Business Ethics Final Review

Can the integrity of professional counselors be challenged by the demands or behavior of clients? What are some circumstances in which this can occur?

Yes, whenever clients ask for or demand behavior that conflicts with the professionals' convictions or values. What happens when empowerment goes against counselor's own values? pressure from people, lack of money

Know at least some of the pros and cons concerning government safety regulation of products.

-Argument for- They protect consumers. -Argument against- They add to the cost of products and raise the issue of legal paternalism b/c they prevent individuals from choosing to purchase a riskier but less expensive product.

What are some of the ethical issues or problems in multinational business?

-Differences in portability of capital, product and workers. -MNBs can often circumvent government regulations. -Difference between developed and underdeveloped world. -Difference in value systems (e.g. treatment of women or people of differing race or tribe) -MNBs and small indigenous cultures.

According to Jordan Goodman, in order to solve problems of unethical accounting, change is need in four specific areas. What are those four areas?

1) Corporate culture needs to change 2) Executive compensation has to be controlled 3) Profit motive tends to encourage people to go over line 4) Profit motive tends to encourage tough leadership

Cohen-Almagor lists six different categories of events. What are they?

1) Events with social-public meaning 2) gossip events with little social value but high interest 3)heightened events 4)exaggerated events and twisted stories 5)staged events 6)made up events

What unethical and/or fraudulent accounting things were done by Lucent Technologies?

1) Reduced liabilities by changing accounting assumptions 2) Overstated accounts receivable and inventory levels 3) Recognition of revenues not earned 4) Reduction in bad debt reserves even though receivable levels had risen 5) Reduction of inventory obsolescence levels even though inventory levels had risen 6) Shifting of current-year expenses to later periods 7) Improper reclassification of reserves into income

What are the four components of an ethics audit according to KPMG Peat Marwick?

1) assess the ethical climate of business, as well as environment, motives, and pressures 2) assessment of performance incentives 3) communication of the message about what is acceptable/unacceptable ethical behavior? 4) compliance and enforcement

Detmer offers five suggestions for improvement of journalism. What are they?

1) journalists should engage in more investigative journalism 2) enlarge pool of authorities from which they do get info from 3) do not allow us gov spokespeople to "set the agenda" 4) abandon doctrine of objectivity and replace it with more specific or scholarly conception of objectivity 5)abandon the "both sides" approach to the presentation of opinion

• Nozicks Three Princples

1)A person who acquires a holding in accordance with the principle of justice in acquisition is entitled to that holding o(2)A person who acquires a holding in accordance with the principle of justice in transfer, from someone else entitled to the holding, is entitled to the holding. o(3)No one is entitled to a holding except by (repeated) applications of 1 and 2. in short, distribution of good in a society is just if and only if all are entitled to the holdings they posses.

Review Faber's account of five different types of professional-client relationship.

1. Agency - sales clerk retrieving item 2. Paternalistic - Kindergarten teacher 3. Contractual- You, architect, contractor legal agreement 4. Affinity- no single way the tasks may be divided up 5. Fiduciary- Client makes final decision after everything is addressed

What five tasks usually need to be accomplished in a professional-client relationship?

1. Analyze the client's need or want 2. consider alternate responses to the client's need 3. decide which from among the alternatives the professional and client will pursue 4. implement the decision 5. educate the client and/or professional

Review Cohen's 7 points of a morally good person.

1. Justice--treat others justly, respect rights 2. Truthful 3. Moral Courage--do right thing even if bad effect 4. Liberality--good monetary habits 5. Benevolence--do good for others when reasonably situated and to do no harm 6. Trustworthiness--the person is in the habit of keeping their word 7. Moral autonomy--come to own decisions on basis of own moral principles

How might a conflict of interest arise for an accountant?

A conflict of interest can occur if an accountant is asked to provide litigation support for a person who is in a current court case against someone within the accountant's firm.

What is a fiduciary relationship?

A relationship where one is trusted with taking care of another's property, usually money. Example: Mutual fund.

What are some problems for teachers and education that came about because of No Child Left Behind? What are some problems for teachers and education raised by the Common Core Standards?

All kids aren't starting in the same place. The teachers where the students are the furthest behind have the hardest jobs. They are also pressured to move students up a grade, when they shouldn't. The teachers are under pressure to teach towards the tests. You can't teach a test, you have to teach concepts and teach developmentally. Not all the teachers are familiar with the common core. Teachers need to be taught the common core earlier on.

Response against "Business can't handle it" arguement

Corporations lack expertise. and Corporations will impose values on us.

What is dual-investor theory? What problem or question is it intended to answer (the narrow view of corporate social responsibility, as propounded by Milton Friedman)?

Dual investor theory- business have 2 investors--stockholders and society (society provides assets to the business) Intended to answer the narrow view of corporate social responsibility, as propounded by Milton Friedman.

Is it permissible, ethically, to discriminate sometimes on the basis of sex or gender? The answer given in class was yes, sometimes. Do you agree? Why or why not?

Entirely Opinion

Do you think that a lawyer in the American legal system, in his role as a lawyer, can be an ethically good person? Why or why not?

No he cannot be an ethically good person. His job is to win his case, and he may defend a known criminal which is unethical, but he still has to try to win.

• Ethics based on or emphasizing Human Rights

Examples: Bill of Rights in the U.S. Constitution. (First 10 amendments.) Human rights "basket" in the Helsinki Accords. See the website of the UN Commission on Human Rights and others on this approach.

5. An argument in ethics (morality) usually has at least three parts: A factual premise, a premise stating an ethical principle or theory, and a conclusion that brings those two together.

For example (a simple one that can usually be generalized because complex arguments usually can be or reduced to iterations of this simple example): 1. (Premise 1; Factual component) Mary stole money from her employer. 2. (Premise 2; Ethical principle) Stealing is (ethically) wrong. 3. Thus (conclusion) Mary did wrong (committed an unethical action) in stealing from her employer.

Cohen-Almagor claims that limitations should be placed on media coverage. What is his argument for this? Do you agree with him? Why or why not?

He claims that freedom of speech needs to be controlled, because too much of it would create anarchy. I don't believe there should be limitations placed on media coverage except for in the case of national security.

• Moral Sense Theory and Ethical Intuitionism.

Holds that humans have a moral sense (analogous to the physical senses) or intuition - a faculty or perception-device - by which we can and do distinguish between right and wrong. Important proponents: 18th century: Third Earl of Shaftesbury, Francis Hutchenson, David Hume. 20th century: W.D. Ross's (1877-1971) theory of prima facie duties. More recently: James Q. Wilson, The Moral Sense (1993). (Ethical naturalism - the claim that humans naturally know right from wrong - is closely related to this.)

