Cape Sociology Module 3: Social Stratification and Social Mobility

Role Expectancy

the way in which an individual of a particular status is expected to act.

Pyramid Shaped Society

-A pyramid shape is typically used to represent the hierarchical order of groups in society, with the highest stratum (usually the smallest population) at the top and the lowest stratum at the bottom.

Race

-'Race' refers to a group of people who have similar biological traits that are passed on to subsequent generations: for example, skin and eye colour, hair texture and facial structure.

The Social Class System (Open System) Part 1

-A social class is a group of people who have several things in common, for example economic and educational opportunities and lifestyle. -one's social position is chiefly determined by achievement rather than ascription. Within the class system there is mobility, which allows one to move up or down the social ladder. -Sociologists have also queried whether some social groups are more able to achieve upward social mobility than others. -Social scientists tend to divide society into three classes: upper, middle and lower. It is not always clear what criteria govern why people are placed in particular classes, nor is it always clear where the boundaries between the classes fall. As a result, some sociologists further subdivide the classes, especially the middle class.

Derek Gordon on Education and Social Strata

--Derek Gordon also believed that increased occupational opportunities provided avenues for people to achieve upward social mobility. Between 1943 and 1984 there was significant upward movement to the middle and upper-middle classes. In his book Class, Status and Social Mobility in Jamaica (1987), Gordon stated that Jamaican society experienced a shift from a colonial plantation economy that chiefly depended on agricultural exports to a more diversified and dynamic capitalism. Jamaica shifted from being a plantocratic society to one that was more dynamic and that had an open class system. This made it possible for there to be greater social movement into better occupational positions, thus allowing Jamaica to be seen as a largely open capitalist society that allowed for movement both in class and status. --Gordon noted that, during the period 1943-84, there was significant upward movement from the lower class to the middle class and from the upper-middle class to the upper class. He pointed out that there had been a particular increase in the representation of the black population in the higher managerial and professional groups. Between 1943 and 1984, the black proportion of this group grew from 20 to 42 per cent. --However, Gordon's research also showed that the opportunities for social mobility still remained unequal with respect to race and gender. He felt that inconsistencies existed because people with poor or low socioeconomic backgrounds did not receive a fair chance of social mobility. Though there was upward movement, there was still inequality of opportunity for those whose backgrounds were in agricultural labour or domestic or unskilled manual work. Gordon's study pointed out that Jamaicans - both men and women- with parents who were agricultural labourers, domestic workers or manual labourers had 'virtually no chance of ending up at the top of the middle stratum' (1987), He further stated that, for every 1000 people in the population, only seven men and four women from a small farming background would become managers or higher professionals (Gordon 1987). --Though Gordon's study is dated, it still gives some insight into the fact that most mobility is shortrange and that some groups will always experience more difficulty than others in achieving social mobility. Studies have shown that most people remain in their class of origin and that mobility maybe more horizontal than vertical. One must also be aware of the practice of elite self-recruitment, in which the upper classes use their privileges and positions to ensure benefits for their own children. In this way the sons and daughters of the elite end up in the same social class as their parents.

Factors influencing Social Mobility

--Education a meritocratic society provides the vehicle for upward social mobility to all. Changes in the education system throughout the Caribbean region and internationally have made it possible for children of working-class parents to be successful Blau and Duncan(1967) placed an emphasis on the importance of education in one's ability to achieve upward social mobility. --Wealth chiefly relates to money and property It also includes investments such as bonds, real estate and so on. Material possessions are important in determining one's social standing. --Environment: one's environment can have an impact on the need to strive for upward mobility. People's parental background-or the level of support they receive from their parents, in particular during their studies-can motivate them to strive for success. The attitude that one displays can open the door to success, especially for those from less privileged groups. The friends and peers by whom one is surrounded can also act as catalysts, propelling one to strive for upward social mobility.

How Education affects Social Strata

--Education has been of major importance in defining social strata, especially for those who today make up the middle class. Education has helped many to move upward from the lower stratum. However, Smith (1965) asserts that social mobility was not easy to achieve. Movement from the middle to the upper stratum was based solely on race and the ownership of property. For some though, especially those of the lower strata, modernisation created opportunities for employment in the expanding manufacturing and service sectors. --According to C.L.R. James, the middle class, which emerged after emancipation, was mostly made up of educated coloured individuals. They were not part of the upper class, which controlled finance, industry and commerce.

Intergenerational Mobility

--Here, there is a change in status from one generation to another (that is, from parents' occupation to the occupation of their children). Some examples are: a father who works as a labourer but whose son achieves the status of a doctor; a domestic helper who has a daughter who becomes a lawyer; and another domestic worker whose son works in the field of international relations. --Most intergenerational change involves children of the lower class moving up into the middle class. It should be noted, too, that over time some individuals who moved into the middle strata of society might move even further, to the upper class. --However, Derek Gordon (1987) conducted research in Jamaica on intergenerational study and found that, although social mobility was possible, it was very difficult to attain. Other studies have shown that there is more likely to be short-range than long-range mobility. Sons tend to move only to classes either adjacent or close to that of their fathers. Large movements from the working or lower class to the upper class are in the minority.

Horizontal Mobility

--Horizontal mobility is movement across or within one's social class. Individuals experience no real change in their social status. Examples are a nurse who leaves one hospital to work in another or the manager of a supermarket who is transferred to another supermarket within that chain (in the new supermarket he receives no change in salary, prestige or power). --Horizontal mobility may lead to an increase in wages but may not change one's social-class position per se. For example, a teller might do further studies and qualify for the position of bank manager. Prestige is gained because of the importance of the new occupation but both jobs are categorised as middle class. This is why some sociologists prefer to use categories such as lower middle class and upper middle class to differentiate one from the other.

