Ch 19 French Revolution Exam Prep

Why did Napoleon decide to invade Russia? Describe how the invasion went.

In 1812, Russia defected from the Continental System, which was why Napoleon decided to invade. Though he was aware of the risks of invading such a large country, Napoleon also knew if the Russians were allowed to challenge the Continental System unopposed, others would soon follow suit. Napoleon deployed an army of more than 600,000 men into Russia, but the Russians refused to battle and retreated hundreds of miles while torching their own villages to prevent Napoleon's army from finding food. Heat and disease took a toll on Napoleon's army, and the vast space of Russian territory led many troops to desert. Once his forces reached Moscow, they found the city ablaze. Napoleon decided to abandon Moscow and make a 'great retreat' across Russia in terrible winter conditions. Only 40,000 troops managed to straggle back to Poland in 1813.

How did the decline in purchasing power of the 18th century affect the Third Estate of French society?

In Paris, people saw a 140% rise in rents for working people of all trades. This resulted in economic discontent, especially from the Third Estate, leading them to play an important role in the Revolution. People also saw a surge in bread prices, which immediately affected public order because they expect bread prices to be controlled, and it constituted about 75% of their diet.

How did the common people respond to Louis XVI's threat to dissolve the Estates-General (and thus the National Assembly)?

In a series of urban and rural uprisings, the Third Estate was saved from the king's attempt to stop the revolution. They went on to use the name of the Third Estate to wage a war on the rich, claiming aristocrats were plotting to destroy the Estates-General and retain their privileges. Seeing their effectiveness, the common people would then be utilized by both revolutionary and counterrevolutionary politicians, and used to support their interests.

Who was Georges Danton?

Initial leader of the Paris Commune and first president of the Committee of Public Safety. He dominated the political scene before the National Convention met.

Describe Napoleon's grand empire.

It consisted of 3 parts: The French Empire, a series of dependent states, and allied states. The dependent states included Spain, Netherlands, Italy, Swiss Republic, Duchy of Warsaw, and the Confederation of the Rhine. The allied states, those defeated by Napoleon and forced to join his struggle, as Prussia, Austria, and Russia.

Describe the First Estate.

It consisted of the clergy, and numbered around 130,000 people. The church owned approximately 10% of the land, the clergy were exempt from the taille. The clergy was radically divided, as the higher clergy (which stemmed from aristocratic families) shared the interests of the nobility, while parish priests were often poor commoners.

Describe the Second Estate.

It consisted of the nobility, and numbered around 350,000 people. They owned about 25-50% of the land. The nobility played a crucial role in French society during the reigns of Louis XV and XVI, holding many leading positions in government, the military, law courts, and the church. They were divided between the Nobles of the Robe and Nobles of the Sword. The nobility tended to marry within their own ranks, making the Second Estate a relatively closed group. They possessed a number of privileges, including tax exemptions.

Describe the delegation/representatives of the Estates-General. Any changes since their last meeting in 1614?

It contained representatives from the 3 orders of French society. For this meeting, the government decided the Third Estate would be granted double representation, as they constituted 97% of the French population after all. So, the First and Second Estates had 300 delegates each, while the Third had 600.

What was the peoples' response to the new republican calendar? Was it welcomed or opposed?

It faced intense popular opposition, and the revolutionary government had to rely on coercion to win its acceptance. For instance, journalists were commanded to use republican dates in their newspaper articles.

Besides to de-Christianize, what other purpose did the new republican calendar serve?

It served to mark the Revolution as a new historical beginning, or a radical break in time. The new order allowed for the 'creation of a new human being freed from the old order and its symbols, a new citizen surrounded by a framework of new habits'. Restructuring time itself offered the opportunity to forge new habits and create a lasting new order.

What were the POLITICAL causes of the French Revolution?

1. A lack of political power among the bourgeoisie despite their increasing wealth caused much frustration. 2. There was a growing demand for a Parliamentary body sharing political power with the king within the Second Estate, similar to England's political system. 3. The peasantry urged for the end of feudalism, where they still had obligations to their local landlords. 4. Members of the French Parlement ultimately frustrated any efforts at reform by blocking royal edicts which did not align with their own interests, such as new taxes.

What were the ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL causes of the French Revolution?

1. A surge in the prices of bread, a staple of the basic French diet, caused public unrest, especially among the Third Estate. 2. France continued to partake in costly wars, purchase royal extravagance despite being short on funds, resulting in economic crises and the near collapse of government finances.

What were the INTELLECTUAL causes of the French Revolution?

1. Intellectuals criticized the social and political institutions of France, and their ideas were circulated widely among the literate bourgeoisie and nobles.

What were the SOCIAL causes of the French Revolution?

1. Unfair privileges were granted to members of the First and Second Estates including tax exemptions and the right to charge fees and tithes on peasants. 2. A rigid social hierarchy was in place, and it was incredibly hard to get out of whichever class one was born in.

Who was Abbe Sieyes? What were his beliefs, and did they match beliefs of the general public?

