Ch.16/Ch.17

Boyle's law

States that the pressure of gas varies w/ volume

Western Europe

remained politically fragmented into smaller competitive nations

Espouse monism

the mind and body were united in one substance and that God and nature were two names for the same thing

Hallmark of Scientific Revolution

the union of math w/ natural philosphy

Gabrielle-Emilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, marquise du Chatelet (1706-1749)

A noblewoman who invited Voltaire to live w/ her Studied physics and math Was excluded from the Royal Academy of Sciences bc she was a woman Believed that women's limited role in science was due to their unequal education

Cartesian dualism

Descartes's view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter.

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

Dissected human bodies to study anatomy Published On the Structure of the Human Body Disproved Galen

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

a German philosopher from East Prussia Published What is the Enlightenment? Argued that if intellectuals were granted the freedom to exercise their freedom publicly in print, then the Enlightenment would follow Said that individuals must obey all laws, even if they are unreasonable Tried to reconcile absolute monarchy authority and religious faith w/ a critical public sphere Wrote On the Different Races of Man--> claimed that there are four human races, each of which derived from an original race Believed that white inhabitants of northern Germany were the closet descendants of the original race

Beccaria (1738-1794)

a nobleman from Northern Italy Wrote On Crimes and Punishments--> passionate plea for reform of the penal system Spoke against arbitrary imprisonment, capital punishment Advocated the prevention of crime ver the reliance of punishment

Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)

created the formal system of naming and classifying living organisms

Querelle des dames

debate over women's proper role in society and the nature of gender differences that started in the Renaissance and carried over into the Enlightenment

Scottish Enlightenment

emphasis on common sense and scientific reasoning Advances were partly stimulated by the creation of the first public educational system of Europe

Humanists in Italy

emphasized the value of acquiring knowledge for practical purposes of life

Triangular Trade

european commodities like guns and textiles to Africa--> enslaved Africans to the colonies--> cotton, tobacco, and sugar from the colonies to Europe

Galilei (1564-1642)

focused on deficiencies in Aristotle's theory of motion Gravity produced a uniform acceleration Law of Inertia--> an object contains in motion unless stopped by an external force Discovered first four moons of Jupiter Wrote The Sidereal Messenger

Didn't account for the motion of the stars and apparent backward motion of planets

holes in Aristole's philopshy

Coffeehouses

meccas of philosophical discussion

Aristotlelian philosophy

motionless earth stood at the center of the universe and was encompassed by ten separate concentric crystal spheres that embedded the sun, planets, and stars Heaven was beyond the spheres and angles kept the spheres moving Belived that an object moved at a constant speed and would stop as soon as a force was removed

What mideval scholors thought was the path to true knowledge

philiosphy

Rococo

popular in Europe between 1720 and 1780 Known for soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by cupids Associated w/ the mistress of Louis XV, Madame de Pompadour bc she used her position to commission paintings, furniture, and other objects in the rococo style

Mary Astell

published A Serious Proposal to the Ladies Proposed the creation of a women's college Argued that husbands should not exercise absolute control over their wives in marriage Encouraged women to aspire to the life of the mind

How reading and books changed

reading became more private People read less religious and devotional books History and law were held constant Arts and sciences surged

Salons

regular social gatherings held by talented and rich Parisians in their homes, where philiosophes and their followers met to discuss literature, science, and philosophy

Math, astronomy, and natural philosophy

western university ciruculum

Sublunar world

world of the earth Consisted of a perfect quintessence--> fifth essence Made up of four elements: water, earth, air, and fire

Reasons for France becoming a hub of Enlightenment thought

1. French was the intellectual language of educated classes and France was the most populous and wealthiest country 2. Rising unpopularity of King Lous XV and his misteress--> generated discontent and reform among the educated elite 3. Philosophes made it their goal to reach a larger audience of elites

