Ch. 8: Raymond B. Cattell & Hans J. Eysenck, Ch. 7: Gordon Allport, Ch. 6: Erik Erikson, Ch. 5: Karen Horney, Big five personality Traits, Chapter 8: Raymond B. Cattell and Hans J. Eysenck., Psychology: Chapter 7: Gordon Allport, Chapter 6: Erik H. E...

How can the procedures of factor analysis be summarized?

1. Measure many ppl in variety of ways 2. Correlate performance on ea. measure w/ performance on every other measure- Creates correlation matrix 3. Determine how many factors (traits) need to be postulated in order to account for various intercorrelations (clusters) found in correlation matrix

What are the eight-stage developmental sequence of the proprium?

1. Sense of bodily "me" (first year( 2. Sense of self-identity (second year) 3. Sense of self-esteem (third year) 4. Sense of self-extension (fourth year) 5. Emergence of self-image (fourth - sixth year) 6. Emergence of self as a rational coper (sixth - twelfth year) 7. Emergence of propriate striving (twelfth - adolescence) 8. Emergence of self as knower (adulthood)

What assumptions are made in a factor analysis?

1. Two tests that measure the same variable must give similar results. Tests measuring same ability tend to be correlated. 2. The extent of agreement (correlation) b/w two tests will indicate extent that two tests measure same thing

What are the five characteristics/criteria that Allport believed a good theory of personality should have?

1. Views personality as contained w/in the person 2. Views person as filled w/ variables that contribute to his or her actions 3. Seeks motives for behavior in present instead of past 4. Employs units of measure capable of "living synthesis" 5. Adequately accounts for self-awareness

What are the criteria for assuming the existence of a trait?

Can't be observed directly *Frequency* person adopts certain type of adjustment *Range of situations* they adopt same mode of acting *Intensity* of reactions in keeping w/ "preferred pattern" of behavior

What is type?

Category a person can be placed by another person We use word "type" when we describe other ppl Ways of categorizing Ex: Aggressive type- continually acts aggressively (behavior fits into this category) Personality is something that is w/in person causing them to behave certain ways Personality generates behavior patterns that can be described as types

How did Allport influence Cattell?

Cattell's interest was primarily to discover basic traits that constitute personality then determine how persons differ in degree they possess those traits Approach to discovering traits was to measure many persons in many ways & factor-analyze results Allport didn't like: said Cattell's approach stressed group performance (nomothetic) and ignored unique individual (idiographic) Cattell began to investigate how trait strengths differ in same person from time to time

What was Cattell's contribution of beyondism?

Cattell's proposal that scientific facts be utilized to create moral systems rather than religious illusions of philosophical speculation Places great value of evolutionary principles- fitness & natural selection Relationship b/w bio & cultural evolution extremely imp for Cattell Products of bio evolution (ppl) create culture, and culture in turn influences bio evolution Traditional moral systems were based on "revealed" knowledge & were taken on faith Religion of beyondism based on scientific facts,

What is the Big Five?

Challenge Cattell's analyses and offer alternative theory w/ five superfactors Also uses factor analysis as primary analytical tool OCEAN: openness (to experience), conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, & neuroticism Lexical hypothesis- fold psychology

What is factor analysis?

Complex statistical technique based on concept of correlation Used by Cattell to discover & investigate personality traits Technique based on methods of correlation that attempts to account for interrelationships found among numerous measures

What was Cattell's analysis of traits?

Considered traits the building block of personality Concept of trait is most important concept in theory Factor-analytic research was search for personality traits- search uncovered several cat. of traits

What is an erg?

Constitutional dynamic source trait Provides energy for all behavior Innate Causes motivational predispositions toward certain environmental objects i.e., drives, needs, or instincts Innate psycho-physical disposition which permits possessor to acquire reactivity (attention, recognition) to certain classes of objects more readily than others, to experience specific emotion in regard to them, & to start on course of action which ceases more completely at certain specific goal activity than at any other Can vary in intensity

What are temperament traits?

Constitutional source trait that determines person's emotionality & style of behaving How person typically responds to situations Genetically determined characteristics Determine person's general "style & tempo" Det. speed, energy, & emotion that person responds to situation Det. how mild-mannered, irritable, or persistent a person is Of 16 PF, 15 are temperament traits; 1 is ability trait

What is a correlation matrix?

