Ch. 13-14 Review

Technology

Repeaters Balloons, submarines and ironclad ships Railroads Telegraph Photography Artillery and Cannon Making them use cover, fortifications, trenches.Battlefield of Civil War reflected changes in tech that transformed combat Both sides began to use repeating weapons- Samuel Colt's 1835 repeating revolver, Oliver Winchester's 1660 rifle. Also, improved artillery + cannon Changes in weapons effectiveness led soldiers to change from infantry lines firing volleys to use of no fighting formations but use of cover, fortifications, and trenches. Observation balloons, ironclad ships also appeared during war Railroad were important in war because millions of soldiers mobilized + tons of supplies. Allowed large armies to assemble and move, but forced to protect stationary lines. Telegraph limited but allowed commanders to communicate during fight Samuel colts- invented the revolver, but it was unsuccessful. Oliver Winchester- he manufactured repeating rifles in 1660 to Taylor henry.

Turning points in the civil war

-The First Battle of Bull Run- on July 21, 1861, was the first major land battle of the war. Until this time, the North was generally confident about its prospects for quickly crushing the rebellion with an easy, direct strike against the Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia. The embarrassing rout of Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell's army disabused them of this notion. The North was shocked and realized that this was going to be a lengthier, bloodier war than they had anticipated. It steeled their determination. Lincoln almost immediately signed legislation that increased the army by 500,000 men and allowed for their term of service to be for the duration of the war. Congress quickly passed the Confiscation Act of 1861, which provided for freeing slaves whose masters participated in the rebellion, which was the first attempt to define the war legislatively as a matter of ending slavery. If the Confederacy had hoped before this that they could sap Northern determination and quietly slip away from the Union with a minor military investment, their victory at Bull Run, ironically, destroyed those hopes. -Union capture of New Orleans (April 1862)- Farragut's fleet passes the downstream forts prior to the capture of New Orleans Early in the war, Confederate strategists believed the primary threat to New Orleans would come from the north, and made their defensive preparations accordingly. As forces under Grant made gains in the western theater, much of the military equipment and manpower in the city's vicinity was sent upriver in an attempt to stem the victorious Union tide. When Flag Officer David Farragut was able to force the Union Navy's West Gulf Blockading Squadron past the Confederacy's only two forts below the city in the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, New Orleans had no means to oppose capture. Thus the port, by far the largest Confederate city, fell undamaged into the hands of the Union, tightening its grip on the Mississippi River and fulfilling a key element of the Anaconda Plan for the South's defeat. Although the occupation under Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler was detested, he was astute enough to build a base of political support among the poorer classes and create an extensive intelligence and counter-espionage capability, nullifying the threat of insurrection. The Confederacy's loss of its greatest port had significant diplomatic consequences. Confederate agents abroad were generally received more coolly, if at all, after news of the city's capture reached London and Paris. -Union victory in Battle of Antietam (September 1862)- Union forces cross Burnside's Bridge at the Battle of Antietam The Battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862, was the bloodiest day in American history. But it also had two strategic consequences. Although considered a tactical draw between the Army of the Potomac and the much smaller Army of Northern Virginia, it marked the end of Robert E. Lee's invasion of the North. One of his goals was to entice the slave-holding state of Maryland to join the Confederacy, or at least recruit soldiers there. He failed in that objective; he also failed in marshaling Northern fears and opinions to pressure a settlement to the war. But more strategically, George B. McClellan's victory was just convincing enough that Lincoln used it as justification for announcing his Emancipation Proclamation; he had been counseled by his Cabinet to keep this action confidential until a Union battlefield victory could be announced. Otherwise, it might seem merely an act of desperation. Along with its immense effect on American history and race relations, the Emancipation Proclamation effectively prevented the British Empire from recognizing the Confederacy as a legitimate government. The British public had strong anti-slavery beliefs and would not have tolerated joining the pro-slavery side of a fight where slavery was now a prominent issue. This removed one of the Confederacy's only hopes of surviving a lengthy war against the North's suffocating naval blockade. Support from France was still a possibility, but it never came to pass. Antietam and two other coincident failed actions—Braxton Bragg's invasion of Kentucky (the "high-water mark of the Confederacy in the western theater") and Earl Van Dorn's advance against Corinth, Mississippi—represented the Confederacy's only attempt at coordinated strategic offensives in multiple theaters of war. -Death of Stonewall Jackson (May 1863)- After winning the Battle of Chancellorsville, the Army of Northern Virginia lost Lt. Gen. Stonewall Jackson to pneumonia following a friendly fire accident. His death was a blow to the morale of the Confederate army, as he was one of its most popular and successful commanders. Two months later, Robert E. Lee had no general with Jackson's audacity available at the Battle of Gettysburg. Many historians argue that Jackson could have succeeded in seizing key battlefield positions (such as Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill at the end of day one) that his replacements were unable or unwilling to take. Lee himself is said to have told his subordinate generals on different occasions that they should have acted like Jackson would have.[2] -Union capture of Vicksburg and victory in Battle of Gettysburg (July 1863)- On July 4, 1863, the most important Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River, Vicksburg, Mississippi, surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant. The previous day, Maj. Gen. George Meade had decisively defeated Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg. These twin events are the most often cited as the ultimate turning points of the entire war. Federal troops repulse Pickett's Charge on the last day of the Battle of Gettysburg. The loss of Vicksburg split the Confederacy, denying its control of the Mississippi River and preventing supplies from Texas and Arkansas that could sustain the war effort from passing east. As President Abraham Lincoln had stated, "See what a lot of land these fellows hold, of which Vicksburg is the key! The war can never be brought to a close until that key is in our pocket.... We can take all the northern ports of the Confederacy and they can defy us from Vicksburg." Furthermore, the 30,000 soldiers who surrendered with the city were a significant loss to the cause. Gettysburg was the first major defeat suffered by Lee. It repelled his second invasion of the North and inflicted serious casualties on the Army of Northern Virginia. In fact, the National Park Service marks the point at which Pickett's Charge collapsed—the copse of trees on Cemetery Ridge—as the high-water mark of the Confederacy. From this point onward, Lee attempted no more strategic offensives. Although two more years of fighting and a new, aggressive general (Grant) was required, the Army of the Potomac had the initiative and the eventual end at Appomattox Court House seems inevitable in hindsight. While Gettysburg was seen by military and civilian observers at the time as a great battle, those in the North had little idea that two more bloody years would be required to finish the war. Southern morale was not strongly affected by the defeat because many assumed that Lee had suffered only a temporary setback and would resume his winning ways against ineffective Union generals. Some economic historians have pointed to the fact that after the loss at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, the market for Confederate war bonds dropped precipitously. "European investors gave Johnny Reb about a 42 percent chance of winning the war in early 1863 prior to the battle of Gettysburg. ... However, news of the severity of costly Confederate defeats at Gettysburg/Vicksburg led to a sell-off in rebel bonds and the probability of a Southern victory fell to about 15 percent by the end of 1863."[3] -Union capture of Atlanta (September 1864)- Some contend that Sherman's successful siege of Atlanta was the turning point, since the city was the most critical point in the South. This victory lifted the spirits of the North and helped re-elect Lincoln, in addition to its military result of crippling transportation in the heart of the Confederacy, and nearly destroying the city. -Lincoln's reelection (November 1864)- The reelection of Abraham Lincoln in 1864 is beyond the final point at which a positive conclusion for the Confederacy could have been contemplated. His opponent, former general George B. McClellan, ran on a Democratic Party platform that favored a negotiated settlement with the Confederacy. Although McClellan disavowed this platform, the South would have likely seen his election as a strategic victory.