A Third Estate representative who issued a pamphlet in which he asked: "What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been thus far in the political order? Nothing. What does it demand? To become something". His beliefs were not representative of the general feeling in 1789, as most delegates wanted to make reasonable changes with respect for the authority of the king, and did not favor the complete overthrowing of traditional institutions.

What was the Committee of Public Safety?

A committee created by the National Convention to combat counterrevolution within France. They were given broad powers to administer the government. It was initially led by Danton, but then by Robespierre. Virtually the same 12 members were reelected over the span of a year, giving France the leadership it needed to effectively deal with the domestic and foreign crises of 1793.

What was the 1790 Civil Constitution of the Clergy? Church reactions to it? How was it significant/impactful?

A constitution passed by the National Assembly which stated that bishops and priests of the Catholic Church were to be elected by the people and paid by the state. It also declared that all clergy were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the Civil Constitution. The pope forbade swearing this oath of allegiance, so as a result, only 54% of the French clergy took the oath and a majority of bishops refused. This was critical because the Catholic Church, still an important institution in French society, became an enemy of the Revolution. This constitution was ultimately viewed as a mistake on part of the National Assembly for arousing opposition from the church, giving counterrevolution a popular base from which to operate.

Who was Maximilien Robespierre?

A dominant figure in the Committee of Public Safety, who was a fanatical supporter of the Revolution and reign of terror, as he wished to create a 'republic of virtue'.

What was the Permanent Committee? Major accomplishments?

A group composed of Parisian leaders, created to keep order during increased mob activity. Needing arms, they organized a popular force and successfully attacked the Bastille.

What was the Society of Thirty?

A group of patriots who drew their members mainly from the salons of Paris, and they were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and American Revolution.

Who were the Patriots/Lovers of Liberty?

A group of reformers who consisted primarily of the bourgeoisie, and the opposed the Parlement's proposal of voting by order in the meeting of the Estates-General.

Describe peasant revolutions which occurred in the countryside shortly after the fall of Bastille.

A growing resentment of the seigneurial system, with its fees and obligations, and made worse by the economic/fiscal activities of the great estate holders created the conditions for a popular uprising. The fall of Bastille and Louis XVI's apparent surrender to the demands of the Third Estate encouraged peasants to take matters into their own hands. They revolted by forcing ecclesiastical lords to renounce dues and tithes, and burned charters which listed their obligations.

What was the Law of 14 Frimaire?

A law passed by the Committee of Public Safety to centralize the administration of France more effectively and exercise greater control in order to check the excesses of the Reign of Terror.

What was the 1781 Segur Law?

A law passed with attempted to limit the sale of military officerships to 4th generation nobles, in reaction to the ambitions of aristocrats newly arrived from the bourgeoisie, thus excluding newly enrolled members of the nobility.

What was the Legislative Assembly? Describe its structure.

A new assembly created during the French Revolution which held sovereign power. It consisted of 745 representatives chosen by an indirect system of election that preserved power in the hands of more affluent members of society. Only active citizens could vote for the electors, and the electors chose the deputies.

What was the Constitution of 1795?

A new constitution written that reflected a desire for a stability that did not sacrifice the ideals of 1789. It established a national legislative assembly consisting of two chambers: A lower house of 500 members who initiated legislation, and an upper houses of 250 members who rejected or accepted proposed laws. The 750 members would be chosen by electors, and the electors would be chosen by active citizens. The Directory consisted of 5 directors elected by the upper house from a list presented by the lower house.

What was the Reign of Terror?

A period of the French Revolution instituted by the National Convention and Committee of Public Safety to deal with the domestic crisis. It was organized to protect the Republic from internal enemies, those who 'showed themselves to be supporter of tyranny or enemies of liberty' or 'have not constantly manifested their attachment to the revolution'. 16000 people were executed by guillotine over the course of 9 months, and victims included royalists, such as Queen Marie Antoinette, former Girondins, such as Olympe de Gouges, and thousands of peasants. Most victims were people who opposed the radical activities of the sans-culottes.

What was the Thermidorean Reaction? What happened during it?

A period of the collapse of revolutionary fervor. It takes place between the execution of Robespierre and the inauguration of the Directory. During this time, the Terror began to subside, the National Convention curtailed the power of the Committee of Public Safety, shut down the Jacobin club, and attempted to provide better protection for its deputies against Parisian mobs. Churches were allowed to reopen for public worship, and economic regulation was dropped in favor of laissez-faire policies. By this point, moderate forces were regaining control of the Revolution.

Who was Johann Gottlieb Fichte? Impact of philosophical voices like his on Germany?

A philosopher who welcomed the French Revolution at first for freeing the human spirit, but he soon became an advocator of a German national spirit radically different from that of France. All though voices like his did little to overthrow the French, it awoke a dream of German nationalism that would yield positive results later in the 19th century.

Who was Olympe de Gouges?

A playwright who refused to accept the exclusion of women from political rights, and drew up a Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in which she insisted women have the same rights as men. However, her demands were ignored by the National Assembly.

Who was Germaine de Stael?

A prominent writer who refused to accept Napoleon's growing despotism. She was educated in Enlightenment ideas, and set up a salon in Paris that was a prominent intellectual center by 1800. She wrote novels and political works that denounced Napoleon's rule as tyrannical. Her books were banned by Napoleon, and she was exiled to the German States.