Display of many correlation coefficients that result when many sources of info are intercorrelated

What was Allport's definition of personality?

Dynamic organization w/in the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine characteristic behavior and thought Original: "... determine his unique adjustment to his environment." Summary of most major concepts Persona- mask

What was Cattell's view on the importance of early experience?

Early experiences exert strong influence on development of certain personality traits Ex: adults w/ high affectia or ego strength come from warm, loving home; Proneness to dominance and guilt from bad home Adlerian contention of birth order significantly impacts personality development Oldest- high in dominance, ego strength, & conservatism but low in self-sentiment Only- tend to be conservative but high in self-sentiment Not oldest- surgency Ergic tension trends to increase as family size increases

What is the seventh stage of the development of the proprium?

Emergence of propriate striving (12th-adolescence) Ppl become almost completely future-oriented Long-term goals created- gives organization & meaning to life Primary objective in life isn't *need reduction* but rather *need induction* Healthy adults create problems by formulating future goals that are unattainable Possession of long-range goals, central to one's personal existence, distinguishes human being from nonhuman animal, adult from child, & healthy from sick

What is the sixth stage of the development of the proprium?

Emergence of self as a rational coper (6th-12th year) Recognize "thinking" as means of solving life's problems Being to think abt thinking

Of the criteria for an adequate theory of personality, what did Allport mean by "employs units of measure capable of 'living synthesis'"?

Integrity of total personality must never be lost Ppl are more than collection of test scores or conditioned reflexes Whatever units of measure are used to describe person, must be capable of describing whole, dynamic personality Allport never lost sight of whole person Unit of measure he believed made this possible is "trait"

What are sentiments? What is the most important one?

Learned predisposition to respond to a class of objects/events in certain way derived from erg Type of metaerg "Major acquired dynamic trait structures which cause possessors to pay attention to certain objects/classes of objects, & to feel & react in certain way w/ regard to them" Usually centered on things like: career/profession, sports, religion, parents, spouse, oneself *Self-sentiment*: Concern for oneself that's prerequisite to the pursuit of any goal in life Most powerful sentiment of all Organizes entire personality

What is an attitude? What is its manifestation?

Learned tendency to respond in a particular way in particular situation to particular object/event Derives from sentiments, which derives from ergs Type of metaerg Manifestation: In these circumstances (stimulus situation) I (organism) want so much (interest-need of a certain intensity) to do this (specific goal, course of action) With that (object concerned in action)

What are attitudes?

Like habits, are more specific than traits One can have more favorable attitude toward boxing, but may be only a single manifestation of the more general trait of aggressiveness ex-Towards person, car, place, etc. Usually imply evaluations For or against something; positive or negative; acceptance or rejection of something Traits- responsible for all behavior & cognitions whether or not evaluation's involved

What is Cattell's multiple influence approach?

Like most personality theorists, believed that personality development is function of b/ motivation & learning Motivation is responsible for many changes in perceptual & behavioral capabilities

What is heritability? What did Cattell believe was the extent of this influence?

Proportion of variability in expression of a trait that's attributed to genetics, as opposed to environmental influences Proportion of total variance in phenotype which is due to genotype Those difference in expression or appearance of trait that are attributed to genetic influences rather than environmental Extent that genetic & biological factors are critical determinants of personality Cattell believed YES

What did Allport mean by psychophysical systems? Determine?

Psychophysical systems: Psychophysical- personality is neither exclusively mental nor exclusively biological Organization entails the operation of b/ body & mind, inextricably fused into personal unit Determine: Personality isn't abstraction or convenient fiction, actually exists "Personality is something & does something.. It's what lies behind specific acts & w/in the individual" Believed that person is by no means simply a passive reactor to environment Behavior is generated from w/in by personality structure

What is Cattell's personality research?

Research was mainly in personality, abilities, motivations, & innovative multivariate research methods & statistical analysis Factor-analytically derived 16 factor model of normal personality structure First to propose hierarchical, multi-level model of personality w/ many basic primary factors at first level & fewer, broader "second-order" factors at higher stratum of personality organization "Global trait" constructs are precursors to Big Five model of personality Further advances in distinguishing b/w state & trait measures, ranging on continuum from immediate transitory emotional states through longer-acting mood states

What is the second stage of the development of the proprium?

