Ch. 2

Describe ATP

"Tri Phosphate", 3 phosphate groups, higher energy, "charged battery" for the cell to use for energy to function, as the cell uses ATP, it "drains the battery"

What are the products of ATP hydrolysis?

ADP and Pi

Compare AMP with ADP.

AMP= (adinosine monophosphate),adenosine + a single phosphate. ADP= ( adenosine diphosphate), adenosine monophosphate+ phosphate.

Distinguish among the major types of chemical reactions that are important for studying physiology.

1. decomposition: reactions within the body's cells and tissues 2. (dehydration) synthesis: formation of a complex molecule by the removal of water 3. exchange reaction

Identify and describe three types of chemical reactions important in human physiology

1. decomposition: reactions within the body's cells and tissues 2. (dehydration) synthesis: formation of a complex molecule by the removal of water 3. exchange reaction

Describe trace elements

14 other elements present in the body in small amounts

How many electrons are shared by the oxygen atoms in the oxygen molecule?

2

Describe the common elements of organic compounds and how functional groups modify the properties of organic compounds.

groups of carbon atoms covalently bonded to hydrogen, usually oxygen, and often other elements as well

Compare and contrast the terms work, energy, potential energy, and kinetic energy.

An object loses its energy, when it performs work, whereas it gains energy when the work is performed on it. Energy is broadly classified as kinetic energy and potential energy. While kinetic energy is the energy which an object contains because of a particular motion and potential energy is energy that can be potentially used.

Describe an atom and how atomic structure affects the mass number and atomic weight of the various chemical elements.

An atom is the basic unit of an element. An atom is a form of matter which may not be further broken down using any chemical means * atomic number: number of protons in an atom * mass number: total combined number of protons and electrons in an atom

Where do cells obtain the energy needed for their vital functions?

Cells obtain the energy they need to carry out all their functions by 3 methods: photosynthesis, respiration, and fermentation

Why is cholesterol necessary in the body?

Cholesterol is a component of plasma membranes and is important for cell growth and division.

Describe how cells are chemical factories

Complex chemical reactions are required for essential functions such as: Providing energy Maintenance and repair Growth Cell division Secretion Contraction

Compare the ways in which atoms combine to form molecules and compounds

Compounds: Chemical substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements in a fixed proportion, regardless of type of bond joining them. Molecules: Chemical structure consisting of atoms of one or more elements held together by covalent bonds

Compare the role of water in hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions

In hydrolysis, water is a reactant; in dehydration synthesis, water is a product.

What is an important by-product of exergonic reactions?

Exergonic reactions are used by living things to move energy out of "storage" in one molecule, such as a sugar or fat, and into an active form such as ATP. This is done by breaking the chemical bonds in the sugar or fat, and passing its energy in the form of electrons or another currency to a new molecule.

Describe the structure and role of prostaglandins

Prostaglandins are one type of eicosanoids lipids derived from arachidonic acid. They coordinate local cellular activities and produce pain sensations when released by damaged tissues.

Explain why small insects can walk on the surface of a pond and why tears protect the surface of the eye from dust particles.

The attraction of water molecules creates a surface tension barrier that prevents small objects from penetrating the water.

By what means are water molecules attracted to each other?

The charge differences cause water molecules to be attracted to each other (the relatively positive areas being attracted to the relatively negative areas) and to other polar molecules. This attraction is known as hydrogen bonding.

What are the reactants in an enzymatic reaction called?

The chemical reactants to which an enzyme binds are called the enzyme's substrates

What do cholesterol, phospholipids, and glycolipids have in common?

They all have carbohydrate groups attached. They are all linear structures. They are all soluble in water. They all form ring structures. They are all structural lipids that form membranes of cells.

Define electrolytes

a liquid or gel that contains ions and can be decomposed by electrolysis, e.g., that present in a battery.

What is an enzyme?

a substance produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction.