Who was Gracchus Babeuf?

A radical who was appalled at the misery of the common people. He wanted to abolish private property and eliminate private enterprise. His "Conspiracy of Equals" was crushed in 1796 and he was executed in 1797.

What is nationalism? How did it rise during the French Revolution? Impact of nationalism on France?

A sense of national consciousness based on awareness of being part of a community -a nation- that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs, and that becomes the focus of the individual's primary political loyalty. It rose during the French Revolution in the peoples' emphasis on brotherhood and solidarity against other peoples. Nationalism made possible the mass armies of the revolutionary and Napoleonic eras.

What was the Cahiers de Doleances (Statements of Local Grievances)?

A statement drafted during elections to the Estates-General. It advocated for a constitutional government that would abolish the fiscal privileges of the church and nobility.

What was the Great Fear?

A vast panic that spread throughout France, caused by fear of invasion by foreign troops and a supposed aristocratic plot to starve the peasantry.

Which of the following statements best applies to Napoleon? A) He was a child of both the Enlightenment and the Revolution B) He had a deep sense of moral responsibility to the people of France C) He advocated an invasion of Britain in the 1770s D) He was born the son of a Parisian priest

A) He was a child of both the Enlightenment and the Revolution

Historians have noted that the French Revolutionary Army helped create the... A) Modern concept of nationalism B) Modern system of officer ranking C) Concept of total war D) Practice of showing no mercy to prisoners

A) Modern concept of nationalism

The sans-culottes who led the Paris Commune before 1792... A) Solved the problem of prison overcrowding with mass executions B) Wrote the Constitution of Year Four C) Supported the young Napoleon in his first attempt to take power D) Stripped street signs of their Christian names

A) Solved the problem of prison overcrowding with mass executions

Napoleon's Grand Empire... A) Was composed of three parts but united under him B) Revived the power of the nobility and clergy everywhere C) Included all of Europe after 1805 D) Had no long-lasting impact on the conquered countries

A) Was composed of three parts but united under him

What was the Code Napoleon, and what was stated? What did it reflect?

It was a single code of laws for the entire nation of France. It preserved most of the revolutionary gains by recognizing the principle of equality of all citizens before the law, right of individuals to choose their professions, religious toleration, and the abolition of serfdom and feudalism. Property rights would continue to be carefully protected, while the interests of employers were safeguarded by outlawing trade unions and strikes. Many social legislations passed during the radical stage of the Revolution were undone. The control of fathers over their families was restored, divorce was allowed but made more difficult for women to obtain. A woman's property came under the control of their husbands upon marriage, and women were treated as minors in their lawsuits. Testimonies from women were also regarded as less reliable than that of men.

What was the period of the Directory, and what social changes took place during this period?

It was an era of reaction to the suffering and sacrifices demanded in the Reign of Terror and Republic of Virtue. Elaborate fashion, which went out of style due to their correlation with the nobility were worn again. Gambling and roulette also became popular again.

Describe the goals and composition of the National Convention.

It was dominated by lawyers, professionals, property owners, as well as a handful of artisans. Almost all of the deputies were intensely distrustful of the king and his activities, resulting in the convention's decision to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic. Their goal was to draft a new constitution. The National Convention split into factions over the rate of the king: The Girondins and the Mountain.

How, where, and why was the authority of the National Convention repudiated in France?

It was repudiated in Western France by peasants who revolted against the new military draft, especially in the department of Vendee. A Vendean Rebellion soon escalated into a counterrevolutionary appeal. Some of France's major provincial cities, including Lyons and Marseilles, began breaking away from the central authority as well, as they favored a decentralized republic to free themselves from Parisian superiority.

What was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen? What did it state?

It was the ideological foundation for the actions of the National Assembly. It reflected the ideas of major philosophes of the Enlightenment, and in many ways related to the American Declaration of Independence. It began by affirming the natural rights of man to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. It also affirmed the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to exemptions from taxation, freedom/equal rights for all, and access to public office based on talent rather than wealth. The monarchy would be restricted, and all citizens would be granted the right to take part in the legislative process. The freedom of speech was affirmed, and arbitrary arrests were outlawed.

Was de-Christianization a poor decision on behalf of the National Assembly? Explain.

It was, because it ultimately backfired as France was still overwhelmingly Catholic. So, this created more enemies than friends.

What was one example of how Parisian crowds affected national politics?

Louis XVI at first refused to promote the decrees on the abolition of feudalism and the declaration of rights. However, In 1789, crowds of Parisian women set off for Versailles to confront the king and National Assembly due to food shortages. Louis XVI met with a delegation of these women, who described that their children were starving due to lack of bread, and then he promised them grain supplies for Paris thinking it would end the protest. The crowd then insisted the royal family return to Paris, becoming virtually a prisoner there. After this event, Louis XVI accepted the National Assembly's decrees.

How did King Louis XVI feel about the National Assembly?

Louis XVI sided with the First Estate in that they should vote by order, and threatened to dissolve the Estates-General. However, in a series of urban and rural uprisings, the Third Estate was saved from the king's attempt to stop the revolution.