Sense of self-identity (2nd year) Realization that there's self-continuity over time Come to realize they're same ppl although there are changes in size & experiences Development of language directly related to development of *self-identity* Learn name, anchor for identity through variety of experiences Hears name, gradually sees self as distinct & recurring point of reference Name acquires significance for them Comes w/ awareness of independent status in social group

What is the fourth stage of the development of the proprium?

Sense of self-extension (4th year) Children learn meaning of word mind Realize not only do their bodies belong to them, but so do certain objects and things Sense of self extended to external objects

What are the four aspects that the erg has?

1. Causes selective perception; causes some things to be attended to more than others ex: hungry person, food-related events are attended more than unrelated to food 2. Stimulates emotional response to certain thoughts/objects Ex: though of eating is pleasant 3. Stimulates goal-directed behavior ex: hungry person will do whatever is necessary to come into contact w/ food 4. Result sin some sort of consummatory response ex: when comes into contact w/ food, will eat it

What is subsidiation?

Sentiments depend on ergs, & attitudes depend on sentiments Sentiments are subsidiary to ergs (dependent on them), & attitudes are subsidiary to sentiments Attitudes are studied (factor-analyzed) to discover more basic sentiments; Sentiments are studied (factor-analyzed) to discover more basic ergs

What are cardinal dispositions?

"Ruling passion" that influences almost everything person does Only a few individuals possess cardinal disposition Adj. used to describe: Christlike, Dionysian, Faustian, Quixotic, & sadistic Ex: Don Juan- man possessed by romance; Florence Nightingale- person driven by human compassion

What are attributes Allport believed characterized the normal, healthy adult?

*1. Capacity for self-extension*: participate in wide range of events; many friends & hobbies; active politically/religiously *2. Capacity for warm human interactions*: intimate relationships w/o possessiveness or jealousy; tolerate differences *3. Demonstration of emotional security & self-acceptance*: tolerance to accept conflicts & frustration; positive self-image *4. Demonstration of realistic perceptions*: see events as they are, not as they hope; good common sense *5. Demonstration of self-objectification*: accurate pic of own assets & liability; good sense of humor *6. Demonstration of unifying philosophy of life*: steered toward some goal; has something special to live for; major intention constant state of becoming

What are the four requirements Allport had for an adequate theory of motivation?

*1. It must recognize the contemporary nature of motives* Didn't believe child is father of man (psychoanalytic); Motive exists in present *2. It must allow for the existence of several types of motives* To reduce all human motivation to one factor (drive reduction, superiority) is foolhardy *3. It must recognize the importance of cognitive processes* Impossible to truly understand person's motive w/o knowing their plans, values, & intentions Best way to understand personality structure is to ask "What do you want to be doing 5 yrs from now? Emphasized imp. of conscious, cognitive processes as guides for behavior *4. It must recognize that each person's pattern of motivation is unique* Traits initiated behavior, can be equated w/ motives

What are the three principles that govern propriate functional autonomy?

*1. Principle of organizing energy level* When one no longer needs to be concerned w/ survival & early adjustments in life Considerable amt of energy available to person Diverted into propriate striving (future goals) *2. Principle of mastery & competence* Innate need for healthy adults to increase efficiency & effectiveness & aspire to greater mastery Need to become better & better at more & more tasks Drive induction instead of reduction *3. Principle of propriate patterning* Person's proprium is fame of reference that determines what's pursued in life & what isn't Although motives become functionally independent of past, don't become independent of proprium All motives must be compatible w/ total self (proprium) Ensures consistency & integration of personality

What is classical conditioning? Instrumental conditioning?

*Classical conditioning*: Type of learning where stimulus that didn't originally elicit response is made to do so New stimulus gets attached to old response by occurring moment before old stimulus Believed many emotional responses to persons, objects, or events are learned through this Explains development of phobias *Instrumental conditioning*: Learning to make a response that will either make a reward available or remove an aversive stimulus Reward learning or operant conditioning Explains how specific acts are learned that satisfy specific needs

What are constitutional source traits and environmental-mold traits?

*Constitutional source traits*: Genetically determined trait Patterns springing from internal conditions/influences *Environmental-mold traits*: Trait determined by experience rather than heredity Pattern imprinted by something external; Spring from molding effect of social institutions & physical realities which constitute cultural pattern

What are the two types of intelligence?

