Chapter 1 The First American Way of War

What caused the increasing conflict between Natives and Colonists?

Colonists' increasing conflict with indigenous peoples had more to do with their rejection of the view that Native Americans were noble savages than anything the indigenous peoples actually did.

How did colonists view Native American torture?

Colonists, who began to see Native Americans as less noble and more barbarous, as savages, easily misconstrued this notion of torture. Often, captives were adopted into the victorious tribe, a practice that became more common as European diseases decimated indigenous groups. The Iroquois, in particular, practiced this custom to replenish growing losses among their own tribes from disease and battle with European settlers.

Explain how the Virginia militia evolved.

By 163, due to Virginia's growth, its militia was organized by county instead of settlement. Although the militia was under the direct control of the royal governor, it also could be called out by local commanders in emergencies. As the colony grew in size and population and the Indian threat lessened, the militia became smaller. Indentured servants were no longer required to serve. Slaves, of course, were exempted. The colony also began to pay militiamen when on active duty. Appointed by the governor, officers came almost exclusively from the gentry class.

Who vowed to seek revenge for the murder of their people during this war?

Opechancanough, chief of the confederacy of Algonquin tribes that the colonists collectively called the Powhatans, boisterously vowed to avenge the murder. But equally belligerent colonists threatened to punish the Powhatans if they made the attempt, resulting in what appeared to be a stalemate.

What weapon as used by colonists?

The vast majority of colonists had never handled a weapon before coming to America. Whatever militia training they had in England most likely had been accomplished with long wooden pikes rather than the more expensive and complicated muskets. With its wooden shaft or pole plus a large steel or iron tip, a pike could be as long as 15 feet.

Who was the Pequot leader?

Sassacus

What are the two principal values developed by the English concerning military affairs?

1. First, the idea of a militia had become an English tradition in and of itself. Militia in England had been an institution with which all Anglo colonists would have been familiar. Eacah county in England was obligated to keep and train militia units, konwn as trainbands, under the leadership of a lord-lieutenant. 2. The English looked upon a large professional army with grave suspicion, because many feared such an army might violate fundamental liberties that were guaranteed under Parliament and Crown. Standing armies also cost money, which England could ill afford, especially with so much of the national budget spent on naval power. Militia service in England was also a general obligation with centralized standards that applied equally to all county militia units.

What was a critical difference between Europeans and Native Americans?

A critical difference between the Europeans, English settlers in particular, and the indigenous peoples they encountered involved approaches and attitudes toward warfare. The military culture of Native Americans was vastly different from that of Europeans. Through violent encounters, including several near-catastrophic wars, English colonists and Native Americans were forced to alter their understanding and methods of warfare. These changes allowed the Europeans to seize land and secure settlements on the east coast of North America. For the Indigenous peoples, the changes so drastically altered cultural norms that life for Native Americans would never be the same again. Because European colonists understood war's intent as annihilation of the enemy, some indigenous peoples eventually faced outright extinction.

Who finally killed Metacomet?

A second but much smaller Army of the United Colonies, this time commanded by the able Benjamin Church, finally tracked down Metacomet after several skirmishes in summer 1676. Metacomet was killed in battle on August 12, effectively ending the war. His head was severed and taken to Plymouth, where it was prominently displayed for years.

How did the Colonial war tactics continue to be barbaric?

Across the ensuing decades Native Americans adopted and adapted the settlers' tactics, inflicting heavy casualties upon their white enemy. While colonists could not initially force indigenous fighters to engage en masse as was the practice in Europe, like their European counterparts in the Thirty Years' War they brought death and destruction upon noncombatant populations. Europe would move away from such devastation; the English colonists in North America would not, as their next conflict with indigenous peoples made the Pequot War seem like a series of small skirmishes.

How did the Powhatan respond to the Virginia militia?

Adopting a European tactic, the Powhatan at first attempted to lay siege against the handful of Virginian strongholds. Effective at first, these sieges fell apart as militiamen broke out to attack Powhatan villages, burning them to the ground while seizing stores of food.

When was the Army of the United Colonies formed?

After formally declaring war on Metacomet the previous September, colonists in Plymouth, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut came together in November to establish the Army of the United Colonies.

Explain what happened when Mason attacked the sleeping Pequot camp on the Mystic River.

Along with Captain John Underhill, Mason struck the sleeping Mystic encampment early on the morning of May 26. After encircling the sleeping Indians, the colonists set fire to the primitive fortifications and camp, shooting those who tried to escape, a tactic that colonists used against indigenous peoples time and time again into the nineteenth century. Within an hour, more than 700 Pequot had perished. Only seven escaped, while another seven were taken captive.

What did the New England militia value?