Describe how Napoleon came to power.

After the coup of 1799, a new form of the Republic was proclaimed with a constitution that established a bicameral legislative assembly elected indirectly to reduce the role of elections. Executive power would be vested in the hands of 3 consuls, but 'the decision of the First Consul shall suffice'. As First Consul, Napoleon directly controlled the entire executive authority of government. He had overwhelming influence over the legislature, appointed members of the bureaucracy, controlled the army, and conducted foreign affairs. In 1802, Napoleon was made consul for life, and in 1804, he crowned himself as Emperor Napoleon I. This stabilized the French regime, and provided a permanence not possible with a consulate.

What was the Tennis Court Oath? How could this be considered the first step in the French Revolution?

An oath sworn by the participating delegates of the National Assembly, in which they agreed to continue to meet until they produced a French constitution. These actions were the first step in the French Revolution, as the Third Estate had no legal right to act as a 'National Assembly'.

Describe the similarities between the wealthy bourgeoisie and nobility.

Many members of the bourgeoisie and nobility formed a single class, in terms of economic function as they both engaged in capitalist activities such as mining, metallurgy, and glassmaking. Since both classes were long accustomed to a new socioeconomic reality based on wealth and economic achievement, they were increasingly frustrated by a monarchical system based on privileges and an old, rigid social order based on the concept of estates.

French enthusiasm for war led the Legislative Assembly to declare war on Austria in 1792, in response to the Declaration of Pillnitz. Why take such a step with its obvious dangers?

Many people in France wanted war, but for different reasons. Royalists/counterrevolutionaries hoped a preoccupation with war would cool off the Revolution, and French defeat, which was likely due to the disintegration of the army, may even lead to the restoration of the old regime. Leftists hoped that war would strengthen the Revolution at home and spread it to all of Europe.

Louis XVI, upset with the revolutionary events, attempted to flee France but was captured. What was the reaction of the National Assembly?

Members of the National Assembly decided to ignore the king's flight and pretend he had been kidnapped, in fear of the popular forces in Paris calling for a republic.

How did radicals deal with the division of the National Convention into factions (Girondins and Mountain)?

Members of the Paris Commune, who favored radical change, invaded the National Convention in 1793, arresting and executing the leading Girondins, leaving the Mountain in control of the convention.

What changes were made regarding the Catholic Church during the first phase (National Assembly) of the French Revolution?

Most church lands were confiscated due to the need for money, assignats (a form of paper money) were issued, and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was put into effect.

Did Revolutionaries believe the ideal of equal rights for 'all men' included women?

Most deputies insisted it did, but only in terms of civil liberties (freedom of speech, press, etc.) but few were inclined to grant them political rights.

What was the Concordat of 1801? Impact?

An peace agreement between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon. The pope gained the right to depose French bishops, but this gave him little real control over the French Catholic Church since the state retained the right to nominate bishops. By signing the Concordat, the pope acknowledged the accomplishments of the Revolution, and agreed not to raise the question of church lands confiscated during the Revolution. Contrary to the pope's wishes, Catholicism was not reestablished as the state religion, and Napoleon would only recognize Catholicism as the religion of a majority of the French people. To avoid having the Catholic Church appear as a state church, Napoleon put both the clergy and Protestant ministers on the state payroll. As a result of the Concordat, the Catholic Church was no longer an enemy of the French Government. This agreement also reassured those who acquired church property during the Revolution they could keep it, an assurance they obviously made them supporters of the Napoleonic regime.

Where did most of the Terror's executions take place and why?

Most took place in Vendee and cities such as Lyons and Marseilles, places that had been in open rebellion against the authority of the National Convention. Military force was used to bring those places back under the control of the National Convention. Since Lyon was France's second largest city and defied the National Convention in a time when the Republic was in peril, the Committee of Public Safety decided to make an example of it by executing around 1880 citizens of Lyon by guillotine and cannon fire. Additionally, 42% of death sentences during the Terror were past in territories affected by the Vendee rebellion.

What led to the French Revolution's entrance into a more radical stage?

As France suffered defeats in their war with Austria as well as economic shortages, fears of invasion grew, and a frantic search for scapegoats commenced, beginning with the king. Popular groups were reinvigorated, leading to political demonstrations, especially against the king. Then, in 1792, radical Parisian political groups declared themselves an insurrectionary commune, and organized a mob attack on the royal palace and Legislative Assembly. Louis XVI was taken captive, and the Legislative Assembly was forced to suspend the monarchy and call for a national convention, chosen on the basis of universal male suffrage to decide the future form of government. At this point, power had been transferred from the assembly to the Paris Commune, composed of the radical sans-culottes, beginning the radical stage of the French Revolution.

What changes were made to nations across Napoleon's grand empire, and what impact did this have?

As a child of the Enlightenment and Revolution, Napoleon sought the acceptance of certain revolutionary principles everywhere, including legal equality, religious toleration, and economic freedom. He tried to destroy the old order in the inner core and dependent states of his Grand Empire. The nobility and clergy everywhere in these states lost their special privileges. He demanded equality of opportunity with offices open to talent, equality before the law, and religious toleration. This spread of French revolutionary principles was an important factor in the development of liberal traditions in these countries.