Review Alexandra and Miller's account of fundamental (human) needs and the role of professionals in filling those needs, along with the claim that others have against the professional to fulfill his/her needs.

Humans who have fundamental needs will suffer significant harm if they do not fulfill them. if they can't satisfy them, they have a moral right to claim the objects of their need from those who can grant them. docs and lawyers do this

Monroe Freedman posed three ethical dilemmas for defense lawyers. What are they and why do they arise?

Is it proper to make a witness appear to be lying when you know his testimony to be true? Is it proper to put a witness on the stand when you know he will commit perjury? Is it proper to give your client advice about the law when you know he will commit perjury with it?

What is the nature of the Anglo-American legal system? What term is used for it? What does this mean about the role of lawyers in that system?

It's called the adversary system of justice. Each side tries as hard is it can to bring out facts that are favorable to that side, discredit other side

How is the metaphor of a video camera and its operator applicable to the ethics of journalism?

Journalism is about uncovering the truth, but a video camera only shows one piece of the story, and possibly one side of the story.

What is wrong with the notion of journalist as tabula rasa?

No journalist is a tabula rasa. Four Mistaken Views: 1) Journalists shouldn't have opinions. 2) Journalists who are politically involved can't do fair journalism. 3) Journalists' will entangle them in ways that compromise their fairness and accuracy. 4) Journalists' political involvements create the appearance of bias and conflicts of interest and thus should be prohibited.

Is it permissible for teachers to become friends of their students? Why or why not?

No because it can create a conflict of interest and also create a non sexual dual relationship or even a sexual dual relationship.

Is it ethically permissible for K through 12 teachers to become advocates (for, e.g., a political or religious point of view) in the classroom? Why or why not?

No. A teacher's job is to teach the subject they are hired to teach while being impartial. Plus students are extremely impressionable at younger ages.

What is the role of privacy in journalism? To whom, if anyone, should privacy be given by journalists?

Relevance standard: private conduct should be publicized only if it is relevant to the official's performance in the public office 4 main consideration!! 1. Publicness of the conduct 2. Character of official in question 3. Reactions of audience 4. Effects on political process

Lichtenberg writes about conflicts of interest for journalists and journalism. What are some of those conflicts of interest? How and why do they arise? How might they be avoided or solved?

any journalist who gets politically involved has beliefs too strong to allow for fair journalism If biggest advertiser doesn't like a story, it will affect you problem arises against biggest advertiser

According to Detmer, what is/are the problem(s) with the notion of "objectivity" as it is usually held up by journalists?

beats, handouts, all come from somewhere, usually government Facts require reasoning, we can't distinguish between them often more than 2 sides

What are at least three reasons that problems in ethics arise for the profession of accounting?

cooking the books, auditing vs. creating financial statements, pressure to meet earning goals

What are some of the main difficulties experienced by teachers, K-12, in the US? What are some of the reasons for these problems?

enormous amount of work outside of class required to do a lot of work, no control over it high burnout rate, low salary low social status, disrespected more and more students teach to the test

Taylor claims that the adversary system of justice promotes or requires or gives rise to ethical problems ("an ethical jungle" he calls it)? Why does it do this?

job is to win, not seek truth. is lawyer an officer of court or advocate for the client? "Sentence first, verdict later, evidence to follow"

Amy Gutmann raises the question whether virtue can be taught to lawyers. Why is she concerned with this? What is her answer and her proposal to this problem?

lawyers not taught virtue 3 conceptions of lawyers: standard--pure legal advocate justice--promote social justice character--study law, live good life, good character and achievement Teach future lawyers to communicate with others, will it actually solve problem?

Cohen distinguishes between pure legal advocates and moral agents. What is this distinction? What is its importance and/or consequences? (R&Z, 349-358).

legal advocate: fights for client to win at all costs, no ethical problems considered moral agent: when client is one good dude

How does the existence of new media (Internet, bloggers, Twitter, text messaging, cell phones, etc.) affect journalism and what are some of the ethical questions posed by this?

more profitable, but where is line drawn between advertising and content? Sites track our usage, packaging audio music with record reviews, brand recognition, losing traditional journalism More complete, more voices, help understand complex issues

What does the existence of lawyer jokes suggest about our (i.e. the public's) thinking/feeling about lawyers and the legal profession?

shows public does not trust them, self interested and not act in public's interest

What is the role of confidentiality in journalism?

we can not have free media in an intolerant society meda is not under an obligation to be impartial

three ethical justifications of capitalism

• Justifications • 1. The natural right to property • 2. Religious justification(s) of private property (e.g. The Ten Commandments) • •3. Adam Smith's concept of the invisible hand o •"Every individual is continually exerting himself to find the most advantageous employment for whatever capital he can command. It is his own advantage, indeed, and not that of the society, which he has in view.... [But] by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he [is]...led by an invisible hand to promote an end that is no part of his intention.... By pursuing his own interest he frequently promote that of society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it." • •4. Capitalism rewards work, success, making products that please customers, saving and investment, and entrepreneurship. But socialist systems punish all those (through taxation and regulation) and reward and incentivize sloth and failure (i.e. socialism and socialist systems destroy people's incentives and desire to work, produce, please customers, and save and invest

How much loyalty does an employee owe to the company?

(OPINION) "Beyond a hard day's work in exchange for a paycheck, an employee owes NOTHING to a company"

The view was given in class that the proper approach to environmental problems is some version of cost/benefit analysis, instead of any form of environmental absolutism. Do you agree? Why or why not?

(OPINION) -agree because there is many factors that must be taken into account -disagree because the environment takes precedent over all else

Who should bear the costs of environmental action and environmental clean-up?

(OPINION) -can say government -can say people -all depends on which you can make a better argument for

Should employees have civil liberties in the workplace? Why or why not?

(OPINION) -yes because it allows for a better working environment -no because it can decrease the effectiveness of a workplace

Women in the workplace: What were/are the main new or different ethical issues raised when women entered the workplace?

(OPINION?)