Although Puritan social strictures were often rigid, Puritans valued democratic processes and participation in the congregation at all levels. Since ministers, sheriffs, magistrates, and the like were elected, it should come as no surprise that militia officers were also popularly chosen. Though militia officers were elected locally, a colony's general court or assembly usually reserved final approval of militia commissions.

How did the militia security system of the colonies evolve?

Although the militia concept suited colonial security needs for the first few decades of settlement in the New World, in the long run, militias outlived their practical usefulness. Their experience as amateur citizen-soldiers in the Indian Wars of the 1600s left militiamen ill-prepared for the broader imperial conflicts of the 1700s. While the militia concept worked well for local security needs, the changing geopolitical conditions of North America required more comprehensive military institutions and redefined relationships in civil-military affairs at the intra-colonial as well as the imperial level.

How did conflict start between colonists and Native Americans?

At first, these conflicts centered on food. Native Americans typically had only enough for themselves but nonetheless had generously given any meager but valuable surplus to starving colonists, who had primarily expected the local Indians to feed them int he first place. If the Native Americans did not offer foodstuffs, hungry colonists raided nearby villages and stole food. When Native Americans resisted, the colonists responded with astonishing brutality, as in 1610, when Captain George Percy led a small group of men against a Pasphegh, a brutal introduction to what became the colonial style of warfare.

Describe the Virginia militia when the Powhatan Wars began.

At the beginning of the Powhatan Wars, the Virginia militia was disorganized because of neglect, sickness, and inadequate arms, but it recovered enough to mount a nominal defense and to carry out several haphazard campaigns against Powhatan villages.

How did New Englanders respond to the Virginia Powhatan war?

Aware of what was happening in Virginia, the New England colonies hoped to avoid bloody conflict with their indigenous neighbors. The colonies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, and Connecticut all shared borders with a variety of tribal groups, including the Narragansett, Mohegan, and Pequot. As in Virginia, conflict exploded after years of territorial pressure, population decline, and cultural misunderstanding.

Why did the English colonists develop their security system?

Because of these and other destructive and costly conflicts, by the end of the seventeenth century the scale and risk of war on the imperial stage made a permanent well-maintained armed force a national necessity. Largely detached from European conflict and military advancements, the English colonists developed their own security system and concept of warfare based upon their developing traditions, geopolitical circumstances, and brutal attitudes toward indigenous populations.

What were New Englanders hoping to achieve from this war?

Both colonies disputed rights to the Connecticut Valley, and whichever colony defeated or conclude peace with the Pequot would have the inside edge in securing the territory.

Why were Native American warriors sometimes not that strong?

Bows and arrows, tomahawks, and deadly looking knives made the Native American warrior seem fierce indeed, but these weapons rarely inflicted large numbers of horrific casualties in Native American battles.

Why did Native Americans attack the New England colony in 1676?

By the spring of 1676, the Native Americans were out of food, low on powder, and unable to repair broken muskets. In exchange for a multitude of gifts, the Mohawk gladly attacked Algonquian villages in New England, further pushing New England's indigenous enemies toward complete collapse.

Explain the fate of King Philip's war.

Considering the ratio of casualties to population, it had been a costly, bloody war. Indeed, it was among the deadliest in the history of North America. More than 1,000 colonists lost their lives in the conflict, as did more than 3,000 Native Americans. Once again, however, the colonists could recover while the Native Americans could not. Several chiefs and their families were executed as traitors, as were some colonists who had taken indigenous wives. Many Native Americans, including Metacomet's nine-year-old son, were sold into slavery in the Caribbean or to New England tribes that had fought alongside the colonists, while the remaining survivors either escaped to New France or eked out a meager existence surrounded by growing colonial settlements.

Explain the financial state of New England after the war.

Contemporary estimates placed the war's cost at £100,000, an amount comparable to £10 million in 2019. Colonists suffered property losses over £150,000—an enormous amount for the period. Even though the colonists came out better in the end, the victory had a Pyrrhic touch, as it would take New England years to financially recover and rebuild what had been destroyed in less than three years of war.

Explain the experience of Jamestown colonists in the New World.

Context is essential in this case, as the Jamestown colony suffered tremendously during its first two decades of existence. From 1607 through the early 1620s, only around 20 percent of the colonists who came to Jamestown from England survived. The vast majority died from starvation and disease, while only a comparative few died in skirmishes with Native Americans.

How did the values of the English military evolve?

Cromwell's army also avoided needless casualties among noncombatants, and rarely employed terror as a tactic or strategy because Cromwell recognized the risks of alienating the population. The large, standing professional armies of the latter years of the devastating Thirty Years' War also gravitated toward more limited notions of warfare, employing discipline and training while avoiding terrorizing noncombatant populations.

Who is Hannah Duston?