*Fluid intelligence*: General problem-solving ability that's largely innate "Form of general intelligence which is largely innate & adapts itself to all kinds of material regardless of previous experience w/ it" Culture Free Intelligence Test *Crystallized intelligence*: Comes from formal education or general experience Type that most intelligence tests attempt to measure "General factor, largely in a type of ability learned at school, representing effect of past application or fluid intelligence, & amt & intensity of schooling; appears in vocab & number ability measures"

What is the idiographic and nomothetic method? Which did Allport prefer?

*Idiographic method*: studies single case in great detail & depth *Nomothetic method*: studies groups of individuals; concentrates on average performances, rather than on performance of single individual Believed ave. were abstractions & described no single individual accurately Only way to learn abt particular person is to study that person No two ppl have exactly same levels or configuration of traits

What is the difference between individual traits and common traits?

*Individual traits*: Either unique paterns of traits possessed by an individual or unique way a particular trait manifests itself in the personality of particular person Ex: particular person's way of displaying aggressiveness Later changed term to 'personal disposition' Should be focus of personality theorists *Common traits*: Traits used to describe group of individuals

What is the L-data? Q-data? T-data?

*L-data*: "life record"; info abt person's everyday life Recorded everyday behavior- accidents, number of orgs in, etc. *Q-data*: "questionnaire"; info provided when ppl fill out questionnaire where they rate themselves on various characteristics Standard self-report inventories & various scales to measure attitudes, opinions, & interests Limitations: some may not know much about self so responses may not reflect true personalities; some falsify/distort responses to create desirable image of self *T-data*: "test"; info obtained abt person from performance on objective test Gathered when Ss can't know what aspect of behavior being evaluated Word-association test, inkblot, TAT

What are the two stages that conscience evolve in?

*Must conscience*: Moral guide used by children where moral judgments are determined by internalized values of authority figures (parents); sim. to superego of Freud Violation causes anxiety & guilt *Ought conscience*: Moral guide used by normal, healthy adults where moral judgments governed by own personal values & propriate strivings Ex: Young adult realizes that if certain long-term goals are to be attained, certain experiences out to be sought out & others avoided Must over traffic rules, repair house... vs. Ought to study harder, pursue the good I see Mature conscience is sense of duty to keep one's self-image in acceptable shape, to continue chosen lines of propriate striving Emphasis shifts from tribal/parental control to individual

What are the two types of functional autonomy?

*Preservative functional autonomy*: Low-level habits retained even though no longer functional Repetitious activities one blindly engages, once served purpose but no longer Occur independently of reward & of past Ex: still wakes up at 7:30 although retired *Propriate functional autonomy*: Imp. motives around which one organizes one's life Independent of conditions that originally produced them Refers to individual's interests, values, goals, attitudes, & sentiments

What is the R-technique? P-technique?

*R-technique*: Type of factor analysis that studies many things about many people Many Ss measured on many variables & scores intercorrelated *P-technique*: studies how single individual's traits change over time Traces strength of several traits over period of time for same person Ex: measured same individual 80 times on 8 traits over 44 day period Kept diary during experiment

What are the raw materials of personality? What is temperament?

*Raw materials of personality*: temperament, intelligence, & physique Genetically determined Temperament: emotional component of personality

How many source traits did Cattell discover?

16 source traits that characterize normal personality First 12 factors listed were discovered by factor-analyzing L-data or L & Q data Last four emerged only from factor analysis of Q-data Constructed Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire Assesses individual personalities Compare wide variety of groups Age groups Tests indicated that major source traits characterizing adult personality appear at about age 4

What was Allport's view of the interaction of traits and situations?

A person's trait create a possible range of responses to given situation but it's the nature of the situation itself that determines which of the potential behaviors actually occur Traits are ranges of possible behavior, activated at varying points w/in range according to demands of situation We have upper & lower limits of traits, exact location depends on situational cues Perfect consistency never found & not expected Diff. situations can arouse trait-related behavior to varying degrees Allport- early interactionist

What are factors?

Ability or characteristic that's thought to be responsible for consistent behavior In Cattell's system, factor also called trait

What is the proprium?

All the facts about a person that make them unique Organizer of personality Personality = "dynamic organization" & consistent of biological & psychological structures (e.g., personal dispositions)-- Implies existence of organizing agent Soul, self, mind, ego all to nebulous Inward organization & self-awareness not present at brith Evolve slowly over time Full propriate functioning characterizes only final stage of 8-stage developmental sequence

What does learning allow? What are the three types?

