Chapter 1

digital audio workstations

A category of software that allows computers to serve as recording and editing devices for musical creation. Common DAWs include GarageBand, Pro Tools, and Logic. (page 25)

Chords

A chord is a combination of three or more notes played simultaneously. A limited number of such combinations make up the majority of chords heard in rock music. Musicians classify these combinations, using such terms as "major," "minor," "dominant seventh," "minor seventh," among others. (page 12)

mix down

A creative stage of recording when multiple tracks are combined into mono or stereo masters. Volume levels are manipulated and effects are often added during this stage. (page 26)

formal diagram

A formal diagram, such as the ones used in the Listening Guides throughout this book, provides an overview of the formal design of a song, or how the different parts of the song fit together to create what is often a familiar pattern. These familiar patterns are organized into the five song forms described in the Introduction. (page 9)

Meter classification

A meter classification classifies how we feel the organization of the rhythm for a particular song or passage. In this book, meters are classified as either simple or compound, and then as either duple, triple, or quadruple. A meter classification can be notated using a specific meter, and though there are several meters than can be used with each classification, there are six meters that are most common. See "meter," and the Introduction. (page 11)

Mono

A method of sound reproduction that produces only one discreet sound signal. AM radio is broadcast in mono, and due to dominance of mono, older cars and record players used only one speaker. Many early rock recordings were conceived in mono. (page 24)

Tracks

A method of sound reproduction that produces two discrete sound signals, allowing listeners to create a sense of horizontal space. FM radio is broadcast in stereo and it became a popular playback form during the late 1960s. (page 25)

stereo

A method of sound reproduction that produces two discrete sound signals, allowing listeners to create a sense of horizontal space. FM radio is broadcast in stereo and it became a popular playback form during the late 1960s. (page 25)

Phrase

A phrase is a short passage of music; often in rock music, phrases are four measures in length (sometimes eight measures). A phrase is akin to a sentence in spoken language and divides the music into units that make it easier to comprehend. Vocal phrases often correspond to obvious points of division and articulation in the lyrics being sung. (page 11)

Beats

A regular rhythmic pulse in music is called a "beat." Beats are organized into "measures" or "bars" to create "meter." (page 10)

Riff

A riff is a short and distinctive melodic figure. A riff is not a complete melody, but it may be employed as part of a melody, either vocally or instrumentally. A riff may also be used anywhere in the accompaniment, often as part of a repeated pattern, but not necessarily. The guitar riff from the beginning of the Rolling Stone's "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" is a famous example. For the purposes of this book, "riff" and "lick" are synonymous. (page 22)

Shuffle

A shuffle rhythm is often a way of playing 4/4 that transforms it into something closer to 12/8. The four beats in a measure of 4/4 are each divided into two equal parts, making for a scheme that goes 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &. In 12/8, the same measure would divide the beats into three equal parts, resulting in 1 & ah 2 & ah 3 & ah 4 & ah. A shuffle uses the second of these schemes, but the & is often silent, so we get 1 (&) ah 2 (&) ah 3 (&) ah 4 (&) ah. This sounds somewhat like the first scheme (4/4), since it has two elements per beat, but unlike the first scheme, the ele-ments do not evenly divide the beat. (page 11)

simple verse form

A simple verse form consists of a series of verses, all of which use the same underlying music. A simple verse form contains no chorus or bridge sections, though the verses may contain a refrain. (page 9)

AABA form

A song form that uses two verses (A A), a bridge (B), and a return to the verse (A) as its basic organizational pattern. Once the complete AABA pattern is presented, a song may repeat all of the pattern (full reprise) or only part of it (partial reprise). AABA form is strongly associated with the Tin Pan Alley popular song style, though it also occurs frequently in rock music. (page 14)

reverb

A spacial effect added to recordings and live performances to create an artificial sense of sound happening in reverberant spaces. (page 23)

Verse

A verse is a section that most often features new lyrics with each repetition within a song, unlike a chorus, which tends to repeat the same lyrics with each recurrence. The verse is often used to tell a story or describe a situation. In an AABA form, the verse is the focal point of the song, and may also include a refrain. In a verse-chorus type form, the verse sets up the chorus, which is the focus of the song. (page 9)

