ch23 "A New Phase of Global Interaction"

Osama bin Laden/Al-Qaeda

An Arab volunteer in Afghanistan, he was further radicalized by U.S. troops deployed in Saudi Arabia during the first conflict with Iraq. He is significant because he led the attack on World Trade centers after U.S. took over Muslim regions and were supposedly humiliating Muslim people. He would launch an assault on American secularism, imperialism, and globalization.

35. What vision do Hindu nationalists (of the Hindutva movement) have for India?

The Hindutva movement took political shape in an increasingly popular party called the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), with much of its support coming from urban middle-class or upper-caste people who resented the state's efforts to cater to the interests of Muslims, Sikhs, and the lower castes. Muslims in particular were defined as outsiders, potentially more loyal to a Muslim Pakistan than to India. The BJP became a major political force in India during the 1980s and 1990s, winning a number of elections at both the state and national levels and promoting a distinctly Hindu identity in education, culture, and religion.

Anti-globalization

Major international movement that protests the development of the global economy on the grounds that it makes the rich richer and keeps poor regions in poverty while exploiting their labor and environments. This is significant because the movement burst onto the world stage in 1999 with massive protests at a meeting of the World Trade Organization in Seattle.

31. Despite the globalization of science and modernity, what have been the prominent trends with religions in the last century?

The far more prominent trends of the last century have been those that involved the further spread of major world religions, their resurgence in new forms, their opposition to elements of a secular and global modernity, and their political role as a source of community identity and conflict. Contrary to earlier expectations, religion has played an unexpectedly powerful role in this most recent century.

Rachel Carson

United States biologist remembered for her opposition to the use of pesticides that were hazardous to wildlife (1907-1964). She is significant because her publication of Silent Spring started the 2nd wave of environmentalism in the 20th century.

40. What are the 3 underlying factors of environmental changes in the 20th century?

1) Explosion of human population: The human population shot up from 1.6 billion in 1900 to 7 billion in 2012, putting huge strain on the planet's environment. 2) Fossil fuels: The use of fossil fuels made humans incredibly more productive but also degraded the environment. 3) These new sources of energy made possible a third contribution to environmental transformation — phenomenal economic growth — as modern science and technology immensely increased the production of goods and services.

20. What issues and/or protests arose within the U.S. during the Vietnam War and again following the American invasion of Iraq in 2003?

The Vietnam War divided the U.S. more sharply than at any time since the Civil War. It split families and friendships, churches and political parties. The war provided a platform for a growing number of critics, both at home and abroad, who had come to resent American cultural and economic dominance in the post-1945 world. It stimulated a new sense of activism among students in the nation's colleges and universities. Many of them came to see America itself as an imperialist power. A similar set of issues, protests, and controversies followed the American invasion of Iraq in 2003. In Korea, Vietnam, Cuba, Iraq, Afghanistan, and elsewhere, armed struggle against U.S. intervention was both costly and painful. During the cold war, the governments of India, Egypt, and Ethiopia sought to diminish American influence in their affairs by turning to the Soviet Union or playing of the two superpowers against each other. Even France, resenting U.S. domination, withdrew from the military structure of NATO in 1967 and expelled all foreign-controlled troops from the country. Many intellectuals, fearing the erosion of their own cultures in the face of well-financed American media around the world, have decried American "cultural imperialism." By the early 21st century, the United States' international policies — such as its refusal to accept the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court; its refusal to ratify the Kyoto protocol on global warming; its doctrine of preemptive war, which was exercised in Iraq; and its apparent use of torture — had generated widespread opposition.

2. What have been the benefits and drawbacks of globalization since 1945?

The benefits of globalization since 1945 for economic growth in the drawbacks with that cultural differences aren't as separated and individual anymore. Through globalization many goods have been traded across the world and sold in many countries leading to economic changes. For example, Barbie dolls begin in America as little girls toy at a state fair, now she is a toy seen and known around the world through globalization of markets. Transnational corporations now run business all around the world at once, promoting economy, lowering tariffs, migration of people, and movement of capital. However, since cold lization began, culture has been traded around so much and been adopted into other cultures around the world that it isn't so different anymore. Cultural differences aren't as distinguished, American culture you can see around the globe with many other societies, each culture isn't as unique anymore.

22. What reforms were initiated by Czechoslovakian leader Alexander Dubcek during the "Prague Spring"?

The communist world too was rocked by protest. In 1968, a new Communist Party leadership in Czechoslovakia, led by Alexander Dubcek, initiated a sweeping series of reforms aimed at creating "socialism with a human face." Censorship ended, generating an explosion of free expression in what had been a highly repressive regime; unofficial political clubs emerged publicly; victims of earlier repression were rehabilitated; secret ballots for party elections were put in place. To the conservative leaders of the Soviet Union, this "Prague Spring" seemed to challenge communist rule itself, and they sent troops and tanks to crush it. Across the world in communist China, another kind of protest was taking shape in that country's Cultural Revolution.