Allows changes in the way ergs are satisfied Is responsible for development of sentiments & attitudes Classical conditioning Instrumental conditioning Structured learning

What was Allport's view on psychology?

An eclectic theorist Not a clinician Did more research than any other theorist Major issues w/ psychoanalysis & behaviorism Took best from variety of other theories of personality First to criticize what he considered worst about theories Believed that principles governing behavior of nonhuman animals or neurotic humans are diff. from those governing behavior of healthy adult humans Little can be learned abt one by studying other First to use term humanistic psychology Dominant theme: Importance of individual Interested in what is specifically true

What is self-identity?

Attribute that emerges during second stage in development of proprium Ex: realizing that they are same person although conditions change

What did Cattell think that fluid & crystallized intelligence were influenced by?

B/ strongly influenced by heredity Fluid = 65% inherited Crystallized = 60% inherited Not only is one's general intelligence (fluid) strongly influenced but so is one's ability to benefit from experience to use what one has learned (crystallized)

What is the general method of factor analysis?

Begins w/ large number of measurements taken from large sample Data can include many diff. types of dependent variables ex: biographical info, results of tests & questionnaires, etc. Intercorrelated all data, creating *correlation matrix* With W/ assumptions in mind, correlation matrix examined to find which tests are highly correlated w/ ea. other Clusters of correlations sought (*cluster analysis*) When cluster of test show high correlation w/ one another, tests are considered to measure same ability/characteristic (*Factor*)

What is a biographical sketch of Cattell?

Borin in England in 1905 College education at Uni of London in physics & chemistry; PhD in psychology Worked w/ Charles Spearman, developer of factor analysis (applied to intelligence while Cattell applied to personality) Came to US in '37 through invitation by E.L. Thorndike (Columbia Uni) Worked w/ Allport at Harvard Uni of Illinoi in '45 until '77 Prolific research: +450 articles & >40 books Went to Honolulu; Died '98 at age 92 Never worked as therapist but had interest in assessing & caring for psychological disturbed ppl

What is a biographical sketch of Allport?

Bron Nov. 11, 1897; First American-born personality theorist Grew up in Cleveland, Ohio Attended Harvard in 1919, Major in eco & philosophy Spent year in Turkey teaching Graduate work in Psych Visit w/ Freud was negative: "depth" psych could dig so deeply that more imp. truths may be overlooked; best way to discover person's true motives is to ask them Interest in personality traits was foreign to psych of the time Dominant school of psych was structuralism- study scientifically elements of conscious thought & principles associated; Edward Titchener was founder- didn't like Allport & Allport didn't care Taught first course on personality ever offered in US At Harvard entire pro career Married had one son

What is correlation? Correlation coefficient? Positive correlation? Negative correlation?

Correlation: when values on two variables vary together in some systematic way Correlation coefficient: mathematical expression indicating extent to which two variables are correlated Positive correlation: values on two variables tend to increase or decrease together Perfect: +1.00 Negative correlation: values on one variable tend to increase, values on second variable tend to decrease (vv) Perfect: -1.00

How did Cattell examine the contributions of heredity and environment?

Created complicated statistical procedure: Multiple abstract variance analysis (MAVA) Compares members of same family raised together or apart, & unrelated persons raised together/apart Ea. person given test or series of test to assess particular trait Measurements of Ss raised together & apart Ss: identical twins, fraternal twins siblings, unrelated persons Number of genes in common highest for identical twins, then fraternal, siblings, and lowest for unrelated If trait is genetically determined, degree it's possessed by two persons should correlate w/ degree they share same genes

What is character?

Description of a person that includes a value judgment Person's character can be "good" or "bad" whereas a personality can't be "To define character as personality evaluated, and personality... as character devaluated."

What is syntality?

Description of traits that characterize a group/nation Families, religions, schools, nations Groups that influence ppl have traits, too Traits can be uncovered by factor analysis

What is the dynamic lattice?

Diagram showing relationships among ergs, sentiments, & attitudes Demonstrates the complexity of human motivation Attitudes, sentiments, & ergs are constantly interacting & constantly reflecting not only current circumstances but also individual's future goals

What is the eighth stage of the development of the proprium?