• Socialist, Communist, Communitarian, and Marxist Ethics

(There are important differences among those, but for our purposes now I am lumping them together because of their similarities.) Claims that values (and usually attitudes, as well as success and failure) are socially derived and/or determined. Emphasizes society and social and community action and goals. Usually favors social ownership of the means of production and social distribution of profits and rewards. Holds that what is good is what benefits the social-communal order. Concerned usually with what helps the poorer and less powerful people. Favors the use of government and governmental power, along with taxation and governmental regulation, as a means of accomplishing social-communal goals. Tends to be suspicious of individualism (calling it "selfish") and personal initiative and entrepreneurship, regarding those as leading to differences of wealth and position, and thus to be anti-social and anti-communal. Criticizes what its advocates hold to be the hugely unequal distribution of wealth in the world, and to regard this inequality as unethical. Tends to dislike corporations and corporate and financial elites, regarding them as pariahs who selfishly manipulate and steal from the poor and from the state. Usually is pro-union and pro-proletariat.Tends to be critical of the free market system, often calling it unethical. Tends to dislike globalism. There are at least two versions: a secular one (Karl Marx and his followers), and a religious one (Jewish, Roman Catholic, Protestant, Islamic, and other forms of religious socialism and/or communism and/or communitarianism). A leading communitarian is GWU professor Amitai Etzioni

Can the client become the enemy of the professional? What are some examples?

YES. the patient won't follow the doctor's recommendations. Students won't pay attention in class

7. In consideration of economic (or distributive justice), you should be able to give criteria or accounts of what justice has been held to be: Some proposals or generally held accounts are or include: fairness (John Rawls), equality, rights, and deserts. Know six possible schemes or principles for distributing the rewards of an enterprise, as well as a situation in which each one seems appropriate. (Given and discussed in class, not in Shaw and Barry.)

• 6 possible schems or principles for distributing rewards o •. To each an equal share o •2. To each according to individual need o •3. To each according to personal effort o •4. To each according to social contribution o •5. To each according to merit o •6. Winner take all • What is justice o Justice is fairness o Justice as equality o Getting what one deserves - justice as deserts o Justice and moral/ethical rights • John Rawls Theory of Justice o •An alternative to utilitarianism. "each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override." [Thus] "the rights secured by justice are not subject to political bargaining or to the calculus of social interests." o •Uses social contract theory, game theory, some Kantian theory, and others. o •Justice as fairness o •The original position: choosing on the basis of self-interest o •The veil of ignorance o •The primary subject of justice is not transactions between individuals, but "the basic structure, the fundamental social institutions and their arrangement into one scheme." Because "the accumulated results of many separate and ostensibly fair agreements ...are likely in the course of time to alter citizens' relationships and opportunities so that the conditions for free and fair agreements no longer hold." o •"Role of institutions that belong to the basic structure is to secure just background conditions...." o •"Unless this structure is appropriately regulated and adjusted, an initially just social process will eventually cease to be just, however free and fair particular transactions may look when viewed by themselves." o Choosing the Principles. Maximizing the minimum

Utilitarianism

• Utilitarianism (a consequentialist theory). Holds that what is good is what produces the greatest happiness (or pleasure or benefit) for the greatest number of people. British legal reformer Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was a great proponent of this view. Classic text: Utilitarianism (1863) by John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Two versions of utilitarianism exist: act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. A cost-benefit analysis or procedure is usually some form of utilitarianism in that it involves a calculation of costs and benefits.

11. Know the four key features of capitalism (S&B pp. 153-156).

1. Companies • •2. Profit motive • •3. Competition • •4. Private property

• Ethics based on Nature or "Natural Law

(This is often based on a religious view, but does not need to be so.) Holds that humans are beings of nature and have a nature, that this nature can be known, and that ethics can be derived from laws or principles found in that nature. Some examples: Roman Catholic opposition to contraception as an interference with nature, and to homosexuality as "unnatural." Homosexual rights activists who claim that sexual orientation is inborn (i.e. from nature) and therefore is necessarily good or at least ethically acceptable. John Locke was an important theorist in this vein; he had a great influence on the American Founding Fathers. Thomas Jefferson's assertion in the Declaration of Independence (this is both a kind of statement of natural law as well as a statement of innate human rights): "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are

What is required for informed consent?

(a) information (b) no coercion (c) competence to give consent.

Review Schlossberger's points and list of questions to ask in giving an ethical evaluation of organizations. Know those questions.

(strong argument against Milton Friedman.) Says society at large also makes an investment in the business and the business also owes to the investment at large made by the society. Questions: Does the organization make a good faith effort to serve its intended beneficiaries? Is the perceived good truly a good? Does the organization attempt to ensure that its efforts serve what it understands to be the good in general? Is the organization's understanding of the good-in-general correct? Do the organization's activities violate some other firm perception or morality in a way not justified by the considerations raised in the first 5 questions?

Know about ethical issues in advertising, and know why advertising directed at children is especially ethically questionable. (S&B pp. 281-289).

-Ads that are ambiguous (can be understood in two or more ways) can be deceiving. -Aiding to ambiguity is the use of "weasel words" to evade or retreat from a direct or forthright statement. -Concealment of facts is a tactic used by advertisers to suppress information that is unflattering to their products. -Exaggeration is another tactic often used by advertisers. -In terms of children: Children, especially young children, are naive and gullible and thus particularly vulnerable to advertisers' enticements. Children lack experience and independent judgement, thus it is ethically questionable to have advertisements directed at children.

Career tracks for women: The career-primary track vs. the career-and-family track (the mommy track). (Felice Schwartz) Know and describe the difference.

-Article written by Felice Schwartz that was interpreted as suggesting that companies create two career paths to accommodate women who wished to balance career and family and women whose career was their primary concern -Career-Primary: Put their career first, childless or someone else taking care of children. Advance further on career path. -Carrer-and-family: Family first, do not excel as far as type 1, not given the same opportunity. Also called the "mommy track" by the NY times. -Schwartz was criticized by women's movements as a traitor. Schwartz was just claiming a fact: women managers cost a company more then men managers. -Ethical issues: Why isn't there a daddy track? Also, if a parent must leave because of a child related duty, is it fair that others do his/her work? -Partly addressed by law: The Family and Medical Leave Act

Know the central conclusions of some important legal cases dealing with affirmative action, especially Bakke, Adarand, Grutter v. Bollinger, Graz v. Bollinger, and Parents United v. Seattle. Especially, know the positions of Justice Stevens and Justice Thomas in the Adarand v. Penya case.

