are also deposits of fat between the muscles, among the intestines and in their mesentery, around the heart, and elsewhere. Besides acting as a fuel reserve against times of starvation or great exertion, adipose tissue helps conserve the heat of the body and forms soft and elastic pads between the various organs.

adenoids

*also called **Pharyngeal Tonsils** * a mass of [][lymphatic] tissue, similar to the (palatine) tonsils, that is attached to the back wall of the nasal pharynx (*i.e.,* the upper part of the throat opening into the nasal cavity proper). An individual fold of such nasopharyngeal lymphatic tissue is called an adenoid. The surface layer of the adenoids consists of [ciliated epithelial cells] covered by a thin film of mucus. The [][cilia], which are microscopic hairlike projections from the surface cells, move constantly in a wavelike manner and propel the blanket of mucus down to the pharynx proper. From that point the mucus is caught by the swallowing action of the pharyngeal (throat) muscles and is sent down to the stomach. The adenoids also contain glands that secrete mucus to replenish the surface film. The function of the adenoids is protective. The moving film of mucus tends to carry [infectious] agents and dust particles inhaled through the nose down to the pharynx, where the epithelium is more resistant. Immune substances, or antibodies, are thought to be formed within the lymphatic tissue, which, combined with phagocytic action, tends to arrest and absorb infectious agents. The adenoids usually enlarge in early [][childhood]. Infections in childhood can cause swelling and inflammation of the adenoids and may permanently enlarge them. Large adenoids obstruct breathing through the nose and interfere with [][sinus] drainage, thus predisposing the person to infections of the sinuses. Chronic [][respiratory] obstruction and the resultant mouth breathing produce a characteristic vacant facial expression on a person with enlarged adenoids. The adenoids' infection and enlargement also predispose to blockage of the [][eustachian tubes] (the passages extending from the nasal pharynx to the middle ear) and thus to middle-ear infections. Surgical removal, often in conjunction with the removal of the tonsils ([tonsillectomy]), is frequently recommended for children with enlarged or infected adenoids. Adenoids normally decrease in size after childhood. *See also* [tonsil].

Adenet Le Roi

*also called **Roi Adam, Li Rois Adenes, Adan Le Menestrel, or Adam Rex Menestrallus** * born *c.* 1240 died , *c.* 1300 poet and musician, interesting for the detailed documentary evidence of his career as a household [][minstrel]. He received his training in the court of Henry III, duke of Brabant, at Louvain; after his patron's death in 1261, his fortunes wavered, owing to dynastic rivalries and the growth of Flemish literature at court, until in 1268 or 1269 he entered the service of [][Guy] of Dampierre, heir to the county of Flanders, as principal minstrel (whence his title *roi*—*i.e.,* "king of minstrels"). Adenet accompanied Guy in 1270-71 on the Tunisian crusade, and his poems contain many precise references to parts of their return through Sicily and Italy. Of his rather pallid and unoriginal written work, three [][chansons de geste] are preserved: *Buevon de Conmarchis, Les Enfances Ogier* ("The Youthful Exploits of Ogier the Dane," part of the Charlemagne legends), and *Berte aus grans piés* ("Berta of the Big Feet"). Also extant is *[]Cléomadès,* a romance about a flying wooden horse, written at the suggestion of Marie de Brabant, daughter of his old patron and queen of Philip III of France.

Addison disease

*also called **hypocortisolism** or **adrenal insufficiency** * rare disorder defined by destruction of the outer layer of the [adrenal glands], the hormone-producing organs located just above the [kidneys]. The [adrenal cortex] produces numerous hormones called corticosteroids, which are involved in important functions of the body such as regulation of metabolism, blood pressure, and sodium and potassium levels. Damage to the cortex disrupts the production of two of these hormones, [][cortisol] and [][aldosterone], leading to a variety of symptoms, including weakness, darkening of the skin and mucous membranes, poor appetite, weight loss, low blood pressure, gastrointestinal upset, and craving for salt or salty foods. Ninety percent of the cortex usually is destroyed before these symptoms become apparent. In the mid-19th century when the English physician Thomas Addison first described the clinical features of the disease, the destruction of the adrenal cortex was attributed to [tuberculosis]. Today, worldwide, tuberculosis is still a cause of the disease; in developed countries, however, about 70 percent of cases result from an autoimmune reaction, an inappropriate attack by the [immune system] against, in this case, the adrenal glands. Addison disease also can be caused by fungal infections, cancer, or hemorrhage. Thus, the onset of the disease can be gradual or abrupt.

Adeodatus II

*also known as **Deusdetit II** * born , Rome [Italy] died June 17, 676 pope (672-676) who was the first pontiff to date events in terms of his reign, which began with his election on April 11, 672. Adeodatus played no known role in the political events of the day or in the liquidation of [][monothelitism] (a heresy teaching that Christ had only one will), although he did defend orthodoxy on the issue. He devoted his attention to restoring churches in a state of disrepair. A Benedictine monk, he took the Abbey of St. Peter and St. Paul (St. Augustine's) under his protection; he improved the Monastery of St. Erasmus; and he seems to have recognized the exemption of the Abbey of St. Martin of Tours from episcopal authority. Some hagiographers style him "Saint" and give him June 26 as a feast day, but the Bollandists, who edit and publish the *Acta Sanctorum,* insist that he had no cult and therefore is not entitled to a feast day.

Addis Ababa

*also spelled **Addis Abeba** * capital and largest city of Ethiopia. It is located on a well-watered plateau surrounded by hills and mountains, in the geographic centre of the country. Only since the late 19th century has Addis Ababa been the capital of the Ethiopian state. Its immediate predecessor, []Entoto, was situated on a high tableland and was found to be unsatisfactory because of extreme cold and an acute shortage of firewood. The empress []Taitu, wife of Emperor Menilek II (reigned 1889-1913), persuaded the emperor to build a house near the hot springs at the foot of the tableland and to grant land in the area to members of the nobility. The city was thus founded in 1887 and was named Addis Ababa ("New Flower") by the empress. In its first years the city was more like a military encampment than a town. The central focus was the emperor's palace, which was surrounded by the dwellings of his troops and of his innumerable retainers. As the population increased, firewood became scarce. In 1905 a large number of eucalyptus trees were imported from Australia; the trees spread and provided a forest cover for the city.

Adelaer

*also spelled **Adeler (Norwegian: "Eagle"),** byname of **Cort, or Curt, Sivertsen,** Italian **Curzio Suffrido** * born Dec. 16, 1622, Brevik, Nor. died Nov. 5, 1675, Copenhagen, Den. Norwegian-born seaman and naval officer, distinguished in both Venetian and Danish naval history. He entered the Dutch navy in 1639 as an *adelborst* ("cadet") and served under Martin van Tromp but in 1642 moved into Venetian service, where he was known as Curzio Suffrido Adelborst. He soon distinguished himself and in 1650 was sent to patrol the Dardanelles. On May 16, 1654, his Venetian squadron took part in the []Battle of the Dardanelles, when his ship alone sank 15 Turkish galleys; and on the following day he compelled the surrender of the Turks at Tenedos. In 1659 he was made a knight of St. Mark and given a pension for life, and in 1660 he became lieutenant admiral of the Venetian fleet.

Adirondack Mountains

*byname **Adirondacks** * [![Photograph:Mixed evergreen and hardwood forest on the slopes of the Adirondack Mountains near Keene Valley, ...]] - Mixed evergreen and hardwood forest on the slopes of the Adirondack Mountains near Keene Valley, ... mountains in northeastern [New York] state, U.S. They extend southward from the [St. Lawrence River] valley and [Lake Champlain] to the [Mohawk River] valley. The mountains are only sparsely settled, and much of the area exists in a primitive natural state, protected by state law. Although they are frequently included in the [][Appalachian Mountain system], the Adirondack Mountains are related geologically to the great plateau of the [Canadian Shield]. The Adirondacks were formed some one billion years ago and have been subjected to hundreds of millions of years of erosion and glaciation, notably the glaciations of the [Pleistocene Epoch] (1,600,000 to 10,000 years ago). The Adirondacks region is circular in outline, domelike in appearance, and covers more than 9,400 square miles (24,300 square km). The region is made up of hundreds of peaks and foothills, with more than 40 summits higher than 4,000 feet (1,200 metres); the tallest are [][Mount Marcy], which is the highest point in the state at 5,344 feet (1,629 metres), and Algonquin Peak of []Mount McIntyre at 5,114 feet (1,559 metres). Although the peaks are primarily rounded in shape, several of the higher ones, including []Whiteface Mountain (4,867 feet [1,483 metres]), reveal bare rock walls in vertical escarpments.