Vertical Mobility

--This is movement up or down the social hierarchy within society. An example is the movement of an individual from the lower class to the middle class or vice versa. A young man who starts a temporary job in a bank as an errand boy may be motivated to pursue studies that would quality him to become a bank teller Conversely, a teller may be made redundant due to staff cutbacks atthe bank. Harsh economic times may make it difficult for her to find a job and she may be willing to accept employment in a fast-food outlet. An individual can also be referred to as being 'sociallyupwardly mobile if he or she inherits or buys a property or experiences a sudden windfall such as winning the lottery. --Movement up or down the social ladder requires adjustment to the new lifestyle. This period of adjustment is referred to as 'status dissonance'. Downward mobility usually results in discomfort or embarrassment for individuals. The economic recessions that have plagued countries internationally since 2008 have led to many people being forced to make adjustments to their lifestyles because of changes in their occupational status.

Intragenerational Mobility

--This kind of mobility focuses not on changes between generations but on changes within a single generation. It involves changes during a person's adulthood and is also referred to as 'career mobility'. People may experience upward mobility during their lifetime - for example, the errand boy who becomes a bank teller, then a branch manager, then a company manager and then CEO demonstrates positive upward mobility. However, individuals can also experience a downward change in status. There are several factors that contribute to such shifts in status: ---->Psychological problems ---->being a victim of crime ---->loss of job or income ---->sickness ---->divorce/separation ---->periods of severe recession

Ryan (1991) On Brathwaite's View on Social Stratification

-According to Ryan (1991), Braithwaite pointed to the emergence of a middle class among the Chinese, the East Indians and the Syrians, who wanted to retain their ethnic identity and therefore barred intermarriage with other groups with the only exception being upper-class whites. Ryan agreed with Braithwaite that there were ascriptive values that made groups distance themselves from each other. This was reflected in social clubs, Masonic lodges, sporting associations and churches. Membership in the clubs was rigidly organised along ethnic and class lines.

Talcott Parsons

-Believed that outstanding individuals who are perceived to be successful based on criteria defined as valuable by society should be ranked highly and should also be well rewarded. -ratification comes from common values that exist in society that people accept. In some societies age is a valuable trait and therefore the elderly are bestowed with honour and power. Similarly, there may be consensus among members of a society that a particular skill or aptitude deserves great recognition. n such a system, those who have the skill to lead should be given a higher status than those who are being directed. Those who display such aptitudes will be acknowledged over others. -If consensus exists, people will accept whichever position they are in and should be free to aspire to move into a higher position. If certain values are accepted by all, it is inevitable that individuals will be evaluated and placed in different ranks in society. Such ranking is functional, as If consensus exists, people will accept whichever position they are in and should be free to aspire to move into a higher position. If certain values are accepted by all, it is inevitable that individuals will be evaluated and placed in different ranks in society. Such ranking is functional, as it integrates various groups in society and allows for cooperation and social order. -Parsons also saw education as a factor in the positions to which people are falsely allocated in society. Education allows for social mobility, which can be obtained based on how well one performs (that is, mobility is based on merit and not on one's ascribed status). Those who achieve will be rewarded more than those who do not. The system is fair since everyone is treated according to universal standards and given the same chances to succeed.

Economic Impacts of the Stratification System

-Changes in the economic structure and the movement from a purely agrarian society to one that has an industrialised sector have led to a variety of jobs in primary, secondary and tertiary occupations. As aforementioned, occupation and the income derived from it are objective indicators that help to gauge one's social-class position. Income allows one to enjoy a certain standard of living and to have a more desirable lifestyle. -Carl Stone (1973), who carried out an empirical study in Jamaica, argued that what defined the social structure were not so much the cultural elements (ethnicity, colour) but rather theeconomic dimensions emerging from the occupational structure. In his study, respondents placedthemselves in economic 'classes' - that is, upper, middle, working or lower - instead of what herefers to as 'cultural sections'. -Some groups such as the Lebanese and Syrians and the Indians have been able to dominate the private sector but state jobs in the public sector have afforded continued and secure employment to many, especially in times of economic stability.

Elchler (1980)

-Elchler (1980) agrees that gender stratification is very real and that the relationship between men and women is that of master and servant, where the male is the dominant one who benefits the most from the relationship and the woman is subservient. -However, she disagrees with how Millett equates women's status with belonging to a caste (in terms of its rigidity and lack of mobility). She highlights that some women are better off than some men in terms of their occupational status. -Others have criticised Millett for assuming that all men exploit all women and ignoring the fact that there are often genuine, mutually loving relationships between men and women.

Ethnicity

-Ethnicity, unlike race, tends to focus on cultural elements. A group is said to be 'ethnically' distinct when it is regarded by others as culturally different from the dominant group of a society. -These groups tend to have a common nationality, ancestry, language and dietary preferences and are often loyal to their cultural background. -Today, most countries strive for pluralism and so in one country there will be people from several ethnic groups. -The Caribbean is culturally diverse: -- In Trinidad and Tobago the two major groups are those of African and those of East Indian heritage. There are also Chinese, Lebanese and Syrians, and people of white and mixed colour. In addition, intermixing and intermarriage between groups have added to the complexity of people's sense of ethnic identity.

