Ch 2 Indigenous Religions

Magic in the hands of certain individuals can be used, as one commentator remarks

"for harmful ends, and then people experience it as bad or evil magic. Or they may use it for ends which are helpful to society, and then it is considered as good magic or 'medicine.' These mystical forces of the universe are neither evil nor good in themselves, they are just like other natural things at [our] disposal.''

Fortunately, the bias that once judged native religions to be

"primitive" manifestations of the religious spirit-as opposed to the literate, so-called higher religions-is disappearing. Span of written religions is relatively brief-barely five thousand years-yet scientists now hold that humans lived on earth for at least a million (and possibly 2-3 million) years. human have been capable of abstract thought.

In native societies, everyday religious activity and practice are significant because their primary purpose is often to place individuals, families, and groups in Rituals

"right relationships" w/ gods, ancestors, other human beings, and nature. Rituals r basic way in which humans ensure they are living in harmony w/ each other & nature. frequently devoted to major aspects of human life: key events i life cycle, rules concerning certain kinds of behavior, sacrifice, and access to the spirit world. In addition, artifacts such as masks and statues are an essential part of specific rituals

Sacred time, however, is

"the time of eternity." doorway through which "other world" of gods and ancestors can contact us and we can contact them. associated w/ center of entire universe, where power & holiness r strongest & where we can go to renew our own strength. Indigenous religions even tend to structure daily lives in ways that conform to mythic events in sacred time; this creates a sense of holiness in everyday life. cyclical, returning to its origins for renewal. By recalling & ritually reliving the deeds of the gods & ancestors, we enter into sacred time in which they live.

In Native American religions, a common ritual of early maturity is the

"vision quest," or "dream quest," - involve prolonged fasting & some kind of preliminary cleansing, such as washing or undergoing a sweat bath. Details of the construction of the sweat lodge and the attendant ritual can include cutting willow branches, during which tobacco might be offered; gathering sticks, rocks, moss, and sweet grass; making an altar and heating a stone; rubbing smoke over the body; marking the ground; and saying appropriate prayers at each stage

Franz Boas

(1858-1942), a professor at Columbia University and curator at the American Museum of Natural History in New York.

Few African religions

High God (world creator) is female, neuter, or androgynous; & in some religions there are 2 complementary High Gods, characterized as male/female, brother/sister, or bad/good. offer some explanation for world's ills or distance b/w humans & divine. High God left world - sometimes out of dismay at humans or lack of interest. "Many people of central and southern Africa say that God (Mulungu) lived on earth at first, but men began to kill his servants and set fire to the bush, and so God retired to heaven on one of those giant spiders' webs that seem to hang from the sky in morning mists."

Native religions frequently speak of a Inuit speak of a

High God who is superior to all other deities and is considered to be wise, ancient, and benevolent. Inuit speak of a Great Spirit living in the sky who is female and to whom all human spirits eventually return.

In Hawaii

In Hawaii, a renaissance of Hawaiian culture, language, and hula necessarily means retelling the stories of the gods and goddesses of Hawaiian mythology. Some schools now teach all their les-sons in Hawaiian, and hula schools are flourishing.

In North America and New Zealand

In North America, in the Pacific, and in Africa, people have continued or are attempting to restore the practices of their ancestral ways. In New Zealand, for example, Maori culture is experiencing a revival in canoe building, tattooing, dance, and wood sculpture. This attempt at revival is complicated by debates over such issues as land ownership and the introduction of Maori language into schools and public life.

Monogamy has been the norm, but divorce is acceptable when a marriage is not successful.

In indigenous African religions, marriage is sometimes marked by rituals to unite the 2 lineages and transfer power of fertility; but often its religious aspect "is not distinctive. It is regarded as the normal sequel to rites of adolescence, whose purpose was to prepare for this state."

Sacred time encompassed and constructed

In native religions, sacred space may encompass a great mountain, a volcano, a valley, a lake, a forest, a single large tree, or some other striking natural site. For Black Elk and his people, after the Lakota had moved west, it was Harney Peak in South Dakota. In Australian Aboriginal religion, Uluru (Ayers Rock) has served as this sacred center. In Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro and other high mountains have been considered sacred spaces. Sacred space can also be constructed, often in a symbolic shape such as a circle or square, & deft ned by a special building or by a boundary made of rope or rocks, such as Stonehenge in England. It can even be an open area among trees or buildings, such as the great open space between the temples of Teotihuacan, near Mexico City.

Taboos exist plentifully in every society, including our own.

Many are associated w/ sex, marriage, & parenthood. In modern societies, for eg, taboos exist against polygamy, incest, & marriage b/w close relations. Suchtaboos may seem "natural" to the society that enforces them but "unusual" to outsiders. Taboos are not inherently valid across groups and societies; they are culturally determined.

global spread of popular culture

Television, radio, films, airplanes, and the Internet are carrying modern urban culture to all corners of the earth. Traditional regional clothing began to disappear a century ago, as western styles became the standard. Some cultures are trying to hold on to their traditional clothing especially for formal occasions. Architecture, too, is becoming standardized, as the "international style"-with its plate glass, aluminum, and concrete-takes the place of traditional styles.