James Polk 1844

11th president- 1844 When James K. Polk accepted the Democratic Party's nomination for the presidency, he was not very well known. The Whig opposition party played on his obscurity, sniping, "Who is James K. Polk?" An experienced speaker, Polk surprised everyone when he campaigned vigorously and won the presidency on November 5, 1844. He was called a "dark horse" candidate because he was not expected to beat his opponent, Henry Clay of the Whig Party, to become the 11th president of the United States.Winning by a narrow margin, Polk campaigned on his strong support for westward expansion, a hotly debated issue that was dodged by other candidates. After taking office, Polk acted swiftly to fulfill his campaign promises, as he intended to serve only one term. In four years, he oversaw the addition of Texas, the reestablishment of an independent treasury system, and the acquisition of territory from Mexico. This new land from Mexico eventually became California, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. This new land came just in time for the discovery of gold in California in 1848. James Polk (1795-1849) served as the 11th U.S. president from 1845 to 1849. During his tenure, America's territory grew by more than one-third and extended across the continent for the first time. Before his presidency, Polk served in the Tennessee legislature and the U.S. Congress; in 1839 he became governor of Tennessee. A Democrat who was relatively unknown outside of political circles, Polk won the 1844 presidential election as the dark horse candidate. As president, he reduced tariffs, reformed the national banking system and settled a boundary dispute with the British that secured the Oregon Territory for the United States. Polk also led the nation into the Mexican-American War (1846-48), in which the United States acquired California and much of the present-day Southwest. Polk kept his campaign promise to be a one-term president and did not seek reelection. Soon after leaving the White House, he died at age 53. However, Polk was not successful with avoiding the Mexican War. It was his plan to attempt to purchase California and New Mexico, which were not heavily populated by Spanish-Mexicans, and to resolve by treaty certain lands that were claimed by Texas. He sent John Slidell to negotiate the questions, but Slidell failed and merely angered the already unhappy Mexicans. At the same time, Zachary Taylor was occupying a portion of the land claimed by both countries. Mexico attacked Taylor and war became unavoidable. The outcome of the war with Mexico was a great increase in American territory, but the most aggressive of the expansionists were displeased that in his negotiations with Great Britain, Polk had allowed the northern half of the Oregon territory to remain in British hands. He also alienated some Midwesterners by vetoing large appropriations for dredging rivers and improving harbors around the Great Lakes. (Oregon vs. Britain) His supporters in the 1844 campaign had promoted the occupation of the entire territory, as encapsulated in their slogan (which Polk did not disavow), "54°40' or Fight." Both Great Britain and the United States had jointly occupied this region since 1818, and it was clear that Polk wanted the west coast of North America for the United States, possibly even including Mexican-controlled California. In the beginnings of negotiations, Polk bluffed to Britain that he wanted all the territory up to 54°40'. In the end, the President's shrewd but unseemly bluster earned him a compromise rather than a war with the British. In spite of his own supporters' more extreme demands, Polk agreed to a boundary at the 49th parallel, giving the United States present-day Oregon, Idaho, and Washington, as well as control of the Columbia River. He had been speaker in the House of Representatives in Tennessee 1825 and then became governor of Tennessee. Texas dispute over boarder led Polk to send Zachary Tayler to protect TX from invasion. He tried to negotiate the buying of Texas and sent John Slidell. But Mexico rejected so send Taylor's army to fight. Mexico refuse to give TX even after defeated so Polk sent general Winfield Scott to capture Mexico City, then Mexico agreed to the treaty of san Guadalupe Hidalgo Polk extended Missouri Compromise line to territory on West coast

Bleeding Kansas

After The passing of Douglas's *Kansas-Nebraska Act, which divided the new territory west of Iowa and Missouri into two new states, White settlers from both the North and the South began to flood into the territories. This act repealed the Missouri compromise, by making the status of slavery according to popular sovereignty; therefore dividing the territory into slave state (Kansas) and Free State (Nebraska). *This act destroyed the Whig Party, divided the Democrats, and spurred the creation of the Republican Party, formed by: Whigs, Democrats, and Free Soilers. In 1855 the first elections for a territorial legislature, were influenced by Missourian Voters, who crossed into Kansas to Vote. The influence of the pro-slavery Missourians resulted in the passing of a series of laws legalizing slavery. Free-staters defied the legislature and in Topeka formed a constitutional convention where they enacted a constitution excluding slavery, chose their own governor and legislature and petitioned Congress for statehood. President Pierce denied their claims, and stood behind the pro-slavery territorial legislature. A little while later a federal Marshall lead a posse against the free-staters. John Brown, a passionate abolitionist, moved to Kansas and along with 6 followers murdered 5 proslavery settlers in the Pottawatomie Massacre. This massacre led to more civil conflict like guerilla warfare between armed bands. Many Northerners and Southerners started to believe that the conflict in Kansas was due to conflict between the sections. Therefore "Bleeding Kansas" became a powerful symbol of sectional hostility.Another symbol of hostility was represented through Sumner and Brooks, when Sumner gave a speech insulting Brooks' pro-slavery ideology. Buchanan, who endorsed the Dred Scott decision, at the same time supported the admission of Kansas as a Slave state, and in response the pro-slavery territorial legislature called an election for de3legates to a constitutional convention. The free-staters refused to participate, and as a result pro-slavery forces won control of the convention, and in 1857 they framed a constitution legalizing slavery, known as the Lecompton Constitution. This constitution was rejected, because most people in Kansas opposed slavery. However, Buchanan ignored this and urged congress to pass the constitution. Douglas and other western Democrats disapproved of this constitution because it violated the principle of popular sovereignty. A compromise was made and the constitution was resubmitted only to be repealed again, and after many southerners withdrew from the union Kansas, Kansas entered the Union as a Free State.

Manifest Destiny

America believe it was destined by god to stretch the boundaries of their noble republic to the Pacific Ocean. Economic motives were paramount for others. The fur trade had been dominated by European trading companies since colonial times. German immigrant John Jacob Astor was one of the first American entrepreneurs to challenge the Europeans. He became a millionaire in the process. The desire for more land brought aspiring homesteaders to the frontier. When gold was discovered in California in 1848, the number of migrants increased even more. Expanding the boundaries of the United States was in many ways a cultural war as well. The desire of southerners to find more lands suitable for cotton cultivation would eventually spread slavery to these regions. North of the Mason-Dixon line, many citizens were deeply concerned about adding any more slave states. Manifest destiny touched on issues of religion, money, race, patriotism, and morality. These clashed in the 1840s as a truly great drama of regional conflict began to unfold. James Marshall found gold in his ranch in California. Word quickly spread through California, the rest of America and eventually the world and people flocked to California to make their fortune. In fact, according to some estimates, the population increased by 86,000 people in two years. Most of these treasure seekers left for California in 1849, hence our name for them: 49ers. One factor in encouraging settlers to move west was the Homestead Act, passed in 1862, which allowed settlers to claim 160 acres of land for free. Another important factor was completion of the first transcontinental railroad in 1869 which led to much more rapid Western migration. Westward expansion had serious consequences for Native Americans since continental expansion implicitly meant the occupation and annexation of their lands. The United States continued the European practice of recognizing only limited land rights of indigenous peoples and sought to expand into the west through the nominally legal purchase of Native American land in treaties. In many cases, these treaties were negotiated and signed by tribal members who didn't have the authority to do so, and in some cases, by signers who lacked knowledge of what they were signing. Despite the legality of a treaty, once one was signed, the government often used force to move the Indians from their homelands. The land obtained from Mexico quickly became the subject of a bitter feud between the Northern Whigs and the Southern Democrats. Abolitionists rightly feared that attempts would be made to plant cotton in the new territory, which would bring the blight of slavery. Slaveholders feared that if slavery were prohibited in the new territory, southern slaveholding states would lose power in Congress.

Harper's Ferry

Armed resistance led by John Brown • Petition led by John Brown • Attacked for Federal arsenal • Surrendered after 36 hours • Brown was hanged for treason • The Battle of Harpers Ferry was fought September 12-15, 1862, as part of the Maryland Campaign of the American Civil War. As Gen. Robert E. Lee's Confederate army invaded Maryland, a portion of his army under Maj. Gen. Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson surrounded, bombarded, and captured the Union garrison at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia), a major victory at relatively minor cost. As Lee's Army of Northern Virginia advanced down the Shenandoah Valley into Maryland, he planned to capture the garrison and arsenal at Harpers Ferry, not only to seize its supplies of rifles and ammunition, but to secure his line of supply back to Virginia. Although he was being pursued at a leisurely pace by Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan's Army of the Potomac, outnumbering him more than two to one, Lee chose the risky strategy of dividing his army and sent one portion to converge and attack Harpers Ferry from three directions. Col. Dixon S. Miles, Union commander at Harpers Ferry, insisted on keeping most of the troops near the town instead of taking up commanding positions on the surrounding heights. The slim defenses of the most important position, Maryland Heights, first encountered the approaching Confederate on September 12, but only brief skirmishing ensued. Strong attacks by two Confederate brigades on September 13 drove the Union troops from the heights. During the fighting on Maryland Heights, the other Confederate columns arrived and were astonished to see that critical positions to the west and south of town were not defended. Jackson methodically positioned his artillery around Harpers Ferry and ordered Maj. Gen. A.P. Hill to move down the west bank of the Shenandoah River in preparation for a flank attack on the Federal left the next morning. By the morning of September 15, Jackson had positioned nearly 50 guns on Maryland Heights and at the base of Loudoun Heights. He began a fierce artillery barrage from all sides and ordered an infantry assault. Miles realized that the situation was hopeless and agreed with his subordinates to raise the white flag of surrender. Before he could surrender personally, he was mortally wounded by an artillery shell and died the next day. After processing more than 12,000 Union prisoners, Jackson's men then rushed to Sharpsburg, Maryland, to rejoin Lee for the Battle of Antietam.

