Ch. 7

O&O's

a broadcasting station that is owned and operated by a network

The formation of RCA had ensured that radio would be...what?

A commercial, profit-based medium. The industry supported itself through the sale of receivers; that is, it operated radio stations in order to sell radios. The problem was that once everybody had a radio, people would stop buying them. The solution was advertising.

dominance of profit over artistry

As the industry relies more heavily on superficial, disposable pop stars, it tells people that the music is superficial and disposable. As they increasingly rely on the same big stars, there is little new music for fans to discover and buy. In 1981, for example, 31 songs from 29 different artists hit Billboard's Number 1; in 2016, only 11 songs from 10 different artists reached Number 1

Todd Storz

disc jockey who developed looped radio programming and the Top 40 radio

WEAF, New York

first ad, 1922, Long island real estate company, 10 minutes for $50

liquid barretter

first audio device permitting the reception of wireless voices; developed by a Canadian guy, Reginald Fessenden in 1903.

Alexander Graham Bell's telephone company

had a subscription music service in major cities in the late 1800s, delivering music to homes and businesses by telephone wires.

trustee model

in broadcast regulation, the idea that broadcasters serve as the public's trustees or fiduciaries

National Broadcasting Company (NBC)

This subsidiary of the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) was the first to established a linking system between stations to become a network in 1926, creating national broadcasts possible

When Clear Channel (now iHeart Media) and Cumulus collectively laid off hundreds of DJs in a move toward automated (no live DJ) and nationally syndicated programming, what happened?

Veteran Los Angeles rock DJ Jim Ladd said, "It's really bad news. It was people in my profession that first played Tom Petty, first played the Doors. But the people programming stations now are not music people—they're business people"

How does the FCC encourages the growth of LPFM?

With regular online webinars explaining the application process to potential operators of this local medium designed, in the words of the FCC, "to empower community voices, promote media diversity, and enhance local programming"

How has the availability of online music sources and mobile technologies like tablets and smartphones changed radio audiences?

Young people don't support the unimaginative programming, hyper-commercialization, and the average of 12 and 16 minutes of commercials an hour. 68% of Americans now listen to audio on digital devices; and where 96% of U.S. adults owned a radio in 2008, today that number is 79%, 68% if we consider only 18- to 34-year-olds

Cultural homogenization

is the worrisome outcome of virtually all the world's influential recording being controlled by a few profit-oriented giants. If bands or artists cannot immediately deliver the goods, they aren't signed. So derivative artists and manufactured groups dominate—for example, Miley Cyrus and One Direction.

FM frequencies between 88.1 and 91.9 megahertz

noncommercial stations providing local service and national network quality programming through affiliation with (NPR) and (PRI) or through a number of smaller national networks, such as Pacifica Radio.

local public affairs

now make up less than one-half of 1% of all commercial broadcast time in the United States. "There is a crisis," said FCC Commissioner Michael Copps "when more than one-third of our commercial broadcasters offer little to no news whatsoever to their communities of license. America's news and information resources keep shrinking and hundreds of stories that could inform our citizens go untold and, indeed, undiscovered."

sound recording (1924)

people's relationship with music made songs shorter to fit onto records; on-demand listening, rather than attending scheduled performances, became the norm; listening alone rather than in groups became common; people began defining themselves by their favored genre of music; and despite the fears of the new technology's critics, rather than people giving up making their own music, there was a burst of interest in playing music as listeners were inspired by what they were hearing

playlist

predetermined sequence of selected records to be played by a DJ

deregulation

relaxation of ownership and other rules for radio and television

Communications Act of 1934

the far-reaching act that established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the federal regulatory structure for U.S. broadcasting

Radio Act of 1912

the first radio legislation passed by Congress, it addressed the problem of amateur radio operators cramming the airwaves, which not only strengthened rules regarding shipboard wireless, but also required that it must be licensed by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. Established spheres of authority provided for distributing and revoking licenses, fined violators, and assigned frequencies for station operation. The government was in the business of regulating what was to become broadcasting, a development that angered many operators.

Billings

total sale of broadcast airtime. Local time and national spots account for 97% of all billings; network time makes up the rest

audion tube

vacuum tube developed by American Lee DeForest that became the basic invention for all radio and television in late 1903. He saw this invention as an opportunity for broadcasting.

"Radio Music Box Memo." by Russian immigrant David Sarnoff

'a plan of development which would make radio a "household utility" in the same sense as the piano or phonograph. The idea is to bring music into the house by wireless. . . . The receiver can be designed in the form of a simple "Radio Music Box" and arranged for several different wavelengths, which should be changeable with the throwing of a single switch or pressing of a single button.'

The fundamental basis of broadcasting in the United States:

-Radio broadcasters were private, commercially owned enterprises rather than government operations. -Governmental regulation was based on the public interest. -Stations were licensed to serve specific localities, but national networks programmed the most lucrative hours with the largest audiences. -Entertainment and information (news, weather, and sports) were the basic broadcast content. -Advertising formed the basis of financial support for broadcasting.