Adderley, Cannonball

*byname of **Julian Edwin Adderley** * born September 15, 1928, Tampa, Florida, U.S. died August 8, 1975, Gary, Indiana one of the most prominent and popular American [][jazz] musicians of the 1950s and '60s whose exuberant music was firmly in the [bop] school but which also employed the melodic sense of traditional jazz. A multi-instrumentalist, Adderley is best-known for his work on alto saxophone and for his recordings with Miles Davis and with his own small groups. The son of a jazz cornetist, Adderley had directed a high school band in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, studied at the U.S. Navy School of Music, and led two army bands before moving to New York City in the mid-1950s. In the summer of 1955, Adderley attracted attention within New York jazz circles, garnering rave reviews for his performances with bassist Oscar Pettiford at the Café Bohemia. He soon thereafter formed a quintet with his brother [][Nat], a noted cornetist, that met with little success—although recordings made by the group received considerable praise years later. In 1957 Adderley embarked upon an 18-month stint with trumpeter [][Miles Davis], which proved to be one of the most fertile and creative periods in the careers of both men. Playing in Davis's sextet alongside saxophone legend [John Coltrane], Adderley favoured a busy style that contrasted well with Davis's spare understatement. Adderley was prominently featured on Davis's albums *Milestones* (1958) and *Kind of Blue* (1959), both considered benchmarks of 1950s hard bop and modal jazz. Also significant was *Somethin' Else* (1958), a classic album released under Adderley's own name on which Davis was a guest player. In 1959 Adderley again joined with brother Nat to form a quintet, this time successfully, and he continued to lead popular small groups for the remainder of his career.

Adams, John

*in full **John Coolidge Adams** * born Feb. 15, 1947, Worcester, Mass., U.S. American composer and conductor whose works were among the most performed of contemporary classical music. Adams became proficient on the clarinet at an early age (sometimes freelancing with the Boston Symphony Orchestra and performing with other groups) and by his teenage years was composing. His teachers at Harvard University (A.B., 1969; M.A., 1971) included Leon Kirchner and [Roger Sessions]. Adams was the first Harvard student to be allowed to submit a musical composition as a senior honours thesis. After graduation he moved to California, where from 1972 to 1982 he taught at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music. In 1978 he founded and directed the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra's series "New and Unusual Music," and he was composer in residence with the orchestra from 1982 to 1985. From 2003 through 2007 he held the composer's chair at Carnegie Hall in New York City, where he founded the eclectic and diverse "In Your Ear" festival. Increasingly as his career developed, he conducted performances of music by himself and by others, working with organizations such as the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Concertgebouw Orchestra (Amsterdam), and the London Symphony Orchestra. Although his early compositions were in an academic style, Adams soon began drawing on much broader sources, including pop, jazz, electronic music, and minimalism. His use of minimalist techniques—characterized by repetition and simplicity—came to be tempered by expressive, even neo-Romantic, elements. His works encompass a wide range of genres and include *Shaker Loops* (1978), chamber music for string septet; *Harmonium* (1980), a cantata for chorus and orchestra using the poetry of John Donne and Emily Dickinson; *Grand Pianola Music* (1981-82), a reworking of early 20th-century American popular music for instrumental ensemble, three sopranos, and two pianos; *Harmonielehre* (1984-85), for orchestra, an homage to Arnold Schoenberg, whose music was the antithesis of minimalism; and *Wound-Dresser* (1988), for baritone and orchestra, a work based on Walt Whitman's poems about his experience as a nurse in the American Civil War. One of Adams's especially popular orchestral works was the fanfare *Short Ride in a Fast Machine* (1986). The recording of another popular orchestral work, *El Dorado* (1991), won a 1997 Grammy Award. Later large-scale works include the *Violin Concerto* (1993) and *My Father Knew Charles Ives* (2003), for orchestra, which alludes to Ives's works and compositional methods.

Adcock, Fleur

*in full **Kareen Fleur Adcock** * born Feb. 10, 1934, Papakura, N.Z. New Zealand-born British poet known for her tranquil domestic lyrics intercut with flashes of irony and glimpses of the fantastic and the macabre. Adcock received her early education in England and later earned degrees at Wellington Girls' College and Victoria University of Wellington. She served as lecturer and librarian at a number of New Zealand institutions before immigrating to England in 1963. Her first collection of poetry, *The Eye of the Hurricane,* appeared the following year. In this and subsequent volumes—including *Tigers* (1967), *High Tide in the Garden* (1971), *The Incident Book* (1986), *Time Zones* (1991), and *Looking Back* (1997)—Adcock brought a measured, Classical detachment to bear upon the vagaries of emotional experience. *The Inner Harbour* (1979) is generally cited as her most artistically successful work. In addition to writing, she served as a commentator on poetry for the British Broadcasting Corporation. She was made an Officer of the British Empire (OBE) in 1996. A volume of her collected poetry, *Poems, 1960-2000*, was published in 2000.

Adams, Léonie

*in full **Léonie Fuller Adams** * born December 9, 1899, Brooklyn, New York, U.S. died June 27, 1988, New Milford, Connecticut American poet and educator whose verse interprets emotions and nature with an almost mystical vision. After graduating from Barnard College (A.B., 1922), Adams became editor of *The Measure*, a literary publication, in 1924. She was persuaded to publish a volume of poetry, *Those Not Elect*, in 1925. While living in France from 1928 to 1930, Adams published *High Falcon & Other Poems* (1929). She began to teach the writing of poetry in New York City and in 1932 edited *Lyrics of François Villon*. She published rarely after 1933 but lectured at various American colleges and universities over the years and served as poetry consultant for the Library of Congress (now [poet laureate] consultant in poetry) from 1948 to 1949. Adams won a National Institute of Arts and Letters grant in Literature (1949) and received various poetry awards thereafter. *Poems, a Selection* (1954) won the Bollingen Prize for Poetry in 1955.

Adderley, Nat

*in full **Nathaniel Adderley** * born November 25, 1931, Tampa, Florida, U.S. died January 2, 2000, Lakeland, Florida American cornetist and songwriter who starred in the popular "soul jazz" quintet headed (1959-75) by his older brother, [][Cannonball Adderley]. Although he began playing the trumpet in his teens, Nat Adderley switched in 1950 to the somewhat smaller cornet, playing it in the U.S. Army band led by his brother. After a year with [Lionel Hampton]'s big band (1954-55), he played in Cannonball's first quintet (1956-57), then toured widely with [J.J. Johnson]'s group and the [Woody Herman] band. Formed at the height of the popularity of hard bop (which evolved from and incorporated elements of gospel music and rhythm and blues), Cannonball's second quintet, the Cannonball Adderley Quintet, was a success from the beginning. It highlighted and contrasted Nat's warm, lyric improvising with his brother's flaring alto saxophone solos. Meanwhile, Nat introduced his best-known tune, "Work Song," on one of his own albums in 1960; the song soon became a standard. Nat's blues-drenched songs, such as "Jive Samba" and "Sermonette," also became hits for Cannonball's group. The brothers collaborated on a musical about [John Henry], the mythical African American railroad man; it was originally recorded as *Big Man* (1975) and staged as *Shout Up a Morning* (1986).

Adamson, Joy

*née **Joy-Friederike Victoria Gessner** * born Jan. 20, 1910, Troppau, Silesia, Austria-Hungary [now Opava, Czech Republic] died Jan. 3, 1980, Shaba National Reserve, Kenya [][conservationist] who pioneered the movement to preserve African wildlife. Following an education in Vienna, she relocated to Kenya (1939), where she married George Adamson (1944), a British game warden who had worked in Kenya as a gold prospector, goat trader, and safari hunter from 1924. She won international renown with her African wildlife books, especially the trilogy describing how the couple raised a lion cub, Elsa, and returned it to its natural habitat: *Born Free: A Lioness of Two Worlds* (1960), *Living Free: The Story of Elsa and Her Cubs* (1961), and *Forever Free: Elsa's Pride* (1962). All three were best sellers that were later developed into films and condensed into one volume as *[]The Story of Elsa* (1966). Her other books included *The Peoples of Kenya* (1967), *The Searching Spirit: An Autobiography* (1978), and *Queen of Shaba: The Story of an African Leopard* (1980).

Adams, Marian

*original name **Marian Hooper** , byname **Clover** * born September 13, 1843, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S. died December 6, 1885, Washington, D.C. American social arbiter and accomplished photographer. Marian Hooper was the youngest of three children of Boston Brahmins. When her mother died, about five years after Marian was born, the children were cared for by their father, who took great pains over their education. After her marriage to the historian [Henry Adams] in 1872, Marian Hooper Adams presided over an intellectual salon in Boston. When the couple moved to Washington, D.C., in 1877, they made their home a centre for the intellectual and political elite of that city. There she also became one of the first women to cultivate a serious interest in photography; her portraits of the historian George Bancroft and the statesman John Hay were particularly notable.

Adams, Maude

*original name **Maude Kiskadden** * born Nov. 11, 1872, Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S. died July 17, 1953, Tannersville, N.Y. [![Photograph:Maude Adams in L'Aiglon, 1901.]] - Maude Adams in *L'Aiglon*, 1901. American actress, best known for her portrayals of Sir James Barrie's heroines.

Adams, William Taylor

*pseudonym **Oliver Optic** * born July 30, 1822, Medway, Mass., U.S. died March 27, 1897, Boston, Mass. American teacher and author of juvenile literature, best known for his children's magazine and the series of adventure books that he wrote under his pseudonym. Although he never graduated from college, Adams was a teacher and principal in Boston elementary schools for more than 20 years. Under the pen name Oliver Optic, he wrote stories for boys, and in 1865 he resigned his position as a principal to pursue his writing full-time. Soon after that he began *Oliver Optic's Magazine for Boys and Girls* (1867-1875), which enjoyed great popularity.