Despite the militias' intent, they could not prevent or immediately react to every threat. One striking instance is the Abenaki people's 1697 raid on Haverhill, Massachusetts, during King William's War. Hannah Duston, her newborn child, and others of her town were captured; many others were killed. After several weeks passed and her baby was murdered, Duston led a successful revolt against her captors. In the process she killed and scalped several of the Abenaki who imprisoned her. When she and her fellow captives returned to Haverhill, she was lauded for her bravery. Although women colonists were not allowed to serve in the militia, they often had the skills, strength, and fortitude required to fight the enemy. Hannah Duston is remembered for those soldier-like qualities.

Explain early colonial fortifications.

Early colonial fortifications were rather simple; most consisted of either a stockade fence or a central blockhouse as a defense against Indian raids. In an emergency, a general alarm would gather colonists from surrounding farms into the settlement's stronghold. Once inside, militiamen and other colonists would take up positions on ramparts and behind loopholes to fend off attackers. This strategy often worked well against small Indian raids, but anything more substantial in size and more prolonged put the settlers at a disadvantage.

What did the English colonists bring with them to the New World?

English colonists brought to the New World their own ideas about military service, purpose, and practice. A well-trained and equipped militia based upon the English model provided protection from whatever dangers were lurking in the dense forests of North America. Classic European battlefield practices at first ruled the colonial warring style. Partly because of tradition, but also in part because of financial limitations, many militiamen were armed with inexpensive pikes with which they maneuvered in tight, lined formations.

Explain how the Narragansett used the knowledge of the English to attack their enemies.

Fearing annihilation, the Native Americans adopted colonial military methods. They burned settlements, attacking 52 of 90 settlements in 1675 alone, completely destroying 12. Entire families were massacred, and churches burned to the ground. So great was the indigenous success at the beginning of the war that the Narragansett boldly proclaimed that the English god had abandoned the Puritans and was now with them. By the end of 1675, the Puritan colonists were in severe trouble. Frontier settlements lay empty as the population fled to the relative safety of more densely populated coastal areas. The flood of refugees squeezed food supplies because few farmers were willing to risk their lives to bring in the crops needed to feed the burgeoning population. New England was in a state of shock and denial—could God really have forsaken the Puritans, and was he punishing them for failing in their dedication? It appeared so. The question now was how to regain control of the crisis and reclaim God's favor. Militant revenge with God's blessing was the answer.

What two purposes did torture serve?

First, it allowed for an emotional release that probably made restraint in combat possible. Second, in tribal society tortured captives gained stature and esteem with their captors by courageously accepting their horrifying fate.

Explain the conditions of early colonial fortifications.

Food and water ran out quickly under any sort of siege, leaving the besieged colonists in dire straits unless relief arrived post-haste. Fortunately, the nature of Indian warfare allowed for few organized, lengthy assaults, much less for any sort of siege. Fleeing to the relative safety of the stronghold, colonists left homes and other property unprotected. Indians contented themselves with ignoring the settlers in the blockhouse to loot and burn homesteads and farms, having little patience or incentive for an organized siege.

How did the Colonists feel about war?

For the colonists, a way of war had developed that struck at the heart of the enemy--his homes, villages, crops, and families. It was brutal, but the colonists convinced themselves that fighting savages demanded barbarous strategies. Moreover, the apparent success at arms and come via the citizen-soldier, the militia. This convinced many in the colony that the militia system worked and could repel attack without the assistance of regular, professional troops. It was a false lesson.

How did the catalyst and revenge of the Tidewater Wars affect Virginia and Natives?

For the next ten years, the Powhatan and Virginia colonists warred on each other, with both sides committing ghastly atrocities. At one point, the governor invited Opechancanough and his warriors to a peace conference and then poisoned 200 of them by serving them poisonous drinks. Most of the desperately ill Powhatan warriors were slaughtered, but Opechancanough somehow managed to escape.

Explain the cost of fortifications.

Fortifications were expensive, often making up the largest single expense in a colony's budget. Construction was costly, especially for the ring of forts that Virginia built along its frontier in the 1600s. Maintenance cost even more, as wood rotted and cannon rusted.

How did Indians affect these forts?

Forts on the frontier rarely proved useful, as Indians quickly passed between the forts, which were tens of miles apart in many spots and non-existent in most others. Pure chance, more often than not, brought indigenous raiding parties in contact with ranger patrols from the forts. Most of the time, raiding parties avoided the patrols through superior reconnaissance, or both groups simply missed each other unawares. Over time, blockhouses and garrisons in more established settlements fell into disuse and disrepair as the Indian threat moved further inland.

What did English colonist face when they arrived to the New World?