Some indigenous religions are spreading and even adapting themselves to Awareness of indigenous religions is also becoming widespread, and respect for them is taking many shapes.

Urban life. Eg: religions of the Yoruba tradition are practiced not only in western Africa, their place of origin, but also in Brazil and the Caribbean, and they are growing in cities of North America. In some countries (such as Mexico, Ecuador, and Peru) we can see a growth in governmental protection of the rights of indigenous peoples. Sometimes this involves primarily cultural elements, but where the indigenous religions are still practiced, those religions are increasingly cherished and protected.

The person or group must atone, often through sacrifice, when a taboo has been broken or a spirit must be placated. Libration

Usual offering is food and drink. A libation (the act of pouring a bit of drink on the ground as an offering) may be made or a portion of a meal set aside for a spirit. An animal may be sacrificed and its blood poured out on the ground or on an altar as an offering of the life force to the deity. Sacrificial animals - food animals, such as chickens, pigs, and goats. After the sacrifice, all the participants (including ancestral and nature spirits) may eat the cooked animal-thus pleasing the spirits by feeding them and including them in the meal.

indigenous language of African belief and thought

African art, provides a kind of scripture of African religion

Native American religions often express the kinship bond between human beings and animals in

Ake Hultkrantz, a Swedish scholar, clarifies with an example the meaning of many dances that imitate animals. "Plains Indian dances in which men imitate the movements of buffaloes ... are not, as earlier research took for granted, magic rituals to multiply the animals. They are rather acts of supplication in which Indians, by imitating the wild, express their desires and expectations. Such a ritual tells us the Indian's veneration for the active powers of the universe: it is a prayer

Probably because of the blood involved during childbirth, a woman in some native cultures must remain

Alone or in the company of women only during the birth- not even the woman's husband may be present. In tradi-tional Hawaii, for example, women of high rank gave birth in isolation, at the site of special large stones used only for this purpose. Indigenous societ-ies also frequently forbid a husband from resuming sexual relations with his wife for some time after childbirth-this period can even last until the child is weaned.

Indigenous religions where (5)

Among Ainu of far northern Japan, the Inuit (Eskimo) of Canada, the aboriginal ppls of Australia, the Maori of New Zealand, & the many indigenous peoples of Africa and the Americas

Stories of the origin of a tribe may be connected with its story of the earth's creation.

Among the Acoma Pueblo, there is a story of two sisters who lived entirely underground. Eventually they climbed up the roots of a tree and into the sunlight through a hole in the ground, to become the first human beings on earth. One became mother of the Pueblo.

Witches need only use their spiritual powers.

Another belief is that the spirit of the witches leaves them at night and goes to eat away the victim, thus causing him to weaken and eventually die. It is believed, too, that a witch can cause harm by looking at a person, wishing him harm or speakingto him words intended to inflict harm on him." Of course, the powers of these sorcerers and witches are also employed for good ends as well.

_____ _____ may also be subject to taboo. Native American religions

Antisocial actions In Native American religions, taboos and rules encourage a sense of harmony with other members of one's people. Strong taboos against adultery and stealing within the tribal unit, for example, are enforced by shame, warnings. shunning, and expulsion, often administered by a tribal council. Nevertheless, although harmony is important, warfare against another people has at times been considered justified

The study of indigenous religious traditions presents its own specific challenges.

Are they sacred paths?

loss of natural environments

B/c so much personal and group meaning comes from the natural environment, its degradation or loss can be devastating to a native people's identity. Logging interests are a problem almost universally, but especially in Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Brazil, Alaska, and western Canada. Much of northern Tha il and, where many native peoples live, has already been badly deforested, and the logging companies are now beginning the same process in Myanmar, another home of indigenous peoples. Fights are intense over conservation, land owner-ship, and governmental protection. Luckily, there have been gains (such as in New Zealand and Australia) where aboriginal rights to land have been recognized.

As the fi nal passing from this life, death is accompanied by rituals that serve to comfort close relatives, assist the spirit of the dead person in moving on, and protect the living from bad infl uences that could come from an unhappy spirit.

B/c the spirit of the dead person may be sad to leave the family circle, it must be helped to make its trip to the spirit world. Relatives & friends assist by placing clothing, food, money, & favorite objects w/ body. In the case of a chief or other notable person, body may be embalmed or mummified for public display until a large funeral can be arranged.

Taboos frequently relate to sex and birth.