Emergence of self as knower (adulthood) Final stage Self is aware of, unifies, & transcenceds preceding seven aspects of self *Self as knower* synthesizes all of propriate functions In daily experiences, most often aspects of proprium function simultaneously Ex: Exam coming up.. bodily self- high pulse rate & butterflies; self-identity- significant of exam in terms of past & future; self-esteem- prideful involvements; self-extension- what success/failure means to family; self-image- hopes & aspirations; rational agent- role as solver of problems on exam; propriate striving- relevance of whole situation to long-range goals

What is the fifth stage of the development of the proprium?

Emergence of self-image (4th-6th year) Children develop conscience that acts as frame of reference for "good me" and "bad me" Can compare what they do w/ expectations others have of them Being to formulate future goals for themselves

Where does conscience emerge from?

Emerges along several aspects of proprium Self-esteem, self-image, & propriate striving

What is a metaerg? What is it divided into?

Environmental-mold, dynamic source trait i.e., secondary or learned drives Causes motivational predispositions toward certain environmental objects Learned Same as erg except in origin Divided into sentiments & attitudes

Of the criteria for an adequate theory of personality, what did Allport mean by "seeks motives for behavior in present instead of past"?

Expressed dissatisfaction w/ psychoanalytic theory that traces adult motives to childhood experiences Neurotics may be prisoners of their past; psychoanalytic methods may be useful in dealing w/ them Motives for healthy, mature adults are found in present Healthy, normal adults are aware of their motives & can describe them accurately if asked to do so Allport viewed healthy adult motivation as independent of earlier experiences

What did Cattell conclude about heredity and traits?

Heredity plays significant role in development of at least some traits *Personality = 2/3 environmental & 1/3 heredity* Intelligence (fluid) is ~65% genetically determined Tendency to have zestful, active disposition vs. reflective, circumspective = 70% genetically determined Three source traits: ego strength, superego strength, & self-sentiment Superego largely environmental Ego strength & self-sentiment strongly influenced by heredity

Of the criteria for an adequate theory of personality, what did Allport mean by "adequately accounts for self-awareness"?

Humans are only animals possessing self-awareness Must be considered in any adequate account of personality "Proprium"

What is personal disposition?

Identical to individual trait Term individual trait was changed to avoid confusion w/ common trait "Generalized neuropsychic structure (peculiar to the individual), w/ the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, & to initiate & guide consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive & stylistic behavior" Essentially same as earlier definition of trait

What is the incorrect assumption that is made between individual & common traits?

Incorrect: individual trait is one that only single individual possess Impossible to image person w/o some degree of friendliness, honesty, neatness, aggression, etc. Individual uniqueness- pattern of traits that individual possesses Trait specifics possible range of behaviors Ex: many ppl are aggressive, but no two ppl are aggressive in exact same way Individuals differ not only in pattern of traits they possess but also in how particular trait manifests itself in personalities

What is long-circuiting?

Indirect satisfaction of an erg ex: Man developing athletic ability in order to be desirable to a woman who will satisfy his sexual desires Ergic desires are seldom satisfied directly One usually goes about satisfying basic needs indirectly Each sentiments is function of, subsidiary of, number of ergs Ex: one may develop skill to get job, get married, or satisfy sex drive ex: Sentiment toward one's wife reflects ergs of sex, gregariousness, protection, & self-assertion

What was Cattell's approach to research?

Inductive reasoning/research: begins w/ collection of data, leads to hypothesis Began w/o specific guiding hypothesis, collected large data sett, & generated future hypothesis from patterns that emerged from data

What are secondary dispositions?

More specific than cardinal or central dispositions but still more general than habits & attitudes Ex: preference for flamboyant clothing or sweet food Person's idiosyncrasies

What are dynamic traits? What are the two types Cattell elaborated?

Motivational trait that sets person in motion toward goal Determine why person responds to situations Motivational elements of personality Two types: ergs & metaergs

What is functional autonomy?

Motive that existed once for some practical reason later exists for its own sake Motive that was once a means to an end becomes an end in itself Most famous & controversial concept "Any acquired system of motivation in which the tensions involved aren't of the same kind as the antecedent tensions from which the acquired system developed" Reasons why adult now engages in some form of behavior aren't same reasons that originally caused them to engage in that behavior Past motives aren't functionally related to present motives Ex: sailor fishes for money, now rich still sails b/c enjoys

What are the three types of dispositions Allport distinguished between?