First Shots of the Civil War

Birth of the Confederacy In February 1861, delegates from the seven seceded states met in Montgomery, AL and formed the Confederate States of America. Working through the month, they produced the Confederate States Constitution which was adopted on March 11. This document mirrored the US Constitution in many ways, but provided for the explicit protection of slavery as well as espoused a stronger philosophy of states' rights. To lead the new government, the convention selected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as president and Alexander Stephens of Georgia as vice president. Davis, a Mexican-American War veteran, had previously served as a US Senator and Secretary of War under President Franklin Pierce. • Lincoln and the South At his inauguration on March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln stated that the US Constitution was a binding contract and that the Southern states' secession had no legal basis. Continuing, he said that he had no intention of ending slavery where it already existed and did not plan on invading the South. He was, however willing to use force to retain possession of federal installations in the seceded states. • Attempts to Relieve Fort Sumter As of April 1861, the US only retained control of two forts in the South: Fort Pickens at Pensacola, FL and Fort Sumter in Charleston, SC. Shortly after South Carolina seceded, the commander of the Charleston harbor defenses, Major Robert Anderson, moved his men from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter, located on a sandbar in the middle of the harbor. After refusing requests from the South Carolina government to vacate the fort, Anderson and the eighty-five men of his garrison settled in for what essentially became a siege. In January 1861, President Buchanan attempted to re-supply the fort, however the supply ship, Star of the West, was driven away by guns manned by cadets from the Citadel. • Fort Sumter Attacked: During March 1861, a debate raged in the Confederate government regarding how forceful they should be in trying to take possession of Forts Sumter and Pickens. Davis, like Lincoln, did not wish to anger the border states by appearing as the aggressor. With supplies low, Lincoln informed the governor of South Carolina, Francis W. Pickens, that he intended to have the fort re-provisioned, but promised that no additional men or munitions would be sent. This news was passed to Davis in Montgomery, where the decision was made to compel the fort's surrender before Lincoln's ships arrived. This duty fell to Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard who had been given command of the siege by Davis. Ironically, Beauregard had previously been a protégé of Anderson. On April 11, Beauregard sent an aide to demand the fort's surrender. Anderson refused and further discussions after midnight failed to resolve the situation. At 4:30am on April 12, a single mortar round burst over Fort Sumter signaling the other harbor forts to open fire. Anderson did not reply until 7:00 when Captain Abner Doubleday fired the first shot for the Union. After a 34-hour bombardment, and with his ammunition almost exhausted, Anderson surrendered the fort. • Lincoln's Call for Volunteers & Further Secession In response to the attack on Fort Sumter, Lincoln issued a call for 75,000 90-day volunteers to put the rebellion down and ordered the US Navy to blockade Southern ports. While the Northern states readily sent troops, those states in the upper South hesitated. Unwilling to fight fellow Southerners, the states of Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina opted to secede and joined the Confederacy. In response, the capital was moved from Montgomery to Richmond, VA. On April 19, 1861, the first Union troops arrived in Baltimore, MD on their way to Washington. While marching from one train station to another they were attacked by a pro-Southern mob. In the riot that ensued twelve civilians and four soldiers were killed. To pacify the city, protect Washington, and ensure that Maryland remained in the Union, Lincoln declared martial law in the state and sent troops. • The Anaconda Plan Created by Mexican-American War hero and commanding general of the US Army Winfield Scott, the Anaconda Plan was designed to end the conflict as quickly and bloodlessly as possible. Scott called for the blockade of Southern ports, capture of the vital Mississippi River to split the Confederacy in two, as well as advised against a direct attack on Richmond. Though mocked by the press, most elements of the plan were implemented and ultimately led the Union to victory. • The First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) As troops gathered in Washington, Lincoln appointed Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell to organize them into the Army of Northeastern Virginia. Though concerned about his men's inexperience, McDowell was forced to advance south in July due to growing political pressure and the impending expiration of the volunteers' enlistments. Moving with 28,500 men, McDowell planned to attack a 21,900-man Confederate army under Beauregard near Manassas Junction. This was to be supported by Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson who was to march against an 8,900-man Confederate force commanded by Gen. Joseph Johnston in the western part of the state. As McDowell approached Beauregard's position, he looked for a way to outflank his opponent. This led to a skirmish at Blackburn's Ford on July 18. To the west, Patterson had failed to pin down Johnston's men, allowing them to board trains and move east to reinforce Beauregard. On July 21, McDowell moved forward and attacked Beauregard. His troops succeeded in breaking the Confederate line and forcing them to fall back on their reserves. Rallying around Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson's Virginia Brigade, the Confederates stopped the retreat and, with the addition of fresh troops, turned the tide of the battle, routing McDowell's army and forcing them to flee back to Washington. Casualties for the battle were 2,896 (460 killed, 1,124 wounded, 1,312 captured) and for the Union 982 (387 killed, 1,582 wounded, 13 missing) for the Confederates.

Oregon

Control of what was know as Oregon country, in the Pacific Northwest, was another major political issue in the 1840s. It included Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, parts of Montana and Wyoming, and half of British Columbia. The US and Britain had claims on the territory, and an 1818 treaty allowed citizens of each country equal access to the territory, "joint occupation." The US missionaries wanted to convert the Native Americans in the territory, but found little success. In repudiating Christianity the Indians had abdicated their right to the land. Large amt of Americans began emigrating to Oregon early 1840s, soon outnumbered GB's settlers, destroyed native pop. Mid-1840s desire for annexation.

Popular Sovereignty

Doctrine that said that the "sovereign" people of the territory should decide if a state should be a free or slave state. It was very democratic so people liked it. It was also a good middle-ground between no and all slavery. However, it could also spread slavery

Modern Baseball

During the Civil War, when they had idle time, soldiers would take a break from the battle and play baseball. The game was derived from the English sports of cricket and rounders. It was rumored to have been invented by Abner Doubleday, but really Alexander Cartwright was the founder of the All-American game. Baseball was intentionally supposed to be only for "best classes" and gentlemen, but it ended up being played by all men of all ethnicities and classes, even women. William Cammeyer made the first enclosed baseball field in America. Baseball was a pastime that soldiers of all ranks could enjoy to forget about the stresses of war.

The economy of the South in the war years

Financing the confederate war seemed ultimately impossible. To finance the war the South needed to create a national revenue system in a society not used to tax burdens. It depended on a small banking system that had little capital to lend, and liquid capital was scarce because most wealth wasinvested in land and slaves. The gov't requested funds from state gov'ts who issued questionable bonds. In1863 the new income tax raised little revenue. The confederate government issued bonds in such vast amounts that the public lost fate in them and stopped purchasing them. Borrowing from Europe and bonds issued to citizens were unsuccessful, so the gov't turned to issuing paper money, but they did not create a uniform currency so it created inflation of over 9,000% vs.the North's 80%.