Low Power FM (LPFM)

10- to 100-watt nonprofit community radio stations with a reach of only a few miles. The industry as a whole sells more than $17 billion a year of ad time, and radio remains people's primary means of consuming audio content.

Radio's Golden Age

1920-1940s, advertisers controlled programming. The number of homes with radios grew from 12 million in 1930 to 30 million in 1940, and half of them had not one but two receivers. Ad revenues rose from $40 million to $155 million over the same period. Between them, the four national networks broadcast 156 hours of network-originated programming a week. New genres became fixtures during this period: comedy, audience participation, children's shows, soap operas and dramas.

the AM (amplitude modulation)

A modulation technique in which the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified by the application of a data signal. For people favoring news, sports, and information and can travel farther than FM, perfect for rural parts of the country. However they are less populated which leads to less listeners.

Telecommunications Act of 1996

Allows one company to own as many as eight radio stations in large markets (five in smaller ones) and as many as it wishes nationally

national radio networks

Centralized production, distribution, decision making, organizations that links affiliates for the purpose of delivering their audiences to advertisers. All broadcasting was identical content from a single distributor, delivering to larger audiences and realizing greater advertising revenues, which would allow them to hire bigger stars and produce better programming, which would attract larger audiences, which could be sold for even greater fees to advertisers.

Wireless Ship Act of 1910

Congress ruled that all U.S. passenger ships carrying more than 50 passengers have a working wireless radio and operator

phonograph (gramophone)

Early device for playing recorded sounds etched on a disc created by German immigrant Emilie Berliner in 1887, and became a standard feature in American homes in the 1920s. More than 2 million machines and 107 million recordings were sold in 1919 alone.

Mutual, the Lone Ranger, 1934

Four midwestern and eastern stations came together to sell advertising on it and other shows; soon Mutual had 60 affiliates. Mutual differed from the other major national networks in that it did not own and operate its own flagship stations (called O&Os, for owned and operated). By 1938 the four national networks had affiliated virtually all the large U.S. stations and the majority of smaller operations as well.

How did World War II affect sound recording?

GIs brought a new technology back from occupied Germany, a tape recorder that used an easily handled paper tape on a reel. Then, in 1947, Columbia Records introduced a new 33⅓ rpm long-playing plastic record. A big advance over the previous standard of 78 rpm, it was more durable than the older shellac discs and played for 23 rather than 3⅓ minutes. Columbia offered the technology free to all other record companies. RCA refused the offer, introducing its own 45 rpm disc in 1948. It played for only 3⅓ minutes and had a huge center hole requiring a special adapter.

Who "invented" the radio? (late 1890's)

Guglielmo Marconi or Nikola Tesla

Promotion overshadows the music

If groups or artists don't come across well on television or are otherwise a challenge to promote (for example, they do not fit an easily recognizable niche), they aren't signed. Again, the solution is to create marketable Page 166artists from scratch. Promoting tours is also an issue. If bands or artists do not have corporate sponsorship for their tours, there is no tour. If musicians do not tour, they cannot create an enthusiastic fan base. But if they do not have an enthusiastic fan base, they cannot attract the corporate sponsorship necessary to mount a tour.

Who make up radio's audience?

In an average week, approximately 265 million people, 93% of all Americans 12 and over, will listen to the radio. Broadcast radio's audience growth, however, is stagnant. That 93% figure is in fact a decline from the 95.6% who listened in 2009. And while the audience's size has remained relatively constant for the last few years, time spent listening has fallen, dropping several minutes in that span. But most troubling to radio professionals is that time listening among young people is in decline

Guglielmo Marconi

Italian electrical engineer known as the "Father of Radio." He found support in his invention not in Italy, but in Great Britain. (1874-1937)

Flouting the 1912 act

Led it to the brink of disaster. Radio sales and profits dropped dramatically. Listeners were tired of the chaos. Stations arbitrarily changed frequencies, power, and hours of operation, and there was constant interference between stations, often intentional. Radio industry leaders petitioned Commerce Commissioner Herbert Hoover and "encouraged firmness" in government efforts to regulate and control the competitors. The government's response was the Radio Act of 1927.

Titanic 1912

Led to more regulation of radio

How did radio survive the age of television?

Nationally oriented, broadcasting an array of recognizable entertainment program formats, populated by well-known stars and personalities, and consumed primarily in the home, typically with people sitting around the set. Local, fragmented, specialized, personal, and mobile. Whereas pretelevision radio was characterized by the big national networks, today's radio is dominated by formats, a particular characteristic of a local stations and local audiences.

Radio Act of 1927

Order was restored, and the industry prospered. But the broadcasters had made an important concession to secure this saving intervention. The 1927 act authorized them to use the airwaves, which belonged to the public, but not to own them. Broadcasters were thus simply the caretakers of the airwaves, a national resource. The standard of evaluation would be the public interest, convenience, or necessity. The Federal Radio Commission (FRC) was established to administer the provisions of the act.