-Bakke: Allan Bakke (white male) applied for admission to the medical school at UC Davis. UC Davis set aside 16 of its entrance places for minority students. Bakke did not get in, he sued the school, contending that he was discriminated against and would have won admission if those places were not set aside. Bakke won (5-4 decision). Court said that race or ethnic background can be considered a "plus" in a particular applicant's file, yet it does not insulate the individual from comparison with all other candidates. -Adarand: Supreme Court examined a federal program that provided financial incentives for contractors to hire "socially or economically disadvantaged" subcontractors. 5-4 decision, "federal racial classification. like those of a State, must serve a compelling government interest, and must be narrowly tailored to further that interest." -Stevens on Adarand case: defended the general principle of affirmative action. "There is no moral or constitutional equivalence between a policy that is designed to perpetuate a caste system and one that seeks to eradicate racial subordination." -Thomas on Adarand case: explicitly challenged Steven's position, saying "there is a moral and constitutional equivalence between laws designed to subjugate a race and those that distribute benefits on the basis of race into order to foster some current notion of equality. Government cannot make us equal; it can only recognize, respect and protect us as equal before the law." -Grutter v. Bollinger: court upheld, by a 5-4 majority, the affirmative action program at the University of Michigan's law school. Cited testimony from various business and military leaders who urged that diversity is essential to the country's economy and security. -Graz v. Bollinger: companion case to Grutter v. Bollinger. different majority of justices ruled, 6-3, that Michigan's undergraduate affirmative action program was unconstitutionally rigid and mechanistic because it gave members of underrepresented groups an automatic 20-point bonus on the 150-point scale used to rank applicants. -Parents United v. Seattle:??

The problem of child care for working mothers. Know and describe the problem, and be able to present something about what businesses can do to alleviate the problem.

-Both mother and father care for children but there is still a greater responsibility lying on the mom's back, especially at a younger age for the child. -businesses can provide extra pay, child care facilities, etc. -problem arises though: if business provides child care for employees who have children, those employees who don't have children may feel discriminated against. -businesses that provide child care for their employees are often considered desirable places to work. -tricky question: do businesses have to provide for child care because this will be best for society as a whole?

What is a conflict of interest? What are some examples of important conflicts of interest in the employee-employer situation?

-Conflict of interest: A conflict of interest occurs when an entity (person, group, corporation or other entity) has two interests (or responsibilities) arrayed in such a way that fulfilling one of those interests makes it impossible to fulfill the other interest. -The Foster Winans case -Financial investments

Be able to describe the glass ceiling and the notion of comparable worth. (S&B discuss comparable worth, pp. 563-564)

-Glass ceiling: many women and racial minorities claim that they are allowed to rise to a certain level and are prevented from rising higher. There is a hypothetical glass ceiling. -comparable worth: men and women should receive the same pay for the same work. -some people say the free market already covers the question of how do you measure worth of different jobs.

What is insider trading? Is it legal? Ethical? Why or why not?

-Insider trading: the illegal practice of trading on the stock exchange to one's own advantage through having access to confidential information. -It is illegal -Can be considered ethical or unethical depending on how you view it -argument that it is ethical: it is an advantage that you have, it would be remiss to not use it argument it is unethical: it is an unfair advantage that is only available to you and a select few, unethical to use it in a competitive market.

What are some of the principles or guidelines concerning dating and mating between co-workers?

-Nearly impossible to eliminate because people spend so much time at work. Workplace is often the best opportunity to meet new people. -Dating is unethical if one of the members of the pair is a boss to the other, especially if the boss uses power to coerce the other. -Companies tried to eliminate this but the court often ruled that this is a violation of privacy.

Distinguish between negative and positive affirmative action.

-Negative: does not require any outside action to take place? an innate right that is undebatable? (unsure) -Positive: the policy of favoring members of a disadvantaged group who suffer from discrimination within a culture.

Know something about issues in product pricing and labeling. (S&B pp. 274-280).

-Sometimes consumers are misled by prices that obscure a product's true cost -Higher prices do not always mean better quality goods -Hidden charges, surcharges, and other stealth fees cab boost the consumer's actual cost significantly above the announced price -Promotional pricing can be manipulative

Know the tragedy (also known as the paradox) of the commons, and its applicability to environmental ethics.

-The tragedy of the commons is a term, originally used by Garrett Hardin, to denote a situation where individuals acting independently and rationally according to each's self-interest behave contrary to the best interests of the whole group by depleting some common resource. -What is ethically reasonable and beneficial to an individual may be detrimental if given to everyone in a society. -Example of a village with town center. Reasonable for an individual to allow his/her cow to graze in town center, however if everyone allowed their cows to graze in the town center then there would be no grass left.

What is whistle blowing, and what are the conditions necessary for it to occur properly? (S&B, pp. 502-506) (S&B give five conditions. A sixth - get legal help/advice before the whistleblowing - was given in class.)

-Whistle Blowing: An employee's informing the public about the illegal or immoral behavior of an employer or an organization. Can only be done by a past or present member of an organization. -In order to occur properly: 1) It is done from an appropriate moral motive. Must be motivated by a desire to expose unnecessary harm, illegal or immoral action, or conduct country to the public good or the defined purpose of the organization. 2) The whistle-blower, except in special circumstances, has exhausted all internal channels for dissent before going public. 3) The whistle-blower has compelling evidence that wrongful actions have been ordered or have occurred. 4) The whistle-blower has acted after careful analysis of the danger: How serious is the moral violation? How immediate is the problem? Can the whistle-blower point to specific misconduct? 5) The whistle-blowing has some likelihood of success. 6) Get legal help/advice before whistle-blowing (given in class).

Be able to explain, at least briefly, the concepts of Wise Use, Sustainability, and Stewardship and apply them to environmental issues and concerns.

-Wise Use:a loose-knit coalition of groups promoting the expansion of private property rights and reduction of government regulation of publicly held property. Wise use proponents describes human use of the environment as "stewardship of the land, the water and the air" for the benefit of human beings. -Sustainability: the ability to continue a defined behavior indefinitely. Environmental sustainability is the rates of renewable resource harvest, pollution creation, and non-renewable resource depletion that can be continued indefinitely. If they cannot be continued indefinitely then they are not sustainable. -Stewardship: the management or care of something, particularly the kind that works. Environmental stewardship refers to responsible use and protection of the natural environment through conservation and sustainable practices. Aldo Leopold (1887-1948) championed environmental stewardship based on a land ethic "dealing with man's relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it."

Do we have an ethical obligation to future (i.e. not yet born) people? Why or why not? How does this question figure in environmental concerns and ethics?

-Yes. Treat others as you wish to be treated. -It makes us environmentally aware because our actions will effect future generations.

Why does anyone hire you - what expectation do they have?

-You are hired because the employer expects you to be an aid to the employer's business and/or project(s). If you are not, the employer should dismiss you.

What kind of information can an employee not take from one employer to another?

-confidential or proprietary information to which their new employer can take unfair advantage of. often difficult to decide cases of proprietary data.

Conflict between efficacy and safety for many things, including pesticides and fungicides. (Explain this if asked to do so.)

-efficacy-the ability to produce a desired or intended result -conflict: want a product to produce the best possible result, however also want it to be the safest possible product for humans. must find a balance

What is sexual harassment, and what can businesses do to prevent it?