Addison, John Mervyn

British composer who specialized for more than 40 years in writing effective, lightly orchestrated scores for motion pictures and television programs and incidental music for the theatre. Among Addison's most admired films were *Seven Days to Noon* (1950), *Tom Jones* (1963), for which he won an Academy Award, the Oscar-nominated *Sleuth* (1971), and the Bafta-winning *A Bridge Too Far* (1977). His television work included the 21-hour miniseries "Centennial" and "Murder, She Wrote," the theme for which earned him an Emmy award (b. March 16, 1920, Cobham, Surrey, Eng.--d. Dec. 7, 1998, Bennington, Vt.).

adhesive

Introduction ------------ any substance that is capable of holding materials together in a functional manner by surface attachment that resists separation. "Adhesive" as a general term includes cement, mucilage, glue, and paste—terms that are often used interchangeably for any organic material that forms an adhesive bond. Inorganic substances such as portland cement also can be considered adhesives, in the sense that they hold objects such as bricks and beams together through surface attachment, but this article is limited to a discussion of organic adhesives, both natural and synthetic. Natural adhesives have been known since antiquity. [][Egyptian] carvings dating back 3,300 years depict the gluing of a thin piece of veneer to what appears to be a plank of sycamore. Papyrus, an early nonwoven fabric, contained fibres of reedlike plants bonded together with flour paste. Bitumen, tree pitches, and beeswax were used as sealants (protective coatings) and adhesives in ancient and medieval times. The gold leaf of illuminated manuscripts was bonded to paper by egg white, and wooden objects were bonded with glues from fish, horn, and cheese. The technology of animal and fish glues advanced during the 18th century, and in the 19th century rubber- and nitrocellulose-based cements were introduced. Decisive advances in adhesives technology, however, awaited the 20th century, during which time natural adhesives were improved and many synthetics came out of the laboratory to replace natural adhesives in the marketplace. The rapid growth of the aircraft and aerospace industries during the second half of the 20th century had a profound impact on adhesives technology. The demand for adhesives that had a high degree of structural strength and were resistant to both fatigue and severe environmental conditions led to the development of high-performance materials, which eventually found their way into many industrial and domestic applications. This article begins with a brief explanation of the principles of [adhesion] and then proceeds to a review of the major classes of natural and synthetic adhesives. Adhesion {#82526.toc} --------

Adams, John Quincy

Introduction ------------ born July 11, 1767, Braintree [now Quincy], Massachusetts [U.S.] died February 23, 1848, Washington, D.C., U.S. [![Photograph:John Quincy Adams.]] - John Quincy Adams. [![Photograph:John Quincy Adams; daguerreotype by Brady.]] - John Quincy Adams; daguerreotype by Brady.

Addison, Joseph

Introduction ------------ born May 1, 1672, Milston, Wiltshire, England died June 17, 1719, London [![Photograph:Joseph Addison, oil painting by Michael Dahl, 1719; in the National Portrait Gallery, London.]] - Joseph Addison, oil painting by Michael Dahl, 1719; in the National Portrait Gallery, London. English essayist, poet, and dramatist, who, with Richard Steele, was a leading contributor to and guiding spirit of the periodicals *The Tatler* and *The Spectator*. His writing skill led to his holding important posts in government while the [][Whigs] were in power. Early life {#43.toc} ----------

Adams, John

Introduction ------------ born October 30 [October 19, Old Style], 1735, Braintree [now in Quincy], Massachusetts [U.S.] died July 4, 1826, Quincy [![Photograph:John Adams, oil painting by Gilbert Stuart, 1826; in the National Museum of American Art, ...]] - John Adams, oil painting by Gilbert Stuart, 1826; in the National Museum of American Art, ... [![Cabinet of President John Adams]]early advocate of [][American independence] from Great Britain, major figure in the [Continental Congress] (1774-77), author of the Massachusetts constitution (1780), signer of the Treaty of Paris (1783), first American ambassador to the Court of St. James (1785-88), first vice president (1789-97) and second president (1797-1801) of the United States. Although Adams was regarded by his contemporaries as one of the most significant statesmen of the revolutionary era, his reputation faded in the 19th century, only to ascend again during the last half of the 20th century. The modern edition of his correspondence prompted a rediscovery of his bracing honesty and pungent way with words, his importance as a political thinker, his realistic perspective on American foreign policy, and his patriarchal role as founder of one of the most prominent families in American history. (For a discussion of the history and nature of the presidency, *see* [presidency of the United States of America]. *See also* [Cabinet of President John Adams].) Early life {#126.toc} ----------

Adams, Samuel

Introduction ------------ born Sept. 27 [Sept. 16, Old Style], 1722, Boston died Oct. 2, 1803, Boston [![Photograph:Samuel Adams.]] - Samuel Adams. politician of the American Revolution, leader of the Massachusetts "radicals," who was a delegate to the Continental Congress (1774-81) and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. He was later lieutenant governor (1789-93) and governor (1794-97) of Massachusetts. Early career {#140.toc} ------------

Ademola, Sir Adetokunbo Adegboyega

Nigerian judge (b. Feb. 1, 1906, Abeokuta, Nigeria--d. Jan. 29, 1993, Lagos, Nigeria), was the first indigenous chief justice of the Nigerian Supreme Court (1958-72) and a cofounder of the Nigerian law school. Ademola was the son of Sir Ladapo Ademola II, the paramount ruler (1920-63) of the Egba people in southwestern Nigeria, and was educated at King's College in Lagos and Selwyn College, Cambridge. He studied law at the Middle Temple in London and was called to the bar in 1934. After returning to Nigeria, Ademola worked in the civil service, practiced law, and served as a magistrate (1939-49) and a puisne (junior) judge (1949-55). He was named to the Nigerian Supreme Court by the British authorities in 1949 and appointed chief justice of the western region in 1955. Three years later he was elevated to chief justice of the federation. Ademola retained his post after Nigeria became independent (1960) and retired from the bench in 1972. He was chosen to supervise the 1973 national census, but the controversial results were never officially accepted. He remained in public service, however, as chancellor of the University of Nigeria (from 1975) and chairman of the Commonwealth Foundation (from 1978). Ademola was knighted in 1957 and was made a privy counsellor in 1963.

Addams, Jane

born September 6, 1860, Cedarville, Illinois, U.S. died May 21, 1935, Chicago, Illinois [![Photograph:Jane Addams, oil over a photograph, 1896.]] - Jane Addams, oil over a photograph, 1896. American social reformer and pacifist, cowinner (with [Nicholas Murray Butler]) of the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1931. She is probably best known as the founder of [][Hull House] in Chicago, one of the first social settlements in North America. Addams graduated from Rockford Female Seminary in Illinois in 1881 and was granted a degree the following year when the institution became Rockford College. Following the death of her father in 1881, her own health problems, and an unhappy year at the Woman's Medical College, Philadelphia, she was an invalid for two years. During neither subsequent travel in Europe in 1883-85 nor her stay in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1885-87 did she find a vocation.

addax

[![Photograph:Addax (Addax nasomaculatus)]] - Addax (*Addax nasomaculatus*) (species *Addax nasomaculatus*), desert-dwelling antelope, family Bovidae (order Artiodactyla), once found throughout the Sahara but now much reduced in numbers and distribution and threatened with extinction from overhunting. A heavy-bodied, short-legged, gregarious antelope, the addax is characterized by broad hooves that are adapted to travel in loose sand and by long, spirally twisted horns, present in both sexes. It stands approximately 1 m (39 inches) high at the shoulder and is grayish in summer, darker in winter. Its legs, underparts, and a patch on the face are white, and there is a tuft of dark hair on the forehead.

Addo Elephant National Park

[![Photograph:Addo Elephant National Park, Eastern Cape province, South Africa]] - Addo Elephant National Park, Eastern Cape province, South Africa national park in Eastern province, South Africa. It has an area of 208 square miles (540 square km) and consists of two sections connected by a corridor. The southern part of the park lies in the Sundays River valley south of the Suurberg Range, north of Port Elizabeth, and was established as Addo Elephant National Park in 1931. It is largely covered with dense, impenetrable evergreen scrub and preserves a band of about 200 [][elephants], remnant of a great herd that roamed the area before an extermination campaign was started by landowners in 1919. It is also the habitat of scarce Cape buffalo, several species of transplanted antelope, black rhinoceroses from Kenya, and numerous small birds, mammals, and reptiles. The northern part of the park consists of deep ravines and rounded hills in the Winterhoek Mountains and was originally established in 1985 as []Zuurberg National Park. It is located 7 miles (12 km) north of the original Addo Elephant National Park, with which it was amalgamated in 1995, thereby increasing the amount of land available for elephant and black rhinoceros conservation. Headquarters are at Port Elizabeth.

Ader Éole

[![Photograph:Ader Éole]] - Ader Éole [![table]]monoplane designed, built, and first tested by the French aeronautical pioneer [][Clément Ader] in 1890. *See* [table] of pioneer aircraft. Ader began work on his first powered aircraft in 1882. Named Éole in honour of the Greek god of the winds ([Aeolus]), the machine was finally completed and ready for trial in 1890. Éole was a tailless [monoplane] featuring deeply curved batlike wings. The most impressive feature of the machine was a 20-horsepower [steam engine] that weighed only 51 kg (112 pounds) and that drove a four-bladed tractor propeller. Flight control was obtained by sliding the wings fore and aft, increasing or decreasing the wing area, flexing the outer portion of the wings up or down, and altering the camber (the difference between the curvature of the upper and lower surfaces of the wings). In order to control the machine, the operator had to manipulate two foot pedals, six hand cranks, and the engine controls. The control system was clearly impractical.