War and Government Revenue

For four years between 1861 and 1865 the United States engaged in a civil war. Divisions between the free North and the slaveholding South erupted into a full-scale conflict after the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in 1860. Eleven southern states seceded from the Union, collectively turning their back on the idea of a single American nation. Lincoln, who had been in office for only six weeks, declared these acts of secession illegal, and asked Congress for 500,000 soldiers to crush what threatened to be an aggressive rebellion. In April 1861, the first shots were fired and what followed became a national tragedy of unimaginable proportions. More than 600,000 soldiers were killed and millions more wounded; large sections of the South were ravaged by violent battles; and the Union nearly collapsed under determined Confederate forces. The war itself began hesitantly, but after the Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) in July 1861, it was clear that warfare would last for many months, perhaps even years. Huge battles raged in places such as Fredericksburg, Chickamauga and Shiloh and in Virginia and Tennessee, where 40% of the 10,000 engagements of the war were fought. Winning victory after victory over poorly-led Union forces, Confederate General Robert E. Lee invaded Maryland in September 1862. But there he suffered a major loss at the Battle of Antietam, the bloodiest engagement of the war. The following year, Lee trounced the Union Army at Chancellorsville and invaded Pennsylvania, leading to the climactic Battle of Gettysburg in which 50,000 men were killed or wounded and Lee was forced to retreat to Virginia, never to invade the North again. In the West, Union General Ulysses S. Grant took the important Confederate town of Vicksburg on the Mississippi River on 4 July 1863, the same day that news of the Union victory at Gettysburg reached Washington. Despite these key victories, the war was still not over. Grant launched his Overland Campaign in 1864 and fought a series of major battles. He hoped to destroy Lee's army by utilizing a strategy of attrition, but the tactic failed. In retaliation Union General William Tecumseh Sherman marched from Atlanta to Savannah, burning the countryside as he went. By the spring of 1865, the South was exhausted, and on April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House, effectively ending the war. Though most Americans knew that the central reason behind the war was slavery, it was not until the Battle of Antietam in September 1862 that Lincoln began emancipating the slaves. On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation freeing all slaves in captured Confederate territory. From that point on, the war officially became one over the issue of slavery. Still, it was not until after the war, in December 1865, that the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified, finally freeing all slaves in America. Economically, the war was a boon for the North and a disaster for the South. The North began the war with several advantages: more men, more money, more industrial power, and an extensive railroad system. And by the end of the war, the North continued to dominate economically, while the ravaged South struggled to recover economically and psychologically from the devastation of the war. In addition to losing many of its young men, sons, husbands, fathers, and friends to the conflict, the southern planter aristocracy was crushed in the war, and never regained its political power. The Civil War answered many of the fundamental questions of the American experiment: free or slave, one or many, united or divided. But it did so at a tremendous cost. December 20, 1860 - South Carolina secedes from the Union. Followed within two months by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. President Lincoln issues a Proclamation calling for 75,000 militiamen, and summoning a special session of Congress for July 4. Robert E. Lee, son of a Revolutionary War hero, and a 25 year distinguished veteran of the United States Army and former Superintendent of West Point, is offered command of the Union Army. Lee declines. Robert E. Lee resigns his commission in the United States Army. "I cannot raise my hand against my birthplace, my home, and my children." Lee then goes to Richmond, Virginia, is offered command of the military and naval forces of Virginia, and accepts. Virginia secedes from the Union, followed within five weeks by Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina, thus forming an eleven state Confederacy with a population of 9 million, including nearly 4 million slaves. The Union will soon have 21 states and a population of over 20 million. The Union Army under Gen. Irvin McDowell suffers a defeat at Bull Run 25 miles southwest of Washington. Confederate Gen. Thomas J. Jackson earns the nickname "Stonewall," as his brigade resists Union attacks. Union troops fall back to Washington. President Lincoln realizes the war will be long. Victory for Gen. Ulysses S. Grant in Tennessee, capturing Fort Henry, and ten days later Fort Donelson. Grant earns the nickname "Unconditional Surrender" Grant. 75,000 Federals under Gen. John Pope are defeated by 55,000 Confederates under Gen. Stonewall Jackson and Gen. James Longstreet at the second battle of Bull Run in northern Virginia. Once again the Union Army retreats to Washington. The president then relieves Pope. January 1, 1863 - President Lincoln issues the final Emancipation Proclamation freeing all slaves in territories held by Confederates and emphasizes the enlisting of black soldiers in the Union Army. The war to preserve the Union now becomes a revolutionary struggle for the abolition of slavery. The tide of war turns against the South as the Confederates are defeated at the Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania (turning point). Vicksburg, the last Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River, surrenders to Gen. Grant and the Army of the West after a six week siege. With the Union now in control of the Mississippi, the Confederacy is effectively split in two, cut off from its western allies. More than 400,000 soldiers were captured over the course of the Civil War. In the first years of the conflict, equal numbers of captured troops were regularly exchanged for one another, helping to keep the total number of prisoners manageable for both sides. Over the course of the war, however, that practice faded from use. By the end of the war, the plight of prisoners of war on both sides had become bleak indeed. Thousands of Southerners died in the freezing camp at Elmira, New York, and the camp at Andersonville, Georgia, which held Union prisoners, has become one of the most infamous in the history of war. Nearly as many men died in captivity during the Civil War as died fighting in Vietnam. Union: • Population- 22 mil • 90% of manufacture plants • Rich mineral deposit; iron, coal, copper • 2.5 times Railroad mileage • Larger navy • Financial advantage- better bank • Lincoln • More industrial skills • Offensive war • Copperheads (traitors) Confederacy: • Better officer corp. • Robert E. Lee • Defensive war • Shorter supply lines • Fewer banking institution • Population- 9 mil • Little manufacturing • Weak confederate Gov. (state rights) • Cotton • Familiarity with firearms in general o Revenue: The Southern Economy With the loss of its cotton exports, the South was in big trouble. It had lost its banking system—which had been headquartered in New York—and held no gold or silver reserves. There were various forms of paper money printed by the states and even by some private banks, but overall people did not trust paper money, unless it was explicitly backed by gold. Without gold and without banks, the Confederacy did the only thing it could: it printed money. Lots and lots of money. However, it could not do much to collect taxes to support this huge printing effort because the Confederate Constitution forbade the central government from imposing taxes on the states, and left it up to each individual state to tax its citizens. As in the American Revolution decades before, states collected little money and, thus, the Confederacy was left nearly broke. The Confederate government levied taxes in 1864, but by that time it was too late to do much good. With money flooding the market, its value fell dramatically, and horrendous inflation dogged the Confederate war effort from beginning to end. The Northern Economy Despite these advantages, the government needed money, and it went to great lengths to get it. First, it issued a massive bond measure in which citizens and financial institutions were asked to buy bonds to fund the war. When this failed to yield enough money for the war, the Secretary of the Treasury, Salmon P. Chase, decided to print paper money. The "greenbacks," as paper money became known, were initially backed by gold, and then later by the bonds that the government sold. In a complicated scheme, the government sold bonds for greenbacks but repaid the interest in gold, making them attractive investments. The value of the paper money varied according to the fortunes of the Union Army, and at times they were worth almost one-third less than face value. In contrast to the economic plan in the Confederacy, the Union made the greenbacks "legal tender for all debts public and private," which helped lower inflation since, by law, everyone had to accept them for goods and services.

Draft Riots

In both the union and the confederacy had to raise their armies from scratch. The voluntary system of recruitment produced sufficient forces for a while, but after the first flush of enthusiasm for the war enlistments declined so in 1863, congress passed a national draft law. Men could escape service by hiring someone to go in their place or by paying the government a fee of $300. Since people were accustomed to a remote and inactive national government this conscription was greatly opposed among laborers, immigrants, and "peace democrats," who opposed the war. Occasionally violence erupted into violence, and in NY demonstrators against the draft rioted. Irish workers were at the center of the violence, because of their rage against black strikebreakers being used against them in recent longshoremen's strike. They also blamed blacks for the war, which was being fought for the benefit of the slaves, who would soon be competing with whites for jobs. Most riots were influenced by the idea that the rich man's war was being fought by the poor man.

Whigs

In its two decades of existence, the Whig Party had two of its candidates, William Henry Harrison and Zachary Taylor, elected President. Both died in office. John Tyler succeeded to the Presidency after Harrison's death but was expelled from the party. Millard Fillmore, who became President after Taylor's death, was the last Whig to hold the nation's highest office. The party was ultimately destroyed by the question of whether to allow the expansion of slavery to the territories. With deep fissures in the party on this question, the anti-slavery faction prevented the re-nomination of its own incumbent President Fillmore in the 1852 presidential election; instead, the party nominated General Winfield Scott. Most Whig party leaders thereupon quit politics (as Abraham Lincoln did temporarily) or changed parties. The northern voter base mostly joined the new Republican Party. By the 1856 presidential election, the party was virtually defunct. In the South, the party vanished but Whig ideology as a policy orientation persisted for decades and played a major role in shaping the modernizing policies of the state governments during Reconstruction.