From the English viewpoint, strange diseases, a dramatically diverse climate, and a primitive indigenous people haunted the shores and estuaries of New England, the Chesapeake, and the Carolinas. These early colonists arrived with no promise of royal protection from hostile indigenous peoples or encroaching armies of competing European powers.

What changed military style of the English origin in the colonies?

From the standpoint of the English Crown and Parliament, the colonist were on their own and would have to provide for their own defense. The war fare that developed in North America was not European in style or purpose, and it forced colonists to move away from military concepts of the Old World and open their minds to new but brutal ideas about warfare and military affairs that suited their unique situation.

What did Endicott do to bring the Pequot to War?

Frustrated, he let loose his militia upon the countryside to destroy Pequot homes and crops. The colonists then withdrew to Fort Saybrook at the mouth of the Connecticut River, where the Pequot promptly attempted a siege. Keeping the colonists penned down at Fort Saybrook, Pequot reinforcements raided Whethersfield, killing several colonists.

What happened to the Indigenous peoples after the war?

Having lost more than a third of their population in the war, and with another third having fled the region or been forced into foreign slavery, the indigenous peoples of New England could not recover from such attrition.

What did chief Opechancanough do to see that revenge was taken?

However, on March 22, 1622, after personally serving as a friendly guide for a group of Virginia planters only two days before, Pechancanough unleashed a string of well-coordinated attacks on Virginia settlements and farms, catching colonists and their militia entirely off guard. Three hundred and forty-seven colonists, almost a third of the Anglo population, were dead by the end of the day.

Explain the population in this region after the war.

In 1670, Native Americans accounted for 25 percent of the population of New England; by 1680, they made up only 10 percent. The colonial population increased from 52,000 to 68,000 during the same ten-year period.

who was sent to help the New England colony be successful in the military gain?

In August 1636, Massachusetts Bay sent Captain John Endicott and a small militia expeditionary force to Block Island, where they hoped to draw the Pequot into a decisive engagement. The Pequot warriors, however, would not be baited and withdrew into the swamps. Endicott tried another attack from natives Harbor and again failed to bring the Pequot to battle.

When did the values of the English military shift?

In England, these values shifted during the 1600s. Numerous conflicts, notably the English Civil War and the Thirty Years' War, exposed the weaknesses of militia training and the shortcomings of temporary armies.

How did the Pequot war end?

In July, the few remaining Pequot were rounded up near New Haven, where they signed a treaty. Colonists' aggressive and gun-powder fueled tactics had very nearly exterminated a people. The Pequot nation ceased to exist, and the surviving members were given away as slaves to indigenous allies. Neighboring tribes captured those who had tried to escape, returning their severed heads as a sign of tribute to the colonists.

Who joined the battle in May 1637?

In May 1637, the Connecticut militia entered the fray with their new Narragansett allies. Attempts to stage a cooperative effort with Massachusetts Bay had stumbled, but circumstances would bring militia from both colonies together.

Explain the assault coordinated by Opechancanough.

In coordinated assaults along the James River, warriors again attacked with stealthy surprise. This time 500 colonists were killed in the first hours of the attack, but their counterattack was much quicker and better organized.

Explain how the militia became unregulated.

In essence, militia came to serve more as a 'hue and cry' response force. Occasionally, militia could not be used to quell disorder because militiamen themselves made up much of the disturbing party. Such was the case in the Carolinas when roving militia patrols known as regulators grew into a law unto themselves and had to be reined in by legitimate legal authority. Indeed, the militia came to epitomize the precarious balance between civil order and the abuse of military authority.

Explain how the militia was ineffective but gave purpose to the colony.

In scattered settlements and even more scattered farms across the countryside, gathering militia to respond to a sudden raid or attack was inefficient at best. It served three primary purposes: to defend settlements, to act as a police force, and to provide a trained pool from which a colony could draw soldiers for extended campaigns and wars.

What did the militia evolve into in the south?

In the southern colonies, militias and the watch evolved into salve patrols, which roamed the countryside on the look out for runaway slaves and signs of slave insurrection, much as the old ranger patrols had done against the Indian threat. Even in New York City, militia helped put down a slave revolt in 1741. In essence, militia came to serve more as a hue and cry response force. Occasionally, militia could not be used to quell disorder because militiamen themselves made up much of the disturbing party.

How were these weapons and tactics ineffective?

In the thickly wooded hills of English North America, such weapons and line formations quickly proved ineffective against Indian tactics. in Europe, pikes were often used to defend against cavalry attacks but could also be used in formation to attack infantry. Native Americans in colonial North America, however, had neither cavalry nor lines of infantry, preferring instead to ambush and use other stealthy tactics that left many a colonial force frustrated by their inability to draw indigenous warriors into a European-style decisive battle.

Explain how the English tradition began.

