Ch. 6 Perception and Individual Decision Making

Victoria Hastings works as a sales manager at a bank and her behavior is characterized by the fundamental attribution error and halo effect. Explain with the help of an example what Hastings' behavior is most likely to be toward her team in such a situation.

A person who is characterized by the fundamental attribution error has a tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others. This explains why Hastings, who is characterized by the fundamental attribution error, is most likely to blame her employees for underperformance even when they are achieving reasonable objectives during an economic meltdown. A person who is characterized by the halo effect has a tendency to form a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic. In this situation, Hastings may assume that a team member is a prospective project manager just because she has strong networking skills. On the other hand, she may form a negative impression about a team member who does not actively participate in meetings as someone who is not dedicated and interested in her job.

What is an anchoring bias?

An anchoring bias is a tendency to fixate on initial information and fail to adequately adjust for subsequent information. It occurs because our mind appears to give a disproportionate amount of emphasis to the first information it receives. Anchors are widely used by people in professions in which persuasion skills are important—advertising, management, politics, real estate, and law.

Which of the following is an example of externally caused behavior?

An employee is late to work because of a punctured tire.

Which of the following is an example of internally caused behavior?

An employee was fired from work because he violated a company policy.

________ explains the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on the meaning we assign to a given behavior.

Attribution theory

________ bias refers to the tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is easily accessible.

Availability

Johanna Murray, a climate campaigner at The National Footprint Foundation, is known in her organization to be a campaigner of caliber and high performance. She recently worked on a campaign against global warming during which she worked extremely hard to achieve project milestones. However, the campaign failed as it could not achieve the desired objective. Due to this, her manager, Brenda Owens, gave her a poor performance appraisal. In the appraisal, Brenda said that Johanna was not motivated and failed to reach out to 25,000 people through Internet media to spread awareness about climate change. Which of the following, if true, weakens Brenda's statement?

Brenda was unable to make time for Johanna to brief her on the tasks involved in carrying out the campaign's media strategy.

Alicia Akers works as a marketing executive. She always talks in a high pitch and often draws a lot of attention wherever she is. Which of the following statements best explains the reason behind people noticing Akers?

Characteristics of the target affect people's perception.

________ refers to the evaluation of a person's characteristics that is affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

Contrast effect

Describe and explain the four steps of creative behavior.

Creative behavior occurs in four steps, each of which is linked to the next. In the first step, problem formulation, a problem or opportunity that requires a solution as yet unknown is identified. So, the act of creativity begins with a problem that the behavior is designed to solve. Next is the information gathering stage during which possible solutions to the problem incubate in the individual's mind. This step allows for time to learn more and to process the information. Third, idea generation occurs. During this step, the information gathered in step two is translated into ideas. Idea generation is often a collaborative process. Finally, during the idea evaluation step, potential solutions to the problem are considered and the best solution is chosen.

________ refers to staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence it's wrong.

Escalation of commitment

What is escalation of commitment? Explain.

Escalation of commitment refers to staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence it is wrong. Individuals escalate commitment to a failing course of action when they view themselves as responsible for the failure. People who carefully gather and consider information consistent with the rational decision-making model are more likely to engage in escalation of commitment than those who spend less time thinking about their choices. They are more likely to have invested so much time and energy into making their decisions that they have convinced themselves they are taking the right course of action and do not update their knowledge in the face of new information.

Explain with an example the contrast effect.

Evaluation of a person's characteristics that is affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics is known as the contrast effect. We don't evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction is influenced by other persons we have recently encountered. For example, in a series of job interviews, interviewers can make distortions in any given candidate's evaluation as a result of his or her place in the interview schedule. A candidate is likely to receive a more favorable evaluation if preceded by mediocre applicants and a less favorable evaluation if preceded by strong applicants.

A candidate is likely to receive a more favorable evaluation if preceded by mediocre applicants and a less favorable evaluation if preceded by strong applicants. This is an example of the halo effect.

FALSE

A focus on utilitarianism creates an environment that hinders productivity and efficiency.

FALSE

A person's tendency to believe he or she can predict the outcome of random events is known as the self-serving bias.