European Enlightenment

A broad intellectual and cultural movement Started bc of: 1. Opposition to absolutist rule 2. Religious conflicts between Protestants and Catholics and within Protestantism 3. European contacts with other cultures 4. The attempt to apply principles and practices from the Scientific revolution to human society

David Hume (1711-1776)

A central figure from Edinburgh Emphasis on civic morality and religious skepticism Applied Newton's experimental methods to the "science of man" Believed that the human mind is really nothing but a bundle of impressions Said that reason alone can't supply moral principles and that they derive from emotions and desires Emphasized human experience, rather than abstract principle

Philosophes

A group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow humans in the Age of the Enlightenment

Natural philosophy

A minor branch of philosophy that was the study of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned

Empiricism

Acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation, rather than speculation and deductive reasoning

Maria Thersea

After Fredrick the Great invaded Silesia after she inherited it when her father Charles VI died, she formed an alliance w/ the leaders of France and Russia--> Seven Years War Initiated church reform w/ measures aimed at limiting the papacy's influence, eliminating may religious holidays, and reducing the number of monasteries Administrative renovations that strengthened the central bureaucracy, smoothed out provincial differences and revamped the tax system--> taxing the lands of nobles The government sought to improve the lot of the agricultural population --> reduced the power of lords over their hereditary serfs

Public sphere

An idealized intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics, and politics Includes coffehouses, book clubs, Masonic lodges, salons, debating societies, and newspapers

Europe took the lead in scientific thought

Bc of multiple world sites of learning and scholorship

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Beliefs: 1. orbits of planets are elliptical, not circular 2. planets do not move in uniform speed 3. time of orbit depends on the distance from the sun Proved a sun-center (solar) system through math

Persian Letters

By Montesquieu Used the Persian harem as a symbol of a despotic rule that he feared his own country was adopting Also used the oppression of women in a harem

Francois-Maire Arouet/ Voltaire (1694-1778)

Concluded that the best one could hope for in the way of government was a good monarch bc human beings are incapable of governing themselves Did not believe in social or economic equality Rejected Catholicism for deism Like most philosophes, he believed in religious toleration bc intolerance led to fanaticism and cruelty

Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)

Dutch Jewish philosopher Applied natural philosophy to thinking abt human society Borrowed Descartes's emphasis on rationalism and his method of deductive reasoning, but rejected mind-body dualism Practiced espouse monism Believed that good and evil were relative values and that human actions were shaped by outside circumstance

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Early propagandist for scientific method Believed that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical research Formalized empirical method Created Royal Society

Denis Dierot (1713-1784) and d'Alember (1717-1783)

Editors of the Encylopedia Wanted to change the general way of thinking--> think critically and objectively abt all matters Acknowledged Muslim scholars' contributions to the development of Western Science

The philsophes greatest achivement

Encylopedia

William Harvey (1578-1657)

English physician that discovered circulation of blood through veins and arteries First to say that heart works like a pump

Olaudah Equiano and Ottobah Cugoana

Former slaves who published memoirs testifying to the horrors of slavery and the innate equality of all humans

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

French philosopher that discovered analytic geometry Believed that matter is made up of tiny particles Said that every action had an equal reaction, continuing in an eternal chain reaction--> false Used deductive reasoning Decided that it was necessary to doubt anything that could be reasonably be doubted Reduced all substances to matter and mind

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)

German philosopher and mathematician who developed calculus independently of Issac Newton Refuted Cartesian dualism and Spinoza's monism An infinite number of substances that all matter is composed of Wrote Theodicy--> declared that our world is the best of all possible worlds bc it was created by an omnipotent God Ridiculed by Voltaire in Candide or Optimism

Galen

Greek physician that believed that the body has four humors and that illness is the result of an imbalance of humors--> doctors prescribed bloodletting

Robert Boyle (1627-1691)

Help create Royal Society Scientific work led to the development of modern chemistry First to create a vacum, disproved descartes's belief

Denounced relgious toleration; suggested that only a despot monarch, not a legitamate ruler, would deny religious leader