North/South gap

The disparity in resources (income, wealth, and power) between the industrialized, relatively rich countries of the West (and the former East) and the poorer countries of Africa, the Middle East, and much of Asia and Latin America. This is significant because it shows how that gap has been evident, often tragically, in great disparities in incomes, medical care, availability of clean drinking water, educational and employment opportunities, access to the Internet, and dozens of other ways.

5. List AND define the 3 ways in which money has achieved global mobility.

The flow of money around the world is a major part of this history. Money moves as investments in industrial projects in other countries, as capital that can be loaned to various large and small borrowers (investors annually spent trillions of dollars purchasing foreign currencies or stocks likely to increase in value and often sold them quickly thereafter, with unsettling consequences), and as credit for individuals (hence, the rise of credit cards around the world).

Reglobalization

The quickening of global economic transactions after WWII, which resulted in total world output returning to the levels established before the Great Depression and moving beyond them. This is significant because regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated through a global network of political ideas through communication, transportation, and trade.

3. Do the years since 1914 confirm or undermine Enlightenment predictions about the future of humankind?

The years since 1914 have confirmed the predictions made by enlightenment through using ideas but changing them ever so slightly. There is the continued feminist effort that maintained the same basis of ideas, yet took it another step to demand even more equal rights. There is also the idea of technological advancements being made that is proven by the progress in which the world has progressed, especially in the global market since 1914. There are ways that enlightenment was undermined such as through what was seen as progress to a more democratically led world when fascism & communism were introduced. The growing environmental issues that came along with progress after 1914 undermined the enlightenment idea of progress alongside of nature. There also has been a large increase in the gap between the poor & the rich.

1. What did the "Bretton Woods system" do?

This "Bretton Woods system" negotiated the rules for commercial and financial dealings among the major capitalist countries, while promoting relatively free trade, stable currency values linked to the U.S. dollar, and high levels of capital investment. The capitalist victors in that conflict, led by the United States, were determined to avoid any return to such Depression-era conditions. At a conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944, they forged a set of agreements and institutions (the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund [IMF]) that laid the foundation for postwar globalization.

3. What does the neo-liberalist approach to the world economy favor?

This approach to the world economy favored the reduction of tariffs, the free global movement of capital, a mobile and temporary workforce, the privatization of many state-run enterprises, the curtailing of government efforts to regulate the economy, and both tax and spending cuts. The kind of economic globalization taking shape in the 1970s and after was widely known as neoliberalism. Major capitalist countries such as the United States and Great Britain abandoned many earlier political controls on economic activity as their leaders and business people increasingly viewed the entire world as a single market.

42. What started the 2nd wave of environmentalism in the 20th century?

This second-wave environmentalism began in the West with the publication in 1962 of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, exposing the chemical contamination of the environment. This study of the impact of DDT on birds launched the modern environmental movement. Environmentalism began in the 19th century as Romantic poets such as William Blake and William Wordsworth denounced the industrial era's "dark satanic mills," which threatened the "green and pleasant land" of an earlier England. The "scientific management" of nature, both in industrializing countries and in European colonies, represented another element of emerging environmental awareness among a few. So did the "wilderness idea," which aimed to preserve untouched areas from human disruption, as, for example, in the U.S. national parks. None of these strands of environmentalism attracted a mass following or provoked a global response. Not until the second half of the 20th century, and then quite rapidly, did environmentalism achieve a worldwide dimension, although it was expressed in many quite different ways. Green Party: This German political party started with its opposition to nuclear energy and moved on to oppose other harmful consequences of industrial societies.

16. What problems does this coalition believe economic globalization has created? '

Though reflecting a variety of viewpoints, that opposition largely agreed that free trade, market-driven corporate globalization had lowered labor standards, fostered ecological degradation, prevented poor countries from protecting themselves against financial speculators, ignored local cultures, disregarded human rights, and enhanced global inequality, while favoring the interests of large corporations and the rich countries. This movement appeared dramatically on the world's radar screen in late 1999 in Seattle at a meeting of the World Trade Organization (WTO). An international body representing 149 nations and charged with negotiating the rules for global commerce and promoting free trade, the WTO had become a major target of globalization critics. "The central idea of the WTO," argued one such critic, "is that free trade — actually the values and interests of global corporations — should supersede all other values." Tens of thousands of protesters (academics, activists, farmers, labor union leaders from all over the world) descended on Seattle in what became a violent, chaotic, and much-publicized protest. At the city's harbor, protest organizers created a Seattle Tea Party around the slogan "No globalization without representation," echoing the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Subsequent meetings of the WTO and other high-level international economic gatherings were likewise greeted with large-scale protest and a heavy police presence.