FALSE

According to attribution theory, the more consistent a behavior, the more we are inclined to attribute it to external causes.

FALSE

According to the attribution theory, if a behavior scores high on consensus and distinctiveness, we tend to consider it as an internally caused behavior.

FALSE

Men make better decisions than women.

FALSE

The perception of a target is unaffected by the perceiver's personality or past experiences.

FALSE

The rational decision-making model takes into consideration the fact that all information pertaining to a problem might not be available to the decision maker.

FALSE

The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors is known as the confirmation bias.

FALSE

The tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic is known as the contrast effect.

FALSE

The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others is known as the randomness error.

FALSE

To stop lie-detection for written communications we can look in e-mail messages as liars omit personal pronouns, use noncommittal expressions, change tenses, skip topics, provide too much detail, or add qualifying statements.

FALSE

Jeanne Edwards works as a campaign manager at Rainforest Alliance Trust, a forest protection organization in Indonesia. She is currently working on the Palm Oil Campaign, which aims to establish stringent laws against companies which aggravate deforestation by extracting palm oil for commercial use. Her role is to establish allies with other forest protection organizations and companies which use eco-friendly products that set good examples for other companies to follow. Jeanne allied with Griffin and Powell, a large multinational company, which, unknown to Jeanne, also has strong ties with local logging groups in Jakarta. Which of the following, if true, would strengthen the argument that Jeanne had an availability bias while establishing an ally with the company?

Griffin and Powell ensures that all their CSR initiatives on forests are regularly and substantially publicized.

________ refers to the tendency of people to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic.

Halo effect

Explain the relationship between decision making and perception.

Individuals in organizations make decisions, choices from among two or more alternatives. Individual decision making is an important part of organizational behavior. But the way individuals make decisions and the quality of their choices are largely influenced by their perceptions. Decision making occurs as a reaction to a problem. That is, a discrepancy exists between the current state of affairs and some desired state, requiring people to consider alternative courses of action. In addition, one person's problem is another person's satisfactory state of affairs. Awareness that a problem exists and that a decision might or might not be needed is a perceptual issue. Every decision requires a person to interpret and evaluate information. A person's perceptions determine which information is relevant and which is not. Throughout the entire decision-making process, perceptual distortions often surface that can bias analysis and conclusions.

________ is an unconscious process created from distilled experience.

Intuitive decision making

What is intuitive decision making? Explain.

Intuitive decision making is an unconscious process created from distilled experience. It occurs outside conscious thought and relies on holistic associations, or links between disparate pieces of information. It is fast and is affectively charged, which means that it usually engages the emotions. While intuition is not rational, it is not necessarily wrong. Nor does it always contradict rational analysis. Instead, the two can complement each other. In certain instances, relying on intuition can improve decision making. But it is important not to rely on it too heavily. This is because it is unquantifiable and thus it is hard to know when our hunches are right or wrong. The key is neither to abandon nor rely solely on intuition, but to supplement it with evidence and good judgment.

Which of the following statements is true regarding the rational decision-making model?

It assumes that an individual is able to identify all relevant options in an unbiased manner.

Which of the following statements is true regarding a contrast effect?

It involves evaluation of a person's features based on comparison with another person.

Which of the following is true about intuitive decision making?

It involves making decisions based on distilled experience.

Janice is late for work each day by about ten minutes. How would attribution theory describe this behavior?

It shows consistency.

Johanna Murray, a climate campaigner at The National Footprint Foundation, is known in her organization to be a campaigner of caliber and high performance. She has strong networks with the Ministry of Environment and allies with several environmental organizations in the country. Over the years, she has gained substantial knowledge on the issue of climate change. However, recently when she prepared a consolidated report on a conference she attended on climate change, it reflected major loopholes and limited information from the conference. Which of the following, if true, substantiates that Johanna had an anchoring bias?

Johanna was moved by the arguments put forth by the first speaker.

Amanda Winter worked as a public engagement coordinator at Safe Food Alliance until three months ago when her manager, Laura Morris, promoted her to the position of a sustainable food campaigner. However, soon after this, Laura noticed that Amanda was facing major difficulties in achieving campaign milestones and the project was falling behind schedule due to her lack of performance. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the argument that Laura was influenced by the halo effect in her decision to promote Amanda?