Not all dispositions a person possesses have same impact on personality Cardinal dispositions Central dispositions Secondary dispositions

What is an unhealthy person? How can they become healthy?

One whose growth has been stifled Motives found in past rather than present/future Accepted Horney's position: generous min. of security required in early years to start productive life-style Succeeding in one stage of development he's free to abandon habits appropriate for this stage & enter mature stages of becoming To overcome difficulties, must experience love missed early in life Becomes healthy when living in accordance w/ proprium- own personal goals, values, aspirations

What was Allport's perspective on the study of personality?

Opposed to est. viewpoints of psychoanalysis & behaviorism Early theorizing was influenced mainly by Gestalt psych: wholeness & interrelatedness of conscious experience; ignored unconscious mind almost completely Distrusted science as source of info abt personality Didn't want to be restricted to any particular approach/viewpoint in attempt to understand personality

What are surface traits?

Outward manifestations of source traits; Characteristics of person that can be directly observed & measured Groups of observations that are correlation; Superficial & explain nothing- Statements of what type of observed characteristics tend to be grouped together (correlated) Have many causes Manifestations of source traits Ex: ppl w/ more formal education may go to movies less than ppl w/ less formal education

What did Allport mean by dynamic organization?

Personality is constantly changing- dynamic Is never something that is; rather it is something that's *becoming* Never quite the same ppl they were before a particular experience "Nothing is, everything is becoming" Personality has organization & continuity w/in the person, but it's constantly changing or becoming something diff. Never static, always becoming something else

What did Allport mean by the characteristic behavior & thought?

Revised def. of personality "unique adjustment to the environment" -> "characteristic behavior & thought" Earlier statement too much emphasis on survival & satisfaction of bio needs Revision covered all behavior & thought Ex: one's dream for future are just as imp. as satisfying hunger drive, but have little or nothing to do w/ biological survival Stressed imp. of individuality Unique & characteristics used Running theme: Emphasis on studying individual human beings rather than laws governing all human beings No two humans are same Only way to learn abt particular person is to study that person

What did Cattell use factor analysis for?

Search for clusters of measurements/factors which occur in stable patterns across number of situations or over long periods of time Attempted to determine extent these factors or fundamental personality traits Claimed to have identified 16 fundamental traits found in normal personality

What is the first stage of the development of the proprium?

Sense of bodily "me" (1st year) Infants learn their bodies exist using sensations "Me" is first aspect of proprium to evolve Remains lifelong ancho of our self-awareness Used to distinguish what's part of oneself & is warm & intimate & what's foreign

What is the third stage of the development of the proprium?

Sense of self-esteem (3rd year) Feeling of pride emerges when children learn they can do things on their own Often seek complete independence from adult supervision

What was Cattell's view on psychotherapy?

Should be preceded by precise personality-factor assessment Profile not only defines exactly what problem is but also aids clinician in determining most effective treatment procedure P-technique used during treatment so changes can be assessed Cattell was eclectic Thought that type of treatment should be dictated by type of disorder that' revealed by precise personality assessment Severe psychoses- drugs or electric shock Certain neuroses- dream analysis & reliving traumatic experiences Minor problems- behavior therapy

Of the criteria for an adequate theory of personality, what did Allport mean by "views person as filled w/ variables that contribute to his or her actions"?

Shows disdain of behaviorists who assumed that human organism was empty Their proper way to study was to make "functional analysis" or stimulating condition (S) and responses to conditions (R) Prided themselves on studying empty organisms Allport believed this position was esp. distasteful & dehumanizing Any theory of personality pretending adequacy must be dynamic & to be dynamic, must assume a well-stocked organism

What are habits?

Specific mode of responding that develops b/c a more general trait exists Trait synthesizes a number of specific habits Ex: Trait of cleanliness = habits of brushing teeth, putting on clean clothes, brushing hair, etc.

What is a cluster analysis?

Systematic search of correlation matrix in order to discover factors

What is prejudice?

Tendency to prejudge persons/objects in terms of how they're categorized as members of groups, rather than in terms of actual experience w/ them Positive: projecting positive attributes onto members of group Negative: negative attributes

What is ergic tension?