The immediate cause of the French Revolution was... A) Military losses against Britain B) A series of financial reversals C) Religious turmoil between Catholics and Huguenots D) The death of Voltaire

B) A series of financial reversals

By the eighteenth century the French nobility and bourgeoisie were... A) Growing farther apart in social status B) Increasingly less distinguishable from each other C) Rapidly losing social status to the peasants D) Frequently involved in street fights

B) Increasingly less distinguishable from each other

Napoleon's Continental System tried to defeat Britain by... A) A massive invasion across the English Channel B) Preventing Britain from trading freely C) Fomenting civil war in Scotland D) Giving arms to the Irish Republican Army

B) Preventing Britain from trading freely

In the Reign of Terror's attempt to 'preserve' the revolution from its internal enemies... A) The nobility was singled out for total annihilation B) Rebellious cities were brutally crushed by the army C) No more than 5000 people were killed at the guillotine D) The Committee of Public Safety played little part

B) Rebellious cities were brutally crushed by the army

The new republican calendar of 1793... A) Named days and months after former kings B) Was part of an effort at dechristianization C) Was well received by most of the people D) Was kept until Napoleon's defeat in 1815

B) Was part of an effort at de-Christianization

What were the periodic economic crises France faced in the 1780s?

Bad harvests in 1787-88, the beginning of a manufacturing depression which led to food shortages, rising prices for food/other necessities, and growing unemployment/poverty rates.

What were the SHORT TERM causes of the French Revolution?

Bankruptcy from the participation in wars, particularly the American Revolution, and poor harvests causing food shortages and a surge in bread prices.

What changes did Napoleon make to the bureaucratic structure of France?

Napoleon eliminated the locally elected assemblies and instituted new officials, such as the prefects, to oversee all aspects of a local government. He created a systematic and efficient system of tax collection, with no exemptions granted due to birth, status, or any special arrangement. Napoleon declared that abilities and talent now determined promotion in civil or military officers rather than rank or birth, which was what most of the bourgeoisie wanted before the Revolution. He also created a new aristocracy based on merit in the state service.

How were activists of the Third Estate and reform-minded individuals of the First and Second Estates similar?

Both were similar in their youth, urban background, and hostility towards privilege.

The program of de-Christianization did NOT include... A) A new secular calendar B) Removal of saints' names from street signs C) A systematic execution of bishops D) Changing the names of church buildings

C) A systematic execution of bishops

Which of the following statements best applies to Napoleon's domestic policies? A) Great autonomy was given to provincial administrations B) His 'new aristocracy' was still based on wealth and privilege as well as birth C) His Civil Code reaffirmed the ideals of the Revolution while creating a uniform legal system D) He reestablished Catholicism as the official state religion

C) His Civil Code reaffirmed the ideals of the Revolution while creating a uniform legal system

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen... A) Was issued by Louis XVI to end the rebellion B) Was rejected by philosophes C) Owed much to the American Declaration of Independence D) Kept all aristocratic privileges intact

C) Owed much to the American Declaration of Independence

Of paramount importance to the American victory over the British was... A) British weakness onthe seas B) Spain's treachery in the western territories C) the assistance of France D) American superiority in the field

C) The assistance of France

Who opposed the vast reordering of the old French regime by the Legislative Assembly phase?

Clerics who were angered by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, lower classes hurt in the rise in cost of living resulting from inflation of the assignats, peasants who remained opposed to dues that had still not been abandoned, and political clubs offering more radical solutions to the nation's problems.

The role of French women in the revolution was... A) Minimal and insignificant B) On the whole encouraged by men C) Limited only to bread riots D) Kept outside the political sphere

D) Kept outside the political sphere

During the Thermidorean Reaction, the Directory... A) Relied primarily on the support of royalists B) Was elected directly by universal franchise C) Had wise and honest economic leadership D) Relied primarily on the military for its survival

D) Relied primarily on the military for its survival

Napoleon's decision to invade Russia stemmed from... A) His desire to bring liberal reforms to that country B) France's need for raw materials to continue its wars C) England's threat to invade the continent through Poland D) Russia's defection from his Continental System

D) Russia's defection from his Continental System

The controversy over voting by order rather than voting by head in the Estates-General meeting led to... A) A motion by the Nobles of the Robe to adjourn B) A move by "lovers of liberty" to block voting by head C) The expulsion of the Third Estate D) The withdrawal of the Third Estate to form a National Assembly

D) The withdrawal of the Third Estate to form a National Assembly

The new Legislative Assembly held its first session in 1791. Describe the composition of the Legislative Assembly, and how was it different from that of the National Assembly?

First, the Legislative Assembly had passed a self-denying ordinance which prohibited the reelection of its members. The clerics and nobles were largely gone, and most representatives were men of property and lawyers. Most had gained experience in the new revolutionary politics, prominence in their local areas through the National Guard, Jacobin clubs, and elective offices spawned by the administrative reordering of France.

How did Napoleon unintentionally bring about a spread of nationalism?