45. Describe the major environmental conflict between the Global North and the Global South.

While issues of environmental action are global concerns, the policies of the Global North often seem to the Global South as if the developing nations will not be allowed to industrialize and improve their standards of living. Both activists and governments in the developing countries have often felt that Northern initiatives to address atmospheric pollution and global warming would curtail their industrial development, leaving the North/South gap intact. Western governments argued that newly industrializing countries such as China and India must also agree to specific limits on their growing emissions if further global warming is to be prevented. Such deep disagreements between industrialized and developing countries have long contributed to the failure of global efforts to substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions. But in late 2011, at an international conference in Durban, South Africa, delegates from 194 countries agreed to move toward a climate change treaty that would be legally binding on all parties.

27. What are African feminists' criticisms of Western feminism?

While many nationalist and communist revolutionaries recruited women to their struggles, they often failed to live up to their promises of liberation after they were in power. Feminists from the Global South criticized Western Feminism as a product of its unique culture and thus too focused on individualism and sexuality and not on cultural identity, motherhood, and material issues of poverty. The Global South women's groups were frequently key players in movements that were not specifically gender issues, such as standing up to repressive dictatorships. Moreover, many African governments and many African men defined feminism of any kind as "un-African" and associated with a hated colonialism.

11. What disparities illustrate the increasing gap between the rich nations of the Global North and the developing countries of the Global South?

While the volume of trade in the world has generated great wealth, it has not been shared equally. This is true internationally with the Global North enjoying most of the benefits at the expense of the Global South and domestically as certain regions or economic sectors in a nation-state might see rewards while others suffer. In 1820, the ratio between the income of the top and bottom 20% of the world's population was three to one. By 1991, it was 86 to 1. The accelerated economic globalization of the twentieth century did not create this global rift, but it arguably has worsened the North/South gap and certainly has not greatly diminished it.

Second wave feminism

Women's rights movement that revived in the 1960s with a different agenda than earlier women's suffrage movements. This is significant because the second-wave feminists demanded equal rights for women in employment and education, women's right to control their own bodies, and the end of patriarchal domination.

Che Guevara

(1928-1967) He was an Argentinean revolutionary leader; he was an aide to Fidel Castro during the Cuban revolution. He is significant because he became an inspiration to third-world liberation movements and a symbol of radicalism to many in the West. His image appeared widely on T-shirts and posters, and in Cuba itself a government-sponsored cult featured schoolchildren chanting each morning "We will be like Che."

14. Economic globalization has also created inequalities within individual nations. Describe the inequalities created in: (A) The U.S. = (B) Mexico OR China =

(A) A shifting global division of labor required the American economy to shed millions of manufacturing jobs. With recent U.S. factory wages far higher than those of China, many companies moved their manufacturing operations offshore to Asia or Latin America. This left many relatively unskilled American workers in the lurch, forcing them to work in the low-wage service sector, even as other Americans were growing prosperous in emerging high-tech industries. (B) The northern part of Mexico, with close business and manufacturing ties to the U.S., grew much more prosperous than the south, which was a largely rural agricultural area and had a far more slowly growing economy. Beginning in 1994, southern resentment boiled over in the Chiapas rebellion, which featured a strong anti-globalization platform. China's rapid economic growth likewise fostered mounting inequality between its rural households and those in its burgeoning cities, where income by 2000 was three times that of the countryside. Economic globalization may have brought people together as never before, but it also divided them sharply. U.S.: Even some highly skilled work, such as computer programming, was outsourced to lower-wage sites in India, Ireland, Russia, and elsewhere. By 2012, mounting income inequality and the erosion of the country's middle class had become major issues in American political debate. M&C: Its leader, known as Subcomandante Marcos, referred to globalization as a "process to eliminate that multitude of people who are not useful to the powerful."

7. (A) Give 2 examples of global migrating workers. (B) Besides work, why do millions of others migrate?

(A) But perhaps the most significant pattern of global migration since the 1960s has featured a vast movement of people from the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America to the industrialized world of Europe and North America. Pakistanis, Indians, and West Indians moved to Great Britain; Algerians and West Africans to France; Turks and Kurds to Germany; Filipinos, Koreans, Cubans, Mexicans, and Haitians to the United States. (B) Push factors include wars, conflict, revolutions, the end of empire, and ethnic cleansing. pull factors include the lure of higher wages or just the promise of employment, freedom, and/or security.

41. (A) What are the main causes of global warming? (B) What are the results (or possible results) of global warming?