Laura sat in on only one of Amanda's presentations prior to giving her the promotion.

Naomi Fisher, a sales manager at Pure, a water purifier company, had a new member, Leah Marshall, join her team. Though during Leah's interview, Naomi felt she would be a productive sales executive, her performance has often been below the mark. Consistently in the past three months, Leah has been unable to reach her targets and is falling substantially behind on her annual targets. Naomi assumes that Leah is not determined and motivated enough to do what it takes. Which of the following, if true, weakens Naomi's assumption?

Leah has been assigned a sales territory where consumers are from low income groups.

Laura Simpson, a campaign manager at a child rights organization in Jakarta, planned a marathon for celebrities to raise money for underprivileged children. Though all arrangements for the event had been made, a few days before the event she realized that on the same day there was a political rally happening in the city which would block access to the route on which the marathon was supposed to be undertaken. In such a situation, what is Simpson, who suffers from a self-serving bias, most likely to say?

My colleagues did not inform me about the rally.

Explain how stereotyping can cause problems for some managers when making ethical decisions. Provide an example.

One of the criterion of ethical decision making is to focus on individual rights. Thus, the use of stereotyping would affect the ethical decision-making process. The focus on rights calls on individuals to make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges as set forth in documents like the Bill of Rights. An emphasis on rights in decision making means respecting and protecting the basic rights of individuals. If a manager engages in stereotyping, for example, believing that all women are less productive than men, he may be inclined to base organizational decisions on this stereotype. When an important project or promotion comes up, the manager would always be inclined to reward men over women.

Which of the following statements is true regarding perception?

Our perception of reality can be different from the objective reality.

________ is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

Perception

What is perception? Discuss the factors that influence perception.

Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. What an individual perceives can be substantially different from objective reality. When people look at a target and attempt to interpret what they see, their interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics such as their attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations. Characteristics of the target also affect perception. Since people do not look at targets in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background also influences perception, as does one's tendency to group close things and similar things together. Context matters as well. The time at which people see an object or event can influence attention, as can location, light, heat, or any number of situational factors.

Explain the effect of gender on decision making.

Research on rumination offers insights into gender differences in decision making. Rumination refers to reflecting at length. In terms of decision making, it means overthinking problems. Twenty years of study find women spend much more time than men analyzing the past, present, and future. They're more likely to overanalyze problems before making a decision and to rehash a decision once made. This can lead to more careful consideration of problems and choices. However, it can make problems harder to solve, increase regret over past decisions, and increase depression. Women are nearly twice as likely as men to develop depression.

________ bias indicates the tendency of an individual to attribute his or her own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

Self-serving

Attribution theory tries to explain the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior.

TRUE

Consumers increasingly choose to purchase goods and services from organizations with effective corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives.

TRUE

Escalation of commitment refers to staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence it's wrong.

TRUE

In an interview, information elicited early from an interviewee carries greater weight than information elicited later.

TRUE

People are usually not aware of the factors that influence their view of reality.

TRUE

People's behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.

TRUE

Stereotyping helps individuals make quick decisions through generalizations.

TRUE

Women are more likely than men to overanalyze problems before making a decision and to rehash a decision once made.

TRUE

Discuss the attribution theory.

The attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual's behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. That determination, however, depends largely on three factors: (1) distinctiveness, (2) consensus, and (3) consistency. First, distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations. A behavior high in distinctiveness is more likely to be given an external attribution. Second, if everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behavior shows consensus. A behavior high in consensus is more likely to be considered an externally caused behavior. Third, the more consistent the behavior, the more we are inclined to attribute it to internal causes.

What is bounded rationality? How is it related to decision making?