In their adaptation to the unique circumstances of north America, English colonists developed their own attitudes toward military affairs and gradually created their own style of war. It was the beginning of what many argue became the American tradition. This included an adapted English militia system that grew throughout the colonies and varied widely in form, regulation, and effectiveness compared to its counterpart back in England.

Who had the first encounter with Native Americans?

Jamestown settlers had the first extended encounters with Native Americans, and the rapidity with which settlers changed their strategic approach toward warfare with indigenous peoples was indeed extraordinary.

Explain how King Philip's war started.

King Philip's War engulfed New England beginning in spring 1675, and before the conflict's conclusion brought the New England colonies together militarily and solidified the colonial way of war. King Philip's War began with the murder of a Native American, supposedly by three Wampanoag. Ordinarily, such a death would not matter much to the Puritan colonists of New England, but this particular man was a resident of one of the missionary prayer towns, and more importantly, was an informer for colonial authorities. The executions unexpectedly sparked an Indian uprising, led at first by young Wampanoag warriors who attacked isolated farms and homesteads.

What example does King Phillips war exemplify?

King Philip's War serves as an excellent example of the results of decades of acculturation through economic, religious, and military contact while continuing the tradition of misunderstanding. Illegal arms trading lessened the technological disadvantage Indians suffered in the Pequot War. They had now mastered the flintlock musket and had plenty of them. Many of the indigenous casualties in the war came from colonial attacks on the friendly Indians who were easily located— those in the several Puritan-established prayer towns that dotted Massachusetts.

Who united with the Connecticut expedition to deliver the final blow to the Pequot?

Massachusetts militia under the command of Daniel Patrick and Israel Stoughton united with the Connecticut expedition in June to deliver the final blow to the Pequot. Narragansett warriors played the villainous role of protector, bringing the Pequot out of hiding. Pequot warriors then found themselves surrounded by the combined militia force. Another slaughter ensued; hundreds of Native Americans died.

What weapons were used in the Classic European style of warfare in the New World?

Matchlock and later flintlock muskets were used in the same fashion-lines of troops, maneuvering to the commands of officers usually on horseback. These single-shot muzzle-loading muskets required intensive training to fire properly and quickly, not to mention accurately. Smooth-bore muskets weighed over 15 pounds and could be as long as four and a half feet, not including the added length of a sizable bayonet.

What was the primary way to imperial dominance?

Mercantilism became the path to imperial dominance, which required a strong navy to protect sea lanes between the mother country and colonies scattered literally around the world. French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch fleets battled England's Royal Navy for maritime supremacy, pouring money into fleets while often neglecting armies at home. Only when war broke out on the European continent did these imperial powers attempt to modernize their armies. Colonies, however, were often left to their own devices, as few regular troops could be spared for colonial service. In North America, England had neither the means nor the money to provide regulars to defend English settlements, thus leaving the colonists to defend themselves for most of the seventeenth century.

Who was Metacomet?

Metacomet was the son of beloved Massasoit, who had helped keep an uneasy peace with the Puritans for several decades. Metacomet, however, felt the ever-encroaching colonists were a more significant threat than did his father. Metacomet never became involved int eh level of conspiracy that the colonists assumed, but he nonetheless became, for the colonists, the symbolic leader of the revolt.

Who helped the Separatists of Massachusetts?

Miles Standish and John Underhill were among the men with military background and experience who accompanied the Puritan Separatists to Massachusetts, helping them build defensive perimeters and organize militia. This was typical among the early colonizers-to establish a defensive fortification of some sort and organize militia based upon the English tradition while adapting both to the unique circumstances of colonial America.

Why was militia training important?

Militia also served as a training mechanism and manpower reservoir for colonial expeditionary forces. Training was essential for several reasons, but in the broad context its most important function was to provide a ready pool of citizen-soldiers to fill country quotas for more sizable armies. Because militia units could not serve outside their home colony, colonial governments organized expeditionary forces to fight more serious conflicts, such as Indian wars and wars against other European colonial powers.

Explain the militia in New England.

Militia in New England was organized along similar lines but had the significant added dimension of religion. Like Virginia, Massachusetts and other new England colonies organized militia at the county level; thus, each county regiment was made up of smaller units from villages and hamlets in the county. All males fulfilled their militia obligation or faced small fine. Of course, the wealthy could afford the fine and often did not serve.

Explain how the militia used the church.

Militia units became centralized agents of social cohesion in many settlements, much like the local church or congregation. In fact, in many places, particularly in new England, the two often were tied together.

What were some clashes between culture?

Much has been written about the clash of cultures that was initiated when Europeans first stepped upon North America shores. Economy, religion, worldview, technology, and other facets of cultural differentiation represented significant obstacles to finding common ground for common existence.

What other role did the militia play?