Blood, too, is always an element of mysterious power-both helpful and dangerous. Eg, in some but not all groups, menstruating women are expected to remain separate from everyone else, b/c menstrual blood is considered powerful & dangerous. In contrast, a few cultures (such as Apache) hail a girl's menarche as a time when she has power to heal illness.

Other notable contributors to this field include

Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942), Raymond Firth (1901-2002), Mary Douglas (1921-2007), and E. E. Evans-Pritchard (mentioned in Chapter 1).

In Taiwan, Korea, and Japan, for example, shamanism exists side by side with

Buddhism, Christianity, and other religions. (Because the shamans there are often female, their native religious practices allow them roles that are not open to them in the adopted religions.

Special rituals also mark a person's entry into Symbolic death

adulthood. include a period of instruction in sex, adult responsibilities, & tribal history + belief. initiation ritual that may be experienced in seclusion or in the company of other initiates. Rites can include a symbolic death- painful and frightening-meant to turn a boy into a man. Across Africa, circumcision for boys in their early teens is a common rite for entering adulthood.

There is no ____ on how to speak of these ancient religious ways.

agreement

Some native religions see everything in the universe as being

alive - animism Life force (Latin: anima) is present in everything and is especially apparent in trees, plants, birds, animals, & humans & in the motion of water, the sun, the moon, clouds, & wind. -present in apparently static mountains, rocks, and soil. Other native religions, while more theistic, see powerful spirits in nature, which temporarily inhabit natural objects and manifest themselves there.

Although indigenous religions often revere a High God, ___ and ____ dedicated to a High God are not common

altars and imagery. Large temples, temple ritual, and priesthoods have been found in a few cultures, such as in Mexico and western Africa, but rare elements. Instead, in prayer, ritual, & art many native religions tend to focus on lesser deities, especially those associated w/ nature forces. Indigenous religious ceremonies r performed @ small-scale shrines or meeting places. Sometimes religious ceremonies occur indoors, such as in a sweat lodge or kiva (a submerged meeting hall). At other times, occur outdoors, at a riverbank, beside rock formation, or in grove of trees.

Indigenous religions have, of course, created much that is permanent... express themselves in ways that have less permanence

and sometimes even monumental. Mayan pyramids in Yucatan and the great city of Teotihuacan, near Mexico City dance, masks, wood sculpture, paintings that utilize mineral and plant dyes, tattoo, body painting, and memorized story and chant - these transitory expressions of religious art as being equal in stature to more permanent sacred writings and artistic creations.

totem

animal figure-such as the bear, beaver, thunderbird, owl, raven, and eagle-that is revered for both its symbolic meaning and its clan symbolism. The totem animals may be memorials to ancestors or may rep-resent badges of kinship groups, with specialized meaning for the individual or the family responsible for the totem pole.

The predominant contemporary view sees human beings as fundamentally different from other

animals. Perhaps this ten-dency is a result of our modern culture, which emphasizes the skills of writing and reading. We also have little connection with the origins of our food, and we live and work indoors. Electric light diminishes our awareness of day and night and obstructs the light of the moon and stars. Except for insects, rodents, and the most common birds, we seldom see wildlife fi rst-hand. Traffic noise drowns out the sounds of wind, rain, and birdsong.

The ecological movement has also made our study of indigenous religions more pressing - Environmentalist David Suzuk

argues that we must look to native peoples & religions for insightful lessons in the relationship b/w humans & nature. In his intro toWisdom of the Elders, earth rapidly moves toward what he calls "ecocrisis." He quotes the ecologist Paul Ehrlich in saying that solutions will have to be "quasi-religious." "our problem is inherent in the way we perceive our relationship w/ rest of Nature & role in grand scheme

The symbols that appear in myths and in dreams are the Colors

basic vocab of native religious art. Common symbols include a great mountain located at the center of the universe, the tree of life, the sun and moon, fire, rain, lightning, a bird or wings, death's head and skeleton, a cross, and a circle. unusual forms; lightning may be represented by a zigzag, the sun may appear like a swastika, and the tree of life may look like a ladder. Colors are universally used with symbolic meaning, although the exact meaning differs from culture to culture.

E. 0. Wilson proposes that we foster

biophilia, a love of life rediscover our kin, the other animals and plants with whom we share this planet."' Some of this interest derives from a sometimes romanticized view of native ppls & their relationship w/ nature.

In a world that is animated by spirits, human beings must treat all things with

care, if a spirit is injured or insulted, it can retaliate. Human beings must therefore show that they respect nature, especially the animals and plants that they kill to eat. Human beings must understand the existence and ways of the spirit world so that they can avoid harm and incur blessings

Other important art forms that can have religious meaning are

eaving, beading, and basketry. These creations may seem to have less obvious religious significance, but the imagery used is frequently of religious deriva-tion, particularly figures from tribal myths, nature deities, and guardian birds and animals.