Ader Avion III

[![Photograph:Avion III]] - Avion III [![table]]monoplane designed, built, and first tested by the French aeronautical pioneer [][Clément Ader] in 1897. *See* [table] of pioneer aircraft. In 1892 the French Ministry of War commissioned Ader to begin work on a new airplane, a tractor [monoplane] powered by twin 20-horsepower Ader [steam engines] that he completed in 1897. Like his earlier [Ader Éole], the Avion III featured deeply cambered wings shaped like those of a bat. Even the propeller blades resembled gigantic quill feathers. The pilot was provided with foot pedals to control both the rudder and the rear wheels of the three-wheeled undercarriage and a means of operating the propellers at differing speeds. Twenty or 30 turns of a large crank in the cockpit enabled the pilot to change the position of the wings. Knowledgeable aviators who inspected the machine in later years did not believe that the control system would have been effective in flight. Ader attempted to fly Avion III on two occasions. On Oct. 12, 1897, the aircraft simply ran around a circular track constructed at Satory, France, without leaving the ground. The tests continued on October 14, at which time the machine left the track, turned halfway around, and came to a stop. In his report of the trials, General Mensier, the official government witness, stated that Avion III had not flown, but he suggested that the tests continue. Having spent 65,000 francs on the project to date, the Ministry of War refused to fund additional trials.

Adapazarı

city, northwestern Turkey, lying in a fertile plain west of the Sakarya River. It is situated along the old military road from Istanbul. The region came under Ottoman control in the early 14th century, and the city acquired its present name at the end of the 18th century. An agricultural and industrial centre, Adapazarı is connected by a branch line to the main Anatolian railway system by which its wheat, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables are transported to the Istanbul markets. The city has a large sugar beet processing plant. A stone bridge that was built during the reign of the Roman emperor Justinian is the only surviving ancient monument. Pop. (1985) 152,291.

Ādi Granth

[![Photograph:Priest worshiping the Ādi Granth]] - Priest worshiping the *Ādi Granth* (Punjabi: "First Book"), the sacred scripture of Sikhism, a religion of India. The book (also known as *Granth,* or *Granth Sahib* ["The *Granth* Personified"]) is a collection of nearly 6,000 hymns of the Sikh Gurūs (religious leaders) and various early and medieval saints of different religions and castes. The *Ādi Granth* is the central object of worship in all *gurdwārā*s (Sikh temples) and is accorded the reverence paid a living Gurū. It is ritually opened in the morning and wrapped up and put away for the night. On special occasions continuous readings of it are held, which last from 2 to 15 days. On the birthdays of the Gurūs or anniversaries commemorating Sikh martyrs, the *Granth* is sometimes taken out in procession. The first version of the book was compiled by the fifth Sikh Gurū, [][Arjun], at Amritsar in AD 1604. He included his own hymns and those of his predecessors, the Gurūs [][Nānak], Aṅgad, Amar Dās, and Rām Dās, and a selection of devotional songs of both Hindu and Islāmic saints (notably the poet Kabīr). In AD 1704 the tenth and last Gurū, [][Gobind Singh], added the hymns of his predecessor, Gurū Tegh Bahādur (the sixth, seventh, and eighth Gurūs did not write hymns), and enjoined that after his own death the *Granth* would take the place of the Gurū. The book opens with the *Mūl Mantra* (basic prayer), which is a declaration of the nature of God as Truth, followed by the *Japjī* (Recital), the most important Sikh scripture, written by the founder of the Sikh religion, Gurū Nānak. The hymns are arranged according to the musical modes (ragas) in which they are to be sung. The language is mostly Punjabi or Hindi, interspersed with Marathi, Persian, and Arabic words.

adder

[![Photograph:Puff adder (Bitis arietans)]] - Puff adder (*Bitis arietans*) any of several venomous snakes of the [][viper] family, Viperidae, and the death adder, a viperlike member of the cobra snake family, Elapidae. The name adder may also be applied to certain other snakes, such as the [hognose snake] (*q.v.*), a harmless North American species. Among the adders of the viper family are included the common adder (*Vipera berus*), the puff adders (several species including *Bitis arietans; see* [photograph]), and the night adders (four species of *Causus*). The common adder, or [European viper], the serpent often mentioned in works of literature, is a stout-bodied snake that is widely distributed across Europe and Asia, even ranging north of the Arctic Circle in Norway. It grows to a maximum length of approximately 80 cm (30 inches) and is usually gray with a black zigzag band on the back and black spots on the sides. The common adder eats lizards and small mammals. Six to 20 young are born in August or early September. Its bite is rarely fatal to humans. The puff and night adders are terrestrial African vipers. The []puff adder (so named because it gives warning by inflating its body and hissing loudly) is a large, extremely venomous snake found in the semiarid regions of Africa and Arabia. It is about 1 to 1.5 m (3 to 5 feet) long and is gray to dark brown with thin yellow chevrons on its back. A thick-bodied snake with a potentially lethal bite, it tends to stay put, rather than flee, when approached. []Night adders are small, relatively slender vipers found south of the Sahara. They are gray with darker blotches, up to approximately 1 m long, and are characterized by small fangs and a relatively weak venom that is unlikely to cause more than pain and swelling in humans. Two of the four species, []*C. rhombeatus* and []*C. resimus,* have long venom glands that extend back from the head into the body cavity.

adit

a horizontal or near-horizontal [][passage] driven from the Earth's surface into the side of a ridge or mountain for the purpose of working, ventilating, or removing water from a mine. Where either a vertical shaft or an adit can be used to reach a [mineral deposit], the generally lower cost of driving an adit, the saving in the cost of pumping water, and the ease of hoisting ore through the shaft dictate in favour of the adit. Consequently, adits as long as one to three kilometres (one or two miles) are often economically feasible. The size and cross section of an adit depend upon its use, with a horseshoe shape especially common. The walls may be of the natural rough rock or may be lined with concrete, wood, or steel.

Ādi-Buddha

among some sects of Mahāyāna Buddhism, the first, or self-existing, Buddha, from whom are said to have evolved the five Dhyāni-Buddhas (*see* [Dhyāni-Buddha]). Though the concept of an Ādi-Buddha was never generally popular, a few groups, particularly in Nepal, Tibet, and Java, elevated Vairocana to the position of Ādi-Buddha or named a new deity, such as Vajradhara or Vajrasattva, as the supreme lord. The Ādi-Buddha is represented in painting and sculpture as a crowned Buddha, dressed in princely garments and wearing the traditional ornaments of a bodhisattva ("buddha-to-be").

addition reaction

any of a class of chemical reactions in which an [][atom] or group of atoms is added to a [][molecule]. Addition reactions are typical of unsaturated organic compounds—*i.e.,* [][alkenes], which contain a carbon-to-carbon double bond, and [alkynes], which have a carbon-to-carbon triple bond—and aldehydes and ketones, which have a carbon-to-oxygen double bond. An addition reaction may be visualized as a process by which the double or triple bonds are fully or partially broken in order to accommodate additional atoms or groups of atoms in the molecule. Addition reactions to alkenes and alkynes are sometimes called saturation reactions because the reaction causes the carbon atoms to become saturated with the maximum number of attached groups. A typical addition reaction may be illustrated by the hydrochlorination of propene (an alkene), for which the equation is CH~3~CH = CH~2~ + HCl →

adductor muscle

any of the muscles that draw a part of the body toward its median line or toward the axis of an extremity (*compare* [abductor muscle]), particularly three powerful muscles of the human thigh—[]adductor longus, []adductor brevis, and []adductor magnus. Originating at the pubis and the ischium (lower portions of the pelvis—the hipbone), these ribbonlike muscles are attached along the femur (thighbone). Their primary action is adduction of the thigh, as in squeezing the thighs together; they also aid in rotation and flexion of the thigh. Other muscles named for this function include the []adductor pollicis, which draws in and opposes the thumb, and the []adductor hallucis, which acts on the great toe.

adiabatic process

in thermodynamics, change occurring within a system as a result of transfer of energy to or from the system in the form of work only. A rapid expansion or contraction of a gas is very nearly adiabatic. Any process that occurs within a container that is a good thermal insulator is also adiabatic. Adiabatic processes are characterized by an increase in [][entropy], or degree of disorder, if they are irreversible and by no change in entropy if they are reversible. Adiabatic processes cannot decrease entropy.

adenovirus

any virus belonging to the family Adenoviridae. This group of viruses was discovered in the 1950s and includes 6 genera and 47 species (formerly referred to as serotypes) that cause [sore throat] and [][fever] in humans, [][hepatitis] in dogs, and several diseases in fowl, mice, cattle, pigs, and monkeys. The virus particle lacks an outer envelope; is spheroidal, about 80 nm (1 nm = 10^-9^ metre) across; is covered with 252 regularly arranged protein subunits called capsomeres; and has a core of double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) wrapped in a protective coat of protein. Adenoviruses develop within the nuclei of infected cells, where they are often observed packed in an apparently crystalline arrangement. In humans, adenoviruses cause acute [][mucous membrane] infections of the upper respiratory tract, the eyes, and frequently the regional lymph nodes, bearing considerable resemblance to the [][common cold]. Adenoviruses can also cause epidemic [keratoconjunctivitis] (EKC) and are considered to be responsible for an outbreak of respiratory disease among military recruits in 1997. Like the cold viruses, adenoviruses are often found in latent infections in clinically healthy persons. Of the 47 different adenovirus species, only a few commonly cause illness in humans; it is thus possible to prepare a vaccine against these viruses. Vaccines include a first-generation inactivated vaccine against several adenovirus types and a non-attenuated oral vaccine against adenovirus types 4 and 7. In contrast, there are more than 100 cold viruses, all of which are commonly found as disease agents; this great number makes the development of a vaccine for the common cold virtually impossible.