Much overshadowed by its defensive purpose was the effective job militia performed as police, functioning as an overseer of internal order in a colony. Troubled times frequently brought riots and, as in the case of Virginia in 1676, occasional rebellion. Theft and violent rime plagued port cities. Economically displaced vagrants passed through towns and villages, rousing the suspicion of residents.

Explain Native American code of honor.

Native American codes of honor on the battlefield were, in some respects, remarkably similar to those of Europeans. In indigenous warfare, women and children rarely suffered at the hands of an enemy, although they were often taken as captives. Declarations of war were used to formally commence hostilities. Torture, however, was another matter.

Explain how Native Americans evolved after the war with the colonists.

Native Americans slowly recognized that war with colonists meant war to the death. To have a chance at survival, they too had to burn and destroy as the colonists did. Colonists came to believe that militia worked, that the expeditionary model could defeat indigenous uprisings, and that cooperation with other colonies was necessary to fight Native Americans whose lands and tribal allies did not recognize colonial political boundaries. Moreover, colonial governments realized that exploiting indigenous political fissures to form alliances with rival tribes could tip the balance in these wars. New England certainly would have had a much more difficult fight on its hands had it not formed alliances with other tribes against Philip Metacomet and the Narragansett.

Describe Native American tactics.

Native Americans' tactics reflected their strategic objectives. Unlike Europeans, many Indians had little attachment to material goods or territorial conquest. Taking and holding territory was truly a foreign concept to them. For indigenous peoples, warfare was more an individual or kin-group activity than an act that involved whole societies, and it usually entailed righting perceived wrongs or forcing small tributes from weaker tribes. Contemporary Europeans frequently attested to the few casualties and lack of destruction in battle spitting indigenous peoples against each other. The indigenous population preferred quick, tactical raids rather than pitched battles in open fields, and war parties often dwindled as individuals reconsidered their commitment to hostilities. Spilling blood over largely symbolic matters did not make much sense in indigenous societies.

What was the result of the Powhatan wars?

Neither side could gain advantage. Exhaustion on both sides brought the first Powhatan War to an end in 1632, as neither the Powhatan nor the colonists could continue the fight after years of neglected crops and economic degradation.

What did the New England militia develop?

New England militia developed a deep sense of martial spirit tat was often enhanced by inspiring sermons from church minsters. The social contract established by the Mayflower Compact applied equally to militia service in Puritan New England.

Explain the age limits and expectations required by colonial militias.

Normally, colonial law obligated all able-bodied males to serve. Age limits varied, usually from 16 or 18 to 45, or even up to 60. Virginia's militia system required that all members provide their own weapons, which had to be clean and in good working condition. All males in Virginia from age 16 to 60 were required to serve, participate in drill, and, when not in service, protect the property of neighbors who were fulfilling their militia obligation. This system operated under the auspices of the Virginia Company administration in the colony and continued when Virginia became a royal colony.

Describe George Percy's battle with the Paspahegh.

Percy laid waste to the village, burning homes and destroying crops. HIs men killed more than 65 men, women, and children, and took the village chieftain's wife and children captive. As the colonists traveled by boat back to the settlement, Percy allowed the men to throw the children overboard and shoot them for sport. When Percy presented the chieftain's wife to the governor as a prize, the governor was offended, not because of the massacre, but because Percy had not also killed the woman. She was executed immediately. The strategic objective of the entire operation had not been to destroy the Paspahegh in particular; it was, instead, to send a clear signal to the other villages in the region that the same fate awaited them if they did not supply food for Jamestown.

Explain why recruiting militia was a difficult process.

Plucking men from local militia units to form a colonial expeditionary force was, however, not a straightforward process. Politics at both the local and colonial levels had to be considered. Additionally, all of the English colonies in America had economically diverse settlements. Port cities often had robust economies and larger populations, while frontier regions were sparsely populated and less economically advanced. Merchants tended to dominate coastal politics while gentlemen farmers exercised greater influence inland. Whenever a colonial governor or assembly needed to organize a military force, these diverse relationships had to be considered. Moreover, such expeditions were costly. Outfitting expeditions with weapons, powder and shot, and other necessary supplies trained colonial coffers and forced assemblies and governors to raise taxes or risk crippling deficits.

Why was the expeditionary model controversial?

Rarely was an entire unit compelled into service, because that would leave that unit's homes and loved ones unprotected, causing low morale and discontent among the drafted troops. Such discontent could not only reduce the unit's effectiveness but could also put the local assemblyman in a precarious political position. Thus, it was in the interest of the assembly and the governor to be certain of the need for an expedition and, if so, to ensure its proper supply and command to avoid jeopardizing their political positions.

Who else joined the militia?