Slavery (Closed System)

-Existed on the plantation societies of the New World in the 16th and 17th centuries. -In this system, the enslaved people had no rights and were regarded as chattels. Stratification was based on place of birth, ability, strength, health, age, gender and colour. Slavery was a closed system of stratification that was justified by law. -It can be argued that movement did take place within the system, but only within the same stratum (for example, a field slave could move from the fields to work in the house). Thus, although there was some movement among the enslaved under people, their position as slaves remained fixed.

Social Impacts of the Stratification System

-For a long time, having European traits was an avenue to 'social betterment' within Caribbean societies. An educated black man might marry a woman of lighter complexion in an attempt to assert his status within society. Skin colour retains a subjective dimension; cultural practices fuelled by consumer items allow for the imitation of European features through hairstyles- for example, via wigs, weaves, or relaxed, straightened or blonde hair, as opposed to one's natural hair texture and colour. In addition, the practice of using products to lighten skin tone is not uncommon, though it is not as pervasive as previously. -Education has added a new dimension to the system of stratification as groups have been able to become upwardly mobile. Education has been responsible for many of the changes in society. For example, it has allowed for the increased employment of women, whose status is no longer solely defined by marriage. Blacks and other immigrants who were previously in the lowest stratum have become upwardly mobile. However, many have not embraced education and in all societies there are groups who feel marginalised and powerless. The system of education has failed many, not only because of its structure but also because the programmes that are offered may not be relevant or adequate for those of the lower strata. Continued poverty and chronic unemployment have crippled some groups and increasing criminal activity has been the bane of Caribbean societies.

Stratification System

A system of stratification consists of the institutions and ideas that allow or limit the distribution of prestige, status and life opportunities.

Hacker (1972)

-Hacker (1972) has conferred on women the same status as black Americans. whose ascribed status renders them victims of discrimination and of whom certain behaviours are expected. Women are therefore more respectful to those in society who hold more power. -Other feminist writers focus on specific problems faced by black women in particular, arguing that the inequalities faced by black women are triple-fold, with each factor compounding the others. Black women are disadvantaged not only based on their gender but also their race/ethnicity and their working-class positions. Each inequality reinforces and has an impact on the others. For black feminists, the relationships between gender, class and race must be considered since they influence the life chances of black women. Black women may undergo different experiences from white women by dint of their ethnicity in a society that is racist.

Post-Second World War

-Immigration to the Caribbean continued; however, political power remained in the hands of the minority post colonialists, resulting in the disenfranchisement of other groups. The masses were never satisfied with their position and were always resisting the system. In the 1930s and beyond, there was social unrest throughout the region. Agitators such as José Martí of Cuba, Marcus Garvey of Jamaica and Tubal Uriah Butler of Trinidad made supplications and demanded justice, rights, benefits and freedoms. The 1960s saw several Caribbean territories, especially those ruled by the British, gaining their independence. This started with Jamaica, followed by Trinidad and Tobago in 1962. -In the latter part of the 1960s and the early 1970s, awareness of the civil rights movement's fight for equality and justice in the USA gave rise to black consciousness movements such as the Black Power movement in Trinidad and Tobago, which later spread to other territories. This movement in particular highlighted the inequality and marginalisation of blacks and their lack of representation in occupational sectors such as banking. As a consequence of the Black Power struggle, blacks were able to gain a new identity and a new sense of self and to move forward with the expectation of a more egalitarian society. -Efforts were made to increase equality and the thrust in education resulted in the increasing emergence of a black middle class. This contributed to changes in social stratification: ascriptive factors were beginning to be eroded.

Estate System (Closed System)

-It existed in Europe in the medieval period and is also known as feudalism. -A person's social position was determined by law, and inheritance of land was the most important basis for social ranking. -Each major stratum, or estate, had certain rights and privileges that were different from the rights and privileges of the other estates and were steeped in law. Examples of feudal positions include kings, nobles, gentry, freemen, villeins and serfs. -Unlike in the caste system, some movement took place, although most people remained in the same position for their whole lives.

Marxist View on Social Stratification

-Kart Marx's views on stratification are in direct opposition to those of the functionalists. He contended that stratification is nether necessary nor inevitable. As seen in Chapter 2, Marx believed there are only two classes in capitalist societies The first owns the means of production (the bourgeoisie or capitalists) and is motivated chiefly by profit and the acquisition of power. The other class, the proletariat or workers, own nothing except their labour, which they sell to the bourgeoisie and for which they are given very little. -It is this system of capitalism, Marx argued, that brings about social stratification. In this system, workers are encouraged to produce surplus wealth, which benefits the capitalists and not the workers. The capitalists wield enough power to control the social institutions so they maintain their status quo. The children of this privileged group receive special benefits and opportunities, thus allowing the system to perpetuate itself. The capitalists are therefore the upper class while the workers comprise the subject class. For Marx, class stratification has its roots in the economic structure of society, which is bound up with inequality, conflict, subordination and exploitation. Some people will always have greater access to material rewards than others. -This system is exploitative and Marx felt that one day the workers would rebel against it; however, contemporary Marxists believe that the bourgeoisie has the ability to manipulate those outside their group to accept their position and continue to work for them. -Marx also envisaged that the gap between the two classes would widen. He said that, although there might be improvement in the wages and standard of living of workers, they would still be considered poor in relation to the continuous accumulated wealth of the bourgeoisie. -Marx advocated a more communal society in which things could be collectively owned instead of a small group of people owning the means of production. In this way the inequality that pervades social class stratification in capitalist society would no longer be an issue.