Adams, Robert

born *c.* 1791, Ireland died Jan. 13, 1875, Dublin [![Photograph:Robert Adams, drawing by an unknown artist]] - Robert Adams, drawing by an unknown artist clinician noted for his contributions to the knowledge of heart disease and gout. In 1827 he described a condition characterized by a very slow pulse and by transient giddiness or convulsive seizures, now known as the Stokes-Adams disease or syndrome. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, Adams studied medicine in Europe and then returned to Dublin, where he established his practice and served as surgeon to the Jervis Street and Richmond hospitals. In 1861 he was appointed surgeon to the queen in Ireland and regius professor of surgery at the University of Dublin.

Adams, William

born 1564, Gillingham, Kent, Eng. died May 16, 1620, Japan navigator, merchant-adventurer, and the first Englishman to visit Japan. At the age of 12 Adams was apprenticed in the merchant marine, afterward sailing in the British navy and later serving a company of Barbary merchants. In 1598 he shipped as pilot major with five Dutch ships bound from Europe for the East Indies via the Straits of Magellan. The trouble-ridden fleet was scattered, and in April 1600 the *Charity,* her crew sick and dying, anchored off southern Japan. Adams was summoned to Ōsaka, where the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu was so impressed with Adams'knowledge of ships and shipbuilding that he presented him with an estate. Adams officiated between the shogunate and the Dutch and English traders who began visiting Japan, and about 1613 he helped to establish an English trading factory for the East India Company. Initially refused permission to return to England, he settled permanently in Japan, married a Japanese woman (though he had an English wife and family), and was given a title. A Tokyo street, Anjin-chō, was named in his honour. Adams' career in Japan was the inspiration for James Clavell's best-selling novel *Shogun* (1975).

Adhémar De Chabannes

born 988, Limousin, Aquitaine [France] died 1034 Frankish chronicler whose major work, *[]Chronicon Aquitanicum et Francicum* ("Chronicle of Aquitaine and France"), traces the history of Aquitaine and of the Franks from the times of the legendary king Pharamond. The first two books of Adhémar's history are of little value because his sources were severely limited. The third book, however, contains a reasonably accurate history of western France between 814 and 1028. Adhémar seems to have been more concerned about the development of his narrative than the accuracy of his dates. He also invented the famous dialogue between Hugh Capet, the first Capetian king of France, and his vassal in which Hugh asked his vassal, "Who made you duke?" and received the response, "Who made you king?" Adhémar's works were critically edited by J. Chavanon (1897) and his minor works published by J.-P. Migne in *Patrologia Latina,* vol. 141 (1853).

Adams, Herbert Baxter

born April 16, 1850, Shutesbury, Mass., U.S. died July 30, 1901, Amherst, Mass. [![Photograph:Herbert Adams]] - Herbert Adams historian and educator, one of the first to use the [seminar] method in U.S. higher education and one of the founders of the American Historical Association. The son of a successful merchant and manufacturer, Adams graduated from Amherst College, Massachusetts, in 1872 and attended lectures in Germany between 1874 and 1876 at Göttingen, Berlin, and Heidelberg, receiving his Ph.D. from the latter in July 1876. His stay in Germany had two results. It started him on the road, in his own historical work, toward a "germ theory of politics," which traced American political institutions to their supposed origin in early Anglo-Saxon village institutions; and it convinced him of the superior quality of scholarship and instruction possible in the seminar method of teaching.

Addison, Thomas

born April 1793, Longbenton, Northumberland, Eng. died June 29, 1860, Bristol, Gloucestershire English physician after whom []Addison's disease, a metabolic dysfunction caused by atrophy of the adrenal cortex, and Addison's ([]pernicious) anemia were named. He was the first to correlate a set of disease symptoms with pathological changes in one of the endocrine glands. In 1837 Addison became a full physician at Guy's Hospital, London, and a joint lecturer on medicine with Richard Bright, with whom he wrote *Elements of the Practice of Medicine* (1839). He gave a preliminary account in 1849 of the two diseases named after him and in 1855 wrote *On the Constitutional and Local Effects of Disease of the Supra-Renal Capsules.* He was author, with John Morgan, of *An Essay on the Operation of Poisonous Agents upon the Living Body* (1829), the first English book on the subject.

Adanson, Michel

born April 7, 1727, Aix-en-Provence, Fr. died Aug. 3, 1806, Paris French botanist who devised a natural system of classification and nomenclature of plants, based on all their physical characteristics, with an emphasis on families. In 1749 Adanson left for Senegal to spend four years as an employee with the Compagnie des Indes, a trading company. He returned with a large collection of plant specimens, some of which became part of the French royal collection under the supervision of the naturalist Georges Buffon; most of them now belong to the National Museum of Natural History in Paris. He published *[]Histoire naturelle du Sénégal* (1757), describing the flora of Senegal, and a survey of mollusks. Adanson's *[]Familles des plantes* (1763) described his classification system for plants, which was much opposed by Carolus Linnaeus, the Swedish botanist who had proposed his own classification system based on the reproductive organs of plants. Adanson's classification of mollusks, a group that he originally described, was based on anatomical characters. Adanson also introduced the use of statistical methods in botanical classification and studied electricity in torpedo fish and regeneration of limbs and heads in frogs and snails. Although Adanson was well known to European scientists, his system of classification was not widely successful, and it was superseded by the Linnaean system.

Adelung, Johann Christoph

born August 8, 1732, Spantekow bei Anklam, Pomerania, Prussia [now in Germany] died September 10, 1806, Dresden, Saxony [now in Germany] []one of the most influential [][German]-language scholars before Jacob Grimm. His grammars, dictionary, and works on style helped to standardize the language. He engaged in private research from 1761 to 1787, when he became principal librarian to the elector of Saxony at Dresden, a post he retained to the end of his life. Adelung's *[]Versuch eines vollständigen Grammatisch-kritischen Wörterbuches der hochdeutschen Mundart* (1774-86; "Attempt at a Complete Grammatical-Critical Dictionary of the High German Dialect") revealed an intimate knowledge of the history of dialects basic to modern German. At the time of his death, he was still at work on *[]Mithridates, oder allgemeine Sprachenkunde,* 3 vol. (1806-17; "Mithridates, or General Linguistics"), in which he affirmed the relation of Sanskrit and the major European languages and also collected the Lord's Prayer in some 500 languages and dialects.

Adams, Walter (Sydney)

born Dec. 20, 1876, Syria died May 11, 1956, Pasadena, Calif., U.S. American astronomer who is best known for his spectroscopic studies. Using the spectroscope, he investigated sunspots and the rotation of the Sun, the velocities and distances of thousands of stars, and planetary atmospheres. Born of missionary parents who returned to the United States when he was eight years old, Adams studied astronomy at Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H.; the University of Chicago; and the University of Munich. In 1904 he became a member of the original staff of Mount Wilson Observatory in California, where he served as director from 1923 to 1946. Adams took an important part in planning the 200-inch (5,080-millimetre) telescope for the Palomar Mountain Observatory.

Adams, Henry (Brooks)

born Feb. 16, 1838, Boston died March 27, 1918, Washington, D.C. historian, man of letters, and author of one of the outstanding autobiographies of Western literature, *The Education of Henry Adams*. Adams was the product of Boston's Brahmin class, a cultured elite that traced its lineage to Puritan New England. He was the great-grandson of John Adams and the grandson of John Quincy Adams, both presidents of the United States. The Adams family tradition of leadership was carried on by his father, Charles Francis Adams (1807-86), a diplomat, historian, and congressman. His younger brother, Brooks (1848-1927), was also a historian; his older brother, Charles Francis, Jr. (1835-1915), was an author and railroad executive. Through his mother, Abigail Brown Brooks, Adams was related to one of the most distinguished and wealthiest families in Boston. Tradition ingrained a deep sense of morality in Adams. He never escaped his heritage and often spoke of himself as a child of the 17th and 18th centuries who was forced to come to terms with the new world of the 20th century. Adams was graduated from Harvard in 1858 and, in typical patrician fashion, embarked upon a grand tour of Europe in search of amusement and a vocation. Anticipating a career as an attorney, he spent the winter of 1859 attending lectures in civil law at the University of Berlin. With the outbreak of the U.S. Civil War in 1861, Pres. Abraham Lincoln appointed Adams' father minister to England. Henry, age 23, accompanied him to London, acting as his private secretary until 1868.

Ade, George

born Feb. 9, 1866, Kentland, Ind., U.S. died May 16, 1944, Brook, Ind. [![Photograph:George Ade.]] - George Ade. American playwright and humorist whose *Fables in Slang* summarized the kind of wisdom accumulated by the country boy in the city. Graduated from Purdue University, Ade was on the staff of the *Chicago Record* newspaper from 1890 to 1900. The characters he introduced in his widely acclaimed editorial-page column, "Stories of the Streets and of the Town," became the subjects of his early books, *Artie* (1896), *Pink Marsh* (1897), and *Doc Horne* (1899). His greatest recognition came with *[]Fables in Slang* (1899), a national best-seller that was followed by a weekly syndicated fable and by 11 other books of fables. The fables, which contained only a little slang, were, rather, examples of the vernacular.