The capacity of the human mind for formulating and solving complex problems is far too small to meet the requirements for full rationality. Thus, individuals operate within the confines of bounded rationality. They construct simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity. Individuals can then behave rationally within the limits of the simple model. Once the limited set of alternatives is identified, the decision maker will begin reviewing it. But the review will not be comprehensive. Instead, the decision maker will begin with alternatives that differ only in a relatively small degree from the choice currently in effect. Following along familiar and well-worn paths, the decision maker proceeds to review alternatives only until he or she identifies an alternative that is good enough. The first alternative that meets the "good enough" criterion ends the search. Thus, the final solution represents a satisficing choice rather than an optimum one.

What are the three ethical decision criteria? Explain.

The first ethical yardstick is utilitarianism, which proposes making decisions solely on the basis of their outcomes, ideally to provide the greatest good for the greatest number. This view dominates business decision making. It is consistent with goals such as efficiency, productivity, and high profits. Another ethical criterion is to make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges, as set forth in documents such as the Bill of Rights. An emphasis on rights in decision making means respecting and protecting the basic rights of individuals, such as the right to privacy, free speech, and due process. A third criterion is to impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially to ensure justice or an equitable distribution of benefits and costs. Union members typically favor this view. It justifies paying people the same wage for a given job regardless of performance differences and using seniority as the primary determination in layoff decisions.

Explain the hindsight bias.

The hindsight bias is the tendency to believe falsely, after the outcome is known, that we'd have accurately predicted it. When we have accurate feedback on the outcome, we seem pretty good at concluding it was obvious. The hindsight bias reduces our ability to learn from the past. It lets us think we're better predictors than we are and can make us falsely confident.

Describe the confirmation bias.

The rational decision-making process assumes we objectively gather information. But we don't. We selectively gather it. The confirmation bias represents a specific case of selective perception: we seek out information that reaffirms our past choices, and we discount information that contradicts them. We also tend to accept at face value information that confirms our preconceived views, while we are critical and skeptical of information that challenges them. Therefore, the information we gather is typically biased toward supporting views we already hold. We even tend to seek sources most likely to tell us what we want to hear, and we give too much weight to supporting information and too little to contradictory.

What is selective perception?

The tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the basis of one's interests, background, experience, and attitudes is known as selective perception. Individuals engage in selective perception because it is impossible for them to assimilate everything they see and can take in only certain stimuli. However, they do not choose randomly. Rather, they select according to their interests, background, experience, and attitudes. Selective perception allows them to speed-read others, but not without the risk of drawing an inaccurate picture. Seeing what they want to see, they can draw unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous situation.

Explain the three components of creativity. Name two biases and give examples of how they would affect creativity.

The three-component model of creativity proposes that individual creativity essentially requires expertise, creative-thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation. a) Expertise is the foundation for all creative work. The potential for creativity is enhanced when individuals have abilities, knowledge, proficiencies, and similar expertise in their field of endeavor. b) The second component is creative-thinking skills. This encompasses personality characteristics associated with creativity, the ability to use analogies, as well as the talent to see the familiar in a different light. c) The final component is intrinsic task motivation. This is the desire to work on something because it is interesting, involving, exciting, satisfying, or personally challenging. This motivational component is what turns creativity potential into actual creative ideas. It determines the extent to which individuals fully engage their expertise and creative skills. A manager could hinder creativity by engaging in overconfidence bias. A creative person in an office where the manager is confident that his decisions are always correct would be less inclined to offer ideas. In addition, a manager that often engages in confirmation bias would only be looking for answers that support his ideas, and a creative person would be less inclined to participate or offer ideas.

Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are most likely to be noticed in a group. Which of the following statements best describes the reason behind this?

We don't look at targets in isolation.

Compare the fundamental attribution error and the self-serving bias.

When we make judgments about the behavior of other people, we have a tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors. This is called the fundamental attribution error. There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors, such as ability or effort, while putting the blame for failure on external factors, such as bad luck or unproductive co-workers. This is called the self-serving bias.