Huguenots in the Dutch Republic

Reason, scientific method could discover the laws of human society and nature, and that of they were armed w/the proper methods, they could create better societies and better people

Important Enlightenment concepts

Leopold II

Joseph's brother who canceled his radical edicts in order to re-establish order

Dutch Republic

Key crucible for Enlightenment thought Huguenots fled hereafter Louis XIV tried to convert protestants to Catholics

Ptomley

Made Geography Planets move in small circles--> epicycles Map only had Asia, Africa, Europe

Telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, and air pump

New inventions that came from navigational problems during long voyages

Catherine the Great of Russia

Only married Peter III for the crown and her lover and his three brothers murder Peter Worked w/ Peter the Great's effort to bring the culture of western Europe to Russia Published the Encyclopedia in St.Petersburg and gave Diderot money Appointed a legislative commission to create a new law code--> restricted the practice of torture and allowed limited religious toleration After Pugachev started an uprising of Serfs, she gave nobles absolute control over the serfs and extended serfdom to new areas Her greatest coup was the partition of Poland--> acquired most of Poland's large Jew population Established the Pale of Settlement--> a territory including modern-day Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Belarus and required most Jews to live there

Rousseau (1712-1778)

Part of Parisian Enlightenment Rejected rationalism and civilized society Committed to individual freedom Said that the goodness of the indivual had to be protected from the cruel refinements of civilization Created The Social Contract--> general will and popular sovereignty Believed that men and women are radically different by nature Said that men were suited for politics and public life Said that a women's role was to attract a male sexual desire to get married and created families and then care for their home and kids in private Believed that a wealthy Persian women's love for attending social gatherings and pulling strings of power was unnatural and that is corrupted politics and society

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

Part of the Scottish Enlightenment Argued that social interaction produced feelings of mutual sympathy that led people to behave in ethical ways despite inherent tendencies toward self-interest Said that by observing others and witnessing their feelings, individuals imaginatively experienced such feelings and learned to act in ways that would elicit positive sentiments and avoid negative ones Wrote An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations--> attacked laws and regulations created by mercantilists governments bc they prevented commence from reaching its full capacity

How did race change?

People began to use it to designate biologically distinct groups of humans, akin to distinct animal species was new

Leibniz (1646-1716)

Philosopher and mathematician who corresponded w/ the Jesuit missionaries in China Believed that Chinese ethics and political philosophy was superior, but Europeans equaled China in science and tech

James Beattie (1735-1803)

Pointed out that Europeans started out as savage as non whites supposedly were

1. Put the stars to rest 2. Suggested a universe of staggering size 3. Used math instead of philosophy --> challenged traditional heiachry 4. Destroyed the basic ideas of Aristotelian physics

Religious implications of Copernican hypothesis

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

Rudolphine Tables Agreed w/ Copernicus, but the mix between Ptomley and Copernicus Believed all the planets except the earth revolved around the sun and that the entire group of sun and planets revolved in turn around the earth-moon system Holy emperor Rudolph II was his patron

General will

Sacred and absolute Reflecting the common interests of all of the people, who have displaced the monarch as the holder of sovereign power At times it can go against the will of the majority of people when the long-term needs of people are correctly interpreted

Francisco Hernandez

Sent to New Spain by King Phillip II

Joseph II

Son of Maria Theresa and earned the title of "revolutionary emperor" Abolished serfdom Declared that peasants could pay landlords in cash rather tan labor on their land--> was violently rejected bc peasants lacked the necessary cash Among his edicts, there were measures that were intended to integrate Jews more fully into society--> eligible for military service, admission to higher education and artesian trade

Qing Dynasty

Stricter adherence to traditional ways to legitimize the authority

Copernicus (1473-1543)

Sun center universe Stars and planets, including earth, revolve around the fixed sun Made On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

Heliocentrism

Sun is the center of the universe, not earth

Paracelus (1493-1541)

Swiss physician and alchemist Pioneered the use of chemicals and drugs to address what he saw as chemical imbalances, not humoral