(A) By the end of the 20th century, a worldwide scientific consensus had emerged that the vastly increased burning of fossil fuels, which emit heat-trapping greenhouse gases such as CO2, as well as the loss of trees that would otherwise remove it from the air, had begun to warm the atmosphere significantly. (B) By 2010, CO2 concentration in the atmosphere was about one-third higher than pre-industrial levels. Although considerable disagreement existed about the rate and likely consequences of this process, indications of melting glaciers and polar ice caps, rising sea levels, thawing permafrost, extreme hurricanes, further species extinctions, and other ecological threats have punctuated global discussion of this issue.

36. (A) What disappointments within the Muslim world fueled Islamic renewal movements? (B) What issues/problems with the West fueled Islamic renewal movements?

(A) Conquest and colonial rule; awareness of the huge technological and economic gap between Islamic and European civilizations; the disappearance of the Ottoman Empire, long the chief Islamic state; elite enchantment with Western culture; the retreat of Islam for many to the realm of private life — all of this had sapped the cultural self-confidence of many Muslims by the mid-20th century (1970s). (B) Political independence for former colonies gave rise to major states that pursued essentially Western and secular policies of nationalism, socialism, and economic development, ignoring Islamic identity; these aforementioned policies were not successful - vastly overcrowded cities with few services, widespread unemployment, pervasive corruption, slow economic growth, and a mounting gap between the rich and the poor. Signs of Western cultural penetration persisted-secular schools, alcohol, Barbie dolls, European and American movies, and scantily clad women. Habib Bourguiba, secular leader of Tunisia, argued against the veil for women, polygamy for men, and discouraged fasting. Despite formal independence, foreign intrusion still persisted. Israel, widely regarded as an outpost of the West, had been reestablished as a Jewish state in the very center of the Islamic world in 1948. In 1967, Israel inflicted a devastating defeat on Arab forces in the Six-Day War and seized various Arab territories, including the holy city of Jerusalem.

26. (A) How do most women of color view mainstream feminism? (B) What issues do they tend to focus on instead?

(A) For many women of color, especially those who were living in conditions of poverty, mainstream feminism was a debate within a white family that did not speak to their concerns of race and class, in addition to gender. (B) Viewing mainstream feminism as "a family quarrel between White women and White men," many women of African descent in the United States and Britain established their own organizations, with a focus on racism and poverty. For many of them, the concerns of white, usually middle-class, feminists were hardly relevant to their oppression. Black women had always worked outside the home and so felt little need to be liberated from the chains of homemaking. Whereas white women might find the family oppressive, African American women viewed it as a secure base from which to resist racism. Solidarity with black men, rather than separation from them, was essential in confronting a racist America.

18. (A) How is the U.S. an "empire of production?" (B) What are the "soft powers" of the U.S.?

(A) In its economic dimension, American dominance has been termed an "empire of production," which uses its immense wealth to entice or intimidate potential collaborators. (B) While the examples of the United States using its military might are very obvious, the United States also uses "soft power" to achieve its goals. Diplomacy, foreign aid, and cultural exports are designed to spread American values and win sympathy for the United States.

39. (A) What caused Osama bin Laden to become more radical? (B) What are the "great enemies" of al-Qaeda on an international level?

(A) Returning to his home in Saudi Arabia, bin Laden became disillusioned and radicalized when the government of his country allowed the stationing of "infidel" U.S. troops in Islam's holy land during and after the first American war against Iraq in 1991. (B) At the international level, the great enemy was not Christianity itself or even Western civilization, but irreligious Western-style modernity, U.S. imperialism, and an American-led economic globalization so aptly symbolized by the World Trade Center. Ironically, al-Qaeda itself was a modern and global organization, many of whose members were highly educated professionals from a variety of countries. Despite this focus on the West, the violent struggles undertaken by politicized Islamic activists were as much within the Islamic world as they were with the external enemy. Their understanding of Islam, heavily influenced by Wahhabi ideas, was in various ways quite novel and at odds with classical Islamic practice. It was highly literal and dogmatic in its understanding of the Quran, legalistic in its effort to regulate the minute details of daily life, deeply opposed to any "innovation" in religious practice, inclined to define those who disagreed with them as "non-Muslims," and drawn to violent jihad as a legitimate part of Islamic life. It was also deeply skeptical about the interior spiritual emphasis of Sufism, which had informed so much of earlier Islamic culture. The spread of this version of Islam, often known as Salafism, owed much to massive financial backing from oil-rich Saudi Arabia, which funded Wahhabi/ Salafi mosques and schools across the Islamic world and in the West as well.