According to the attribution theory, which of the following behaviors is most likely to be attributed to an external cause?

a behavior that scores high on consensus

The ________ bias is a tendency to fixate on initial information and fail to adequately adjust for subsequent information.

anchoring

Which of the following types of biases is most likely to play a significant role during a negotiation?

anchoring bias

When individuals observe another person's behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused. Which of the following attempts to explain this phenomenon?

attribution theory

A manager doing performance appraisals gives more weight to recent employee behaviors than to behaviors of six or nine months earlier. This shows that the manager's perception is affected by a(n) ________ bias.

availability

A process of making decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity is known as ________.

bounded rationality

The tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgments is known as a(n) ________ bias.

confirmation

According to the attribution theory, if everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way, we can say the behavior shows ________.

consensus

Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual's behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused. That determination, however, depends largely on three factors. Which of the following is one of these three factors?

consistency

If a person responds to a particular situation in the same way over a long time period, then the attribution theory states that the behavior demonstrates ________.

consistency

During team meetings Amber Downing always notices that Rhona Law tends to ask innumerable questions and suggest ideas at each discussion. However, Law stands out in the meetings only because she is the only one making suggestions. If both of them were part of team meetings where almost all members made suggestions and asked questions, Law would not have drawn as much attention from Downing. Which of the following factors has most likely influenced Downing's perception of Law?

context

Jessica recently joined a new company and was first introduced to Michelle, her cubicle neighbor. Michelle came across as amiable and cheerful. During lunch she met another colleague, Carrie, who did not come across as friendly as Michelle. In this situation, Jessica's interpretation of Carrie's personality is most likely to be affected by ________.

contrast effect

Which of the following terms refers to choices made from among two or more alternatives?

decision

What is the first step in the rational decision-making model?

defining the problem

Anne Warner, a climate campaigner at an environmental organization, is in charge of implementing a campaign activity where she needs to increase the use of renewable energy in the villages of Vietnam. For her project, she uses the rational decision-making model to implement activities. She has just completed identifying an appropriate criteria for decision making and has allocated weights to the criteria. Which of the following is Warner most likely to undertake next according to the model?

develop options of wind, solar, and hydro energy

According to the attribution theory, ________ is one of the three main factors which attempt to determine an individual's behavior.

distinctiveness

With reference to the attribution theory, which of the following terms indicates the extent to which an individual displays different behaviors in different situations?

distinctiveness

Which of the following describes the halo effect?

drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic

Monica Walden feels that people who use plastic bags are insensitive toward the environment. She believes that people have a certain obligation toward their environment and should take it upon themselves to protect and preserve it. Which of the following factors has most likely influenced Walden's perception of plastic bag users?

expectation

Which of the following is a component of the three-component model of creativity?

expertise

Johanna Springer, who works as a sales executive at Pascal's Bank, is upset at the way her manager, Emma Womack, always calls her in for one-on-one meetings to discuss her underperformance. Though Springer makes a higher number of sales calls and works longer hours than last year, her sales figures are still low. She knows that the main reason behind her underperformance is the recent economic meltdown in the country. However, her manager feels that Springer's underperformance is the result of her laid-back attitude and has nothing to do with external factors. In this situation, Womack's behavior is characterized by a(n) ________.

fundamental attribution error

Which of the following terms best describes the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others?

fundamental attribution error

William Davies, a guest relations executive at a five star deluxe hotel, regularly interacts with bureaucrats, politicians, celebrities, and other prosperous individuals. He feels that all rich people are kind, hardworking, and friendly. Which of the following best characterizes Davies' perception?

halo effect

Janice Yoder works in an environmental campaigning organization and often needs to interact with a large team for project implementation activities. However, she always finds it difficult to work as a part of a team. She always seems to have major disagreements with team members which lead to antagonistic relations between them. Though she has moved from one team to another, her relations with colleagues always seem to be hostile and cold. How would the attribution theory describe this behavior?

high on consistency

The tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is actually known, that one would have accurately predicted that outcome is known as a(n) ________ bias.

hindsight

David Myers is of the opinion that people who drive SUVs are rash drivers. He feels that people driving SUVs do not respect road rules and always violate traffic regulations. What personal factor is most likely to be affecting Myers' perception of SUV drivers?

his expectations

Which of the following is a factor present in a perceiver which may affect perception?

interest

The three-component model of creativity proposes that individual creativity essentially requires expertise, creative thinking skills, and ________.