Lloyd Brathwaite's View on Social Stratification

-Lloyd Braithwaite's 1953 thesis concentrated on the Trinidadian plantation society, where he noted that stratification was based chiefly on colour and race. He described the plantation society as caste-like, comprising whites at the top and blacks and others at the bottom. Trinidad showed many features of a 'plural society', with different cultural groups having their own institutions and beliefs but held together by a powerful white minority. Braithwaite noted a separateness among and between groups, who were ranked in terms of superiority and inferiority. The blacks were in a unique position in that the Chinese, Indians and other races separated themselves as much as possible from them. People were affiliated to their ethnic group and strived towards ethnic purity. -Braithwaite contended that there were certain 'shared values' within the society that actually held it together. These ascriptive/particularistic values associated white with positive characteristics and black with negative ones.

M.G. Smith's View on Social Stratification

-M.G. Smith (1965) in his plural society model, argued that stratification is based more on ethnicity, nationality, race and colour than on class. He found that these factors were more women important in determining status than social class. -He portrayed Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad as having a closed system of stratification based on colour (whites, coloureds and browns, and blacks) which they inherited from their colonial past. The lower stratum had no scope for upward social mobility, as this privileged position was maintained chiefly through education (which they were not privy to) and the practice of endogamy. The blockage to upward social mobility was further enhanced by the influence of the legal and political systems, which were controlled by the whites. -Smith postulated that several ethnic groups coexisted in Caribbean societies, with each having its own social institutions; for example, in Trinidad and Tobago, there is a patriarchal society, an extended family and the distinctive Hindu marriage practice of 'bamboo weddings'. Stratified societies are also unique in having their own language, culture, education, economic background and religion. -It should be noted that, despite these differences, they are all dominated by one political system. For Smith, industrialisation brought about the emergence of new social classes through its widening of the economy and increased job creation.

Status

-One's social position in society. -Usually, an individual occupies several statuses based on the social setting in which they function; for example, one may be a daughter, wife and athlete etc... -One's status can also be categorised by occupation, family, sex/gender, nationality and ethnicity. -It is important to note that statuses can be culturally defined and ranked in society. (Doctor/farmer)

Walby (1990)

-Patriarchy is crucial in her analysis of gender equality. Though it can change in terms of its strength and form, it is indispensable. She distinguishes between private and public patriarchy but concludes that there may have been a shift from the former to the latter. -In the private sphere of the home, the male head has traditionally been directly in control, whether as oppressor or beneficiary. However, with increasing opportunities for women in the economic sector, there has been a shift to public patriarchy. Women are exploited not by individual patriarchs in the home but collectively by men in general. They may not be debarred from participating in public affairs but are subordinated within them. Women are segregated into lower-paid jobs that are of a lower status than men's jobs. Restrictions placed on women at home or in the wider society can vary dependent on the group. -For example, Muslim women may be more restricted by structures within the family and more subject to private patriarchy. On the other hand, women who are more likely to be in paid employment may be more subject to public patriarchy.

Political Impacts of the Stratification System

-Political independence has also changed the characteristics of stratification in the Caribbean. The previous system of domination by whites has been replaced by governance by local people, which has also helped in the latter's upward mobility. It has allowed for representation of all sectors in society at the national as well as local levels. The low status that was given to immigrants after slavery has not continued. -For example, in Trinidad and Tobago, East Indians have gained a lot of economic power and have also increasingly been involved in the political arena, having challenged the traditional African-dominated political rule. In Guyana, political rule by Indians has been steady since the dominance of an African-based political party in the Forbes Burnham era (1964-85).

Post Modern Feminists

-Post-feminists, on the other hand, prefer to see all women as a single category. They believe that in a postmodern world there a variety of ways that women negotiate their relationships; Women are free to explore and construct their own identities.

Post Independence

-Ryan's explanation of changing social stratification with reference to Trinidad and Tobago could be extended to incorporate much of the English-speaking Caribbean. Ryan (1991) believes that ascriptive values permeated Trinidadian society and has stipulated that the stratification system as described by Braithwaite (1965) no longer exists. He identifies several factors as responsible for overturning what existed previously; namely, politics, education and employment. -The triumph of the People's National Movement in 1956 as the new ruling political party and the defeat of the Democratic Labour Party in 1961 broke up the old order. At the time the Democratic Labour Party comprised Chinese, Europeans, Hindus and Syrians. Ryan states that, because the political power was mainly held by a black group, many British expatriates withdrew from top positions in the public sector and either migrated or entered the private sector. French Creoles who held senior positions in the public service and judiciary were being displaced by technocrats in the new administration. -Additionally, there was an expansion of the public-school system, with students offered free secondary education after qualifying at the Common Entrance Examination. This and the increased scholarships to foreign universities created a new educated elite with a focus on a meritocracy instead of race and colour. These new elites displaced those who previously Occupied strategic places in the political and educational system, creating a new stratification structure. -The National Joint Action Committee, a black-conscious political party, emerged in the 1970s and played a pivotal role in influencing the People's National Movement to get blacks integrated into the industrial and commercial system of Trinidad and Tobago. This helped to strengthen and encourage a black middle class. -For Ryan, then, even though blacks are underrepresented in the private sector, their employment, and the increasing employment of Indians in the public sector, has contributed to the changing stratification patterns in Trinidad and Tobago. In summary, he found that the male, white-dominated social order that once existed has given way to a new order based on academic achievement and new wealth. This new order emerged from the growth of new industries -construction, real estate, petroleum, transport and manufacturing.

Sex

-Sex is a biological concept that places us into the category of male or female.