Border States

In the context of the American Civil War (1861-1865), the border states were slave states that had not declared a secession from the United States. Four slave states never declared a secession: Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, and Missouri. Four others did not declare secession until after the 1861 Battle of Fort Sumter: Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia—after which, they were less frequently called "border states". Also included as a border state during the war is West Virginia, which broke away from Confederate Virginia and became a new state in the Union. In all the border states there was a wide consensus against military coercion of the Confederacy. When Lincoln called for troops to march south to recapture Fort Sumter and other national possessions, southern Unionists were dismayed, and secessionists in Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia were successful in getting those states to also declare independence from the U.S. and to join the Confederate States of America. In Kentucky and Missouri, there were both pro-Confederate and pro-Union governments. West Virginia was formed in 1862-63 from those northwestern counties of Virginia which had remained loyal to the Union and set up a loyalist ("restored") state government of Virginia. Though every slave state except South Carolina contributed some white troops to the Union as well as the Confederate side, the split was most severe in these border states, with men from the same family often fighting on opposite sides. About 170,000 Border state men fought in the Union army and 86,000 in the Confederate army Besides formal combat between regular armies, the border region witnessed large-scale guerrilla warfare and violent raids, feuds and assassinations. Violence was especially severe in eastern Kentucky and western Missouri. The single bloodiest episode was the Lawrence Massacre in Kansas in 1863. With geographic, social, political, and economic connection to both the North and the South, the border states were critical to the outcome of the war, and still delineate the cultural border that separates the North from the South. Reconstruction, as directed by Congress, did not apply to the border states, because they never left the union. They did undergo their own process of readjustment and political realignment, which somewhat resembled the reconstruction of the ex-Confederate states. After 1880 most adopted the Jim Crow system of segregation and second-class citizenship for blacks, although they were still legally allowed to vote. Lincoln's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to the border states. Of the states that were exempted from the Proclamation, Maryland (1864), Missouri (1865), Tennessee (1865), and West Virginia (1865) prohibited slavery before the war ended. However, in Delaware and Kentucky, slavery continued to be legal (affecting about 40,000 slaves) until December 1865, when the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified.

Wilmot Privoso

James Polk's desire to gain territory in the West caused a battle over the expansion of slavery between North and South. The Wilmot Proviso, introduced by Democratic Representative David Wilmot of Pennsylvania on August 8, 1846 (just two months after the outbreak of war with Mexico), banned slavery anywhere in any territory that might be acquired from Mexico. • Wilmot and other northerners were angered by President Polk. They felt that the entire Cabinet and national agenda were dominated by southern minds and southern principles. Polk was willing to fight for southern territory, but proved willing to compromise when it came to the north. Polk had lowered the tariff and denied funds for internal improvements, both to the dismay of northerners. Now they felt a war was being fought to extend the southern way of life. The term "SLAVE POWER" jumped off the lips of northern lawmakers when they angrily referred to their southern colleagues. It was time for northerners to be heard. Though Wilmot's heart did not bleed for the slave, he envisioned California as a place where free white Pennsylvanians could work without the competition of slave labor. Since the north was more populous and had more Representatives in the House, the Wilmot Proviso passed. Laws require the approval of both houses of Congress, however. The Senate, equally divided between free states and slave states could not muster the majority necessary for approval. Angrily the House passed WILMOT'S PROVISO several times, all to no avail. It would never become law. For years, the arguments for and against slavery were debated in the churches and in the newspapers. The House of Representatives had passed a gag rule forbidding the discussion of slavery for much of the previous decade. The issue could no longer be avoided. Lawmakers in the House and Senate, north and south, would have to stand up and be counted.

President Lincoln and Civil Liberties

Lincoln's election: In 1858Republican Lincoln ran against Democrat Douglas in congressional elections for the position of Senate of Illinois. Lincoln wanted to increase his popularity and renown by staging debates against Douglas known as Lincoln-Douglas debates, which attracted widespread attention and were successful in making Lincoln nationally prominent.Douglas accused the republican party of promoting sectionalism and war, of wishing to interfere with slavery in the South, and of advocating social equality of the races. Lincoln denied the claims and accused Democrats of conspiring to extend slavery into the new territories and Free states as well. Lincoln's attacks on slavery argued that if the nation didn't accept that blacks had human rights then it could accept that other groups such as immigrant laborers could be deprived of rights too. Also, extension of slavery in territories would result in loss of opportunities for poor white laborers. The Republican Party central idea was that the nation's future rested on the spread of free labor. Lincoln opposed slavery but he was not an abolitionist because he did not see easy alternative to slavery in areas where it existed. He also believed that the black race was not prepared to live on equal terms with whites. He hoped to prevent the spread of slavery to territories, not to challenge its existence trusting that the institution would gradually die out in areas where it existed. After Douglas's Freeport Doctrine he lost a lot of support from the South, although it did satisfy his antislavery followers, who were sufficient enough to have him reelected in Illinois. However' outside of Illinois the Democrats lost ground in almost every northern state. The party stayed in control of the senate but lost the majority of the house. In the presidential election of 1860 the Democrats were torn between southerners (who demanded strong endorsement of slavery) & westerners (who supported popular sovereignty). When popular sovereignty was endorsed by convention, 8 southern states walked out. The convention eventually elected Douglas as their candidate, and the southern Democrats nominated John Breckinridge of KY as theirs. Still others who formed the Constitutional Union Party, who endorsed Union but remained silent regarding slavery,chose John Bell as their candidate. Republicans tried to broaden their appeal to earn majority in North who feared that the South was blocking its economic interests. The platform endorsed high tariffs, internal improvements, a homestead bill, aPacific railroad, and popular sovereignty even though neither Congressor territory legislatures could legalize slavery in territories. Republicans chose Abraham Lincoln as their nominee because he held a moderate position on slavery, a relative obscurity, and western origins to attract votes from the regionLincoln won the presidency with a majority of electoral votes but only 2/5 of popular vote but failed to win the majority in Congress, and did not have control of the supreme court. The election of Lincoln was a final signal for many southerners that their position in the Union was hopeless, and within weeks the process of disunion began. President Lincoln & Civil Liberties: Aninjunction of habeas corpus is a judicial command to a prison official ordering that an inmate be brought to the court so it can be determined whether or not that person is imprisoned lawfully and whether or not he should be released from custody. The authority of judges to free prisoners held without legal reason is based on a right that existed in America long before either the Constitution or the Bill of Rights were written. The only mention of the writ of habeas corpus in the Constitution relates to when it can be taken away from judges. In a section limiting the powers of Congress (Art. I, Sec. 9), the Constitution states: "The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in causes of rebellion or invasion of the public safety may require it." This suspension clause was never stimulated through the terms of the first 15 presidents. Then during the Civil War, President Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus without consulting Congress. Lincoln's first order suspending the writ applied only to Maryland, a border state sympathetic to the South that virtually surrounded Washington, D.C. On September 24, 1862, Lincoln issued a proclamation unprecedented in American history. He suspended the writ of habeas corpus everywhere in the United States. The suspension applied to Confederate spies or to those who aided the rebel cause, interfered with military enlistments, resisted the draft, or were "guilty of any disloyal practice." This last offense allowed the military to arrest newspaper editors and speakers critical of the Union war effort. Lincoln further ordered that persons arrested under his proclamation were subject to martial law, which meant they would be tried and punished by military courts. Although exact figures are hard to come by, Lincoln's suspension of the writ of habeas corpus enabled the military to arrest and imprison thousands of civilians during the Civil War. President Lincoln's unprecedented act created a great deal of controversy and the legal and political community was divided over his action. On April 27, 1861, about a week after the Fort Sumter surrender, President Lincoln ordered Winfield Scott, then head of the nation's military, to arrest anyone between Washington and Philadelphia suspected of subversive acts or speech, and his order specifically authorized suspension of the writ of habeas corpus. Scott passed the order down the line, and Southern sympathizers in Maryland were rounded up in batches. One of the arrested was John Merryman, a prominent Baltimorean and an active and vocal secessionist. Merryman was arrested May 25, 1861, and that day his lawyer filed a petition in circuit court, which was overseen by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney. Taney ordered Merryman brought before him on a writ of habeas corpus and commanded the military officer in charge of Merryman to show "the cause, if any, for his arrest and detention." Taney eventually ruled that Merryman should be set free, denounced the notion of arbitrary military arrest and defended civil liberties, and pointed out that only Congress had the right to suspend the writ of habeas corpus, though he admitted he could do nothing to enforce his ruling in the face of a military force "too strong for me to overcome." In spite of Taney's ruling, the high court generally went along with the administration after the Merryman case pointed up its powerlessness to force the administration to obey its decisions. In fact, several of the justices were enthusiastic supporters of the war effort. But the case did inspire numerous pamphlets, speeches, and newspaper articles and was one of the critical judicial moments of the Civil War

Preston Brooks

Preston Smith Brooks (August 5, 1819 - January 27, 1857) was a Democratic Representative from South Carolina, serving from 1853 until his death in 1857. Brooks was a fervent advocate of slavery. He is primarily remembered for severely beating Senator Charles Sumner (Free Soil-Massachusetts), an abolitionist, with a cane on the floor of the United States Senate, on May 22, 1856. This was in retaliation for an anti-slavery speech by Sumner in which Sumner attacked Brooks' uncle, Senator Andrew Butler (Democrat-South Carolina). Brooks' action was applauded by many Southerners, and abhorred in the North. Although an attempt to oust him from the House of Representatives was made, and he immediately resigned his seat, he received only token punishment and was re-elected by the people of South Carolina (but died before his next term began). Sumner was seriously injured, and unable to serve in the Senate for three years, though eventually he largely recovered. Brooks' act and the polarizing national reaction to it to are frequently cited as a major factor in the rising tensions leading up to the American Civil War.