Some drifters were actually impressed into militia service. To protect themselves from these threats, many communities recruited small numbers of militia to serve as watch patrols. Like militia, the colonial watch had its origins in England and was also transported to America by English colonists.

Explain how the colonist evolved after their wars with the Natives.

The American military experience in the New World began with violence. For the American colonists, the wars of the 1600s had transformed their European concepts of warfare into an American way of fighting that emphasized destruction of property and the annihilation of noncombatants as well as combatants. Success in these wars also gave the colonists an overblown sense of their own military capabilities, convincing them that their notion of the citizen-soldier was much more militarily effective and less threatening to personal liberties than were large standing armies. War in North America was about to broaden, however, to encompass more than conflict with Native Americans. Now that the various colonies of North America had matured and become more profitable, integral cogs in the imperial machines of England and France, they would be drawn into—and in some cases be the cause of—the wars of empire.

Explain the result of the Pequot war.

The Pequot War had been expensive and ruthless, but for the colonists of both Massachusetts and Connecticut, it had been worthwhile. At the cost of fewer than 50 colonists, the Pequot had been literally wiped out and their tribal lands opened to exploitation. The colonists were fine-tuning a way of war that used death and destruction to bring an enemy to bear. The Pequot were slow on the uptake and, in the eyes of the colonists, had wasted opportunities. In truth, however, what the colonists perceived as the Pequot being poor tacticians was really a demonstration of indigenous inhabitants' customary restraint in war.

What were the two major conflicts that occurred in the New England region?

The Pequot War of 1636-1637 and King Phillip's War (also known as Metacom's War) of 1675-1678, the two major conflicts that occurred int his region, are illustrative of the New England experience with Native American warfare.

What role did Puritans play in King Philip's war?

The Puritans conducted reprisal attacks against several tribes that were completely innocent in the matter, thus alienating potential Native American allies. Even the Narragansett, the region's largest tribe after the Demis of the Pequot, found themselves on the receiving end of Puritan raids. The Puritans blamed the Wampanoag leader Metacomet, whom they had earlier dubbed King Philip as a sign of honor, for instigating his and other area tribes to rebel against the colonists.

Who did the Virginia Company hire?

The Virginia Company hired the English soldier, explorer, and adventurer Captain John Smith to shape a mostly defenseless Jamestown into a militarized outpost and train a militia company for its defense.

What started the first war during the Angle-Powhatan War?

The catalyst, in this case, was a group of indentured servants seeking revenge for the apparent death of their master, a man named Morgan, who had disappeared on an inland trek to trade with area tribes. His men blamed a Powhatan named Nemattanow, whom they found and summarily killed.

How did the colonists benefit from what could be called a civil war?

The colonists benefited from what could be called a civil war among the region's Native Americans and were able to take advantage of their own efforts at intra-colonial cooperation in prosecuting the war. New England forces also willingly adapted indigenous tactics to the colonial strategy of total war, and they realized that threats to colonial security could not be handled by one colony alone--cooperation and unity were now critical to security and military success.

How did the Pequot war begin?

The death of two traders in January 1675 set in motion what would erupt into the Pequot War. A powerful tribe that occupied much of the land along the Thames River in southeastern Connecticut, the Pequot reigned over several tributary tribes that traded with Dutch and English settlers. The murders were committed by a Pequot tributary tribe, the Niantic, and the rival Narragansett. Authorities in Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut, however, ignored what seemed only semantics and went on the offensive against the Pequot.

When did the first war occur during the Angle-Powhatan war?

The first war occurred in 1622, after several years of minor skirmishes and individual acts of vengeance committed by both sides.

Explain how colonials were affected by the construction of forts?

The men assigned to these outposts faced incredible boredom and idleness, which often led to breakdowns in discipline and poor morale.

Explain the dangers of the new world for colonists?

The nascent settlements carved out of the forests of Massachusetts and the Chesapeake Bay region were in constant danger of Indian attack and within striking distance of rival French and Spanish colonies in Canada and Florida. For the English colonists, even the Dutch settlement at New Amsterdam was a possible threat. As the decades passed, the settlements grew in population and size, pushing more Native Americans off their lands.

Why was the colonial civil military controversial?

The politics of colonial civil-military affairs impeded efforts toward intra-colonial military cooperation because it was difficult to muster support for expeditions that would take men away from their homes, leave their families unprotected, and put their own lives in jeopardy in faraway places for what appeared to be little direct benefit for one's home colony. Moreover, getting a colony to surrender control of its force to another colony infringed upon its sovereignty. Arguments over sovereignty plagued leaders during the American War for Independence, but it was a frequent concern as far back as the 1660s. As in most politics, colonial military affairs were, in the end, often personal and decided by political expediency.

What was the centralizing force for militia training and filling quotas?