Sensationalism

The idea that all human ideas and thoughts are produced as a result of sensory impressions Wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Ottomans, Safavid Persians, and Mugallals

The three large empires of the Muslim world Imposed Islamic orthodoxy to restore order and assert the legitimacy

Why Enlightenment philosophes didn't direct their messages to peasants or urban laborers

Thought it would be dangerous and that they have no talent for philsiosphichal speculation

The marquis de Condorcet

Urged that women should share equal rights w/ men A rare position bc most philosophes accepted that women were inferior to men intellectually as well as physically

China

Vital center for scientific activity Achievements include papermaking, gunpowder, and compass

John Locke (1632-1704)

Wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding Physician and member of the Royal Society Insisted that all ideas are derived from experience Said that the human mind at birth is like a blank tablet or tabula rasa Human development is determined by external forces, not innate characteristics Contributed to the theory of sensationalism

Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)

Wrote Historical and Critical Dictionary Huguenot who took Refuge in the Dutch Republic Skeptic--> Nothing ca ever be known beyond all doubt Made Dictionary

Abbe Raynal

Wrote History of the Two Indies--> attacked slavery and the abuses of European colonization

Newton

Wrote Principa Law of Universal gravitation Combined math w/ physics and astronomy

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762)

Wrote letters that challenged prevailing ideas by depicting Turkish people as sympathetic and civilized Disputed the notion that women were oppressed in Ottoman society

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Wrote the Persian Letters--> an influential social satire and was considered the first major work of the French Enlightenment Wrote Spirit of Laws after being disturbed y absolutism and was inspired by the physical sciences Believed that monarchies, republics, and despotisms were the three main types of governments Separation of Powers w/ political power divided among different classes and legal estates holding unequal rights and priveledges Concerned that France was drifting into tyranny and that strengthening the influence of intermediary powers was the best way to prevent it

Sensibilty

acute sensitivity of the nerves and brains outside stimuli, which produced strong, emotional, and physical reactions

Catholic Enlightenment

aimed to renew and reform the church from within Looked to divine grace rather than human will as the source of progress

Republic of Letters

an imaginary transitional realm of the critical thinkers and writers A concept that was inherited from the Renaissance

Republic of Letters

an international group of writers and scholars

Comte de Buffon (1707-1788)

argued that humans originated w/ one species that then developed into distinct races due to climatic conditions

Carl von Linne (1707-1778)

argued that nature was organized into a god-given hierarchy

Numerology/cosmic harmony

beleif in occualt qualities

Deism

belief in a distant noninterventionist deity

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

brought Aristotelian philosophy in harmony w/ Christian doctrines

Frederick II/ the great (1740-1786)

built off the work of Fredrick William I When Maria Theresa of Austria inherited the Habsburg dominions by invading her providence of Silesia--> started the European War of the Austrian Succession Seven Years War--> when MAria Theresa formed an alliance w/ France and Prussia to gain Silesia back Tolerantly allowed his subjects to believe as they wished in religious and philosophical matters He improved country schools and permitted scholars to publish their findings Abolished torture and judges decided cases quickly Promoted the reconstruction of agriculture Accepted and extended the power of nobility bc they were the backbone of the army and the Prussian state Firmly opposed any emancipation for the Jews, as he did the serfs

Peter III

came to Russia throne in 1762 and called off the attack against Fredrick

Jesuit missionaries

served as a conduit for the transmission of knowledge to the west abt Chinese history and culture

Enlightented Absolutism

term coined by historians to describe the rule of eighteenth century monarchs who, w/o renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideas of rationalism, progress, and tolerance

Haskalah

the Jewish Enlightenment of the second half of the 18th century, led by the Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn

Whom did Enlightenment thinkers from outside of Europe and the Netherlands believe could change politics from above?

the ruler

Cameralism

the view that monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, and in turn, the state should use its resources and authority to increase the public good Influential throughout the German lands