Describe proteins.

any of a class of nitrogenous organic compounds that consist of large molecules composed of one or more long chains of amino acids and are an essential part of all living organisms, especially as structural components of body tissues such as muscle, hair, collagen, etc., and as enzymes and antibodies

State the octet rule

atoms tendency to gain chemical stability by obtaining an outer valence shell containing eight electrons through loss, gain, or sharing of electrons

List the elements that make up organic compounds.

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Explain how cations and anions form.

cations- formed when an atom loses one or more electrons from its outermost electron shell anions- formed when an atom gains one or more electrons in its outermost electron shell

Discuss the structure and function of high-energy compounds.

cells store and transfer energy in the high energy bonds of high energy compounds. The most common high-energy compound is adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP formation begins by adding phosphate group to adenosine forming adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

List examples of lipids in the body

fatty acids, glycerides, eicosanoids, steroids, phospholipids, glycolipids

List the three structural classes of carbohydrates, and give an example of each

monosaccharides: glucose disaccharides: lactose polysaccharides: starch

Explain how enzymes function within the body

speed up the rate of virtually all of the chemical reactions that take place within cells. They are vital for life and serve a wide range of important functions in the body, such as aiding in digestion and metabolism.

What is the most important function of carbohydrates?

•Energy source for the body •Important in making other macromolecules -Glycoproteins -Proteoglycans -DNA/RNA •Monomer: monosaccharide •Polymer: polysaccharide

Describe the important properties of water and their significance in the body

•High heat capacity -Holds heat for long periods of time •Solvent -Organic and inorganic molecules can be dispersed by water, resulting in a solution •Solution = solvent (water) + solute (dissolved substance)•Lubricant -Decreases friction between body structures •Chemical Reactant important information and degradation of macromolecules •Metabolism relies on the water! -Dehydration synthesis reactions from water as byproduct = ANABOLISM -Decomposition reactions use water to break apart chemical bonds = CATABOLISM

Why does boiling a protein affect its functional properties?

As temp rises, protein shape changes and enzyme function deteriorates. Eventually it undergoes denaturation, a change in tertiary or quaternary structure that makes it nonfunctional.

Explain why the atoms of inert elements do not react with one another or combine with atoms of other elements.

Atoms with full outer shells are inert Do not readily react with other atoms; more stable, because they are full and stable (noble gases)

Explain how the chemical properties of water affect the solubility of inorganic and organic molecules.

Because water is polar, it has a negative and a positive pole. This is due to the asymmetrical positions of the hydrogen atoms that are attached by covalent bonds.

Relate an enzyme's structure to its reaction specificity.

Biological catalysts, enzymes, are extremely specific that catalyze a single chemical reaction or some closely associated reactions. An enzyme's exact structure and its active site decide an enzyme's specificity. Substrate molecules attach themselves at the active site of an enzyme.

What is the relationship between buffers and pH in physiological systems?

Buffers are substances that help resist shifts in pH by The pH of human blood is between a narrow range of 7.35 and 7.45. If a person's blood pH goes below 7.35 or above 7.45, the body counteracts changes in pH by releasing chemical buffers. This process of buffering changes in pH exemplifies which definition of life?

List the chemical symbols of the six most abundant elements in the human body and their total percentage contribution to total body weight.

Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Nitrogen (N) Oxygen (O) Phosphorus (P) Sulfur (S) Nearly 99% of the mass of your human body consists of just 6 chemical elements

Compare and contrast the nucleotides of DNA and RNA

DNA uses the sugar deoxyribose, while RNA uses the sugar ribose. The difference between deoxyribose and ribose is that deoxyribose has a hydrogen (-H) attached to the second (2′) carbon of the sugar ring, while ribose has a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to this carbon. Usually, DNA is a double-stranded molecule that forms a double helix, while RNA is a single stranded molecule. Rarely, DNA takes other forms, such as triple-strand DNA and quadraplex DNA. Similarly, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) occurs in some viruses. DNA uses the bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. RNA uses the bases adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine. Uracil differs from thymine in that it lacks a methyl group. DNA and RNA serve different functions. DNA stores and transfers genetic information, while RNA acts as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes to make amino acids and proteins. Viruses use either DNA or RNA as genetic material, but they require the hosts cellular machinery to replicate. Sometimes RNA acts as a catalyst for biochemical reactions. RNA is less stable than DNA and is more vulnerable to mutation and attack than DNA. DNA is protected by proteins and has several repair mechanisms.