-harassment in a workplace, or other professional or social situation, involving the making of unwanted sexual advances or obscene remarks. -occurs much more in multi-sex workplace. -to help prevent it, top management at businesses need to make clear that sexual harassment will not be tolerated and prosecute whoever commits acts of sexual harassment.

Know about the necessity for accurate, unbiased, and not politically influenced information for good environmental thinking and action.

-if these criteria are not met then decisions cannot be made with the environments best interests in mind. the wrong decisions might be made simply for political gain or because of wrong information.

When disagreeing with an ethical argument, you can...

1. Disagree with the factual premise 2. Disagree with the ethical theory 3. Say that the ethical theory used in the argument is good but does not apply to the situation 4. Point out that there is a mistake in logic

How far can a business/employer go in inquiring into and investigating the behavior of employees? What about monitoring employees on the job? (S&B, p. 436) Drug testing? (S&B, pp. 437-438) Polygraph and personality tests? (S&B, pp. 433-436)

-many major employers routinely monitor the performance of their employees through the computers and telephones they use. -Electronic Communications Privacy Act restricts the government or unauthorized parties from eavesdropping, but it allows for exceptions when consent of employees has been obtained, when the organization owns/maintains the system, or when there is a legitimate business purpose for the surveillance. -monitoring of employees often gathers personal information without informed consent. -drug testing: 1) the issue of drug testing by corporations and other organizations arises because one needs good information and reliable statistics to properly discuss the problem yet these are all hard to come by. 2) drugs differ, so it must be carefully considered both what drugs are being tested for and why. To be defensible, drug testing must be pertinent to employee performance and there must be a lot at stake. 3) Drug abuse by an individual is a serious problem, generally calling for medical and psychological assistance rather than punitive action. The moral assessment of any program of drug testing must rest in part on the potential consequences for those taking the test... Will they face immediate dismissal and potential criminal proceedings, or therapy and a chance to retain their positions? 4) Any drug testing program, assuming it is warranted, must be careful to respect the dignity and rights of the persons to be tested. -Polygraph: often used in lie-detecting tests. -Businesses cite several reasons for using polygraph tests: it is fast/economical way to verify info, it allows employers to identify dishonest employees, and the use of polygraphs actually increases workers' freedom. -Argument against polygraphs: They are not always accurate. They do not always correctly tell if a person is lying or being truthful. They give a lot of false positives. -Personality Tests: used to determine whether prospective employees are emotionally mature, get along well with others, have a good work ethic, etc. -Can help screen applicants for jobs and current employees for particular assignments by indicating areas of adequacy and inadequacy. -Often very invasive and intrude on many areas considered private.

Know what nepotism is, as well as reasons for and against it.

-nepotism: the practice among those with power or influence of favoring relatives or friends, especially by giving them jobs. -for: keeps like-minded people together. also potentially gives jobs to those who are well qualified -against: unfair advantage. potentially gives jobs to those that are not qualified.

Know the reasons for labor unions, their primary methods or tactics (collective bargaining, strikes), and libertarian criticisms of them.

-reasons for labor unions: protect the rights of workers, stops employers from overreaching their bounds. -primary methods/tactics: collective bargaining, strikes, boycotts -libertarian criticism: unions do not allow for individual rights, but rather for many people working together? (not entirely sure)

Steps in the hiring process: Job announcement, screening, testing, interviewing. Know things that can go wrong, ethically speaking, at each of those stages, as well as how they should be done. Know about validity and reliability of tests.

-things that can go wrong (ethically): racism, sexism -Validity refers to the degree in which our test or other measuring device is truly measuring what we intended it to measure. -Reliability is synonymous with the consistency of a test, survey, observation, or other measuring device.

• Ethical Egoism

. Identifies what is ethically right with the agent's self-interest. Claims that something is ethically right if and only if it promotes the agent's (long-term) self-interest. There are at least two versions of this: (1) Descriptive ethical egoism. This claims that, in fact, people usually or always do what they perceive to be in their self-interest, and then go on to claim or say that what they did/are doing is ethical. (2) Normative ethical egoism. This holds that people should do or ought to do what is in their (long term) self-interest. Ayn Rand (and others) held/hold this view. Often, people who hold some version of this view also hold that it is unethical to require people to sacrifice their self-interest because this saps their freedom and their initiative. Many people object to ethical egoism, saying this is not really an ethical theory at all, but is instead an expression of selfishness, whereas a true ethical theory should promote something beyond self-interest or selfishness. Note that this objection depends on equating following one's self-interest with being selfish, and that this equation is highly questionable

Review the list of ethical problems in health care, as given on the class handout. Think about four or five specific problems in ethics of health care, and think about how you would solve several of them.

1) Costs of Health care: Universal healthcare 2) Abortion: Let people choose; Crime decreases when abortion is available. Lowers the number of children who are not wanted who become problematic later on. 3) Mental illness and involuntary commitment: Better treatment of mentally ill patients will cut down on homelessness and crime. 4) Do not resuscitate: Patients should have DNR orders on file. Would cut down on health care costs for those who do not want to be resuscitated. 5) Courtesy, dignity, respect, responsiveness, timely attention: Everyone should receive the same level of these regardless of who they are or how much they are worth.

Review Emanuel and Emanuel's account of four models of the physician-patient relationship.

1) Paternalistic: Parental/priestly model...patient receives info that best promotes their health and well-being...acts as guardian 2) Informative: Provides all relevant info, helps patient select medical interventions, executes them. Clear distinction between facts and values. Provides truth 3) Interpretive: aim is to elucidate patient's values of what he wants, patient's values are not fixed. patient decides which values and course of action best fit who he or she is. physician is counselor 4) Deliberative: aim is to help the patient determine and choose best values that can be realized, only health related. coercion is avoided. acts as teacher/friend.

Know the six points given by Shaw and Barry (S&B pp. 269-271) that they say would, if followed, go a long way in helping business behave ethically with respect to consumer safety.

1. Business should give safety the priority warranted by the product. 2. Business should abandon the misconception that accidents occur exclusively as a result of product issue and that it is thereby absolved of all responsibility. 3. Business must monitor the manufacturing process itself. 4. When a product is ready to be marketed, companies should have their product safety staff review their market strategy and advertising for potential safety problems. 5. When a product reaches the marketplace, firms should make available to consumers written info about the product's performance. 6. Companies should investigate consumer complaints and do so quickly.

three ethical criticisms of capitalism

1. Capitalism leads to inequality (i.e. it's unfair) o •2. Today's marketplace and business situation are far more complex than Smith's model of getting the stuff for your dinner. o •3. Capitalism assumes human beings are materialist/consumerists o •4. Corporate welfare programs protect business o •5. Competition is not good o 6. The Marxist notions of exploitation and alienation (but this fits socialist systems as much as it does capitalist ones

Review Freeman's "Stakeholder Theory of the Modern Corporation," especially his six ground rules for fair contracts.