France aroused nationalism by making themselves hated oppressors, thus arousing the patriotism of others in opposition to French nationalism, and by showing the people of Europe what nationalism was and what a nation in arms could do. Nationalist movements then arose in the German states, where a number of intellectuals advocated a cultural nationalism based on the unity of the German people.

Describe the War of the Third Coalition (1803).

France was pitted against Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Napoleon devastated Austria and Russia, resulting in the Treaties of Tilsit being signed by Napoleon and the rulers of Prussia and Austria which ended the fighting. The success of this war gave Napoleon the opportunity to create a new European order.

What did the French Revolution accomplish?

France would now abide by an established constitution, and the power of the monarchy would be limited. Additionally, the old Estate system would be further dissolved, all remnants of feudalism would be abolished, and the Third Estate would gain more rights and political power.

What was a LONG TERM cause of the French Revolution?

Frustration over the social order and monarchy.

How did Louis XVI respond to urban and rural uprisings in 1789, as a result of his threats to dissolve the Estates-General?

He attempted to take defensive measures by increasing the number of troops at arsenals in Paris, and along the roads to Versailles. However, rather than intimidate, this ended up stirring public opinion.

Describe Napoleon's military career and his character.

Napoleon rose quickly through the ranks, and was promoted to the rank of major general after saving the National Convention from a Parisian mob in 1795. He defeated the Austrians in a series of stunning victories, and dictated peace to them in 1797. In the Italian campaign, he was able to win the confidence of his men by his energy, charm, ability to comprehend complex issues quickly, and make decisions rapidly. He ate with his rank and file soldiers, provided them good food and clothing, and charmed them, but he was tough with his officers. These qualities, combined with his keen intelligence, ease with words, and supreme confidence in himself enabled Napoleon to influence people and win their firm support. In 1979 when he returned to France, he was given command of an army preparing to invade England. Napoleon believed they were not ready for such an invasion, and proposed instead to take Egypt and threaten India, a major source of British wealth.

Describe the childhood and education of Napoleon.

Napoleon was born on the island of Corsica as Napoleone, the son of an Italian lawyer whose family stemmed from the Florentine nobility. He studied at a school in the French town of Autun, where he learned French and obtained a royal scholarship to study at a military school. Around this time, he changed his name to a more French-sounding "Napoleon". In 1785, Napoleon's military education led to his commission as a lieutenant. He was not well liked by his fellow officers because he was short, spoke with an Italian accent, and had little money. He spent much of his time reading the works of philosophes, especially Rousseau, and studied the campaigns of great military leaders from the past.

Did Napoleon's code of laws make women any more equal to man?

No, if anything it made women less equal. For instance, when women married, their property would come under the control of their husbands. Additionally, women were treated as minors in lawsuits, and their testimonies were regarded as less reliable than that of men.

Did the Terror demonstrate class prejudice? Explain.

No, it did not, as the nobles constituted 8% of victims, the middle class 25%, the clergy 6%, and the peasantry/laboring classes 60%. These statistics are fair and reasonable in proportion to the French population.

Who were the Nobles of the Sword?

Nobles who claimed to be descendants from the original medieval nobility. They sought to expand their privileges at the expense of the monarchy, and maintain their monopoly over positions in the military, church, and government.

Who were the Nobles of the Robe?

Nobles who derived their status from officeholding, a path which often enabled commoners to attain noble rank. They dominated law courts and important administrative offices.

Any changes made regarding the monarchy during the Legislative Assembly phase?

In 1791, a new constitution was completed that established a limited constitutional monarchy. A monarchy would continue to exist, but he would enjoy relatively few powers.

Describe the slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint-Domingue.

In 1791, black slaves in the colony of Saint-Domingue, inspired by the ideas of the Revolution occurring in France, revolted against French plantation owners, killing them and their families. By 1801, the slaves under the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture seized all of Hispaniola. Napoleon, who believed the massacres of white planters by slaves demonstrated the savage nature of the blacks, reinstated slavery in the French West Indian colonies in 1802. L'Ouverture was captured by the French soldiers and died in a French dungeon, but the French soldiers soon succumbed to the slave forces and disease. In 1804, the Western part of Hispaniola announced its freedom, and became the first independent state in Latin America despite Napoleon's efforts to reconquer. Their independence symbolizes how one of the French revolutionary ideals had triumphed abroad.

Describe how the National Convention dealt with the issue of slavery.

In 1791, the abolition of slavery in France was achieved. However, French planters in the French Colonies opposed the abolition of slavery as they profited greatly from the use of slaves on their plantations. In 1794, the National Convention revisited the issue of slavery, and guided by the ideals of equality, abolished slavery in the colonies.

How did foreign nations respond to the execution of Louis XVI?

In 1793, Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Dutch Republic formed a coalition against France. Arrogant after their initial successes, France welcomed the struggle.

Describe the decline of the Committee of Public Safety and the end of the radical stage of the French Revolution.