How did World War II affect radio's golden age?

Radio was used to sell war bonds, and much content was aimed at boosting the nation's morale. Increased desire for news, especially from abroad. This caused a paper shortage, reducing advertising space in newspapers. No new stations were licensed during the war years, and the 950 existing broadcasters reaped all the broadcast advertising revenues, as well as additional ad revenues that otherwise would have gone to newspapers.

Beatles (British Invasion)

Rock 'n' roll transformed popular music into a 33⅓ album-dominant cultural force, shaping today's popular music and helping reinvent radio

Broadcasters

Some were giant corporations, looking to dominate the medium for profit; some were hobbyists and hams, playing with the medium for sheer joy. There were so many "stations" that havoc reigned.

Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS)

Started in 1927 by William Paley. Originally from struggling network of 22 stations and was used to promote the sales of cigars. Grew to be a strong radio network by the 1930's.

How did World War I impact radio and broadcasting?

The U.S. government immediately after ordered "the immediate closing of all stations for radio communications, both transmitting and receiving." The introduction of broadcasting to a mass audience was delayed in the first two decades of the 20th century by patent fights and lawsuits. Radio was transformed from an exciting technological idea into an entertainment and commercial giant. To aid the war effort, the government took over the patents relating to radio and continued to improve radio for military use. Then, when the war ended in 1919, the patents were returned to their owners—and the bickering was renewed.

rating

The cost of time is based on the ratings, the percentage of the total available audience reached.

When the war ended, radio licenses were granted again, what happened?

The number of stations grew rapidly to 2,000. Annual ad revenues reached $454 million in 1950. Then came television. Network affiliation dropped from 97% in 1945 to 50% by the mid-1950s, as stations "went local" in the face of television's national dominance. National radio advertising income dipped to $35 million in 1960, the year that television found its way into 90% of U.S. homes. If radio were to survive, it would have to find new functions.

KDKA in Pittsburgh, 1920

The world's first commercial radio station. In November 1920, KDKA broadcast the returns of the U.S. presidential election, beginning a decade in which radio became pervasive in U.S. culture. By 1933, two-thirds of American homes had a radio, twice as many as those with telephones.

American Broadcasting Company (ABC).

These corporations (Mutual) grew so powerful that in 1943 the government forced NBC to divest itself of one of its networks. It sold NBC Blue to Life Saver candy maker Edward Noble, who renamed it the

Radio Corporation of America (RCA)

a company developed during WWI that was designed, with government approval, to pool radio patents; the formation of RCA gave the US almost total control over the emerging mass medium of broadcasting. RCA was a government-sanctioned monopoly, but its creation avoided direct government control of the new medium. Twenty-eight-year-old Sarnoff, was made RCA's commercial manager. The way for the medium's popular growth was paved; its success was guaranteed by a public that, because of the phonograph, was already attuned to music in the home and, thanks to the just-concluded war, was awakening to the need for instant, wide-ranging news and information.

conglomeration in the music business

a concern that centers on the traditional cultural value of music, especially for young people. Multibillion-dollar conglomerates typically are not rebellious in their cultural tastes, nor are they usually willing to take risks on new ideas. These duties have fallen primarily to the independent labels, companies such as Real World Records and Epitaph. Still, problems with the music industry-audience relationship remain.

Format radio, 1949

a radio station's particular sound or programming content for specific types of music. Format radio offers stations many advantages beyond low-cost operations and specialized audiences that appeal to advertisers. Faced with falling listenership or loss of advertising, a station can simply change DJs and music. Someone has to play the music and provide the talk.

secondary services

a radio station's second, or non-primary, format. For example, a country station may broadcast a religious format for 10 hours on Saturday and Sunday.

affiliate

an associate; partner. In this case, groups of stations

spectrum scarcity

broadcast spectrum space is limited, so not everyone who wants to broadcast can; those who are granted licenses must accept regulation

radio ads

repetition, can identify specific target audiences, comparatively inexpensive but people tend to pay less attention to it, generally 1-60 second time periods. specialized to different times of the day. For example, a hamburger restaurant may have one version of its commercial for the morning audience, in which its breakfast menu is touted, and a different version for the evening audience driving home, dreading the thought of cooking dinner.

cover (1950s)

rhythm 'n' blues in the music of African American artists such as Chuck Berry and Little Richard. recording of one artist's music by another. rerecorded by white artists such as Perry Como—before it was aired.

the FM (frequency moderation)

signal is wider, allowing the broadcast not only of stereo (sound perceived from multiple channels, for example bass and drums from the left speaker and guitars and vocals from the right) but also of better fidelity to the original sound. For people connected to music. Many are non-commercialized and accept no advertisements

duopoly

single ownership and management of multiple radio stations in one market

mathematical songwriting

songs written specifically to be commercial hits. "written to track, which means a producer makes a beat. Then a songwriter listens to it and attempts to generate words that fit that beat, sometimes singing nonsense until the language begins to take shape. It's more about how lyrics sound than what they mean. This has become a bedrock part of the industry"