Rothman (1993) on Social Stratification

-Similar to Haralambos and Holborn -Rothman (1993) states that stratification involves patterns of structural inequality that are associated with members of the different groups as well as the ideologies that support these groups. -Some groups regularly experience advantages in society while others are not as fortunate. -What determines whether people experience advantages or disadvantages depends on how much society values each of the characteristics: social class, gender and race

Plantation Society

-The Caribbean society has been significantly shaped by its colonial past. During slavery the European planters, which were a small group, formed a plantocracy to ensure that they were in control of the society. They owned both the plantations and the enslaved people, controlled the institutions and made laws that favoured themselves. It was therefore natural that this plantocratic group would form the upper stratum of the society. -In the early periods of slavery (17th and 18th centuries), the plantation basically comprised two strata: the whites (Europeans) at the top and the blacks (enslaved Africans) in greater numbers at the bottom. The whites varied in status and comprised the plantation owners, managers, tradesmen and bookkeepers, the latter of whom were termed 'poor whites'. Creoles - those of European parentage but born in the Caribbean -were also in the top hierarchy but their status was lower than people who had originated from Europe. Similarly, slaves distinguished themselves into house slaves and field slaves; the former, who performed domestic duties, felt superior to the latter, who worked in gangs on the plantation. -Later on, a third group comprising coloureds and mulattoes emerged to form the middle stratum: freed slaves were also subsequently included in this stratum. The 'mixed' race of mulattoes heralded the significance of colour that is so pervasive in Caribbean stratification as the many shades of brown were used as a symbol of status: the closer to the whites in complexion the higher one's status or placement in the social hierarchy was perceived to be. One can safely assert, then, that during slavery stratification was based on race and colour.

Similarities between Marx and Weber

-The economic dimension is a significant aspect of social-class stratification. -Social conflicts in society arise because of social inequality. -People in society who have power use their ideas and values to maintain control over those who are less powerful. -There will always be struggles for power in society. (However, Weber shows that these struggles do not only stem from economic factors). -Power and inequality are important aspects of stratification.

Post Emancipation

-The ending of slavery brought about a group of people who were determined to move up the social ladder. These ex-enslaved chiefly became peasantry. With the help of missionaries, the ex-enslaved people developed several free villages and this formed the catalyst for a very limited degree of upward social mobility. -The social structure remained very much as it had been prior to emancipation with the existence of three main strata: the upper class, which consisted chiefly of the whites; the middle class, which had been made up of coloureds but now consisted of white and coloured skilled and semi-skilled labourers (including small business owners); and the lower class, which was chiefly made up of black manual labourers. Despite this similar structuring of society, the value system that had existed prior to emancipation changed to a more meritocratic system on the whole. However, several other factors existed alongside this. -With the abolition of the slave trade and the impending emancipation of the slaves, in 1806 Chinese were brought to Trinidad on a trial basis as a new source of labour. The majority return to China and the few who opted to stay became shopkeepers, carpenters and market gardeners. However, there was increased migration of Chinese indentured labourers from 1853 to 1860. Many could not withstand the rigours of plantation life and when their contracts ended they resorted to the selling of goods, establishing laundries and small shops. -Additionally, in countries such as Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad, indentured workers from India were brought as labourers from 1845 to 1917 as a result of the lack of a steady labour force. The ex-slaves were more likely to leave the plantations and to choose semi-skilled and manual jobs while the Chinese preferred trading and shop keeping. Immigration brought a new dimension to the system of stratification since the new immigrants were perceived to be lower in status than the blacks. The Indians were among those in the lowest stratum, and elements of the caste system practiced in India continued among the group. -Chinese immigration to the Caribbean increased after 1911 as a consequence of the Chinese Revolution. Those who came between the 1920s and the 1940s brought family members and friends and worked as shopkeepers, traders and peddlers. This ethnic blend of whites, browns, blacks, Chinese and Indians contributed to the changing social stratification in the Caribbean. -Additionally, Lebanese and Syrian migrants came to the Caribbean in the early 20thcentury in their attempt to escape from religious oppression, persecution and other hardships in their country. In Trinidad, they capitalised on the opportunities that existed, slowly established themselves in finance and embraced the Catholic religion, which gave them easy adaptation to the culture. Similarly to the Chinese, they chose to be involved in the business sector as merchants and peddlers and also practised endogamy as opposed to the intermingling that existed more frequently among the other groups. -As mentioned above, a middle class emerged in Trinidad and Tobago among the Chinese, East Indians and Syrians as a result of their tendency to marry within their own groups. The stratification system that existed during slavery and in the early post-emancipation period was altered by these groups. Race as well as ethnicity determined the status of the individual's place in the stratification system (Ryan 1991). Today the Lebanese and Syrian community is in the upper strata of Trinidadian society, having moved from being small traders who hawked and peddled goods (from door to door) to becoming owners of large stores and other business enterprises.

Ascribed Status

-The individual has no control over the status he or she occupies. -May be determined by a person's sex, who their parents are, the name they are given at birth or their placement in the family structure.

Caste System (Closed System)

-The practice can be found in India and in the Hindu religion. -Hindus believe in reincarnation and in the caste system it is considered that individuals who abide by the rituals of their caste will be reborn in a higher caste and that (correspondingly) people who fail to abide by the rituals of their caste will be reborn in a lower caste. -In this system, one's status is given at birth and one spends one's entire life in the same caste. People from different castes do not socialise with each other, and intermarriage is therefore forbidden. India has four main castes, each traditionally associated with a particular occupation, and several hundred sub-castes. Below these are the lowest caste - the untouchables also referred to as panchamas or Dalits - who are considered outcasts. -This system has been made illegal in India; however, the practice still continues and is the most commonly mentioned example of a caste system. The caste system could also be seen in the apartheid system in South Africa (which existed until the 1990s), where it was based on race. People were designated as whites, coloureds, Asiatic or blacks. Each group was officially segregated in its own residential section of the country, with its own schools, parks, hospitals and so on.