1. Entry and Exit--clearly defined conditions, must know when agreement exists, and chance of fulfillment of agreement. 2. Governance--Procedures for changing the rules of the game must be agreed upon by unanimous consent. 3. Externalities--A, B. If there is a cost to C, he is now involved and terms are renegotiated. 4. Contracting costs--all parties must share in the cost of contracting. 5. Agency--any agent must serve the interests of all stakeholders. 6. Limited immortality--manage as if it can continue to serve interests forever.

Three basic parts of most arguments in ethics

1. Factual component 2. Ethical principle 3. Conclusion

4. Know and be able to describe briefly at least five criteria for a good or adequate normative ethical theory: Universality, consistency, culpability, importance, fairness

1. Universality. Unless I can show that the circumstances of a given case are significantly different, an ethical judgment should apply to me as well as others, and to all others. 2. Consistency. Ethical judgments should not conflict with one another. 3. Culpability. Ethical judgments usually imply that some form of punishment or sanction is justified for offenders. 4. Importance. Ethical judgments usually have priority over other kinds of considerations, although it is unclear and debatable whether they override other considerations in all circumstances. (See, for example, the remarks about the centrality of economic considerations, given above.) 5. Fairness. Ethical judgments or pronouncements should be fair. (Fairness is - or at least seems to be -- closely related to proportionality and to everyone getting their just deserts.)

Bayles' three central features of professions

1. extensive training is required to practice a profession 2. the training involves a significant intellectual component 3. the trained ability provides an important service in society

Bayles' three salient features of the role of professions in the US today

1. they all provide an important service 2. the professions have a significant or monopolistic control over the provision of services and entry into them 3. although some professions have secured legally protected monopolies, few of them have been subject to much public control

What are Schlossberger's five main points in his argument?

5 Points: 1) Society provides every organization with extensive help without which it cannot function 2) Every organization knowingly employs that help in pursuing its purpose 3) Therefore, every org makes use of benefits of great magnitude by society 4) Therefore, one has a duty to strive to ensure that one's pursuit of that purpose is not inconsistent with one's benefactor's needs (no bite principle) 5) therefore, every org has duty to ensure its pursuit is not inconsistent with its needs, welfare, and projects of society

Descriptive Account and Ethics

A descriptive account or assessment of something (also known as an observational account) merely describes or observes or says what that thing is, or what people hold it to be, without saying whether it is actually right or wrong, good or bad. Ethics can be either descriptive or normative. Descriptive ethics looks at a person, group, or society and says what that person, group, or society thinks or says is good or bad, right or wrong, or what it thinks ought or ought not to be, ethically speaking. In other words, descriptive ethics only describes what that person, group, or society thinks is right or wrong, without commenting on whether it actually is right or wrong, good or bad. Descriptive ethics does not solve the problem of what is actually right or wrong, good or bad.

Normative Account and Ethics

A normative account or assessment of something attempts to say—usually on the basis of some universal normative ethical theory or belief--whether that thing is actually good or bad, right or wrong. Normative ethics attempts to say, or at least find theories that enable us to say, what is actually right or wrong, good or bad. Normative ethics deals with what actually ought to be or what should be, not just what people think is so, and it attempts (usually, anyway) to make this universal, applying to all people, across differing beliefs and cultures.

• Contractarian

Ethics is based on an (imagined or hypothetical) contract or agreement among the members of a society. Most important recent example is A Theory of Justice (1971) by the late Harvard professor John Rawls (1921- 2002). Rawls used a "veil of ignorance" and the notion of an "original position" as starting assumptions of his work. Rawls also held that "Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. Therefore, in a just society the rights secured by justice are not subject to political bargaining or to the calculus of social interests." (I.e. Rawls was anti-utilitarian.) In addition, Rawls claimed that justice is fairness.

Know the arguments for and against positive race-based affirmative action, and responses to them. (S&B, pp. 560-563).

FOR: 1) Compensatory justice demands affirmative action programs. -Point: Women and minorities as a group have historically been discriminated against. Thus we have an obligation to do something to help repair the wrongs of the past. -Counterpoint: We cannot be responsible for what our fathers did. 2) Affirmative action is necessary to permit fair competition. -Point: Growing up in families that have suffered discrimination puts many blacks at a disadvantage. -Counterpoint: There are a lot of disadvantaged whites. 3) Affirmative action needs to break the cycle of women and minorities locked in low-paying, low-prestige jobs. -Point: Adopting affirmative action pushes more African-Americans into middle- and upper-class jobs. -Counterpoint: Affirmative action raises the frustration among races and genders. AGAINST: 1) Affirmative action injures white men and infringes on their rights. -Point: Even moderate affirmative action programs injure the white men who are made to bear their brunt. -Counterpoint: Racial and sexual considerations are often relevant to employment decisions. Jobs are scarce resources, thus society may distribute these in a way that furthers its legitimate ends-like breaking the cycle of poverty for minorities. 2) Affirmative Action itself violates the principle of equality. -Point: You cannot enhance racial and sexual equality by treating people unequally, which is what affirmative action does. -Counterpoint: The unfortunate reality is that in the real world racial and sexual factors go a long way toward determining what life prospects an individual has. 3) Nondiscrimination will achieve our social goals; stronger affirmative action is unnecessary -Point: Stronger affirmative action measure are unnecessary. They only bring undesirable results. -Counterpoint: Without affirmative action, progress often stops.

Review Schlossberger's account of four different types of professional information, as well as the question of who owns this information and whether and what information an employee can take from one employer to another.

General Knowledge: information that is generally available...not legally restricted Tricks of the trade: shortcuts, problem-solving strategies, approaches, nonpatentable information, not publicly available but learned from experience of you or others Trade secrets: Proprietary information or business secrets, specific company plans, not available to public Patented information: Publicly available but whose use is legally restricted general knowledge and tricks of trade go with engineer, trade secrets stay with employer

3 arguments in favor of narrow view

Invisible hand, the let government do it argument and business can't handle it argument. Invisible hand argument: o •"Every individual is continually exerting himself to find the most advantageous employment for whatever capital he can command. It is his own advantage, indeed, and not that of the society, which he has in view.... [But] by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he [is]...led by an invisible hand to promote an end that is no part of his intention.... By pursuing his own interest he frequently promote that of society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it." Basically that if we act in our own economic interest, we are led by an invisible hand that will promote the general good. This argument is economically unrealistically. Also corporations today acknowledge values other than just profit. Let government do it argument: Believe that government can bring corporations to heel. Critics say this is blueprint for an intrusive government. Also argue that government can't control everything and would promote corporations to act in shady ways to hide things. Business can't handle it: Corporations are wrong group to be entrusted with broad responsibility for promoting well being of society. They are not up to it because they lack necessary expertise and they are addressing non economic matters.

distinguish between ethics and law.