"March to the Sea"

Sherman's March to the Sea is the name commonly given to the Savannah Campaign conducted through Georgia from November 15 to December 21, 1864 by Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman of the Union Army in the American Civil War. The campaign began with Sherman's troops leaving the captured city of Atlanta, Georgia, on November 16 and ended with the capture of the port of Savannah on December 21. His forces destroyed military targets as well as industry, infrastructure, and civilian property and disrupted the South's economy and its transportation networks. Sherman's bold move of operating deep within enemy territory and without supply lines is considered to be revolutionary in the annals of war.

Texas Revolution

Texas was a pretty big deal, esp for the presidential campaign. Everyone wanted it! Southerners were even all like "Texas or Disunion!" Texas was like that new friend that everyone in the clique loves (The south) and America and Mexico were like other clique leaders that were trying to fight for the most followers, so they tried to get texas. Tyler didnt really wanna mess with the balance of slave states but he arranged for annexation by a joint resolution. It needed majority in both houses. It passed in 1845, texas was finally allowed to sit at the cool kids table. However, Mexico, their old friends, were all like "HOW DARE YOU STEAL TEXAS FROM US" (even though by then Texas pretty much already left and didnt really belong to Mexico at that point. they were just holding onto 1836 when Texas was more theirs). There was no way Mexico could compete America one-on-one, so they denied their right to dispose of them. Texas became a mess. If you touched it, you were in danger. It trying to be independent meant a lot of potential fighting with America, even maybe getting America's older bro, Europe, involved. America couldnt possibly be seen as pathetically trying to quickly befriend Texas. I mean, they waited 9 years!

Battle of Antietam

The Battle of Antietam also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg, particularly in the South, fought on September 17, 1862, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, and Antietam Creek, as part of the Maryland Campaign, was the first major battle in the American Civil War to take place on Union soil. It is the bloodiest single-day battle in American history, with a combined tally of dead, wounded, and missing at 22,717. After pursuing Confederate General Robert E. Lee into Maryland, Union Army Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan launched attacks against Lee's army, in defensive positions behind Antietam Creek. At dawn on September 17, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker's corps mounted a powerful assault on Lee's left flank. Attacks and counterattacks swept across Miller's cornfield and fighting swirled around the Dunker Church. Union assaults against the Sunken Road eventually pierced the Confederate center, but the Federal advantage was not followed up. In the afternoon, Union Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside's corps entered the action, capturing a stone bridge over Antietam Creek and advancing against the Confederate right. At a crucial moment, Confederate Maj. Gen. A.P. Hill's division arrived from Harpers Ferry and launched a surprise counterattack, driving back Burnside and ending the battle. Although outnumbered two-to-one, Lee committed his entire force, while McClellan sent in less than three-quarters of his army, enabling Lee to fight the Federals to a standstill. During the night, both armies consolidated their lines. In spite of crippling casualties, Lee continued to skirmish with McClellan throughout September 18, while removing his battered army south of the Potomac River. Despite having superiority of numbers, McClellan's attacks failed to achieve force concentration, allowing Lee to counter by shifting forces and moving interior lines to meet each challenge. Despite ample reserve forces that could have been deployed to exploit localized successes, McClellan failed to destroy Lee's army. McClellan had halted Lee's invasion of Maryland, but Lee was able to withdraw his army back to Virginia without interference from the cautious McClellan. Although the battle was tactically inconclusive, the Confederate troops had withdrawn first from the battlefield, making it, in military terms, a Union victory. It had significance as enough of a victory to give President Abraham Lincoln the confidence to announce his Emancipation Proclamation, which discouraged the British and French governments from potential plans for recognition of the Confederacy.

Appomatox Courthouse

The Battle of Appomattox Court House, fought on the morning of April 9, 1865, was the final engagement of Confederate States Army General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia before it surrendered to the Union Army under Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, and one of the last battles of the American Civil War. Lee, having abandoned the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, after the ten-month Siege of Petersburg, retreated west, hoping to join his army with the Confederate forces in North Carolina. Union forces pursued and cut off the Confederate retreat at Appomattox Court House. Lee launched an attack to break through the Union force to his front, assuming the Union force consisted entirely of cavalry. When he realized that the cavalry was backed up by two corps of Union infantry, he had no choice but to surrender. The signing of the surrender documents occurred in the parlor of the house owned by Wilmer McLean on the afternoon of April 9. On April 12, a formal ceremony marked the disbandment of the Army of Northern Virginia and the parole of its officers and men, effectively ending the war in Virginia. This event triggered a series of surrenders across the south, signaling the end of the war.

Richmond

The Confederate States of America was formed in early 1861 from the first states to secede from the Union. Montgomery, Alabama, was selected as the Confederate capital. After the Confederate army fired on Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, beginning the Civil War, additional states seceded. Virginia voted to secede from the Union on April 17, 1861, and existed briefly thereafter as an independent republic before joining the Confederacy on June 19. Shortly thereafter, in recognition of Virginia's strategic importance, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond, the capital of Virginia. Richmond, Virginia, served as the capital of the Confederate States of America during the vast majority of the American Civil War. It was the target of numerous attempts by the Union Army to seize possession of the capital, finally falling to the Federals in April 1865. Not only was Richmond the seat of political power for the Confederacy, it served as a vital source of munitions, armament, weapons, supplies, and manpower for the Confederate States Army and as such would have been defended at all costs regardless of its political status.

Crittenden Compromise

The Crittenden Compromise was proposed by Senator John J. Crittenden of KY. It called for several constitutional amendments that would guarantee the permanent existence of slavery in the slave states and would satisfy southern demands. The compromise reestablished the Missouri Compromise line, and the southerners in the senate approved the plan, but the Republicans didn't because it required republicans to abandon their ideology that slavery should not be allowed to expand.

Emancipation Proclamation

The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, as a war measure during the American Civil War, to all segments of the Executive branch (including the Army and Navy) of the United States. It proclaimed the freedom of slaves in the Confederacy, thus applying to 3.1 million of the 4 million slaves in the U.S. at the time. The Proclamation was based on the president's constitutional authority as commander in chief of the armed forces; it was not a law passed by Congress. The Proclamation also ordered that "suitable" persons among those freed could be enrolled into the paid service of United States' forces, and ordered the Union Army (and all segments of the Executive branch) to "recognize and maintain the freedom of" the ex-slaves. The Proclamation did not compensate the owners, did not itself outlaw slavery, and did not make the ex-slaves (called freedmen) citizens. It made the eradication of slavery an explicit war goal, in addition to the goal of reuniting the Union. On September 22, 1862, Lincoln had issued a preliminary proclamation that he would order the emancipation of all slaves in any state (or part of a state) that did not end their rebellion against the Union by January 1, 1863. None of the Confederate states restored themselves to the Union, and Lincoln's order, signed and issued January 1, 1863, took effect. The Emancipation Proclamation outraged white Southerners who envisioned a race war, angered some Northern Democrats, energized anti-slavery forces, and undermined forces in Europe that wanted to intervene to help the Confederacy. The Proclamation lifted the spirits of African Americans both free and slave. It led many slaves to escape from their masters and run behind Union lines in order to obtain their freedom. The Emancipation Proclamation broadened the goals of the Civil War. While slavery had been a major issue that led to the war, at its beginning, Lincoln's only mission was to keep the Union together. The Proclamation made freeing the slaves an explicit goal of the Union war effort, and was a step towards outlawing slavery and conferring full citizenship upon ex-slaves.