Gender

-The socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female. -This begins even before birth, a female child will have a pink room while a male child, a blue room. -Girls are handled more gently while boys are socialized to be tough. -Basow (1992) states that, when a girl baby cries, parents attend to her more quickly than they do to a boy.

The Social Class System (Open System) Part 3

-The two other objective indicators of class - income and occupation - are linked since one's occupation generates income to allow one to afford basic and luxury items. Income depends not only on the cost of living but also on the level of taxes and duties that the government requires to be paid on goods and services. One's income can come from various sources, such as wages or salary, investments, pensions and gratuities, and rent from ownership of property. For many social groups (for example, pensioners and those with disabilities), income also comes from state benefits. -Occupation, the third objective indicator of class, is also difficult to measure. In addition to being linked to one's income via salary or wages, it is linked to variables such as level of skill and educational qualifications. The services of professionals, managers and doctors are in great demand so these people tend to receive higher salaries. These occupations are usually highly rated; however, in many instances people receive high incomes for occupations that are not so valued. Some occupations have higher prestige than others whereas some non-prestigious occupations generate large incomes as a result of people doing overtime or receiving other benefits as a result of the risks involved in the job (one example is workers on oil rigs). People with such occupations may be able to afford a lifestyle similar to their counterparts in higher strata but without the same prestige. As another example, a self-employed owner of a fleet of maxi-taxis may earn an income that considerably surpasses that of qualified teacher and enjoy a lifestyles similar to someone whose occupation is perceived as superior.

The Social Class System (Open System) Part 4

-These examples indicate that placing people in upper, middle and lower social-class positions based on objective factors such as wealth, occupation and income may not be as obvious or clear cut as might be assumed. -Some writers have identified that there may be a stratum below the lower class. Marx, for example, referred to a 'lumpen proletariat' comprising criminals, vagrants, pickpockets, beggars and the long-term unemployed. Such people would, in Marx's estimation, always remain falsely conscious and never be part of the proletarian revolution. Similarly, Charles Murray refers to an underclass comprising those who are disinterested in or reluctant to take jobs, preferring to be dependent on state welfare. He associates this group with a 'culture of poverty' that can be perpetuated since children are socialised into accepting this way of life.

Haralambos and Holborn (2004) on Social Stratification

-They refer to stratification as a form of social inequality that takes place in society. - Inequality is patterned since it occurs on a wide scale and along specific groups based on social class, gender and race.

Social Mobility

-This entails the movement of people and groups within the social-stratification system from one category to another. It is important to note that social mobility takes place only where an open class system exists and where emphasis is placed on achievement rather than ascription. -There are some individuals, however, who will never experience upward social mobility. Derek Gordon (1987)to states that the poor in particular and those from low socioeconomic backgrounds are unable to improve their social status because they are never given a fair chance to move up the social ladder.

Party

-Through the use of the concept 'party', Weber shows that certain groups in society may have more power than others. A party may be a formally organised political party linked to the state, such as the People's National Movement in Trinidad and Tobago, the Jamaica Labour Party or the Republican Party in the USA. The leaders of these parties have more clout than their constituents. Members of parliament have more power to influence decision making than local community leaders. In addition, there are also organisations that defend the interests of particular groups in society. Such groups are very influential in decision making and ensure that their members benefit or are protected from decisions taken at the macro societal level. Medical associations, business societies, law associations, media associations, trade union movements, pressure group sand interest groups are all examples of Weber's concept of parties. Some organisations may represent the interests of economic groups; some may protect the interests of status groups; and some may represent neither. The important point is that power and dominance are at the helm of each, which is an important characteristic of stratification systems. -Weber pointed out the complexities of these three dimensions (class, status and party), which can be interrelated as well as separated but which can determine the position of an individual or group. This complexity also shows how a person's position can change dependent on the group to which he or she belongs as well as the context in which he or she operates. A person who is held in high esteem in his or her community or who is a powerful leader of a pressure group that advocates on behalf of dispossessed and disadvantaged groups in society may be of low economic status. Barack Obama is black, male, President of the United States of America and leader of the Democratic Party, and these attributes are a combination of social class, status and party. -Weber's contribution is very pertinent since it shows that: --social groups should not be polarised into two broad economic categories --economic explanations cannot by themselves define social stratification --subjective dimensions of one's status situation must be considered high economic power may not always be equated with high status or social honour --economic power may or may not be independent of political power --a person's power can result from where they are located economically, through their party affiliation, their status or a combination of both. -Sociologists such as Lockwood have expanded on Weber's class situation and status situation and have included a new dimension - work situation - to clarify the complexity involved in identifying members of the middle class. Lockwood argues that clerks, for example, who have a close relationship with their employers, should be placed in a superior position to manual workers and should be categorised as lower middle class. He also makes reference to the working environment, the conditions of the workplace and the quality of life in separating clerical workers from manual workers. -As a result of the complexity in identifying who comprises the middle class, some sociologists are of the view that instead of the 'middle class' we should refer to the 'middle classes', since this group cannot be considered homogeneous.

Functionalist's View on Social Stratification

-To the functionalist, social stratification, and by extension social inequality, is inevitable and necessary and contributes to the maintenance and wellbeing of society. -Every society has some form of division. Stratification systems are fair and just since people are effectively allocated into the various positions in society based on merit. -Individuals perform according to their varying abilities. In all societies, members have differing qualities and some roles will be more demanding than others.