9. Instability has always accompanied economic globalization. Describe examples of this instability from the following years: (A) 1973-1974 = (B) 1980s = (C) late 1990s =

(A) Soaring oil prices contributed to a severe stock market crash in 1973-1974 and great hardship for many developing countries. (B) Inability to repay mounting debts triggered a major financial crisis in Latin America during the 1980s and resulted in a "lost decade" in terms of economic development. (C) Another financial crisis in Asia during the late 1990s resulted in the collapse of many businesses, widespread unemployment, and political upheaval in Indonesia and Thailand.

29. What are the three major divisions that have emerged in the international feminist movement?

1) One issue was determining who had the right to speak on behalf of women at international gatherings — the official delegates of male-dominated governments or the often more radical unofficial participants representing various nongovernmental organizations. 2) North/South conflicts also surfaced at these international conferences. In preparing for the Mexico City gathering in 1975, the United States attempted to limit the agenda to matters of political and civil rights for women, whereas delegates from third world and communist countries wanted to include issues of economic justice, decolonization, and disarmament. Feminists from the South resented the dominance and contested the ideas of their Northern sisters. 3) Nor did all third world groups have identical views. Some Muslim delegates at the Beijing Conference in 1995 opposed a call for equal inheritance for women because Islamic law required that sons receive twice the amount that daughters inherit. In contrast, Africans, especially in non-Muslim countries, were aware of how many children had been orphaned by AIDS and felt that girls' chances for survival depended on equal inheritance.

4. Give 2 examples of the increased circulation of goods around the globe as a result of accelerating world trade since 1945.

1) Since World War II, there has been unprecedented growth in world trade, rising from $57 billion in 1947 to $16 trillion in 2009. 2) Department stores and supermarkets around the world stocked their shelves with goods from every part of the globe. Twinings of London marketed its 120 blends of tea in more than 100 countries, and the Australian-based Kiwi shoe polish was sold in 180 countries. - In 2005, about 70% of Walmart products reportedly included components from China. - And the following year, Toyota replaced General Motors as the world's largest automaker with manufacturing facilities in at least eighteen countries.

33. What are the three major ways in which established religion feels threatened by features of the modern world?

1) The scientific and secular focus of global modernity challenged the core beliefs of religion, with its focus on an unseen realm of reality. 2) The social upheavals connected with capitalism, industrialization, and globalization thoroughly upset customary class, family, and gender relationships that had long been sanctified by religious tradition. 3) Nation-states, often associated with particular religions, were likewise undermined by the operation of a global economy and challenged by the spread of alien cultures. In much of the world, these disruptions came at the hands of foreigners, usually Westerners, in the form of military defeat, colonial rule, economic dependency, and cultural intrusion. Yet, fundamentalism wants to use certain parts of modernity. Most, in fact, made active use of modern technology to communicate their message and certainly sought the potential prosperity associated with modern life. Extensive educational and propaganda efforts, political mobilization of their followers, social welfare programs, and sometimes violence ("terrorism" to their opponents) were among the means that fundamentalists employed.

30. What issues did the following groups have with international feminism? 1) Many Americans (both male and female) = 2) The Islamic World = 3) Religious groups (i.e. Catholics, Muslims, etc.) =

1) To Phyllis Schlafly, a prominent American opponent of the Equal Rights Amendment, feminism was a "disease" that brought in its wake "fear, sickness, pain, anger, hatred, danger, violence, and all manner of ugliness." 2) Western-style feminism, with its claims of gender equality and open sexuality, was highly offensive to many and fueled movements of religious revivalism that invited or compelled women to wear the veil and sometimes to lead highly restricted lives. 3) The Vatican, some Catholic and Muslim countries, and at times the U.S. government took strong exception to aspects of global feminism, particularly its emphasis on reproductive rights, including access to abortion and birth control.

Global warming

A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and other pollutants. This is significant because this led to many environmental consequences consequences; melting glaciers and polar ice caps, rising sea levels, thawing permafrost, extreme hurricanes, further species extinctions, and other ecological threats have punctuated global discussion of this issue.

25. Describe the "women's liberation" approach to feminism - include how liberation is achieved, preferred actions, issues raised, etc.

A more radical expression of American feminism, widely known as "women's liberation," took broader aim at patriarchy as a system of domination, similar to those of race and class. Many such women preferred direct action rather than the political lobbying favored by equal rights feminists. They challenged the Miss America contest of 1968 by tossing stink bombs in the hall, crowning a live sheep as their Miss America, and disposing of girdles, bras, high-heeled shoes, tweezers, and other "instruments of oppression" in a Freedom Trashcan. They also brought into open discussion issues involving sexuality, insisting that free love, lesbianism, and celibacy should be accorded the same respect as heterosexual marriage.

Fundamentalism

A response to liberalism in late 19th and early 20th century that was passionately against modernist/liberal theology. This is significant this took form in many movements from American Protestant, Hindutva, Islam, Egypt, all over the Muslim world, etc.