Lincoln Douglas Debates

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858 were a series of seven debates between Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate for the Senate in Illinois, and Senator Stephen Douglas, the Democratic Party candidate. At the time, U.S. senators were elected by state legislatures; thus Lincoln and Douglas were trying for their respective parties to win control of the Illinois legislature. The debates previewed the issues that Lincoln would face in the aftermath of his victory in the 1860 presidential election. The main issue discussed in all seven debates was slavery. Newspaper coverage of the debates was intense. Major papers from Chicago sent stenographers to create complete texts of each debate, which newspapers across the United States reprinted in full, with some partisan edits. Newspapers that supported Douglas edited his speeches to remove any errors made by the stenographers and to correct grammatical errors, while they left Lincoln's speeches in the rough form in which they had been transcribed. In the same way, pro-Lincoln papers edited Lincoln's speeches, but left the Douglas texts as reported. After losing the election for Senator in Illinois, Lincoln edited the texts of all the debates and had them published in a book. The widespread coverage of the original debates and the subsequent popularity of the book led eventually to Lincoln's nomination for President of the United States by the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, officially Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Limits and Settlement between the United States of America and the Mexican Republic, is the peace treaty signed in Guadalupe Hidalgo between the U.S. and Mexico that ended the Mexican-American War (1846-48). With the defeat of its army and the fall of the capital, Mexico entered into negotiations to end the war. The treaty called for the United States to pay $15 million to Mexico and pay off the claims of American citizens against Mexico up to $3.25 million. It gave the United States the Rio Grande boundary for Texas, and gave the U.S. ownership of California, and a large area comprising New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Wyoming and Colorado. Mexicans in those annexed areas had the choice of relocating to Mexico or receiving American citizenship with full civil rights; over 90% remained. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty by a vote of 38-14, against the Whigs who had opposed the war, rejected Manifest Destiny in general and rejected this expansion in particular.

Mexican War

The US claimed Mexico owed them about $3 million for damages. Mexico agreed to assume most of its debt, but was forced to "default" on its payments. Then there was Texas. Mexico said that if the US took it, they would go to war. They also tried to annex it. Questions of boundaries between texas and mexico was a big problem. Nueces River or Rio Grande? Mexico wasnt as worried about this as the US was. The US viewed it as texas being theirs, just revolting. Polk made sure that nobody went into the unknown territory. Polk expected war, and when it didnt happen he got worried and tried to declare it himself. At first the cabinet was weary about it, but that evening some Mexican troops attacked (a little too convenient for my liking). 16 Americans were killed/wounded. This was like a spark and everything was like "aahhh america!!! mexico!!! fight fight fight!!!" because Polk said it was on "American soil" when it was really in that unknown land that both parties thought was theirs. Pretty much, Polk provoked this to get California cheaper. Brute force is the American way. The american mindset was all "these Mexicans need to be taught a lesson" and the Mexicans were all "freakin bullies that think they can get whatever they want. someone aughta take them down a few levels." It is known that Polk really wanted California and war was just like his way of getting it. He got rid of Santa Anna, sent him to Cuba. All american battles were great victories, blah blah blah. Lots of "Heros". They surrounded Mexico City, even though they faced many "handicaps" and still managed to come in and save the day. Polk wanted to stop the fighting asap and conveniently bought their way out of the war. There was still a lot of tension. But they somehow managed to sign the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. America got the land all the way to Oregon and California, and Texas, for $15 million. Overall, the war was kinda small. Only like 13000 Americans lost, mainly to disease. But they got a lot of good stuff out of it, like all that land. It also prepared the South for the Civil War, which was pretty chill. That was pretty much the war.

Compromise of 1850

The problem started with Southerners being paranoid. Some wanted in, some wanted out. If Congress didnt act, it could mean the downfall of the US. A convention was quickly assembled. Featured Clay, Calhoun, and Webster. Henry Clay, aka the "Great Compromiser", aged 73. He played a big part in the Missouri and nullification crises. And did a fabulous job at it. In this fight, he urged that the North and South both make concessions and that the North be more flexible with their fugitive-slave law. Senator John C. Calhoun, aka the "Great Nullifier", aged 68. He was dying of TB at the time so had a younger colleague speak in his place.He proposed to leave slavery alone, return the slaves, gie the South more rights, and restore balance. However, this was his last formal speech. Before the debate could end, he passed away. With Calhoun gone, Daniel Webster, also 68, was able to take the spotlight. He was suffering from a bad liver, and his lifestyle didnt make it any better. However, his speeches made up for that. He wanted reasonable concessions to the south. He said that the economy would not stand without slavery, and this is how God wanted it. His speech is what made the North want to compromise. It sold quite a lot (20,000 wasnt enough). However, the North hadnt had their say yet. These leaders of the Young Guard hadnt grown up with the union so they wanted to purge and purify it instead of patch and preserve. William H. Seward was a spokesman. He was strongly against concession, even though compromise is what brought the Union together. He said that God's moral law was a "higher law" than the constitution (WHAT?! but the constitution is like americas bible so...) This declaration pretty much cost his presidency. There was an almost certain deadlock. President Taylor was going to veto any compromise from Congress. Texas was going to Santa Fe. He was about to "jacksonize" and hang all the "damned traitors" but he didnt. If he did, that wouldve started the civil war. Then Taylor just died. VP Millard Fillmore took over and was like "yea compromise is the answer." A lot of compromises happened, including COMPROMISE OF 1850. But it was very hard to balance all of it. The country was just as hard to convince than the Congress. There were people like the "Union savers" (including Clay, Webster, and Douglas) in the north who wanted compromise. But there were also people like the "fire-eaters" in the south that refused to. In June 1850, southern extremists met in Nashville. They pretty much met to say they wouldnt vompromise and they love slavery. But then they met in November and said that they would accept the verdict. Then everything was fine and dandy again, like a second Era of Good Feelings.

Slavery and Westward Expansion

The underlying causes of the Civil War. Mainly slavery: N against, S pro-slavery, causing sectional differences. Sectional differences reach extremes as leaders focus decisions on personal gain rather than good of the country. Westward expansion led to question of slavery: Would new territories lead to slave/non-slave states? Bottom line, slavery is the cause of the Civil War.

Dred Scott

Was the property of a surgeon from Missouri, who traveled to Wisconsin and Illinois where slavery was forbidden. After the death of his master, Scott sued his master's widow for his freedom claiming that he was a resident of free territory; therefore he was a free man. The Missouri court that he appealed to declared him free, however the widower's brother, Sanford, claimed proprietorship of Scott, and he appealed to the Missouri Supreme Court. He argued that Dred was not a citizen but private property, and that under the constitution, specifically the 5th amendment, Congress had no right to forbid slavery because it interfered with a citizen's protected right of private property. Congress could not make a decision, so they released separate decisions on each of the major issues. Finally, Taney, Chief of Justice, agreed that Scott was not a citizen, and was private property, therefore federal law could not interfere with an individual's claim to private property. Also, since Scott was a black man he could not be a citizen and therefore had no rights. This case caused a hiatus in both the North and the South. The South was ecstatic about the fact that the gov't had approved of its most extreme argument. In the North the decision was taken with wide spread dismay. Republicans did not respect the decision and when they took control of the national government, they threatened that they would reverse the decision.

Ostend Manifesto

What: The Ostend Manifesto was a secret document written by U.S. diplomats planning the annexation of Cuba from Spain. America had been eying Cuba for many administrations; some believed that it was only right that America should own the land, seeing as it was only ninety miles off the shore from Florida. The diplomats threatened Spain that if they refused to sell Cuba for $120 million, then the U.S. would take it by force. • When: October 18, 1854 • Who: The Ostend Manifesto was written by U.S. diplomats Pierre Soulé, James Mason, and James Buchanon in Ostend, Belgium. Pierre Soulé was the mastermind behind the manifesto. • Where: The manifesto was written in Ostend, Belgium, but the land that was wished to be acquired was Cuba from Spain. • Why: Located ninety miles off the coast of Florida, Spain's Cuba was of special importance to Southern Democrat economical and political interests because its acquisition would greatly strengthen their current slave-based economy. The South could extend their slavery to new lands. Presidents Thomas Jefferson and John Quincy Adams expressed great interest in Cuba. Adams at one point during his time as Secretary of State noted that it had "become an object of transcendent importance to the commercial and political interests of our Union". Its entry into the Union was one of several scenarios during this period by which the balance of power between the North and the South could be shifted in one direction or the other. This is why three U.S. diplomats were sent to Ostend, Belgium, to devise a plan to obtain Cuba. They were either to buy it from Spain or take it using brute force. Northern Perspective: The Ostend Manifesto caused outrage among Northerners. They saw the aggressively worded document and felt it was just another Southern attempt to extend slavery. Because the Northerners were recently stirred up with the Fugitive Slave Law, they deemed the manifesto unconstitutional. It was only an attempt for the South to further spread slavery and the North would not allow it. Southern Perspective: The South would have been overjoyed if Cuba had become another slave state. It would have given them a more fair representation in congress and further spread their slave philosophy. Soulé was an advocate for Southern rights and had them in mind when he was trying to acquire Cuba.