Status--Explained

-Unlike Marx, Weber distinguishes one's status situation. Status is linked to prestige or social honour. One's status can be ascribed or achieved and is dependent on factors such as family background, ethnicity, gender, age, religious affiliation, level of education and lifestyle. Status groups identify with each other and share a sense of belonging. -How people see themselves and how they are perceived by others must be considered in addition to economic situation. Marrying into an influential family could change the status of someone from a humble background. Similarly, people can have a great reputation in their community and can be highly admired based on non-economic criteria. Additionally, women may enjoy high positions in the labour market but be perceived as less important than men in a patriarchal society. Likewise, a person who is economically categorised as lower class may perceive himself to be in a higher social stratum (for example, based on his ethnicity), and this would have an impact on his behaviour and social relationships with others. -By including the dimension of status, Weber shows that a person can amass economic wealth but may or may not have prestige and social honour based on other characteristics. The crux is that people can be awarded or denied social honour based on their status situation. Some groups may even find ways to debar or restrict others from associating with them. The rigidly stratified caste system is a good example of how one's status affects one's position, social relationships and life chances. Likewise, people can be restricted from membership of a social club or organisation because their ethnicity, skin colour or religious association is not held in high esteem. Some occupations are given more prestige than others. A scrap-metal dealer or collectormay earn as much as a doctor but the doctor will be seen as being of a higher social-class position than the dealer based on the prestige given to occupations in the medical field. The major point being made is that economic social-class categories may be objectively basedon one's market situation. However, subjective dimensions such as status, social honour, esteemand prestige are equally significant though difficult to measure.

The Social Class System (Open System) Part 2

-Wealth, occupation and income are used as objective measures of social class but are themselves fraught with problems. For example, how do we assess wealth? It can include any valuable assets - for example, bank savings and investments, large properties, money from pensions and salaries, and personal possessions that have a market value, such as cars, homes, land, expensive jewellery and works of art. People may not declare all their wealth for various reasons (for example, their own safety). Some may also choose to hide their wealth by redistributing it among family members. Additionally, people who openly demonstrate their wealth through conspicuous consumption patterns may not be as prosperous as those who prioritise building up savings and investments. -Another significant point about wealth is its origin. People may become wealthy through inheritance, and people with such traditional wealth passed down through the generations are considered different from the nouveau riche, who may have gained their wealth from a sudden windfall such as winning millions in the lottery. Traditionalists may believe that such new comers are not in the same class as those with inherited wealth, as the newcomers may not have been brought up with the values of those who were born into wealth. Newcomers themselves may also not perceive themselves to be in the same social class category as those with traditional wealth. -A final important point with regard to wealth concerns how well it can be sustained. For example, how does one classify international musicians, professional sportspeople, movie stars and so on, whose status may change and whose wealth may or may not be temporary?

Economic Social Class

-Weber agreed with Marx that those who held the economic reins and who had sizeable property and other forms of material wealth would have the benefit of better opportunities and superior lifestyles. But he also took into account other groups who are not owners of the means of production but who accrue substantial financial rewards in exchange for their services, such as managers, professionals and administrators. -Weber used the term class situation to identify people's economic position. He said that people's skills, qualifications and work experience may give them an advantage over others and make them marketable and in greater demand. Weber believed that people are in the same social class when they share the same chances of obtaining the scarce resources of jobs, income ands but property. Depending on one's salary, one may or may not be able to afford the desirable things of life, such as the best education for family members, a home in an upscale area or trips abroad. Such factors could result in different economic social classes. Like Marx, Weber showed that economic rewards can be unequally distributed. However, he provided reasons other than exploitation. Instead of two groups- the bourgeoisie and the proletariat - Weber categorised society into four economic classes: ---the propertied upper class: owners of large properties, owners of large companies, those with economic power who have political influence ---white-collar professionals: people with a favourable market position that gives them priority, referred to as the upper middle class ---the petty bourgeoisie: owners of less property with little or no political influence, referred to as the lower middle class ---the manual working class: those with the lowest market situation and also known as blue-collar workers.

Radical Feminist

-patriarchy is the most important concept for explaining gender inequalities and women's societal position. Men hold the reins of power in all societies and are beneficiaries of women's subordination. -Men are akin to the ruling class while women are the subject class, and this perpetuates dominance and subordination. -The important point for radical feminists is that women's oppression brings about a union between women regardless of social-class background.

Millet (1970)

-women have a 'caste-like' status with men being rewarded differently from women. -sex, an ascribed status, contributes to a rigid system of stratification where relationships between men and women are structured by power since one group (women is controlled by another group (men). This unequal system/relationship/structure is profound because it is reinforced through socialisation and maintained in the family, education, religion and the economy. -As a consequence, women have internalised and accepted mans dominance as a given. She cites physical and sexual violence against women as ways that men intimidate women and keep them subordinate.