In indigenous societies, as in many other cultures, marriage is a ritual that not only publicly affirms and stabilizes a union but also cements

economic arrangements &, through ceremony, ensures fertility. In both Africa & North America, however, marriage in tribal cultures often has been a practical arrangement. Among Native American peoples, marriage has frequently been celebrated simply as a social contract that is worked out by the families.

indigenous religions have sometimes blended with more dominant religions.

elements of Mayan religion live on in the Catholicism of Mexico and Guatemala, and elements of belief in nature gods live on in the Buddhism of Myanmar (Burma). This blending has made the existence of indigenous religions less obvious, but sometimes it has also made their continued existence possible.

The afterlife can be a shad-owy, uncertain realm that the departing spirit is

eluctant to enter, especially 53 if the spirit is leaving a happy family circle. Proper rituals must be per-formed, accompanied by public mourning, to avoid angering the dead per-son's spirit.

Part of becoming a shaman involves having one or more

encounters w/ spirit realm in form of a psychological death and rebirth. A person may have experienced some great loss-of sight, of a child, or of something equally precious: a mental breakdown, been terribly sick, or suffered a serious accident and come close to dying. Upon recovering from such an extreme experience, this person can have new powers of insight and healing, which can lead to becoming a shaman. Those who have experienced vivid dreams and visions that are thought to be man-ifestations of the spirit world are also sometimes trained as shamans.

And unlike art in most industrialized cultures, sacred objects and images in native religions are not separate endeavors but an

essential part of the religious expression itself. Although modern secular culture does not usually think of dance or tattoo or body painting as religious expression, in many native religions these art forms all fulfill that role.

Indigenous religions are found in every climate

from the tropical rain forest to the arctic tundra, & some are far older than today's dominant religions. B/c most developed in isolation, there are major differences in creation stories & origin, afterlife beliefs, marriage & funeral customs, etc.

Arts of native religions are not created by "artists" as "art" but as

functional objects to be used in particular settings and special ways. Navajo sand-paintings, for example, are often photographed and reproduced in books as though they were permanent works of art. In fact, when used by a healer, they are temporary creations that are made and then destroyed as a part of the ritual.

In some places, however, indigenous religions appear fragile . There are four principal threats to their existence

global spread of popular culture, loss of natural environments, loss of traditional languages, and conversion to other religions.

Many indigenous religions make little distinction between ____ and ___ Navajo

gods and ancestors Both are important b/c living people must work w/ both for success in life. Spirits of ancestors must be treated well out of love for them, but also out of respect for their power. Some native religions, such as that of the Navajo, distance themselves from the spirits of the dead, fearing them. But more commonly the dead are venerated.

In native African religions and their Caribbean offshoots, powerful but invisible spiritual forces are believed to be able to do either

great good or tremendous evil. Diviners and healers direct these powers through incanta-tions, fi gurines, and potions in what is sometimes called sympathetic magic.

In Burundi

having made good children God created a cripple, and its parents were so angry that they tried to kill God and he went away.

In African religions, ancestor spirits are commonly thought to bring Appease angry ancestors Tahitian/many African religions/Hawaiian

health, wealth, and children if they are pleased, and disease and childlessness if not. appease angry ancestors is through ritual, sometimes including sacrifice. Often thought to live in an afterlife that is a state of existence much like earthly life. Belief in reincarnation is found sometimes, as in native Tahitian religion and in many African religions, from the Diola of Senegal to the Bakongo of the Congo region. In traditional Hawaiian religion, it was believed that the spirits of the dead went to an underworld, while the spirits of cultural heroes ascended into the sky.

Indigenous religions exist generally within

holistic cultures, in which every object and act may have religious mean-ing. Art, music, religion, and social behavior within such cultures can be so inseparable that it is hard to say what is distinctly religious and what is not. secular and reli-gious realms as separate.

Three key patterns to consider are

human relationship with nature, the framing of sacred time and space, and the respect for origins, gods, and ancestors.

loss of native (traditional) languages

in a hundred years only three thousand will remain. In the United States and Canada, only about 500,000 indigenous people still speak their native languages. A single example of this phenomenon is the Kwakiutl (Kwakwakawakw) of British Columbia. Although their population has been rising and is now as high as 5,000, only about 250 people speak the native language.

Among many peoples, particular objects-a specifi crock, tree, or river-are thought of as being animated by an

individual spirit that lives within. And in some native traditions, we find deities that care about and influence a whole category of reality, such as the earth, water, or air.

Some Native American peoples have used a calumet

long sacred pipe-for smoking a special kind of tobacco that is far stronger than commercial cigarette tobacco; it is so strong, in fact, that it can have a hallucinatory effect. The bowl of the pipe is usually made of clay but sometimes of bone, ivory, wood, 58 or metal, and the stem is made of wood. Many pipes are also made of stone. (A red stone, popular among Plains Indians and Eastern Woodlands Indians for this purpose, was quarried in Pipestone, Minnesota.) object that gives protection to the person who carries it. Smoked as part of a shared ceremony that establishes strong bonds among all the participants, and oaths sworn at these ceremonies have the greatest solemnity.

