Chapter 1

What are two examples of science NOT being empirical?

1) HARKing (hypothesizing after results are known): changing your hypothesis to match the results AFTER you've done the experiment 2) p-hacking: manipulating your results to get a significant result

What is an example of science not being public?

Elsevier's subscription-based business model Institutions must PAY to access AND publish research

What are the 3 important principles of the scientific method?

Empirical (i.e., obtained by making observations) Public Objection

What differentiates science from pseudoscience?

Gathering evidence from careful, systematic, and objective observations 1) Testable and refutable hypotheses 2) Objective and unbiased evaluation of available evidence 3) Actively tests and challenges its own theories and adapts the theories when new evidence appears 4) Grounded in past science

A statement that describes or explains a relationship between variables

Hypothesis *A hypothesis can lead to several different predictions

What kind of reasoning uses a FEW specific observations to produce a GENERAL hypothesis?

Inductive reasoning E.g., you only tasted three sour apples and you conclude all apples are sour

What is the problem with the method of intuition?

It has no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge

Which method of knowing is used when you find the address and phone number of a restaurant by googling the name of the restaurant?

Method of authority

A restaurant chef tried replacing rice with pasta in one of her recipes to see what would happen. Which method of acquiring knowledge is she using?

Method of empiricism

Which method of knowledge is being used by a student who believes that his performance on tests is influenced by wearing a lucky hat?

Method of tenacity

What distinguishes qualitative research and quantitative research?

Quantitative research produces numerical scores -Submitted to statistical analysis for summary and interpretation Qualitative research is based on making observations -Summarized and interpreted in a narrative report

Last year Tim and his friend Jack were both too short to ride the roller coaster. Jack went to the park this year and was tall enough to ride. Tim knows that he is taller than Jack, so he knows that he will be able to ride the roller coaster as well. Which method of knowledge is Tim using?

Rational method

From habit or superstition From a hunch of feeling From an expert From reasoning; a logical conclusion From direct sensory observation

Tenacity Intuition Authority Rationalism Empiricism

However, the conclusion is not necessarily true UNLESS both of the premise statements are ___, EVEN IN a valid logical argument

True *The truth of any logical conclusion is founded on the truth of the premise statements

Characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals

Variables E.g., weather, health status, age

What are some examples of science not being objective?

Accepting donations from someone with invested interest in the results of the research

What is wrong with the method of tenacity?

Even in the face of evidence to the contrary, a belief that is widely accepted can be very difficult to change

A hypothesis is a ____ statement and a prediction is a ____ statement

General Specific

In the method of ____, information is accepted as true because it "feels right" Relying on hunches and instinct

Intuition

What is the problem with the method of faith?

It allows to mechanism to test the accuracy of information

There are many methods for acquiring ____

Knowledge (i.e., discovering answers to questions)

An argument is a set of ____ that are logically combined to reach a conclusion

Premise statements

The ____ method involves seeking answer by logical reasoning

Rational method

The ____ is an approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers

Scientific method

What method is used by behavioral scientists to answer questions?

Scientific method

Why does the scientific method combines several different methods of acquiring knowledge?

To avoid pitfalls of any individual method used by itself

What are some examples of pseudoscience in hearing and speech?

-Facilitative communication -Defeat Autism NOW movement -Auditory Integration Training

The ____ method attempts to answer questions by direct observation or personal experience

Empirical method

That rational method begins after the premise statements have been presented All conclusions are tested by ensuring that they confirm to the rules of ____

Logic

What are the problems with the empirical method?

Our sensory experience can deceive us Perceptions can be altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, or belief Can misinterpret your observation (e.g., earth turns toward the sun, the sun doesn't rise) Time consuming

The method of ____ is information we accept as true because it has always been believed, or superstition supports it (i.e., the persistence of superstition)

Tenacity E.g., "opposites attract"

What are some problems with the method of authority?

-It does not always provide accurate information (e.g., authorities can be biased) -Answers obtained from an expert could represent subjective, personal opinion rather than knowledge -Assume that expertise in 1 area can be generalized to other topics (e.g., a famous athlete advertising) -People often accept an expert's statement without question -Not all experts are experts

What are the STEPS of the research process?

1) Find a research idea: select a topic and search the literature to find an unanswered question 2) Form a hypothesis 3) Determine how you will define and measure your variables 4) Identify the participants (human) or subjects (nonhuman) for the study. Decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment. 5) Select a research strategy 6) Select a research design 7) Conduct the study 8) Evaluate the data 9) Report the results 10) Refine or reformulate your research idea

What are the steps of the scientific method?

1) Observe behavioral or other phenomena 2) Form a tentative answer or explanation (a hypothesis) 3) Use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction 4) Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations 5) Use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis

What are some potential solutions to prevent science from not being public?

1) Pay to have your article available in an open access journal 2) Pre-prints (some journals don't allow this; e.g., ASHA) 3) PubMed open access (i.e., if you have an NIH grant, they will make your article available after an initial embargo period)

Pseudoscience lacks some of the key components essential to scientific research What are some examples?

Aromatherapy Astrology Intelligent design

In the method of ____, a person finds answers by seeking out an authority on the subject Relying on the assumed expertise of another person (physicians, scientists, psychologists) E.g., "Google it"

Authority *For many questions, this is the quickest and easiest way to obtain answers

The methods of tenacity, intuition, and authority are good for answering some questions if you need an answer QUICKLY and if there are NO serious consequences for accepting a wrong answer The next two methods of acquiring knowledge are designed to place more ___ on the information and answers they produce

Demands

The method of authority can sometimes be called the method of ____ because people accept on faith any information that is given Accepting another's view of the truth without verification

Faith E.g., children have absolute faith in the answers from their parents

The scientific method repeats the same series of steps over and over again

Observation, hypothesis, prediction, observation, hypothesis, prediction, etc.

What is a potential solution to prevent science from not being empirical?

Pre-registration of scientific studies

An alternative approach to gathering, interpreting, and report information is known as ____ research. The primary distinction is the TYPE of data they produce The result of ____ research is typically a narrative report.

Qualitative research

What are the limitations of the rational method?

The rational method "assumes" the premise statements are true People are not very good at logical reasoning *Sometimes the argument does not logically support the conclusion

____ research examines variables that typically vary in quantity (size, magnitude, duration, or amount) The results, or data, obtained from these measurements are usually numerical scores that can be summarized, analyzed, and interpreted using standard statistical procedures

Quantitative research