Women and the Civil War

With the outbreak of war in 1861, women and men alike eagerly volunteered to fight for the cause. In the Northern states, women organized ladies' aid societies to supply the Union troops with everything they needed, from food (they baked and canned and planted fruit and vegetable gardens for the soldiers) to clothing (they sewed and laundered uniforms, knitted socks and gloves, mended blankets and embroidered quilts and pillowcases) to cash (they organized door-to-door fundraising campaigns, county fairs and performances of all kinds to raise money for medical supplies and other necessities). But many women wanted to take a more active role in the war effort. Inspired by the work of Florence Nightingale and her fellow nurses in the Crimean War, they tried to find a way to work on the front lines, caring for sick and injured soldiers and keeping the rest of the Union troops healthy and safe. In June 1861, they succeeded: The federal government agreed to create "a preventive hygienic and sanitary service for the benefit of the army" called the United States Sanitary Commission. The Sanitary Commission's primary objective was to combat preventable diseases and infections by improving conditions (particularly "bad cookery" and bad hygiene) in army camps and hospitals. It also worked to provide relief to sick and wounded soldiers. By war's end, the Sanitary Commission had provided almost $15 million in supplies--the vast majority of which had been collected by women--to the Union Army. Women nurses served in both Confederate and Union hospitals during the Civil war. Besides hospitals they also served near the fighting front and on the battlefield. These brave acts earned the women the gratitude and respect from the soldiers that they helped. After the start of the Civil war, on June 10, 1861, Dorothea Lynde was appointed the Superintendent of Women Nurses. This appointment by the Secretary of War produced a nursing organization for the Union army. During this war approximately 6,000 women were employed as nurses. Of these women about 181 were black nurses that worked in U.S. government hospitals and convalescent homes. • United States Sanitary Commission Following the First Battle of Bull Run, volunteers from the Women's Central Association of Relief (WCAR) of New York witnessed the government's lack of sanitation and medical supplies. WCAR President Henry W. Bellows had traveled to Washington, D.C., intending to discuss matters regarding his organization. Meeting with Secretary of War Simon Cameron shortly after Bull Run, he instead discussed creating a Washington, D.C. organization that would provide advice and assistance to the Union military regarding medical care and general welfare. The organization would become the U.S. Sanitary Commission, approved by President Abraham Lincoln on June 13, 1861. The U.S. Sanitary Commission, the only civilian-run organization recognized by the federal government, would serve as the focal point for civilian assistance to the military. U.S. Sanitary Commission volunteers advised on the physical and mental health of the military, assisted in the organization of military hospitals and camps, and aided in the transportation of the wounded. They distributed medical supplies, food, and clothing where needed. All of this was accomplished at no cost to the government, thanks to donations and fundraising activities. Led by an executive board overseeing inspectors and field agents, U.S. Sanitary Commission branches in larger cities coordinated the efforts of local aid societies. Some existing regional aid societies, including the WCAR, would serve under the U.S. Sanitary Commission. • Daughters of the Regiment, Vivandiàres, Families of Soldiers, and Spies Women who chose to follow the Union or Confederate armies into the field provided needed services for the soldiers. Some held positions recognized by the army and were called daughters of the regiment or vivandiàres. The women in the camps worked as cooks, laundresses, seamstresses, sutlers, and nurses. Often, but not always, they were wives or daughters of soldiers. Female spies, in both the North and South, rendered covert service for their cause. Official Union daughters of the regiment wore adapted military uniforms. They ranged from young Eliza Wilson of Wisconsin who performed ceremonial duties that boosted the morale of soldiers, to Kady Brownwell who followed her husband and the 1st and 5th Rhode Island Infantry Regiments and served as flag bearer in battle. She also nursed soldiers and learned to use a rifle and sword. Some units hired cooks and laundresses. Women or freed slaves would fill those roles. In other cases, wives and even children of soldiers would follow a unit, cooking, doing laundry, and keeping their soldier company. The presence of family members was not entirely welcome, however. Some viewed them as taking medical care, food, and quarters that could be used for soldiers. In addition, camp life had its own risks—disease was rampant and being close to the front brought the risk of enemy attack. Certain women took advantage of acting skills, intelligence, charm, social acquaintances, and political connections in order to serve in a more clandestine fashion—as spies. They extracted information at balls, during tours of local forts, or while socializing with invading soldiers. Women were able to smuggle maps and documents in their hoop skirts, hems, and hair in order to safely deliver information. The South had its share of famous female spies—Maria Isabella "Belle" Boyd and Rose O'Neal Greenhow—while women like Elizabeth Van Lew, from Virginia, aided the North. • Armory Square Hospital Armory Square Hospital, built in 1862, was located on the National Mall where the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum stands today. The hospital was one of many medical facilities located in downtown Washington, D.C. Armory Square Hospital had twelve pavilions plus overflow tents with one thousand hospital beds that were filled with wounded from the battlefields of Virginia. Nurses assigned to Armory Square Hospital worked under Army regulations. Nurse Amanda Akin Stearns likened the hospital to a solar system where all wards revolved around the surgeon in charge, and each ward turned on its own axis, with its own surgeon and female nurse, an orderly for both, ward master, cadet surgeon to dress wounds, three attendants, and two night watchers. Stearns recorded the daily routine in her memoirs. After reveille sounded at 6 a.m., the nurses dressed, tidied their rooms, and dispensed medications. They then served breakfast to their patients before eating their own. Constant supervision of the patients was the order of the day in addition to reading and writing letters for soldiers. More medicines were dispensed before noon followed by lunch. The afternoons were set aside for relaxation, resting, and outdoor walks. By 5 p.m., nurses gave their patients another round of medicine. Evenings were spent trying to entertain the men. The night watchers arrived at 8:45 p.m., and nurses gave them final directions before retiring for the night. President Abraham Lincoln often visited the hospital and took a special interest in it, even suggesting that flower beds be made between the wards using plants from the government gardens. Stearns remembered that Lincoln's eyes had a sad, far-away look as he shook hands with each soldier. She noted that he paused before those suffering the most to offer a warm "God bless you." Poet Walt Whitman frequented the wards of Armory Square Hospital where the most severely wounded received treatment. Whitman became interested in helping sick and wounded soldiers after visiting his brother George in a hospital after the Battle of Fredericksburg. Working as an unpaid delegate of the Christian Commission in early 1863, he visited hospitals around Washington, D.C., and raised money to buy extra food and supplies for the soldiers. Armory Square Hospital closed at the end the war. The building was used for storage purposes, then as offices for the U.S. Fish Commission until the building was demolished in January 1964. • Women of the Confederacy White women in the South threw themselves into the war effort with the same zeal as their Northern counterparts. The Confederacy had less money and fewer resources than did the Union, however, so they did much of their work on their own or through local auxiliaries and relief societies. They, too, cooked and sewed for their boys. They provided uniforms, blankets, sandbags and other supplies for entire regiments. They wrote letters to soldiers and worked as untrained nurses in makeshift hospitals. They even cared for wounded soldiers in their homes. Many Southern women, especially wealthy ones, relied on slaves for everything and had never had to do much work. However, even they were forced by the exigencies of wartime to expand their definitions of "proper" female behavior. • Slaves and Freedwomen Slave women were, of course, not free to contribute to the Union cause. Moreover, they had never had the luxury of "true womanhood" to begin with: As one historian pointed out, "being a women never saved a single female slave from hard labor, beatings, rape, family separation, and death." The Civil War promised freedom, but it also added to these women's burden. In addition to their own plantation and household labor, many slave women had to do the work of their husbands and partners too: The Confederate Army frequently impressed male slaves, and slaveowners fleeing from Union troops often took their valuable male slaves, but not women and children, with them. (Working-class white women had a similar experience: While their husbands, fathers and brothers fought in the Army, they were left to provide for their families on their own.)