Malevolent sorcerers

manipulate objects to cause damage; they may bury an object in the victim's path or take fi ngernails, hair, clothes, or other posses-sions of the victim and then burn or damage them in order to cause harm.

To exploit nature mindlessly is even thought to be as sacrilegious as harming one's own

mother

Birth is considered a powerful time for the

mother and child, & blood associated w/ dangerous power. Post-birth, newborn is often celebrated w/ a public event that may occur immediately or anytime from a week to a year after the actual birth. In some parts of Africa, babies do not become members of the community until they receive their names in a special public ceremony that is accompanied by song, dance, and a meal. A name is chosen carefully because of the influence it is thought to have on the child's future .

Rituals involving the use of peyote have developed primarily within the past two centuries in some

native North American tribes. Practice seems to have moved north from Mexico, where peyote grows easily and has long been used for religious purposes. When the fruit of the peyote cactus is eaten, it elicits a psychedelic experience that lasts six or more hours and produces a forgetfulness of the self and a sense of oneness with all of nature. Ceremonies commonly begin in the early evening and last until dawn.

Although it has been rare, human sacrifice (and sometimes cannibalism) has occurred in some

native cultures. Sacrifice of human beings was practiced (at least for a time) for specific purposes in Aztec religion, Hawaiian religion, and among tribal peoples of New Guinea; it was much less common among native peoples of North America and Africa.

Artists in many cultures, trying to go beyond their own limited artistic traditions, have found inspiration in

native wood sculpture, masks, drums, and textile design.

Native religions also frequently embrace an ethic of restraint and conservation concerning

nature's resources One is expected to take only what one needs and to use all the parts of an animal or plant. In traditional Hawaii, for example, fishing in certain areas would be temporarily forbid-den ( kapu, or taboo) in order to allow the fi sh population to be replenished.

Pablo Picasso (1881-1973)

often spoke of the strong influence that African religious masks had on his work.

Up until the early part of the twentieth century, scholars focused more on religions that had produced written texts than on those that expressed them-selves through

orally transmitted stories, histories, and rituals.

The distinction between oral religions and others is also blurred by the fact that religions that have written texts are also, to a large degree, transmitted

orally- for example, through preaching, teaching, and chanting

spread of proselytizing religions

particularly Christianity and Islam. In the Pacific, native cultures are undergoing a revival, but few elements of the native religions of those cultures remain unchanged from their earlier forms. Christianity, brought since 19th century by missionaries (particularly Methodist, Catholic, and, more recently, Mormon), has replaced some beliefs and reshaped others. Christianity has spread widely in sub-Saharan Africa over the past hundred years, creating both mainstream Western denominations and independent African churches. As a result, there are now more black members of the Anglican Church than there are white members. Islam has also gained many converts in Africa

The development of ____ and _____ has helped the recovery of native religious traditions. Photography & Ethnomusicology i

photography and sound recording Photography captures native styles of life and allows them to be seen with a certain immediacy. Ethnomusicology involves the recording of chants and the sounds of musical instruments that might otherwise be lost

Native religions show many signs of vitality. Native ppls are often taking

political action to preserve their cultures. In many places (such as Hawaii, New Zealand, and North America) a renaissance of native cultures is underway.

Feathers and featherwork also feature prominently in many native religions because of their

powerful association with flight and contact with the world above and beyond our own. Richard W. Hill - "some cultures associate certain birds w/ spiritual or protective powers. Birds r believed to have delivered songs, dances, rituals, and sacred messages to human-kind. Feathers worn in the hair blow in the wind and evoke birds in flight. Ghost Dance religion followers of late 19th century, birds became important symbols of rebirth." Feathers are worn in the hair, made into headdresses, and attached to clothing. In Native American cultures, they are also attached to horse harnesses, dolls, pipes, and baskets.

The shaman often blends the roles of

priest, oracle, psychologist, and doctor. A common English term for the shaman is medicine man, yet it stresses only the therapeutic role and obscures the fact that shamans are both female and male. In Korean and Japanese native religious paths, in fact, shamans are frequently female.

In an animistic worldview, everything can be seen as part of the same

reality. There may be no clear boundaries between the natural and supernatural and b/w the human and nonhuman. Everything has both its visible ordinary reality and a deeper, invisible sacred reality.

In western Africa, initiation societies over-see coming-of-age rituals - Girls

receive sexual instruction and training in the skills necessary for marriage. 1st menstrual period may also be marked publicly. For example, among the Apache, a 4-day ceremony marks a girl's menarche (first menstruation). elaborate ceremony - the girl performs a dance, receives a massage from her female sponsor, kneels to receive the rays of the sun, and circles repeatedly around a ceremonial cane.