Adams, Roger

born Jan. 2, 1889, Boston died July 6, 1971, Champaign, Ill., U.S. chemist and teacher known for determining the chemical constitution of such natural substances as chaulmoogra oil (used in treating leprosy), the toxic cottonseed pigment gossypol, marijuana, and many alkaloids. He also worked in stereochemistry and with platinum catalysts and the synthesis of medicinal compounds. Receiving his Ph.D. from Harvard University (1912), Adams studied in Germany and taught briefly at Harvard. In 1916 he went to the University of Illinois, becoming professor of organic chemistry (1919) and head of the chemistry department (1926). A consultant to the chemical industry, he also served as a scientific adviser to the government during World War II. He accepted a research professorship (1954) and retired in 1957. His many honours include the American Chemical Society's Priestley Medal (1946).

Adams, Samuel Hopkins

born Jan. 26, 1871, Dunkirk, N.Y., U.S. died Nov. 15, 1958, Beaufort, S.C. American journalist and author of more than 50 books of fiction, biography, and exposé. Adams graduated from Hamilton College in 1891 and was with the *New York Sun* until 1900. From 1901 to 1905 he was associated in various editorial and advertising capacities with McClure's syndicate and *McClure's Magazine*. One of the so-called muckrakers of the period, Adams contributed to *Collier's, the National Weekly* in 1905 a series of articles exposing quack patent medicines, followed by *[]The Great American Fraud* (1906), which furthered the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. In articles appearing in 1915-16 in the *New York Tribune,* he exposed dishonourable practices in advertising. The novel *Revelry* (1926) and a biography of Warren G. Harding, *Incredible Era* (1939), set forth the scandals of the Harding administration. Adams also wrote biographies of Daniel Webster (*The Godlike Daniel,* 1930) and Alexander Woollcott (1945). Several of his novels became movie scenarios, notably *It Happened One Night* (1934) and a musical, *The Harvey Girls* (1942). *Grandfather Stories* (1955) was based on reminiscences of his grandfather in upper New York State. He also wrote under the name Warner Fabian.

Addams, Charles (Samuel)

born Jan. 7, 1912, Westfield, N.J., U.S. died Sept. 29, 1988, New York City cartoonist whose drawings, known mostly through *[][The New Yorker]* magazine, became famous in the United States as examples of macabre humour. Addams attended various schools from 1929 to 1932; thereafter, aside from a brief period as a commercial artist, he was a free-lance cartoonist, selling his first work to *The New* *Yorker* in 1933. His cartoons began to attract considerable popular attention about 1940. Addams became famous for his ironic depictions of morbid or inexplicable behaviour by sinister-looking individuals. His best-known cartoons centred on a family of ghouls whose activities travestied those of a conventional family; for example, they prepare to pour boiling oil from the rooftop on a group of Christmas carolers. Addams' ghoulish characters served as the basis of []"The Addams Family," a popular television series in the mid-1960s. Collections of his cartoons include *Drawn and Quartered* (1942), *Addams and Evil* (1947), *Monster Rally* (1950), *Homebodies* (1954), *Nightcrawlers* (1957), *Dear Dead Days* (1959), *Black Maria* (1960), *The Charles Addams Mother Goose* (1967), *My Crowd* (1970), *Chas.* *Addams Favorite Haunts* (1976), and *Creature Comforts* (1981).

Addison (of Stallingborough), Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount, Baron Addison Of Stallingborough

born June 19, 1869, Hogsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England died December 11, 1951, West Wycombe, Buckinghamshire British surgeon and statesman who was prominent in both Liberal and Labour governments between the wars and after World War II. Addison was educated at Trinity College, Harrogate, Yorkshire, and at St. Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College, London. He became an anatomy lecturer at St. Bartholomew's, professor of anatomy at University College, Sheffield, and, in 1901, Hunterian professor at the Royal College of Surgeons, London. Elected Liberal member of Parliament in 1910, he was parliamentary secretary to the Board of Education (1914-15), minister of munitions (1916-17), minister in charge of postwar reconstruction (1917), and first minister of health (1919-21). He promoted an ambitious state-subsidized housing scheme, which caused an outcry against the heavy burden upon the taxpayers it would involve and which strained the hitherto close relations between himself and David Lloyd George, the prime minister. In 1921 Addison was transferred to a ministry without portfolio, and in the same year he resigned from the government altogether. In 1922 he transferred his allegiance to the [][Labour Party;] that same year he published *The Betrayal of the Slums* and, in 1926, *Practical Socialism*. In the 1929 general election Addison was returned to Parliament, in the Labour interest, and the new prime minister, Ramsay [][MacDonald], appointed him parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (1929-30) and minister of agriculture and fisheries (1930-31). In 1937 he was created a baron, and, when the Labour Party was returned to power in 1945, he was elevated to a viscountcy and appointed dominions secretary, remaining in charge when this department became the Commonwealth Relations Office in 1947. In the same year, however, he asked to be relieved of some of his heavy duties because of his responsibilites as leader of the House of Lords, and he was appointed lord privy seal. In 1948-49 he was paymaster general. When in March 1951 Herbert Morrison became foreign secretary, Addison succeeded him as lord president of the council.

Adams, John Couch

born June 5, 1819, Laneast, Cornwall, Eng. died Jan. 21, 1892, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire British mathematician and astronomer, one of two people who independently discovered the planet [][Neptune]. On July 3, 1841, Adams had entered in his journal: "Formed a design in the beginning of this week of investigating, as soon as possible after taking my degree, the irregularities in the motion of Uranus . . . in order to find out whether they may be attributed to the action of an undiscovered planet beyond it. . . ." In September 1845 he gave James Challis, director of the Cambridge Observatory, accurate information on where the new planet, as yet unobserved, could be found; but unfortunately the planet was not recognized at Cambridge until much later, after its discovery at the Berlin Observatory on Sept. 23, 1846. Adams also showed (1866) that the Leonid meteor shower had an orbit closely matching that of a comet (1866 I). He described the Moon's motion more exactly than had Pierre-Simon Laplace and studied terrestrial magnetism. After being made professor of mathematics at the University of St. Andrews (Fife) in 1858 and Lowndean professor of astronomy and geometry at Cambridge in 1859, he became director of Cambridge Observatory in 1861.

Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi

born Sept. 15, 1977, Enugu, Nigeria [![Photograph:Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie]] - Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie In 2007 Nigerian novelist Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie won the Orange Broadband Prize for Fiction for her second novel, *Half of a Yellow Sun* (2006). The young novelist, who stated that she had been writing stories since she was old enough to spell, was no stranger to the awards podium, however. She had already collected a number of honours for her short stories, including an O. Henry Prize in 2003 for *The American Embassy,* and her debut novel, *Purple Hibiscus* (2003), had garnered the Commonwealth Writers' Prize in 2005 for Best First Book (Africa) and that year's Commonwealth Writers' Prize for Best First Book (overall). Early in life Adichie, the fifth of six children, moved with her parents to Nsukka, Nigeria. She was a voracious reader but found *Things Fall Apart* by fellow Igbo novelist Chinua Achebe transformative. After studying medicine for a time in Nsukka, in 1997 she left for the U.S., and she graduated (2001) summa cum laude with a bachelor's degree in communication and political science from Eastern Connecticut State University. Splitting her time between Nigeria and the U.S., she later earned a master's degree in creative writing from Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., and studied African history at Yale University. In 1998 Adichie's play *For Love of Biafra* was published in Nigeria. She later dismissed it as "an awfully melodramatic play," but it was among the earliest works in which she explored the war in the late 1960s between Nigeria and its secessionist Biafra republic. She later wrote several short stories about that conflict, which would become the subject of *Half of a Yellow Sun.*

Adana

city, south-central Turkey, situated in the plain of Cilicia, on the Seyhan River (the ancient Sarus River). An agricultural and industrial centre and the nation's fourth largest city, it probably overlies a Hittite settlement that dates from approximately 1400 BC; and its history has been profoundly influenced by its location at the foot of the Taurus Mountain passes leading to the Syrian plains. Conquered by Alexander the Great in 335-334 BC, it came under the rule of the ʿAbbāsid Arabs at the end of the 7th century AD and changed hands intermittently in the next 600 years until the establishment of the Turkmen [][Ramazan dynasty] in 1378. The Ramazan rulers retained control of local administration even after [Adana] was conquered by the Ottoman sultan Selim I in 1516. In 1608 Adana was reconstituted as a province under direct Ottoman administration. Adana became a provincial capital in 1867. One of the earlier extant monuments in the area is a stone bridge 220 yards (200 m) long spanning the Seyhan River, dating from the time of Justinian, and restored by several Arab rulers of the area in the 8th and 9th centuries. On the right bank of the river is a ruined fortress built by the future ʿAbbāsid caliph Hārūn ar-Rashīd in 782. The principal mosque, the Ulu Cami, dates from 1542. Adana's prosperity has long come from the fertile valleys behind it and its position as a bridgehead on the Anatolian-Arabian trade routes. It is a centre of the Turkish cotton industry and manufactures textiles, cement, agricultural machinery, and vegetable oils. Adana lies on the Istanbul-Baghdad railway and is connected by a branch line to the Mediterranean port of Mersin, 32 miles (51 km) southwest, through which its products are shipped. Çukurova University was established at Adana in 1973. Adana is the centre of an agricultural region producing cotton, rice, sesame, oats, and citrus fruits. Pop. (1985) 777,554.