In 1794, the Committee of Public Safety turned against its radical Parisian supporters by executing the leaders of the Paris Commune and turned it into a submissive tool. This suppressed the people who had been their chief supporters. French military successes meant the Terror no longer serves much purpose, but it continued because Robespierre, now the dominant figure, became obsessed with purifying the French population by ridding of all the corrupt to create a Republic of Virtue. Many deputies in the National Convention, fear for their own safety, then formed an anti-Robespierre coalition and condemned him to death. His death marked the end of the radical stage of the French Revolution.

What actions did Napoleon take regarding the Catholic Church?

In 1801, Napoleon made peace with the Catholic Church by arranging a Concordat. Even though he himself lacked any personal faith, he still saw the necessity to come to terms with the Catholic Church to stabilize his regime.

Was France experiencing economic decline or growth in the 50 years leading up to 1789, and why?

Economic growth, due to an expansion of foreign trade and an increase in industrial production.

Who were the sans-culottes?

"Ordinary people without fine clothes". The Paris Commune was composed of sans-culottes, and most were merchants and the elite of their neighborhoods. They sought revenge on those who aided the king and resisted the popular will. Their fears of treachery were intensified by an advancing Prussian Army on Paris, resulting in the arrest and massacre of thousands of accused traitors, and the mass executions of inmates to deal with overcrowded prisons.

Describe the peasantry of the Third Estate.

Peasants constituted 75-80% of the total population, and owned 35-40% of the land. Although serfdom no longer existed in France, peasants still had obligations to their local landlords which they deeply resented, including the payment of fees for the use of village facilities, as well as tithes to the clergy.

How was the French revolutionary army important to the creation of modern nationalism, and what impact did this have on their wars?

Previously, wars were fought between governments or ruling dynasties by relatively small armies of professional soldiers. The new French army was the creation of a people's government, so its wars were now the people's wars. As a result, warfare increased in ferocity and lack of restraint. The wars of the French revolutionary era opened the door to the total war of the modern world.

Prior to the Revolution, what was the Bastille a symbol of?

Prior to the Revolution, the Bastille was a symbol of arbitrary authority and social inequality. This was because members of the Third Estate could be imprisoned in the Bastille for no reason even if they were simply denounced by anyone of a higher social standing.

What was the Continental System? Why did Napoleon resort to it? Did it fail or succeed and why?

The Continental System was a strategy utilized in an attempt to prevent British goods from reaching the European continent in order to weaken Britain economically and destroy its capacity to wage war. Napoleon resorted to this because he was not able to take down Britain militarily, especially after a massive defeat of his combined French-Spanish fleet against the British in 1805. It failed, because allied states resented the ever-tightening French economic dominance, and some began to cheat and others began to resist it. Plus, new markets in the eastern Mediterranean and Latin America provided funds for the British, and British overseas exports were approaching record highs by 1810.

Why did the Third Estate decide to compose their own National Assembly?

The First Estate declared in favor of voting by order, so the frustrated Third Estate decided to compose a National Assembly out of fear of being overruled by the other two Estates in any attempts at reform.

Why did the government call a meeting of the Estates-General?

The French Government was approaching near financial collapse, and to avoid this, they were forced to call a meeting. By doing so, they virtually admitted the consent of the nation was required to raise taxes.

Girondins vs the Mountain. Whose beliefs ended up prevailing in the end?

The Girondins primarily represented the provinces, and came to fear the radical mobs in Paris. They wished to keep the king alive as a hedge against future eventualities, meaning in case the republic does not work out, the monarchy can be restored. The Mountain represented the interests of the city of Paris. They wished to execute the king and all traces of the old regime. The beliefs of the Mountain prevailed as Louis XVI was executed in 1793, and the destruction of the old regime was complete.

Describe the storming of the Bastille. Impact?

The Permanent Committee needed arms, so they organized a popular force and attacked the Bastille, a royal armory. The garrison which defended the Bastille quickly surrendered. To Parisians, the fall of Bastille was a great victory, and it became a popular symbol of triumph over despotism.

Describe the background of representatives of the Third Estate for the meeting of the Estates-General.

The Third Estate contained a particularly strong legal and urban representation, as 2/3 of the representatives had legal training, and 3/4 were from towns with more than 2000 inhabitants.

Describe the bourgeoisie of the Third Estate.

The bourgeoisie constituted 8% of the population or around 2.3 million people, and owned about 20-25% of the land. They included merchants, bankers, and industrialists who all benefited from the economic prosperity after 1730. They also included professional people such as lawyers, holders of public officers, doctors, and writers. They were often excluded from the social and political privileges of the nobles.

What began the collapse of royal authority?

The collapse of royal authority began after Louis XVI was informed that royal troops were unreliable, thus he could no longer enforce his will.

Who was Charles de Calonne?

The controller general of finance in France, who in 1786, proposed a complete revamp of the fiscal/administrative system of the state. He convened an 'assembly of notables' in 1787 to gain support, but the gathering of nobles, prelates, and magistrates refused to cooperate.

List one example of how Napoleon destroyed aspects of the Revolution, and one example of how he preserved them.

The ideal of equality was preserved in the creation of a single code of laws, and the ideal of freedom of speech was destroyed when he shut down 60 of France's 73 newspapers, and insisted all manuscripts be subjected to government scrutiny before being published.

Describe the events that followed Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia.