The High God in African religions, how-ever, is not always

remote. Diola believe in direct, pro-phetic revelation from High God, & lgbo + Shona have oracles from supreme being. While monotheism is common in African religions, it can express itself in many ways.

Religions with written records don't necessarily

require travel or physically arduous research. Moreover, when scholars have mastered reading the necessary languages, they can study, translate, & teach the original writings either @ home or to students anywhere.

Native American religions are noted for their ____ attitude toward the natural world

reverential, humans and animals are often pictured as coming into existence together, and the sun, moon, trees, and animals are all considered kin.

In indigenous societies, the human journey through life is aided & marked by

rites of passage. help hold society together by renewing bonds & admitting new members to the community. mark an important life event, such as the birth of a child. In some native religions, a woman abt to give birth goes off by herself to bear her child at a sacred site or in a house built for that purpose.

Most indigenous religions have cosmic tales of their origins that are regularly recited or enacted through Some tell Hopi creation story

ritual and dance. Some tell how the world originated from a supernatural realm. In a Hopi creation story, the earth, before it took shape, was mist.

taboo

rule that forbids specific behavior w/ regard to certain objects, ppl, animals, days, or phases of life. represent a codification of social & religious order. In our language, taboo means, often negatively, something that is prohibited. This is essentially the viewpoint of an outsider. From inside native religions, a taboo is often better seen as a way of protecting the individual & of safeguarding natural order of things.

We know about native religious traditions through the efforts of

scholars from a number of disciplines, particularly anthropology.

Various inadequate terms

traditional (would be suitable, except that all religions but the very newest have many traditional elements.), aboriginal, indigenous (neutral tone, like native, Greek) tribal, nonliterate, primal, native (Africa-with memories of colonial offices of native affairs-can be offensive, Latin), oral, and basic Oral & nonliterate - correctly the fact that most indigenous religions were spread without written texts. Primial & basic - may be viewed as derogatory (like the older term primitive religions).

Most indigenous religions have sprung from

tribal cultures of small numbers, whose survival has required a cautious and respectful relationship with nature. humans are part of nature. Ppl look to nature itself (sometimes interpreted through traditional lore) for guidance and meaning.

The Bakuta of central Africa speak of the

twins Nzambi-above and Nzambi-below, although in their myths the lower twin disappears and Nzambi-above becomes the High God .`

Kwakiutl of the Pacific North-west

view nature as dangerously violent, and others have seriously damaged their natural environment. Despite such cases, one finds in many indigenous religions extraordinary sensitivity to the natural elements.

The shamanic trance state that brings visions, both to the shaman and to others, can be induced in several ways: weakening and ingestion

weakening the visual boundaries (for example, by sitting in the darkness of a cave or hut for prolonged periods), fasting, experiencing sensory deprivation, making regular rhythmic sounds (such as drumming, rattling, bell ringing, and chanting), and dancing in a repetitive way, especially in circles. The ingestion of natural substances is also common; peyote cactus, datura, cannabis (marijuana), coca, opium, and the mushroom Amanita muscaria have all been used to induce trance states, both by the shaman alone and sometimes by participants in a ceremony.

Besides masks and statues, other forms of Totem poles

wood carving can manifest religious inspiration. Perhaps the most famous of all wood carvings is the carved pole, commonly called a totem pole, found in the Pacific Northwest. The totem pole usually depicts several totems, stacked one upon the other. Some totem poles are a part of the structure of a traditional wooden house or lodge. Others- apparently a later development-are raised to stand alone, frequently to mark an impor-tant event.

religious teachings have been passed on primarily by

word of mouth rather than through written texts. In some areas, the ancient religious ways of traditional peoples may not be easily apparent, but certain characteristics live on in local stories and customs.

Happily, oral traditions are being understanding of these religions depends not only on written records but also on field study by

written down, translated, and published anthropologists, ethnomusicologists, and others.

For years before the vision quest

young person may receive training to prepare for experience. Commonly, a tribal religious specialist will create a sacred space by ritually marking 4 directions of compass & center. Sacred space, set apart from community, should be a place of natural beauty. Seeker remains in sacred space until a vision, or dream, comes. Although vision quest is often a part of coming- of-age ceremonies for males, among some peoples it is also employed for females. Vision quest may be used at other times, too-particularly when the individual or the group must make an important life decision.

A number of taboos regulate other social behavior Hawaiian/foods

1 common taboo relates to rank: people of high position, such as chiefs, nobility, priests, and shamans, must be treated with extraordinary care because of their special powers; taboos protect them from insult or inappropriate action. In traditional Hawaiian culture, for example, the shadow of a commoner could not fall on a member of the nobility. Women were forbidden to eat certain foods.

The general world view common to native religions allows for a number of specialized religious roles

A diviner looks for causes of sickness, depression, death, and other difficulties. A healer works with a person afflicted w/ physical or mental illness to find a cure. A rainmaker ends drought.