Adams

county, southern [Pennsylvania], U.S., mostly consisting of a piedmont region bordered by Maryland to the south and the [Blue Ridge Mountains] to the west and north. The principal waterways are Lakes Meade and Heritage and Long Pine Run Reservoir, as well as Conewago, Toms, and Rock creeks. Parklands include parts of Caledonia State Park and Michaux State Forest, as well as Gettysburg National Military Park—which nearly surrounds [Gettysburg], the county seat—and the Eisenhower National Historic Site, adjacent to the park. The county was formed in 1800 and named for [John Adams]. It is best known as the site of the [][Battle of Gettysburg] (July 1-3, 1863), commonly regarded as the turning point of the [American Civil War] in favour of the Union army. Soldiers' Monument in [Gettysburg National Cemetery] marks the spot where President [Abraham Lincoln] delivered the [Gettysburg Address] (Nov. 19, 1863). Other communities in the county are Littlestown, McSherrystown, New Oxford, and East Berlin. The primary components of the economy are tourism, manufacturing, services (health care and education), and agriculture (apples and poultry). Area 520 square miles (1,347 square km). Pop. (1990) 78,274; (1996 est.) 84,921.

Addison

county, western [Vermont], U.S. It is bounded by [Lake Champlain] (constituting the border with New York state) to the west and the [Green Mountains] to the east. Lowlands in the west give way to foothills and mountains in the east. The county is drained by Otter Creek, the state's longest stream, and its tributaries, the Lemon Fair, New Haven, Leicester, and Middlebury rivers. Other waterways include Lake Dunmore, Winona Lake, and Little Otter and East creeks. The main forest types are maple, pine, and oak. The county is connected to New York by Lake Champlain Bridge at Chimney Point. Recreational areas include Button Bay and Kingsland Bay state parks and part of Green Mountain National Forest. The county was established in 1785 and named for the English writer [Joseph Addison]. In the 19th century its residents engaged in marble quarrying, textile milling, metalworking, and cabinetmaking. By the end of the century Addison county was one of the world's leading Merino sheep-raising centres. It also became known for breeding Morgan horses. In 1939 poet [Robert Frost] bought a summer home in Ripton that became his legal residence from 1949 until his death in 1963. [Middlebury], the county seat, is the home of [Middlebury College] (founded 1800), which manages the annual Bread Loaf Writers' Conference. Vergennes is one of the oldest and smallest cities in the United States. Other communities are Bristol, Ferrisburg, and Basin Harbor. In addition to educational services, the economy relies on dairy farming and the manufacture of electronic instruments. Area 770 square miles (1,994 square km). Pop. (1990) 32,953; (1996 est.) 35,079.

Adena culture

culture of various communities of ancient North American Indians, about 500 BC-AD 100, centred in what is now southern Ohio. Groups in Indiana, Kentucky, West Virginia, and possibly Pennsylvania bear similarities and are roughly grouped with the Adena culture. (The term Adena derives from the home of an early Ohio governor, located near Chillicothe, Ohio, around which Adena-type mounds were found.) The Adena usually lived in villages containing circular houses with conical roofs, constructed of poles, willows, and bark, though some of them lived in rock shelters. They subsisted by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plant foods. Their utensils consisted of such items as stone hoes, axes, and projectiles, stone smoking pipes, and simple pottery. Adena ornaments of copper, mica, and seashells attest to trade with faraway peoples.

adat

customary law of the indigenous peoples of [][Malaysia] and [][Indonesia]. It was the unwritten, traditional code governing all aspects of personal conduct from birth to death. Two kinds of Malay adat law developed prior to the 15th century: []Adat Perpateh developed in a matrilineal kinship structure in areas occupied by the Minangkabau people in Sumatra and Negeri Sembilan; []Adat Temenggong originated in bilaterally based territorial social units. Both adat forms were markedly transformed by Islāmic and later European legal systems. Adat Perpateh emphasized law based on group responsibility. Criminal or civil offenses were not differentiated. Punishment stressed compensation rather than retribution. A crime was absolved by payment in kind, for example, or by a reconciliation feast given to the aggrieved person. Payment was enforced by community pressure. Mutilation and death penalties rarely were invoked. Acceptance of circumstantial evidence was a prominent feature of Adat Perpateh. Prior to Islāmic influence Adat Temenggong consisted of a mixture of Hindu law and native custom. It encompassed civil, criminal, constitutional, and maritime law and invoked torture, amputation, or even death as punishment for offenses. Both adat systems continued into the 20th century, until formalized European jurisprudence largely displaced them.

Aden, Gulf of

deepwater basin that forms a natural sea link between the [Red Sea] and the [Arabian Sea]. Named for the seaport of [Aden], in southern Yemen, the gulf is situated between the coasts of Arabia and the Horn of Africa. To the west, it narrows into the Gulf of Tadjoura; its eastern geographic limits are defined by the meridian of Cape Guardafui (51°16′ E). In oceanographic and geologic terms, however, it extends to the eastern limits of the continental shelf beyond the [Khuriyyā Muriyyā] (Kuria Muria) Islands to the north and the island of Socotra to the south, covering an area of some 205,000 square miles (530,000 square km). Its total length, measured from east-northeast to west-southwest, is 920 miles (1,480 km), and its mean width, measured from north-northeast to south-southwest, is 300 miles (480 km). The dominant relief feature of the gulf's terrain is the []Sheba Ridge, an extension of the [Indian Ocean] ridge system, which extends along the middle of the gulf. The rough topography of the ridge includes a well-defined median valley that is continually offset by faults running approximately northeast to southwest. The largest of these faults forms the []Alula-Fartak Trench, in which is found the gulf's maximum recorded depth of 17,586 feet (5,360 metres). The Sheba Ridge is flanked on both sides by sediment-filled basins that reach depths of 13,000 feet (3,900 metres) at the mouth of the gulf. To the west, the ridge gives way to a relatively shallow east-west-trending valley known as the []Tadjoura Trench. The main factor in the gulf's geologic formation is the spreading of the seafloor away from the Sheba Ridge axis. The African continent and the Arabian Peninsula initially split along their present margins either in the late Eocene or early Ogliocene Epoch (i.e., about 35 million years ago). They have since drifted apart in a direction parallel to the gulf's faults. The gulf is part of a complex water structure. Gulf waters, via the [Bab el-Mandeb] (Bāb al-Mandab) Strait, flow into the Red Sea, replacing large-scale evaporation there, which occurs at a rate of 82 inches (210 cm) per year. The gulf's flow pattern is complicated by monsoon (rain-bearing) winds, eddies, and a surface layer that has high salinity. Surface temperatures of the gulf's waters are generally between 77 and 88 °F (25 and 31 °C).

Adelard Of Bath

flourished 12th century English Scholastic philosopher and early interpreter of Arabic scientific knowledge. Adelard translated into Latin an Arabic version of Euclid's *[Elements],* which for centuries served as the chief geometry textbook in the West. He studied and taught in France and traveled in Italy, Cilicia, Syria, Palestine, and perhaps also in Spain (*c*. 1110-25) before returning to Bath, Eng., and becoming a teacher of the future king Henry II. In his Platonizing dialogue *[]De eodem et diverso* ("On Sameness and Diversity"), his atomism and his attempt to reconcile the reality of universals with that of individuals distinguish him from other []Platonists. His *[]Quaestiones naturales* (76 discussions of human nature, meteorology, astronomy, botany, and zoology) are based on Arabic science. His other writings include works on the abacus and the astrolabe and a translation of an Arabic astronomical table.

Adapa

in Mesopotamian mythology, legendary sage and citizen of the Sumerian city of [Eridu], the ruins of which are in southern Iraq. Endowed with vast intelligence by [Ea] (Sumerian: Enki), the god of wisdom, Adapa became the hero of the Sumerian version of the myth of the [fall of man]. The myth relates that Adapa, in spite of his possession of all wisdom, was not given immortality. One day, while he was fishing, the south wind blew so violently that he was thrown into the sea. In his rage he broke the wings of the south wind, which then ceased to blow. [Anu] (Sumerian: An), the sky god, summoned him before his gates to account for his behaviour, but Ea cautioned him not to touch the bread and water that would be offered him. When Adapa came before Anu, the two heavenly doorkeepers [Tammuz] and [Ningishzida] interceded for him and explained to Anu that as Adapa had been endowed with omniscience he needed only immortality to become a god. Anu, in a change of heart, then offered Adapa the bread and water of eternal life, which he refused to take. Thus mankind remained mortal. The legend is preserved among the cuneiform tablets discovered during the 19th century in Ashurbanipal's library at [Nineveh].