Neoliberalism

A strategy for economic development that calls for free markets, balanced budgets, privatization, free trade, and minimal government intervention in the economy. This is significant because major capitalist countries such as the U.S. and Great Britain abandoned many earlier political controls on economic activity as their leaders and business people increasingly viewed the entire world as a single market. Powerful international lending agencies such as the World Bank and the IMF imposed such free market and pro-business conditions on many poor countries if they were to qualify for much-needed loans.

24. What is Betty Friedan's book The Feminine Mystique about?

Across the Atlantic, millions of American women responded to Betty Friedan's book The Feminine Mystique (1963), which disclosed the identity crisis of educated women, unfulfilled by marriage and motherhood. Some adherents of this second-wave feminism took up the equal rights agenda of their 19th-century predecessors, but with an emphasis now on employment and education rather than voting rights.

34. What do American Christian fundamentalists oppose?

After World War II, American Protestant fundamentalism came to oppose political liberalism and "big government," the sexual revolution of the 1960s, homosexuality and abortion rights, and secular humanism generally. In the United States, there was a powerful reaction against the secular liberationist movements of the 1960s; they adopted a political agenda in the 1970s and have been a major force in American politics since the 1980s.

10. What caused the worldwide economic contraction that began in 2008?

An inflated housing market (or "bubble") in the U.S. collapsed, triggering millions of home foreclosures, growing unemployment, the tightening of credit, and declining consumer spending. Soon this crisis rippled around the world. Iceland's rapidly growing economy collapsed almost overnight as three major banks failed, the country's stock market dropped by 80%t, and its currency lost more than 70% of its value — all in a single week. In Africa, reduced demand for exports threatened to halt a promising decade of economic progress. In Sierra Leone, for example, some 90% of the country's diamond-mine workers lost their jobs. The slowing of China's booming economy led to unemployment for one in seven of the country's urban migrants, forcing them to return to already overcrowded rural areas. Impoverished Central American and Caribbean families, dependent on money sent home by family members working abroad, suffered further as those remittances dropped sharply. Contracting economies contributed to debt crises in Greece, Italy, and Spain and threatened to unravel European economic integration. Calls for both protectionism and greater regulation suggested that the wide-open capitalist world economy of recent decades was perhaps not as inevitable as some had thought. Whatever the overall benefits of the modern global system, economic stability and steady progress were not among them.

15. The "antiglobalization" movement is an international coalition made up of what groups/people?

An international coalition of political activists, concerned scholars and students, trade unions, women's and religious organizations, environmental groups, and others, hailing from rich and poor countries alike.

Environmentalism

An organized movement of concerned citizens, businesses, and government agencies designed to protect and improve people's current and future living environment. This is significant because while issues of environmental action are global concerns, the policies of the Global North often seem to the Global South as if the developing nations will not be allowed to industrialize and improve their standards of living.

13. Besides resistance from the Global North, what is another obstacle to reforming the world economy in favor of the Global South?

Beyond active resistance by the rich nations, a further obstacle to reforming the world economy in favor of the poor lay in growing disparities among the developing countries themselves. The oil-rich economies of the Middle East had little in common with the banana-producing countries of Central America. The rapidly industrializing states of China, India, and South Korea had quite different economic agendas than impoverished African countries. These disparities made common action difficult to achieve.

28. What commitments were made by 183 nations with the UN Convention to Eliminate Discrimination against Women?

By 2006, 183 nations, though not the United States, had ratified a UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which committed them to promote women's legal equality, to end discrimination, to actively encourage women's development, and to protect women's human rights. Clearly this international attention to women's issues was encouraging to feminists operating in their own countries and in many places stimulated both research and action. There has been a concerted effort to address women's rights on a global stage, making them universal human rights. Feminism registered as a global issue when the United Nations (UN), under pressure from women activists, declared 1975 as International Women's Year and the next ten years as the Decade for Women. The UN also sponsored a series of World Conferences on Women over the next twenty years.

23. Describe Che Guevera.

By the late 1960s, the icon of this third-world ideology was Che Guevara, the Argentine-born revolutionary who had embraced the Cuban revolution and subsequently attempted to replicate its experience of liberation through guerrilla warfare in parts of Africa and Latin America. Various aspects of his life story — his fervent anti-imperialism, cast as a global struggle; his self-sacrificing lifestyle; his death in 1967 at the hands of the Bolivian military, trained and backed by the American CIA — made him a heroic figure to third world revolutionaries. He was popular as well among Western radicals, who were disgusted with the complacency and materialism of their own societies. In the developing countries, a substantial number of political leaders, activists, scholars, and students developed the notion of a "third world." Their countries, many only recently free from colonial rule, would offer an alternative to both a decrepit Western capitalism and a repressive Soviet communism. They claimed to pioneer new forms of economic development, of grassroots democracy, and of cultural renewal.