Describe and identify the two classes of nucleic acids

DNA: a self-replicating material that is present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information. RNA: ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid present in all living cells

Predict how water plays a role as a lubricant, reactant, coolant, and solvent during exercise

During exercise, water lubricates joints for easy movement. It also functions in dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions that occur during muscle contraction(reactant). Water also cools the body through the evaporation in perspiration from the skin(coolant). Water dissolves wastes generated by exercise (solvent).

Explain how the complementary strands of DNA are held together

Each base pair is formed from two complementary nucleotides (purine with pyrimidine) bound together by hydrogen bonds. The two strands of DNA are held together by weak hydrogen bonds. The nucleotides connect the two strands through hydrogen bonds.

Describe the subatomic particle not in the nucleus

Electrons are not in the nucleus. They whirl around the nucleus creating an electron cloud.

Explain the relationship between electrons and energy levels

Electrons occupy an orderly series of energy levels within the electron cloud First shell (closest to nucleus) is the lowest energy level Number of electrons in outermost shell determines chemical properties of element Energy levels Outermost energy level (valence shell) is atom's "surface" Atoms with unfilled outer shells are reactive Tend to react with other atoms to fill outer shell Examples: hydrogen, lithium Atoms with full outer shells are inert Do not readily react with other atoms; more stable Examples: helium, neon Called noble gases Atoms that have gained or lost electrons are no longer electrically neutral and become ions

Explain the differences between metabolites and nutrients

Enzymatic reactions produce metabolites: -Substances that can be synthesized or broken down by chemical reactions inside our bodies •Nutrients are essential metabolites that are obtained from our diet.

Describe the crucial role of enzymes in metabolism

Enzymes are catalysts, compounds that speed up chemical reactions without themselves being permanently changed or consumed.

Why do our cells need enzymes?

Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction so it can occur.

Describe the kind of bonds that hold the atoms in a water molecule together.

Hydrogen bonds allow two molecules to link together temporarily. Water molecules are made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, held together by polar covalent bonds.

Describe the orientations of phospholipids and glycolipids when they form a micelle.

Hydrophobic heads are oriented towards the outside with hydrophilic tails oriented towards the center

Distinguish between hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules

Hydrophobic- Does not like water and are non-polar molecules.Hydrophilic- Love water, and are both ionic and polar molecules.

What kind of bond forms during the dehydration synthesis of two amino acids, and which functional groups are involved?

In the dehydration synthesis reaction between two amino acids, with are ionized in aqueous environments like the cell, an oxygen from the first amino acid is combined with two hydrogens from the second amino acid, creating a covalent bond that links the two monomers together to form a dipeptide. In the process a water molecule is formed.

Describe lipids in terms of their elemental composition and solubility in water.

Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of hydrocarbon chains. Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for different life processes. Lipids are a class of compounds characterised by their solubility in nonpolar solvents and insolubility in water.

Summarize the functions of lipids in the body

Lipids are both a source of energy and a means of energy storage and insulation and physical protection. Some lipids act as chemical messengers between cells. Lipids are essential components of plasma membranes.

Discuss the structures and functions of lipids

Lipids are involved in crucial brain functions, including cell membrane structure, membrane transmitters, and regulation of synapses, as well as biological messenger functions, energy metabolism, and neuroendocrine function. Lipids are made of the elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen, but have a much lower proportion of water than other molecules such as carbohydrates. They are made from two molecules: Glycerol and Fatty Acids.