adaptation

in biology, process by which an animal or plant becomes fitted to its environment; it is the result of [][natural selection] acting upon heritable variation. Even the simpler organisms must be adapted in a great variety of ways: in their structure, physiology, and genetics; in their locomotion or dispersal; in their means of defense and attack; in their reproduction and development; and in other respects. Accurate adaptations may involve migration to, or survival in, favourable conditions of, for example, temperature. Alternatively, organisms may partly manufacture their own environment, as do the mammals, for example, which produce their own optimum body temperature. To be useful, adaptations must often occur simultaneously in a number of different parts of the body. A change from a more carnivorous to a more vegetarian diet necessitates alterations not only of the teeth, digestive juices, and length of the digestive tract but also in habit and defense mechanisms. Some of the most fundamental biological adaptations are chemical and genetic. The conditions in which the cells of the body can live are restricted and have changed very little since life first arose in the sea. Exploitation of fresh water and of land was possible only through the evolution of adaptive mechanisms capable of maintaining at least a semblance of the original constitution of body fluids. Thus, even in humans and other mammals, the blood is chemically quite closely related to seawater.

adamsite

in chemical warfare, sneeze gas developed by the United States and used during World War I. Adamsite is an arsenical diphenylaminechlorarsine and an odourless crystalline organic compound employed in vaporous form as a lung irritant. It appears as a yellow smoke that irritates eyes, lungs, and mucous membranes and causes sneezing, vomiting, and acute discomfort in the nose, throat, and chest. Eventually severe nausea develops, with headache, general physical weakness, and despondency. The effect usually lasts about 12 hours. The only protection against inhaling the gas is a good mechanical filter.

additive

in foods, any of various chemical substances added to foods to produce specific desirable effects. The term additive may also be expanded to include substances—possibly useless or deleterious—that enter foods unintentionally. Additives include such substances as artificial or natural colourings and flavourings; stabilizers, emulsifiers, texturizers, and thickeners; preservatives; flavour enhancers; and supplementary nutrients. Salt, used for centuries to preserve meat, is an additive, as are baking soda, vinegar, and many spices commonly used in home food preparation. In commercial [][food processing], additives may be used for aesthetic reasons (to improve colour or consistency) or for considerations of health (to retard spoilage or to increase nutritional value). Some artificial flavourings and colourings are used for economic reasons, because they are cheaper than the natural ingredients. Other chemicals are added to extend the shelf life of products; for example, humectants, which help to retain moisture; anticaking agents, which maintain the free-flowing qualities of salt, sugar, and similar products; and release agents, used to prevent confections and baked goods from sticking to their wrappings. Although many additives are beneficial—or, at least, harmless—others have the effect of reducing nutritional value or concealing inferior raw materials or processing. In the United States, prior to 1958, any such substance added to food by manufacturers and producers was assumed to be safe unless proven otherwise. Since that time, however, many additives have come under scrutiny as possible causes of cancer (carcinogens) and birth defects (teratogens). Thus, the U.S. government, along with many others, became involved in regulating the use of additives, both to protect public health and to avoid consumer deception. Incidental additives, or contaminants, are substances that enter food inadvertently or accidentally during production, processing, or handling. Pesticides used to protect crops may leave residues in foods, as may drugs added to livestock feed to control disease and improve meat yield. Legislation often establishes limits for such residue in food products. Maximum levels may also be specified for chemicals employed in packaging materials, which may actually introduce toxic substances into the products they contain.

Adiantaceae

one of several families in the fern order Filicales. It consists of about 60 genera with 850 species and is distributed throughout the world, especially in tropical America. The family is characterized by spore-producing structures (sporangia) located in lines along the veins of the leaves or on or at the vein tips; these structures may be unprotected (lacking indusium), in grooves, or covered by the rolled leaf margin (false indusium). [![Photograph:Northern maidenhair fern (Adiantum pedatum)]] - Northern maidenhair fern (*Adiantum pedatum*) The best-known species of Adiantaceae are found in the subfamily [Adiantoideae]. The [maidenhair fern] (genus *Adiantum*) has about 200 species and shows glossy, usually smooth fronds and characteristic architecture. The Northern maidenhair (*[Adiantum pedatum;] see* [photograph]) is found in woods of North America and East Asia. Also found in Adiantoideae are the cliff brakes (*[][Pellaea]*) and [][lip ferns] (*Cheilanthes*), both of which tend to grow on rock cliffs or ledges. In this classification, a second subfamily, [Vittarioideae] (shoestring ferns), contains seven genera, the largest being *Vittaria* and *Antrophyum,* both found throughout the tropics.

adenine

organic compound belonging to the purine family, occurring free in tea or combined in many substances of biological importance, including the [][nucleic acids], which govern hereditary characteristics of all cells. Partial decomposition of ribonucleic and deoxyribonucleic acids yields mixtures from which the compounds adenylic acid and deoxyadenylic acid, respectively, may be separated. These acids, called [][nucleotides], are phosphate esters of adenosine and deoxyadenosine, which are smaller units (nucleosides) composed of adenine and either ribose or deoxyribose. Compounds of adenine include vitamin B~12~ as well as adenosine triphosphate and other coenzymes (substances that act in conjunction with enzymes).

Adangme

people occupying the coastal area of Ghana from Kpone to Ada, on the Volta River, and inland along the Volta; they include the Ada, Kpone, Krobo, Ningo, Osuduku, Prampram, and Shai, all speaking variants of Ga-Adangme of the Kwa branch of the Niger-Congo family of languages. The chief Adangme occupation is farming, based on the *[]huza* system. In this system a tract of land is acquired by a group of people, usually members of an extended family; the land is subdivided among them according to the amount each has paid, and each individual thereafter has complete control of his own section. Negotiations with the seller are carried out by an elected *huzatse* ("father of the *huza*"), who later acts as the *huza* leader and representative. Millet was formerly the staple food, but more common crops now include cassava, yams, corn (maize), plantain, cocoa, and palm oil. The Adangme are organized into clans based on patrilineal descent; the clans are subdivided into localized patrilineages, the basic units of Adangme political organization. Lineage members generally return to the traditional lineage home from the *huza* farms several times a year to participate in the festivals of their lineage gods. There are also many annual festivals.

Adelphi University

private, coeducational institution of higher learning in [Garden City], New York, U.S. Adelphi is a liberal arts college serving Long Island, with branch campuses in [Manhattan] and [Huntington]. It offers a range of bachelor's and master's degree programs in business, nursing, social work, and the arts and sciences. Doctorate degrees are offered in nursing, education, social work, and psychology. Total enrollment is about 7,000. The regents of the University of the State of New York established the charter for Adelphi University on June 24, 1896, and instruction began in September of that year. The school was originally located in Brooklyn; it moved to Garden City in 1929. After 1912 the university admitted only women. However, the educational needs of servicemen returning from World War II required that Adelphi restore its original coeducational policy in 1946. The School of Nursing opened in 1943 and the School of Social Work in 1949. The graduate school in psychology, organized in 1951, was established as a separate school—the Gordon F. Derner Institute of Advanced Psychological Studies—in 1972; it was the first of its kind in the country.

adiabatic demagnetization

process by which the removal of a [][magnetic field] from certain materials serves to lower their temperature. This procedure, proposed by chemists [][Peter Debye] (1926) and [][William Francis Giauque] (independently, 1927), provides a means for [][cooling] an already cold material (at about 1 K) to a small fraction of 1 K. The mechanism involves a material in which some aspect of disorder of its constituent particles exists at 4 K or below (liquid helium temperatures). Magnetic dipoles—*i.e.,* atoms that have poles like bar magnets—in a crystal of paramagnetic salt (*e.g.,* gadolinium sulfate, Gd~2~(SO~4~)~3~·8H~2~O) have this property of disorder in that the spacing of the energy levels of the magnetic dipoles is small compared with the thermal energy. Under these conditions the dipoles occupy these levels equally, corresponding to being randomly oriented in space. When a magnetic field is applied, these levels become separated sharply; *i.e.,* the corresponding energies are widely different, with the lowest levels occupied by dipoles most closely aligned with the applied field. If the magnetic field is applied while the paramagnetic salt is in contact with the liquid helium bath (an isothermal process in which a constant temperature is maintained), many more dipoles will become aligned, with a resultant transfer of thermal energy to the bath. If the magnetic field is decreased after contact with the bath has been removed, no heat can flow back in (an adiabatic process), and the sample will cool. Such cooling corresponds to the dipoles remaining trapped in the lower energy states (*i.e.,* aligned). Temperatures from 0.3 K to as low as 0.0015 K can be reached in this way. Much lower temperatures can be attained by an analogous means called []adiabatic nuclear demagnetization. This process relies on ordering (aligning) nuclear dipoles (arising from nuclear spins), which are at least 1,000 times smaller than those of atoms. With this process, temperatures of the ordered nuclei as low as 16 microdegrees (0.000016 degree) absolute have been reached.

Adelaide River

river in northwestern [Northern Territory], Australia, rising in the hills west of Brock's Creek and flowing (with marked summer increases in volume) for 110 miles (180 km) northeastward to Adam Bay, an inlet of the Timor Sea on Clarence Strait. From its mouth, 32 miles (50 km) northeast of Darwin, it is navigable for 80 miles (130 km). The river was reached in 1839 by L.R. Fitzmaurice of the ship HMS *Beagle* and named after the British dowager queen Adelaide. It was explored by John McDouall Stuart in 1862, and the first settlement along its banks was Escape Cliffs (1864-67). Since the 1890s the black soils lining the Adelaide's lower reaches have been used for agricultural experiments—vegetables and rice- and cattle-farming projects. The town of Adelaide River, located where the [Stuart Highway] and North Australia Railway cross the stream, is a tourist base for the Rum Jungle and Daly River districts.