44. What positive effects has global environmentalism generated?

By the late 20th century, environmentalism had become a matter of global concern. That awareness motivated legislation aimed at pollution control in many countries; it pushed many businesses in a "green" direction; it fostered research on alternative and renewable sources of energy; it stimulated UN conferences on global warming; it persuaded millions of people to alter their way of life; and it generated a number of international agreements addressing matters such as whaling, ozone depletion, and global warming.

6. What are transnational corporations?

Central to the acceleration of economic globalization have been huge global businesses known as transnational corporations (TNCs), which produce goods or deliver services simultaneously in many countries. By 2000, 51 of the top 100 economic entities in the world are not nation-states but TNCs. For example, Mattel Corporation produced Barbie, that quintessentially American doll, in factories located in Indonesia, Malaysia, and China, using molds from the United States, plastic and hair from Taiwan and Japan, and cotton cloth from China. From distribution centers in Hong Kong, more than a billion Barbies were sold in 150 countries by 1999. Burgeoning in number since the 1960s, those TNCs, such as Royal Dutch Shell, Sony, and General Motors, often were of such an enormous size and had such economic clout that their assets and power dwarfed that of many countries.

6. Looking Back: To what extent did the processes discussed in this chapter (globalization, feminism, fundamentalism, environmentalism) have roots in the more distant past? In what respects did they represent something new in the past century?

Communism achieved a lot until it fell at a significant rate since the 1970s, leaving it fairly unsuccessful. Nationalism has almost always achieved its goal in one way or another. More often times than not though there's a twist to achieving the goal it was set to accomplish. Democracy was able to see mixed results as it failed for the most part in eastern countries as the cultures were't set up for that type of govt, but in the west it flourished. This means it was only half as successful as what it was intended to be. Feminism was able to achieve a large amount of its goals though there are a handful left unsolved to this day. It was extremely successful for the context of the century. Internationalism increased with globalization shown in the creation of the United Nations. This was fairly successful at what it set out to do.

2. What new technologies have contributed to the acceleration of economic globalization?

Containerized shipping, huge oil tankers, and air express services dramatically lowered transportation costs, while fiber-optic cables and later the Internet provided the communication infrastructure for global economic interaction. In the developing countries, population growth, especially when tied to growing economies and modernizing societies, further fueled globalization as dozens of new nations entered the world economy.

8. What were the positive impacts on human welfare that occurred as a result of the economic growth and creation of wealth accompanying economic globalization?

Economic globalization accompanied, and arguably helped generate, the most remarkable spurt of economic growth in world history. On a global level, total world output grew from a value of $7 trillion in 1950 to $73 trillion in 2009 and on a per capita basis from $2,652 to $10,728. This represents an immense, rapid, and unprecedented creation of wealth with a demonstrable impact on human welfare. Life expectancies expanded almost everywhere, infant mortality declined, and literacy increased.

Hindutva

Fundamentalist Hindu movement that became politically important in India in the 1980s by advocating a distinct Hindu identity and decrying government efforts to accommodate other faith groups. This is significant because this party (BJP) reacted to perceived secularization and to a perceived Islamic threat, becoming a major political force in the 1980s and 1990s.

38. What country did Hamas in Palestine and Hezbollah in Lebanon target AND WHY?

Hamas in Palestine and Hezbollah in Lebanon, supported by the Islamic regime in Iran, targeted Israel with popular uprisings, suicide bombings, and rocket attacks in response to the Israeli occupation of Arab lands.

12. What economic issues have arisen between the Global North and the Global South?

Highly contentious issues have included the rules for world trade, availability of and terms for foreign aid, representation in international economic organizations, the mounting problem of indebtedness, and environmental and labor standards. Such matters surfaced repeatedly in international negotiations during the second half of the 20th century and into the 21st. In the 1970s, for example, a large group of developing countries joined together to demand a "new international economic order" that was more favorable to the poor countries. Not much success attended this effort. More recently, developing countries have contested protectionist restrictions on their agricultural exports imposed by the rich countries seeking to protect their own politically powerful farmers.

Prague Spring

In 1968, Czechoslovakia, under Alexander Dubcek, began a program of reform. This is significant because Dubcek promised civil liberties, democratic political reforms, and a more independent political system. The Soviet Union invaded the country and put down the short-lived period of freedom.