Laws are the regulations established, and usually written, by a governing power. Ethics are the morals of a culture, and often times, they inform the laws that are made. The distinction is that, while you may obey the law, you might not always act ethically. It would be a rare case for something to be ethical, but against the law. An important point to keep in mind is that ethics do not have any associated punishments when broken. A law, however, specifically sets the types of repercussions that should occur should it be broken.

Libertarian theory and Free Exchange

Libertarianism identifies justice with liberty. Liberty is the prime value, and justice consists in permitting to live as he or she pleases, free from the interference of others. • •Rejects utilitarianism's concern for total social well-being. • •Liberty takes precedence over other social concerns. Libertarians refuse to restrict individual liberty if even doing so would increase overall happiness. Free exchange is a totally free market. It is not about morality. If Jack scores big on the market the libertarian approach is not that Jack deserves that money but that Jack is entitled to his holdings and if he has acquired them in accordance with principles of justice.

• Libertarian Ethics

More-or-less directly opposite to the socialist/communist/communitarian view. Holds that the best political, social, and/or governmental system is the one that governs least, that provides for the greatest individual liberty, initiative, entrepreneurship, etc. (Most libertarianism is not anarchist because it does believe in some minimal government - a view sometimes called the night-watchman theory of the state.) Advocates minimizing social and governmental power, action, control, regulation, and taxation, and maximizing individual liberty and freedom. Suspicious of the ability of government and bureaucrats to make good (or ethical), wise, informed, and beneficial ethical, social, or economic choices for people. Believes instead that people should be left to judge and choose for themselves and to be masters of their own self-interest and benefit, and that they usually make the best choices when they choose freely for themselves. Tends to regard societal and governmental norms and activity as coercive and totalitarian and as leading to serfdom. Most important recent work: Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974) by the late Harvard professor Robert Nozick (1938-2002). Some other major figures or works: Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises (1881-1973); F.A.Hayek's The Road to Serfdom (1944; Hayek received the Nobel Prize in economics in 1975); The Wealth of Nations (1776) by Scottish economist Adam Smith (1723-1790) and other forms of lassiez faire economics. The Cato Institute in Washington, DC is

• Virtue Ethics

Most important ancient source: the Nichomachean Ethics of Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Virtue ethics focuses not on ethical rules or consequences, but on the moral status of the person or agent. The purpose of ethics is to develop the individual's moral/ethical character, or virtues. There are numerous present-day proponents of this. Important 20th Century text: After Virtue, by Alasdair MacIntyre. (1st Ed, 1981, 3rd Ed, 2007).

What are nonsexual dual relationships? Are they objectionable or problematic? Why?

NDR: When the therapist is in another, significantly different relationship with one of her patients. second role is social, financial, professional, conflict of interest!! Changes nature of professional's screening of patients to see whether they will benefit them.

• Narrow view

Narrow view, espoused by Milton Friedman. Profit maximization. The sole social responsibility of a corporation and corporate managers and officials is to "make as much money for their stockholders as possible" so long as the corporation stays within the rules of the game (i.e. it can't do illegal or unethical things to make that profit). • Profit maximization is that business have no social responsibilities other than to maximize profit. o •What is a fiduciary relationship? • To look after the interest of shareholders. Violated if taken advantage of like when corporate executives enrich themselves with extravagant bonuses and stock options. Narrow view holds that it is managements responsibility to maximize shareholder wealth and this outweighs any other obligation. • •The fiduciary responsibility of corporate officials and managers. o Companies operating under the narrow view can spend money on small towns by helping their schools parks and roads, if it in the self interest of the company. If in the long run helping these people allows the company to profit, Friedman has no issue with it. It should not be a social obligation or responsibility of the company to do these things

Is professional ethics the same as or reducible to ordinary ethics? Why or why not?

No because professions have special rights and privileges, which are needed so they can fulfill their role in providing for basic human needs for us. Having special rights and privileges results in having special ethical obligations and duties.

• Ethics Based on Religion

Often called the Divine Command Theory of Ethics) For many people, their ethics is based on their religion. In this view, right and wrong, good and evil, just and unjust are determined not (primarily or even at all, depending on the particular view) by human wish, desire, or reason, but by the will or decree(s) of a transcendent deity (God) or deities. This fact, as well as the content of the deity(ies) will and command(s), are known through revelation, sacred scriptures, the rites and rituals of the religion, the pronouncements of the religion's prophets and/or teachers and/or priests, or some combination of those. Examples: The 10 Commandments; religious versions of the Golden Rule; Jewish, Christian, and Islamic notions of ethics based on those religion

What is paternalism in the marketplace? Do you think it is justified? Why or why not?

Paternalism- occurs when an individual, presumably in a position of superior knowledge, makes a decision for another person to protect this person from some type of harm. Limited paternalism is good. ex: dog breeder (protects dogs) won't sell dogs to bad owner

• Pragmatic ethics

Pragmatism as a philosophical view or stance rejects unchanging or transcendent principles and views and norms, holding instead that principles and views and norms both are and need to be bent or changed in light of actual events or discoveries or situations. Pragmatic ethics stresses changing situations and knowledge, and holds that ethics should/must change to fit those changes. What has sometimes been called "situation ethics" can be understood as being a form of pragmatic ethics.

Review the issues in client confidentiality. What is it? What is its importance? Can/should it be breached? Why/when? What are some professions in which confidentiality is important?

Privacy can be breached; prima facie right that can be overridden. 4 requirements for justified infringements: 1. moral objective must have a realistic prospect of achievement 2. the infringement must be necessary in the circumstance 3. the form of infringement selected must constitute the least infringement possible 4. the agent must seek to minimize the effects of the infringement

9. Know, at least minimally, the contractualist-egalitarian theory of John Rawls, including Rawls's two principles. (S&B pp. 119-127, esp. p. 122)

Rawls theory of justice lies within the social contract tradition . Ask us to image people meeting in original position and what they choose as basic principls that are to govern their society. Although chosen on self interest, they are being a vail of ingnorance with no personal information about themselves. People under these circumstances would endorse two principles of justice. The two principles of justice: o(1)Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all. o(2)Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions. First, they are to be attached to positions and offices open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity; and second, they are to be to the greatest expected benefit of the least-advantaged members of society. They are principles of justice because they would be agreed to in an initial situation of justice and equality

What are some ethical problems for the engineering profession?