Tension that varies as intensity of an erg varies Can vary in intensity One can be hungry, sexually aroused, curious, or angry in varying degreeds

What are Cattell & Eysenck's view on personality?

Theories based on sophisticated statistical techniques Place great imp. on role of genetic factors in personality Distinct departures from theories of preceding chapters Emphasize scientific discovery & measurement of basic psychological traits possessed by all ppl Used scientific rather than clinical methodology B/ devote considerable time attempting to understand psychopathology Primarily concerned w/ explaining personality of normal adults More interested in contributions of bio & genetic factors than developmental

Of the criteria for an adequate theory of personality, what did Allport mean by "views personality as contained w/in the person"?

Theories that explain personality in terms of various roles ppl play or behavior patterns elicited by environmental circumstances are inadequate Personality must be explained in terms of internal mechanisms rather than external mechanisms

What are central dispositions?

Those qualities abt person that you'd mention in a letter of recommendation 5-10 characteristics that summarizes a particular person's personality Summarize consistencies in person's behavior Ex: punctuality, neatness, creativity, & persistence

What are some criticisms?

Too subjective Determining what to study Behavior not as consistent as factor theories suggest Assumed cross-situational consistency- doesn't exist Excessive emphasis on groups & averages Reification Occurs when it's assumed that verbal label refers to something that exists physically Imply that source traits exists, but little evidence of material existence

What are ability traits? What is one of the most important type?

Trait that determines how effectively a person works toward a desired goal Source trait person possesses that determines how effectively they work towards desired goal Effectiveness in solving problems How well person typically respond to situations Intelligence

What are source traits?

Traits that constitute a person's personality structure & are thus ultimate causes of behavior; causally related to surface traits Causes of behavior Constitute most imp. part of personality structure & ultimately responsible for all of person's consistent behavior Every surface trait is caused by one or more source traits; source trait can influence several surface traits Basic elements of personality Influences everything we do All individuals possess same source traits in varying degrees Ex: intelligence (source trait), ea. person possesses diff. amt Strength of source trait in given individual will influence many things abt person What they red, friends, does for living, etc.

What was Cattell's view of psychopathology?

Two reasons for psychopathology: 1. Abnormal imbalance of normal personality traits 2. Possession of abnormal traits that aren't found among normal individuals Concluded that abnormal persons are like normal ones b/c possess all normal source traits, but may also possess pathological traits Saw some individuals w/ serious psychopathology as quantitatively diff. from normal individuals while others were seen as qualitatively diff. Possess qualities, abnormal traits, not found in ppl who aren't suffering from psych. disorders

What is structured learning?

Type of learning that results in rearranging one's personality traits Most imp. type of learning When an element of personality changes, it changes entire configuration of traits Although ergs are innate, how ergic tensions are reduced is learned Ex: Ergs manifest themselves in sentiments & attitudes; as metaergs learned, entire structure of personality changes Acquisition of new trait or mod of old one is like throwing pebble into pond Entire pond is influenced One configuration of trait exists before learning; another exists after learning

What is Allport's concept of trait?

Unit of measure capable of "Living synthesis"- trait Actual biophysical structures "A neuropsychic structure having the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, & to initiate & guide equivalent (meaningfully consistent) forms of adaptive & expressive behavior" Causes person to respond to similar environmental situations in similar way Develops through combo of innate needs & learning Account for consistency in human behavior No two ppl possess exactly same pattern of trains, ea. confronts environmental experiences differently Same stimulus, diff. reactions b/c diff. traits Organizes experiences b/c ppl confront world in terms of traits ex: basically aggressive- will be aggressive in wide range of situations Will guide behavior b/c ppl can respond to world only in terms of trait

What is the personality sphere?

Universe of source traits in terms of which all humans can be compared Number of source traits is yet undetermined Same function as periodic table Describe basic elements of personality How many source traits still exist is unanswered Search is complex and frustrating If source trait exists, would expect to manifest in L, Q, & T data, but not always case Although some do appear, others only emerge one or two sources As Cattell's measures became more diverse, more source traits discovered

What is some of Cattell's empirical research?

Used 16 PF to determine personality profiles Stable marriages: characterized by similarities in traits Men & women who attempted suicide: similar in that more introverted, anxious, & displayed lower superego strength Predictive science & determinism Believed theory of personality has little value unless can predict behavior Determinist: believed behavior had finite number of variables & if completely known human behavior can be predicted