In native Hawaiian religion, hula kahiko (ancient hula) is danced in conjunction with Chants

Chanting to honor the gods. Instruments for marking rhythm and lei (wreaths of flowers or other plants worn around the head, wrists, and ankles). when used in hula, are considered religious objects. Chants, too, are essential, for they repeat the sacred words and re-create the stories of the religious traditions. To be used properly in religious cere-monies, they must be memorized carefully. Chanters must not only have prodigious memories and be able to recall thousands of chants; they must also be able to create special variations on traditional chants and oral texts for individual occasions.

Among North American tribes, the rituals involving peyote are often mixed with

Christian elements. Eg: a member of the Native American Church described his preparation for the ceremony: "First we set up an altar-a Mexican rug and on it a Lakota Bible in our own language. We use only the revelations of St. John in our meetings. It's ... full of visions, nature, earth, stars .. . . Across the Bible we put an eagle feather-it stands for the Great Spirit. ... On the left is a rawhide bag with cedar dust to sprinkle on the fire. That's our incense." The blending of elements illustrates that, at their core, all religions are the same. Ordinary peyote use is illegal, its religious use by the Native American Church has been legally upheld.

North America/Native American

Citizens of many native nations in North America are instructing their young in traditional dance and other religious practices. Nevertheless, how to deal with a traditional belief in deities in the face of some dominant monotheistic religions presents intriguing questions. One result, as in the Native American Church, is that beliefs and practices now often incorporate both oral and text-based traditions.

Among Native American tribes, the sacrifice of relatives and attendants to accompany a dead leader has also occurred.

Eg: after the death of the Natchez leader Tattooed Serpent in 1725, two of his wives and six others, after preparation by fasting, were strangled as a part of the funeral ritual. In Native American religions, bodies of the dead are usually buried, but sometimes they are placed on platforms or in trees.

Four Oglala Sioux sha-mans, when asked about what was wakan ("holy," "mysterious"), said

Every object in the world has a spirit and that spirit is wakan. Thus the spirit[s] of the tree or things of that kind, while not like the spirit of man, are also wakan. " To say that nature is full of spirits can be a way of affirming the presence of both a universal life force and an essential, underlying sacredness.

Koyukon and Australian Aborigines' view of sacred time

Koyukon people of the Arctic - called "distant time," and it is the holy ancient past in which the gods lived and worked. Australian Aborigines - Dream time, and it is the subject of much of their highly esteemed art.

Interest in indigenous religions is a potential restorative for cultures that have

Moved quickly from their traditional rural homes to homes in the city. In native traditions, we see religion before it was compartmentalized. These holistic traditions make us aware of the religious dimensions that can be found in our own everyday life, and they expand our sensitivity to nature. Their remembrance of the sacred past makes holy the present and the future.

In North America, for instance, there are several hundred

Native American nations and more than fifty Native American language groups

By the early 1900s, West African masks had found their way to Paris and the artists there.

One piece ... is a mask that had been given to Maurice Vlaminck in 1905. He records that [Andre] Derain was 'speechless' and 'stunned' when he saw it, bought it from Vlaminck and in turn showed it to Picasso and Matisse, who were also greatly affected by it."

BaMbuti, forest dwellers of central Africa, perceive their forest.

Outsiders might f nd the darkness and thick foliage frightening. ppl who live in it, the forest "is their world...distinguish the innocent-looking itaba vine from the many others it resembles so closely, and they know how to follow it until it leads them to a cache of nutritious, sweet-tasting roots. Tiny sounds that tell where the bees have hidden honey; kind of weather that brings a multitude of different kinds of mushrooms springing to the surface . . secret language that is denied all outsiders & w/o which life in the forest is an impossibility.

Of course, the religious art of native peoples needs no authentication from

Outsiders present a problem: they tend to treat native religious objects as purely secular works of art, while people within an indigenous religious tradition do not make such a distinction

Hehaka Sapa, or Black Elk, an Oglala Sioux

South Dakota experiences dictated autobiography in 1930, he points out that his community, which traditionally lived in tipis (circular tents made of animal skins and poles), arranges itself in a circle-as does all nature, which is constantly making circles, just like the sun, the moon, and the whirlwind.

divination

Spiritual powers and trance states are believed to make it possible to look into the past and future (from the Latin divus, "god," and divinare, "to foretell"). Looking into the past is thought to help determine the causes of illness and other misfortune, while looking into the future can guide an individual to act wisely. It is a common belief in African religions that an individual has a predetermined future that can be discovered through divination.

In western Africa, initiation societies over-see coming-of-age rituals - Poro.

The Poro [a secret initiation society] is for boys, controlled by a hierarchy of elders, different in each village, which meets in a sacred grove where the clan founder was buried. The purpose is the rebirth of the youths, who are said to be swallowed by the Poro spirit at the beginning and returned to their parents as reborn at the end of the initiation."