Criticisms Of Functionalism

1. Davis and Moore's contribution has been very controversial in many respects. For Melvin Tumin (1953), there is a major difficulty in establishing which jobs are functionally more important than others. He stated that the precise functional importance of any position in society is not easy to establish. For example, of the doctor and the garbage collector, which is more functionally important? One can arque that they are of equal importance as in their own ways both save lives. Each has a vital role to play in society. 2. Functionalists tend to ignore the dysfunctions in stratification of society. For example, some sociologists believe that stratification causes conflict rather than cooperation because some people gain at the expense of others. Competition sometimes leads to feelings of inadequacy and can result in anger or jealousy and can engender demotivation rather than incentives. 3. Additionally, people can be demotivated because of the many obstacles that debar them from moving upwards. For example, the apartheid system and the caste system have denied groups from becoming socially mobile. Similarly, some occupational groups have been known to consciously restrict or limit new recruits by imposing strategies such as higher entry qualifications. 4. The meritocratic society presented by Davis and Moore and by Parsons does not really reflect a true picture of reality. On education, questions whether meritocracy exists and shows that for some groups the ability to acquire success is handed down from one generation to another and that it is the upper and middle classes who experience the most advantages. 5. Functionalists are guilty of presenting an oversimplified view of life where people are in agreement with society's values and accept their positions in society. Contemporary society is far more complex than functionalists lead us to believe.

Criticisms of Marxist View on Social Stratification

1. Marx's two-class model is very rigid. Some sociologists argue that the working class is not a homogeneous group and that there are differences between skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled workers not only in terms of wages but also in their self-perception. Marx also overlooked the fact that economic factors are not the only criteria for social stratification. For example, one needs to consider ethnicity, gender, religion and other social factors. 2. Contemporary society is quite different from the society described by Marx. In general, critics argue that today's society is far more multifaceted than the society Marx described. There is a growing group in the middle that sociologists have difficulty in categorising since it comprises people of various occupational groups. Though Marx did acknowledge the existence of a 'petit bourgeoisie', he believed that it would eventually become proletarianized and not provide a threat to the bourgeoisie. As will be seen in the next section, sociologists such as Weber have provided explanations that may assist in categorising this group referred to as the middle class.

Social ladder

A visualization of classes as rungs on a ladder that enable people to 'climb' from one class to another.

George Beckford (1972)

Beckford (1972) examined the traditional plantation society and presented it as a total economic and social institution with its primary objective being for everyone to execute the will of its owner(s). Beckford presented the plantation as having rigid patterns of social stratification. He stated that people who were of a fair complexion had more wealth, prestige and power than others in the society and therefore were at the upper end of the stratification continuum. During slavery, the whites forcibly impregnated African women and if the offspring of such relations had European features they were treated more kindly than children who had a darker skin tone-in fact, some were even given an education.

Factors that contribute to the complexity of ethnicity

Exogamy and endogamy: people in some groups may freely choose whom they marry while others-for example, Lebanese and Syrians in Trinidad and Tobago-show preference for their own kind. -Religious affiliation: members of Christian denominations come from all groups, but Hindus primarily East Indians. -Differentiation in identity: some groups choose to be identified by their heritage (for example, African or East Indian or by their Country (for example, Trinidadian, Tobagonian or Trinbagonian-a combination of the names of both islands). Some are referred to as Indo-Trinidadian or Afro-Trinidadian.

Impact of Stratification system on Caribbean Societies

It is evident that there have been significant changes in the stratification system throughout the Caribbean. The changing stratification system has had an impact on Caribbean societies not only socially but also economically and politically. During slavery, society was stratified along race and colour lines. Today, however, there are other factors that contribute to stratification - for example, class, status, power, gender and education.

The Weberian View of Social Stratification

Max Weber expanded on the work of Karl Marx in his analysis of class and social stratification and provided a more general and flexible analysis of social stratification. His contribution reflects his 'social action' approach in which people's perceptions of each other determine their relationships and their behaviour. Whereas Marx argued that social stratification is based on economic power only, Weber saw other factors and argued that social stratification is a product of political power and status also. Weber identified three dimensions of social stratification: 1. Economic social class 2. Status 3. Party

Davis and Moore (1945)

Society is a complex system of statuses and roles and therefore some jobs are functionally more important than others; it is therefore very important to match the most able individuals with the most important positions and reward them accordingly. -People are motivated to perform demanding or difficult roles by knowing that there are rewards to be gained. It is the desire for these rewards that motivates individuals to undergo the rigours of training and the sacrifices involved. Because of the sacrifices made and the level of qualification needed for certain occupations (such as being a doctor), Davis and Moore concluded that such individuals should be rewarded handsomely and should be placed among the highest social strata. The crux, however, is that these positions are limited and can only be filled by the most qualified people (those who are the most deserving). Social stratification is therefore inevitable since one's position in the social strata will depend on the roles that are performed and the functional significance of those roles.

Closed Stratification System

Such systems are very rigid, with fixed boundaries that do not allow movement from one rank to another. Social status is ascribed, which means it is given at birth and cannot be changed.

The Feminist View on Social Stratification

The feminist contribution to the sociology of the family- gives an indication of feminists' views on women and the household, women's role in childcare and house-work and by extension women's position in society. Marx and Weber identified economic social class as a significant factor of social stratification and, though feminists agree, they are of the view that sex and gender are just as important as class stratification but are often overshadowed by it.

Achieved Status

This is controlled by the individual. He or she obtains a position based on marriage, education, employment or chosen career path.

Open Stratification System

This system allows social mobility to take place: individuals can move up or down the social ladder. This is facilitated through education in a meritocratic society.

Role Conflict

a clash of roles in which one supersedes the other (for example an attorney holds outstanding court sessions instead of attending a sports group's meeting)

Strata

layers (sociologists compare stratification to layers of a cake or layers of rock on the Earth's surface)

Social Stratification

the division of members of society into a hierarchy based on characteristics such as income, wealth, power, prestige, status, age and gender.

Class

the system of stratification in capitalist societies where income, wealth and occupation are used as criteria to group people.