The military disaster led to a war of liberation all over Europe, ending in Napoleon's defeat in 1814. He was banished to the island of Elba, and the Bourbon monarchy was restored to France in the person of Louis XVIII, but he had little support. However, Napoleon slipped back into France, and he was able to win over the support of many soldiers and reenter Paris in triumph in 1815. The powers that defeated Napoleon pledged once again to defeat this person they called 'enemy and disturber of the tranquility of the world'. At Waterloo, Napoleon met a combined British and Prussian army and suffered a bloody defeat. Allied forces then exiled Napoleon to Saint Helena, a small island in the South Atlantic.

Who were the Jacobins?

The most famous radical political club, who first emerged as a gathering of radical deputies at the beginning of the Revolution. By 1791, there were around 900 Jacobin clubs in France, and members were usually the elite of their local societies, as well as artisans and tradespeople.

Describe the new republican calendar and how it contributed to de-Christianization.

The new calendar would be numbered from the day the French Republic was proclaimed, September 22, rather than from the birth of Jesus. Each year contained 12 months, each month contained 3 ten day weeks with each tenth day of each week a rest day. This eliminated Sundays, Sunday worship services, and put an end to the ordering of French lives by a Christian calendar that emphasized Sundays, saints' days, church holidays. All religious celebrations were to be replaced by revolutionary festivals, and the 5 days left over in the calendar at the end of the year would be used to celebrate the revolutionary virtues. The months of the year were also renamed to match its temperature or state of vegetation.

What was the SPARK of the French Revolution?

The storming of the Bastille.

Why did Napoleon's empire collapse almost as rapidly as it had formed?

The survival of Great Britain and the force of nationalism. As long as Britain ruled the waves, it was virtually invulnerable to military attack. In spreading the principles of the French Revolution beyond France, Napoleon unintentionally brought about a spread of nationalism as well, and aroused it by making themselves hated oppressors

What was the first act of the National Assembly, and why?

Their first act was to destroy the relics of feudalism and aristocratic privileges by abolishing seigneurial rights, and fiscal privileges of the clergy and nobility. This measure was necessary to calm the peasants and restore order in the country.

How did the National Assembly undertake an administrative restructuring of France in 1789?

They abolished all old provincial divisions, and divided France in 83 departments, and each of which were divided into districts and communes supervised by elected councils, and officials who oversaw financial, administrative, judicial, and ecclesiastical institutions within their territories. Departmental governments were largely in the hands of the bourgeoisie, especially lawyers, as few nobles were elected to office.

How did the Committee of Public Safety prepare for war against the anti-French coalition? How did the war turn out?

They decreed a universal mobilization of the nation, and raised an army which numbered 1.1 million by 1794, making the republic's army the largest Europe had ever seen. This army was able to push the allies back across the Rhine and conquer the Austrian Netherlands. The anti-French coalition was breaking up by 1795.

How did the Committee of Public Safety attempt to create some economic controls? Did they work?

They established a system of requisitioning food supplies for the cities enforced by revolutionary armies deployed into the countryside, and passed the Law of the General Maximum, which established price controls on goods declared of first necessity/most important, ranging from food/drink to fuel and clothing. These economic controls failed to work well because the government lacked the machinery to enforce them.

How did revolutionaries feel about female participation in political activity?

They felt bitter about it, and believed a woman's place was in the home and not in military or political affairs. During the radical phase of the Revolution, the Paris Commune outlawed women's clubs and forbade women to be present at its meetings.

How did the National Convention pursue a policy of de-Christianization?

They removed the word 'saint' from street names, pillaged and closed churches, and encouraged priests to marry. They also adopted a new calendar, ended church holidays, and renamed the Notre Dame to Temple of Reason.

How did other European monarchs respond to the situation in France?

They were concerned about the impact the situation in France could have on their home countries, and feared revolution would spark there as well. So, Leopold II of Austria and Frederick William II of Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which urged European powers to unite and aid in restoring the monarchy in France.

How were representatives of the Estates-General immediately divided?

They were divided over whether voting should be by order or by head. They ended up deciding that they would vote by order, as advocated by the Parlement of Paris.

To ensure continuity from the old order to the new, members of the National Convention ruled that 2/3 of the new members of the National Assembly must be chosen from their ranks. What was the public reaction to it?

This set off disturbances in Paris and an insurrection, which was dispersed after fierce combat by an army contingent under Napoleon. This would be the last time in the French Revolution Paris would attempt to impose its wishes on the central government. This also made it clear that the Directory from the beginning had to rely on the military for survival.

What was the Reign of Terror to the Committee of Public Safety, and how did they justify it?

To them, the massacre was a temporary expedient, and once the war and domestic emergency was over, "the republic of virtue" would ensue, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen would be fully established. Louis Saint-Just, a member of the Committee of Public Safety, justified the event by stating: "Since the French people have manifested their will, everything opposed to it is outside the sovereign. Whatever is outside the sovereign is an enemy". Saint-Just was referring to Rousseau's concept of the general will.

Were many of the noble delegates liberal minded?

Yes, 90 of the 282 noble delegates were liberal minded and interested in enlightened ideas.