Instrumental verse

A verse section that repeats the music of the verse, without the singing and with an instrument soloing, is an instrumental verse. Guitar, saxophone, and keyboard solos are common, though any instrument can solo in an instrumental verse. (page 9)

Echo

An effect often created through tape manipulation (or digital means) in which multiple copies of a sound are layered in quick succession. (page 24)

rhythm section

An instrumental ensemble that accompanies vocal and instrumental soloists. Instruments in the rhythm section may vary. In rock, the ensemble commonly comprises drum kit, electric bass, and several guitars. Keyboard instruments may also be used in a rhythm section. Although all of these instruments may also perform in a "lead" role, when they provide accompaniment they are part of the rhythm section. (page 18)

octave

An interval (or space) of eight notes. Playing a note with the same name (A, for instance) seven steps apart on a keyboard produces the sound of an octave. In rock instrumentation, the bass is normally tuned an octave below the guitar, allowing it to assume a lower position in the sonic space. (page 20)

Introduction

An introduction is a section of a song that precedes the start of the first verse or chorus (when the chorus appears before the verse). Introductions are frequently instrumental, but may also contain singing. Some musicians refer to this section as the "intro." (page 12)

simple verse-chorus form

In simple verse-chorus form, the verse and chorus sections employ the same underlying musical material, though the lyrics and sung melodies of each section are different. The form consists of these verses and choruses presented in alternation, though more than one verse may occur before the chorus. (page 15)

Sectional chorus and sectional verse

In the decades before rock music, popular songs often featured two large sections. The first of these was a kind of lengthy introduction to the song proper, employing lyrics that set the scene for the song itself. The second large section was the song itself. Through the years, many of these introductions have been all but forgotten, while the songs themselves have remained familiar. Writers who work in Tin Pan Alley-style pop often call the first section of such songs the "verse," and the second section the "chorus." This usage conflicts with the established use of these terms in rock music, however, and can lead to great confusion. To address this, we will call these introductory sections "sectional verses" and the song proper "sectional chorus," reserving the use of "verse" and "chorus" for use as they are defined in this Glossary and in the text. (page 43)

Scale

In the simplest sense, a scale merely takes the notes that are available for use in any given key and puts them in order, starting and ending on the most important note. In the key of C major, for instance, the notes available are A, B, C, D, E, F, and G (these are the white keys on the piano). A C-major scales arranges these notes in relation to C, so that the scale is C D E F G A B C. (page 12)

Bar

Musicians often count out a song, saying "1, 2, 3, 4." This is a bar of music, and the numbers represent beats. These bars usually have the same number of beats in them throughout a song (though not always). The term "bar" is synonymous with "measure." See also, "meter." (page 10)

Measures

Musicians often count out a song, saying "1, 2, 3, 4." This is a measure of music, and the numbers represent beats. These measures usually have the same number of beats in them throughout a song (though not always). The term "measure" is synonymous with "bar." See also, "meter." (page 9)

Overdubbing

Overdubbing is a recording process in which new recorded parts are added to previously recorded ones. One benefit to overdubbing is that it allows parts of a song to be recorded at different times, and even makes it possible for the same person to perform multiple parts in a way that would be impossible in real time. (page 54)

Roman Numerals

Roman numerals are used by music theorists to identify chords within a key. The chord based on the first note of the scale in a major key is labeled "I," while the chord built on the fifth note of the same scale is labeled "V." Some theorists use upper-case Roman numerals for major chords and lower-case numerals for minor chords. Thus, the chord built on the first note of a minor key is "i." Once one learns the way chords are formed in major and minor keys, the Roman numerals help to generalize how the chords work in any major key or in any minor key. See Interlude One for further discussion. (page 12)

Coda

Some songs contain an ending section called the "coda." The coda often uses musical material from earlier in the song to provide an ending, which is sometimes a fade-out. Some musicians refer to the coda as an "outro," paralleling the beginning section in a song, which is often called the "intro." (page 21)

Blues (as in "blues-based")

The blues is an important style in popular music that displays a series of musical features. When such features occur in rock, we use the term " blues-based" to highlight the influence of this style. Blues-based features might include the use of the "12-bar blues" pattern, string bends on the guitar, or bluesy inflections of pitch in any lead instrument or voice.