Shaman understands, interprets, gains the power of

The shaman understands the primordial unity of things and experiences a shared identity with animals and the rest of nature. Thus the shaman can interpret the language of animals, charm them, and draw on their powers The shaman gains the powers of animals and the rest of nature by wearing items taken from important animals, such as deer antlers, lion skins, and eagle feathers.

n religions that do not rely on the written word, artistic expressions take on unique significance because

They are filied with meaning and remind practitioners of the specifics of the oral tradition. Statues and paintings, of course, are common in a great many religions, both oral and written. Dance, which takes on particular importance in native religions, incorporates religious objects such as carved and painted masks, headdresses, costumes, ornaments, and musical instruments.

In a strongly hierarchical native culture, such as in many African groups, the health of the people and the fertility of the land are believed to depend on the health of the sacred king. _____ and ____ _____ in many cultures are governed by taboos.

To maintain his health, the king is protected by taboos-particularly regarding the people with whom he may associate. Because of these taboos and the fear his role inspires, the sacred king may live a life quite separate from his subjects. foods and food sources Among some African peoples, commoners have been forbidden to touch or eat the food of a king.

The masks, drums, statues, rattles, and other objects that are important in native religions were once seen as curiosities to be collected and housed in anthropological museums.

Today, however, we view them differently; must respect both their importance to the cultures that produced them and their inherent artistic value.

Masks play a signifi cant role in native religions, especially when used in Bapunu, Pacific Northwest

When a dancer is wearing a mask and any accompanying costume, the spirit is not merely represented by the masked dancer. The dancer actually becomes the spirit embodied on earth, with the spirit's powers. Among the Bapunu in Africa, dancers not only wear masks but also walk on stilts-the overall effect must be intense. Particularly complex masks have been produced in the Pacific Northwest by such tribes as the Haida, Tsimshian, and Kwakiutl (Kwakwakawakw). Some masks, especially those depicting animal spirits, have movable parts that make them even more powerful for those who wear and see them

In the past, great African chiefs have had

Wives, children, and ser-vants buried alongside them.

Gladys Reichard

a specialist who pioneered the study of the ritual life of the Navajo (Dine), has written that chanters in the Navajo religion need to memorize an "incalculable" number-that is, thousands-of songs. Listeners can replay such recordings t added to the appreciation of this music.

As we have seen, native religions take for granted that a powerful and influential but invisible spirit world exists and that human beings can access it.

shaman acts as an intermediary between the visible, ordinary world and the spirit world contact this realm, receive visions of it, and transmit messages from it, often to help or heal others. As one commentator remarks, "The shaman lies at the very heart of some cultures, while living in the shadowy fringes of others. Nevertheless, a common thread seems to connect all shamans across the planet. An awakening to other orders of reality, the experience of ecstasy, and an opening up of visionary realms form the essence ofthe shamanic mission." Sometimes the spirits speak through the shaman, who knows entry points to their world. The spirits may be reached in dreams or trances by climbing a sacred tree, descending through a cave into the underworld, flying through the air, or following a sacred map.

French artist Paul Gauguin moved to Tahiti and the Marquesas to find and paint what he hoped was a fundamental form of religion there, and

some of his paintings allude to native Tahitian religious belief. Gauguin thereby hoped to go beyond the limited views of his European background. The work of such artists as Picasso and Gauguin helped to open eyes to the beauty produced by indigenous religions.

Like birth, death is also surrounded by taboos concerning the

spirit of the dead person, who may seek to reward or take revenge on the living because of the way he or she was treated in life

Yoruba of Africa

storms are the work of the deity Shang, a legendary king w/ great powers who climbed to heaven. The lgbo (lbo) pray to Ala, an earth-mother deity, for fertility of the earth. Women also pray to her for children, and men pray to her to increase their crops. In the Ashanti religion, Ta Yao is the god of metal. The work of blacksmiths and mechanics is under his charge.

Greater research into oral religions, however, has dispelled

such notions of simplicity the sandpaintings of the Navajo people

native peoples who did not live in harmony with nature could not long

survive

Haida people of the Pacific Northwest:

the Haida refer to whales and ravens as their 'brothers' and 'sisters' and to fi sh and trees as the finned and tree people.

In Caribbean and Central America

the gods of African reli gions have sometimes been combined with forms of French and Spanish Cath olicism in the religions ofVoodoo and Santeria. In Central America, people who are otherwise practicing Catholics also worship deities of earlier native religions. We see similar types of synthesis in Mexico and the south-western United States.

Despite the threats to their existence, indigenous religions continue to thrive in several forms throughout the world.

their purest form, they live on in those pockets where modern influence has penetrated the least, such as in Borneo and the Amazon River basin. They may also coexist, sometimes in diluted form, alongside other religions. Indigenous religions have also intermixed with mainstream religions