What is the relationship between an atom and matter?

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and volume. Atoms are the smallest unit of matter. This means that atoms are the building blocks of all other substances on Earth- both organic and inorganic.

Define pH

Measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution

Define metabolism, and distinguish among work, kinetic energy, and potential energy.

Metabolism: an internal process to all the chemical processes your body uses to produce energy Work: Movement of an object or change in the physical structure of matter Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion Can be transferred to another object and do work Example: skeletal muscles contracting Potential Energy: Stored energy Has the potential to do work Example: a stretched spring Conversion of energy is never 100 percent efficient Some energy is released as heat Example: body temperature rises as muscles contract

Discuss protein structure and the essential functions of proteins within the body.

Proteins play multiple functions in the body and its structure gives it its functionality. Some prominent functions are:- Digestion - Digestion is carried out by the digestive enzymes which are basically proteinaceous in nature. Movement - Myosin is a protein found in muscles which enables the contraction of muscles making movement possible.

A hydrogen ion is the same as what subatomic particle?

Proton

Which subatomic particles have a positive charge? Which are uncharged?

Protons and Neutrons

In the hydrolysis of a triglyceride, what are the reactants and the products?

Reactants: triglyceride and water Product: one glycerol and three fatty acids

Describe the structures of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

Saturated fatty acids do not contain double bonds C-C (only single bonds), whereas unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds C=C. The chain length of most common fatty acids is of 16-18 number of carbon. The triglyceride is considered as the common and simple type of fat, having three fatty acids and glyceride.

Explain how the ionic compound sodium chloride dissolves in water.

Sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolves when water molecules continuously attack the NaCl crystal, pulling away from the individual sodium (Na +) and chloride (Cl -) ion. Water consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen molecule connected by a covalent bond to form a charged H20 molecule.

Describe the three states of matter and the importance of hydrogen bonds in liquid water.

Solid, liquid, gas Hydrogen bonding causes water to remain liquid over a wide temperature range.

Compare and contrast the structures and functions of DNA and RNA

The major difference between DNA and RNA lies in their structure and function. While, DNA has a double-stranded helix structure, RNA has a single-stranded structure. DNA is made up of long chains of nucleotides, while RNA is made up of shorter chains of nucleotides. DNA: Long-term storage of genetic information; transmission of genetic information to make other cells and new organisms. RNA: Used to transfer the genetic code from nucleus to the ribosome to make proteins. Also used for transmitting genetic information in some organisms and may have been the molecule used to store genetic blueprints in primitive organisms.

Discuss the structures and diverse functions of eicosanoids, steroids, phospholipids, and glycolipids.

They all have a diverse functions. Structural lipids form and maintain inter-cellular and plasma membranes. Four classes of lipids are:Eicosanoids are lipids derived from arachidonic acid - a fatty acid that must be abosrbed from food because it cannot be synthesized by the body. Chemical messengers coordinating local cellular activities.Steriods are large lipid molecules that share a distinctive carbon-ring framework. They differ int he functional groups that are attached to the basic ring structure. Structural components of cell membranes hormones, digestive secretions in bile.Phospholipids and glycolipids are structural related and our cells can synthesize both type of lipids, primarily from fatty acids. Structural components of cell membranes. 2.17​Discuss protein structure

Predict the reactants and the type of chemical reaction involved when muscle cells make and store glycogen.

many glucose monomers; dehydration synthesis

Define atom, and describe the properties of its subatomic particles

the smallest particle of an element that can exist either alone or in combination Protons: a stable subatomic particle occurring in all atomic nuclei, with a positive electric charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron, but of opposite sign Neutrons: a subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without an electric charge, present in all atomic nuclei except those of ordinary hydrogen Electrons: a subatomic particle occurring in all atomic nuclei, with a negative electric charge equal in magnitude to that of a proton, but of opposite sign