intrinsic task motivation

Phyllis Stintson needs to decide whether to start a campaign against deforestation in Indonesia. Though her research team has provided substantial information on the high feasibility of the project, Stintson does not go ahead with the project. If Stintson made her decision by drawing unconscious references from several different experiences in the past, her decision is most likely influenced by which of the following?

intuition

Megan Cardova, who works as a sales executive at Orbit Bank, has been failing to meet her sales targets for the last 10 months. Recently, she had a face-to-face discussion with her manager where she said that the unrealistic targets were the reason for her underperformance. The manager, however, noticed that all the other team members were achieving their targets and sometimes were even achieving more than the set numbers. Which of the following is Cardova's behavior most likely to be characterized as according to the attribution theory?

low consensus

According to the attribution theory, if a behavior scores ________, we tend to attribute it to external causes.

low on consistency

Samantha is never late for work, but last Monday she arrived an hour late because of heavy traffic. According to the attribution theory, Samantha's behavior on that day scores ________.

low on consistency

According to the attribution theory, if a behavior scores ________, we tend to attribute it to internal causes.

low on distinctiveness

Which of the following is a factor present in a target which may affect a person's perception?

novelty

When two people witness something at the same time and in the same situation yet interpret it differently, factors that operate to shape their perceptions reside in the ________.

perceivers

A(n) ________ refers to a discrepancy between the current state of affairs and some desired state.

problem

Which of the following is a decision-making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome?

rational decision-making model

Emily Boyce, a project manager at an insurance firm, regularly satisfices while making decisions. She often comes across complicated problems which would take a long time to resolve. Due to the pressing deadlines, she often meets project goals by satisficing a large number of her decisions. Which of the following is Boyce most likely to do?

search for solutions that are reasonable

With reference to decision making, which of the following does satisficing involve?

seeking solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient

Harriet Kirby, a fund raising manager at a women's rights organization, experienced a bad incident last year with the public relations manager of a banking company who had committed to sponsor a charity event. The bank backed out at the last minute. This year, when a renowned international bank executive showed interest in sponsoring the organization's upcoming annual event, Kirby rejected their participation. She felt that banks have a casual approach toward charity events and it is risky to involve them in the event. Which of the following best characterizes Kirby's decision?

selective perception

Individuals engage in ________ because it is impossible for them to assimilate everything they see and can take in only certain stimuli.

selective perception

You are more likely to notice a car like your own due to ________.

selective perception

Sarah Covington, a sales manager at Synergy Corporation Bank, often keeps low expectations of her team. She feels that they are underqualified for their job and do not have substantial experience to sell a large number of accounts. Covington's team does not feel motivated enough and invariably underperforms and misses targets on a regular basis. Which of the following concepts best explains Covington's team's poor performance?

self-fulfilling prophecy

Which of the following terms refers to a situation in which a person inaccurately perceives another person and the resulting expectations cause the other person to behave in ways consistent with the original perception?

self-fulfilling prophecy

Jane Allen, a campaign manager at a non-profit organization, often takes full credit for project successes even when her team members' contributions play a big role in achieving milestones. However, when projects receive setbacks, she blames her team members and sometimes states that the situation was beyond her control. Allen's behavior is an example of a(n) ________ bias.

self-serving

A manager believes that he should not hire older workers because they can't learn new skills. This belief is an example of ________.

stereotyping

Judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which the person belongs is called ________.

stereotyping

Rose Buffay needs to give a presentation to the board of directors of her organization next week. She knows that her presentation will play an important role in her performance appraisal in the next quarter. However, she knows that two of her colleagues, John Roy and Keith Mathews, will also be giving a presentation on the same issue. She is nervous because she believes that men have a better flair for giving presentations. Buffay's perception of Roy and Mathews is most likely characterized by ________.

stereotyping

Which of the following is a shortcut used in judging others by making generalizations?

stereotyping

Which of the following is a factor present in a situation which may affect a person's perception?

time

According to the concept of ________, decisions are made solely on the basis of their outcomes, ideally to provide the greatest good for the greatest number.

utilitarianism

Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders are known as ________.

whistle-blowers