Bridge

The bridge is a section in a song that provides contrast to other, more salient sections of the same song, such as the verse or the chorus. While bridge sections can be quite interesting musically, they are almost never the focal section of a song. (page 12)

Chours

The chorus is usually the most important or easily remembered section of a song, containing the title and the catchiest musical material. Not all songs have a chorus, but when one is present, it is usually the focus of the song. (page 15)

doo-wop progression

The doo-wop progression is a structure that can form the basis for verse, chorus, and bridge sections in rock music. It is a repeating pattern of four chords: I-iv-IV-V. In the key of C major, these chords would be C major-A minor-F major-G major. As per its name, the pattern was common in youth-oriented vocal harmony music during the 1950s, but was also employed widely after this period in a variety of contexts. (page 12)

ambience

The overall affect of a recording's sound. Ambience can be manipulated in a number of ways, the most popular of which is reverb. (page 23)

timbre

The quality of a particular sound. Timbre is the character that differentiates one instrument from another. Effects such as reverb and equalization can change an instrument's timbre. (page 24)

12 bar blues

The twelve-bar blues is a structure that forms the musical basis for many verses, choruses, and even bridges in rock music. It can be divided into three 4-bar phrases. The lyrics to the first phrase are frequently repeated in the second phrase, with new lyrics appearing in the third phrase, creating a kind of question/question repeated/answer model as the words unfold. The twelve-bar blues also employs a specific arrangement of chords, and this is explained in greater detail in Interlude One. In the history of rock, the twelve-bar blues is strongly associated with 1950s rock and rhythm & blues. Even when this structure arises in later rock, the reference to the 1950s is often clear. (page 11)

contrasting verse-chorus form

In contrasting verse-chorus form, the verse and chorus sections employ contrasting musical material. The form consists of these contrasting verses and choruses presented in alternation, though more than one verse may occur before the chorus. (page 17)

equalizers

Effects that change the quality of sound by increasing or decreasing certain frequencies. Often used to enhance or reduce treble, midrange, or bass sounds in recordings and live performances. (page 24)

compound AABA form

In a compound AABA form, each A section contains at least one verse and a chorus section (these can be contrasting or not). After two presentations of this verse-chorus unit (A A), a contrasting bridge section occurs (B), followed by a return to some version of the verse-chorus pair (A). Sometimes this return can consist only of the chorus and repetitions of it. (page 26) Your Answer

partial reprise

In an AABA form, playing once through the AABA structure often does not create a song that is long enough. When only a portion of AABA structure is repeated, this is called a "partial reprise." Most partial reprises repeat the BA or the ABA sections of the AABA structure. (page 15)

full reprise

In an AABA form, playing once through the AABA structure often does not create a song that is long enough. When the entire AABA structure is repeated, this is called a "full reprise." Some songs may use more than one repeat of the entire AABA structure. (page 15)

Key

Most rock songs are in a specific key. This refers to the fact that all of the notes in the song bear a subordinate relationship to some central note. The actual note that is central is identified using a note name (A, B♭, F#) and the way in which the other notes relate to that central note is identified using terms such as "major" or "minor." When musicians refer to the key of D major, for instance, they mean that the note D is the central note and that the other notes relate to it in a specific way that we hear as major. (page 12)

Simple (meter)

When we subdivide the basic beat into two equal parts, we create a simple feel, which is notated using simple meters such as 2/4, 3/4, or most commonly, 4/4. See the Introduction for a fuller explanation of simple and compound meters. (page 11)

Compound (meter)

When we subdivide the basic beat into three equal parts, this creates a compound feel, which is notated using compound meters such as 6/8, 9/8, or most commonly, 12/8. See the Introduction for an explanation of simple and compound meters. (page 11)