17. Explain how the U.S. global presence can be seen as an "informal empire."

In some ways, the U.S. global presence might be seen as an "informal empire," similar to the ones that Europeans exercised in China and the Middle East during the 19th century. In both cases, economic penetration, political pressure, and periodic military action sought to create societies and governments compatible with the values and interests of the dominant power, but without directly governing large populations for long periods. How central is the United States to globalization?: This is a hotly debated question, especially now as the global power of the United States seems to be in decline. Does it make sense to speak of an American "empire"? Most Americans would deny the idea, but societies around the world have been on the receiving end of American power.

43. Explain how environmentalism in the Global South differs from that in the West.

In the Global South, various movements have tried to save trees from logging or land clearing and protested polluting mining operations. There it often assumed a different character: it was more locally based and had fewer large national organizations than in the West; it involved poor people rather than affluent members of the middle class; it was less engaged in political lobbying and corporate strategies; it was more concerned with issues of food security, health, and basic survival than with the rights of nature or wilderness protection; and it was more closely connected to movements for social justice. Thus, whereas Western environmentalists defended forests where few people lived, the Chikpo, or "tree-hugging," movement in India sought to protect the livelihood of farmers, artisans, and herders living in areas subject to extensive deforestation. A massive movement to prevent or limit the damming of India's Narmada River derived from the displacement of local people; similar anti-dam protests in the American Northwest were more concerned with protecting salmon runs.

Islamic renewal

Large number of movements in Islamic lands that promote a return to strict adherence to the Quran and the sharia in opposition to key elements of Western culture. This is significant because this led to violent uprisings, getting rid of past leaders and the majority of the country's people who were going through this actually wanted it to happen.

37. In what different ways did Islamic renewal express itself?

People became more religiously observant, attending mosque, praying regularly, and fasting. Many young, urban, and well-educated women adopted modest dress. President Anwar Sadat claimed the title of "Believer-President" in Egypt and displayed his "prayer-mark" (a callus on his forehead from touching his head to the ground in prayer). In Sudan, the government adopted Quranic punishments for various crimes (like cutting off hands of thieves) and banned alcohol, dumping beer and wine into the Nile. They spawned organizations that operated legally to provide social services-schools, clinics, youth centers, legal-aid societies, financial institutions, and publishing houses. Activists took leadership roles in unions and professional organizations of teachers, journalists, engineers, doctors, and lawyers. Some served in official government positions or entered political life. The Algerian Islamic Salvation Front was going to win elections when the government intervened, creating a civil war. In Iran, Afghanistan, and northern Nigeria, movements succeeded in coming to power. Hoping to spark an Islamic revolution, the Egyptian Islamic Jihad organization assassinated President Sadat. Hamas in Palestine and Hezbollah in Lebanon targeted Israel violently.

32. What is "fundamentalism"?

Religious vitality in the 20th century was expressed not only in the spread of particular traditions to new areas but also in the vigorous response of those traditions to the modernizing and globalizing world in which they found themselves. One such response has been widely called "fundamentalism," a militant piety — defensive, assertive, and exclusive — that took shape to some extent in every major religious tradition. Fundamentalists see threats to their values and identity from the various forces of the modern, globalized world.

19. How has growing international economic competition and declining exports negatively affected the U.S. economy?

Since the 1980s, as its relative military strength peaked, the U.S. faced growing international economic competition. The recovery of Europe and Japan and the emergent industrialization of South Korea, Taiwan, China, and India substantially reduced the U.S.' share of overall world production from about 50% in 1945 to 20% in the 1980s. By 2008 the U.S. accounted for just 8.1% of world merchandise exports. Accompanying this relative decline was a sharp reversal of the country's trade balance as U.S. imports greatly exceeded its exports. China was on track to overtake the U.S. as the world's largest economy by the 2020s even as it held much of the mounting American national debt.

Transnational Corporations

TNCs were huge global businesses which produce goods or deliver services simultaneously in many countries. This is significant because business corporations are located in two or more countries. Burgeoning in number since the 1960s, those TNCs, such as Royal Dutch Shell, Sony, and General Motors, often were of such an enormous size and had such economic clout that their assets and power dwarfed that of many countries.

21. What kinds of protests movements emerged in the following places in the 1960s? (United States, Europe)

The 1960s in particular witnessed an unusual convergence of protest movements around the world, suggesting the emergence of a global culture of liberation. Within the U.S., the civil rights demands of African Americans and Hispanic Americans; the youthful counterculture of rock music, sex, and drugs; the prolonged and highly divisive protests against the war in Vietnam — all of this gave the 1960s a distinctive place in the country's recent history. Across the Atlantic, swelling protests against unresponsive bureaucracy, consumerism, and middle-class values likewise erupted, most notably in France in 1968. There a student-led movement protesting conditions in universities attracted the support of many middle-class people, who were horrified at the brutality of the police, and stimulated an enormous strike among some 9 million workers. France seemed on the edge of another revolution. Related but smaller scale movements took place in Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Argentina, and elsewhere.