Risk for consumer with flaws. When stakes are high, can take on obligations that are more rigorous. Whistleblowing. Trade secrets and patents.

What is the conflict between engineering and public interest? See Broome's account of this problem.

Risk free engineering is not possible ie: challenger blowup Accepting and accountable of risks, but cannot guarantee no faults

Is it permissible for a professional to lie to a client? Why or why not? What test might be given to distinguish between permissible and impermissible lies?

Sissela Bok's Test of Publicity What would the public reaction be and how would you feel about that reaction if your lie with your name attached was made public. Can lie, depending on the situation. being kind, preventing harm, personal gain, level playing field robs person of freedom, not accurate info, guilt etc

What is the distinction between a stockholder and a stakeholder? What is the purpose or goal of stakeholder theory?

Stakeholder- individuals who benefit from or are harmed by, and whose rights are violated or respected by, corporate actions. Stockholders- A stockholder is anyone who owns a piece of the business or invests in the business Stakeholder Theory- distinguishes between a stock holder and a person who hasn't invested yet in a company but will be affected by the company such as the barber shop in a place where a majority of the citizens work for a company that is laying off people. It says a business has a larger responsibility than to just its stock-holders. A narrow view claim- a business's sole social responsibility is to make money just for its investors. Made by Milton Friedman.

What is autonomy? Why is it important?

The capacity of persons to make rationally reflective choices about their ends and activities. It is important because it allows people to engage in self-scrutiny without intrusion and distraction

What is a professional-client relationship for?

The client believes that the professional will enable him or her to obtain what she needs or wants.

• Kantian Ethics

and other forms of Deontological Ethics (nonconsequentialist theories). Ethics is based on or primarily concerned with ethical rules. Instead of being based on consequences, these rules are derived from logic, from reasoning, or from the nature of human being as such. An important example or proponent was the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), who introduced the notion of the categorical imperative: 1st version: Always act so that you can consistently will that the maxim of your action become a universal law. 2nd version (1st reformulation): An action is right only if the agent would be willing to be so treated if the position of the parties were reversed. 3rd version (2nd reformulation): One must always act so as to treat other people as ends in themselves, and not just means.

Observational or cultural or descriptive ethical relativism is...?

is a statement (or observation) of the fact that different people, groups, societies, or (especially) cultures do, in fact, have different ethical views, relative to that person, group, or society

. Normative ethical relativism is....?

is the theory that people ought to or should accept the ethical views that their culture actually holds. It is sometimes put, "What they think is right for them, is right for them." It also (usually) claims that no universal ethical standards or norms can or do exist beyond the ethical standards or norms that people (individuals, groups, societies, cultures) actually hold. In other words, normative ethical relativism is a denial of the claim or view that there are or can be universal ethical norms or standards, applying to all people everywhere. (This view can be summarized in the slogans, "What the Romans think is right for them is right for them," or "When in Rome you should do as the Romans do.") Normative ethical relativism is false, however, because we can always ask a question of this form: "X (a person, society, or culture) believes that Y (some ethical view) is good, but is Y really good?"

• Broad view,

o Espoused by most commentators on business ethics. Because of its social power, social role, and social "footprint," in addition to making a profit for its shareholders, a corporation has a larger social responsibility o Companies have other obligations than just profit. Companies have responsibilities to consumers, products, employees, supplies, contractors, etc. o Companies have obligations to not only its stockholders but also to other constituencies that are affected or affect its behavior - that is all parties of interest. o Since companies have great social and economic power they have other responsibilities than just profit. They need to operate in a way that benefits society and thus must take responsibility for the unintended side effects of their business.

: Caveat emptor, caveat venditor, strict product liability. Know why there has been a movement away from caveat emptor to strict product liability.

o •(1) Caveat emptor: Let the buyer beware. Era of patent medicines and outrageously false product claims. Consumer was supposed to be knowledgeable about product but this ended after McPherson vs. Buick Motor case. Basically because unrealistic assumptions about consumer knowledge, competence and behavioral o •(2) Caveat venditor (not discussed in S&B): Let the seller beware. Counter to emptor and suggest seller can also be deceived in a market transaction. Forces seller to o •(3) Strict product liability: The manufacture of a product has legal responsibilities to compensate the user of that product for injures suffered because the product defective condition made it unreasonably dangerous, even though the manufacture has not been negligent in permitting defect to occur. Product must be defective. When to this perspective after Greenman v. Yuba Power Products.

• 6 possible schems or principles for distributing rewards

o •. To each an equal share o •2. To each according to individual need o •3. To each according to personal effort o •4. To each according to social contribution o •5. To each according to merit o •6. Winner take all

What are some ethical problems or issues faced by nurses?

refusing assignments: if they aren't competent... nurses as moral agents: cannot act as they are morally compelled to because of institutional restraints nurse as employee: as a professional she is autonomous, as employee she is not nurse as person: accepting/refusing unsafe or unreasonable assignment

Review Moriarty's use of virtue ethics to solve problems of engineering ethics. Look especially at his accounts of character, dispositions, virtue, conflict between goods, objectivity, self-transcendence, and the virtues of care and objectivity.

should be caring and objective, internal good is to make them aesthetically pleasing, external good is to make $$. Persistence, courage, unflappability in the face of setbacks. Be objective! Character needs trust, knowledge, alternating perspectives and objective fairness

What is the main goal or purpose of counseling?

to empower clients...counselor helps the client develop the ability to make his own discoveries and decisions, does not impose values.

the definition of a corporation (S&B p. 200) as well as the main reasons for their formation.

• •"A corporation is a thing that [1] can endure beyond the natural lives of its members and that [2] has incorporators who may sue and be sued as a unit and [3] who are able to consign part of their property to the corporation for [4] ventures of limited liability." (Shaw & Barry, p. 200) Corporations are legal entities with legal rights and responsibilities similar but not identical to those enjoyed by the individual.

10. Know the definition of capitalism (S&B p. 150).

• •According to Shaw & Barry, "Capitalism can be defined ideally as (1) an economic system in which (2) the major portion of production and distribution is in private hands, operating under (3) what is termed a 'profit' or 'market' system." • •Capitalism can be distinguished from socialism, which is (1) "...an economic system characterized by (2) public [social/governmental] ownership of property and (3) a planned economy."