The social strength of the Puritan community often acted as a centralizing force for militia training and filling quotas. The local meeting house and its congregation provided more than a headquarters for building morale and encouraging the troops; it also served as a barracks, an advanced base in some cases, and offered a mostly reliable support system that often fed troops passing through the region.

What did the war devolve into?

The war soon devolved into a civil war as colonists united with Indian allies against Indians and other Indian allies in a conflict united with Indian allies against Indians and other Indian allies in a conflict that very nearly destroyed the unique mesh of colonial and indigenous societies in New England.

Explain the other wars that led up to the American War for Independence.

There were, of course, dozens of other wars and hundreds of skirmishes pitting colonists against Native Americans, all the way up to the American War for Independence. The Algonquian fought the Dutch from 1643 to 1645 in Kieft's War and again in 1655 in the Peach War. The Iroquois and French squared off intermittently from 1642 to 1696, while colonists in Maryland warred on the susquehannock from 1643 to 1652. Colonists in northwest New England fought the Abnaki in 1675-178, 1702-1712, and again in 1722-1727. Virginia found itself simultaneously in conflict with Native Americans and 1676. North Carolina defeated the Tuscarora in 1712, while South Carolina warred on the Yamasee from 1715 to 1716.

What principles were created by preparing a military force?

These circumstances were not unique to colonial America by any means, but the governmental process of preparing a military force helped establish long-standing principles such as civilian control of the military and power-sharing in American political culture. For example, a colonial governor often acted as commander-in-chief of all militia and military forces of the colony while the assembly exercised exclusive fiscal control over funding these enterprises. As such, the principle of power sharing in military affairs was set long before the Constitution outlined a similar civil-military balance.

What is cultural mimesis?

This concept of transplanting one's customs, beliefs, and traditions is called cultural mimesis.

How did the New England militia evolve?

This integrated system resulted in a militia with tight local bonds built around religion, choice, and deference, so much so that military organization and social structure were basically one and the same. Such a system valued decentralization and instilled a reluctant attitude toward centralized control. Under such arrangements, then, militias functioned as both an initial reaction force and a social stabilizer. Militia service provided a sense of security, established and maintained social parameters, and satisfied the expectations of civic duty.

What was perhaps the most significant colonial war with Native Americans?

Though costly in blood and treasure, the New England victory in King Philip's War was perhaps the most significant of al the colonial wars with Native Americans. The colonies unified in common purpose and never lost governmental control of the war. Militia provided ample sufficiently trained recruits to fill quotas for colonial regiments. Troops, arms, and ammunition were plentiful throughout the conflict.

What was the most serious conflict between the English and the Natives?

Thus, the stage was set for more than 60 years of on-and-off warfare between the English colonists of Virginia and their Indian neighbors. The most serious of these conflicts were the Angle-Powhatan Wars, also known as the Tidewater Wars.

What did Colonist bring to the American wilderness?

To the American wilderness, English colonists brought their traditional notions on social order, localized representative government, fundamental rights, loyalty to the King, civic obligation, and military affairs. From the time of their initial settlement, English colonists became entangled in a paradoxical trinity of trade, alliance, and warfare that resulted in frequent conflict with Native Americans throughout the seventeenth century.

What did some Virginia settlers do?

To the surprise of Jamestown's leaders, more than a few men abandoned the settlement to live with the comparatively better off Indians, who welcomed them if the desperate colonists brought guns, powder, knives, and anything else of value that the Native Americans could not produce themselves. Violating the strict ban on selling arms and munitions to Native Americans resulted in harsh punishments for offenders, usually death.

What happened after the Powhatan war was over?

Twelve years of uneasy peace followed, allowing Virginia to recover and grow in population as, despite indigenous troubles, hundreds of colonists arrived to take their chances int hat appeared to be a land of unparalleled opportunity. Feeling the pressure of Virginia's population growth and the colonists' thirst for land, Opechancanough, now nearly 100 years old, ordered another campaign against the Virginians.

How did colonist bring the Narragansett to war?

Unable to bring the raiding Indians to battle, colonists turned instead on the peaceful Native Americans in the prayer towns and noncombatants in indigenous villages. An intra-colonial force of soldiers massacred more than 500 Narragansett, mostly women and children, in what the colonists called the Great Swamp Fight of December 1675.

How many men was recruited for Virginia and Massachusetts?

Under such a system in the 1630s, Virginia could muster about 2,000 decently equipped men for a military expedition while leaving a bare minimum of militia in reserve to defend more populated settlements. In 1690, Massachusetts was able to put together a force of over 700 militiamen under the leadership of the daring Sir William Phips to overwhelm the under-defended French garrison at Port Royal.

What did John Mason do for the Pequot War?

Under the command of John Mason, the Connecticut militia and their Narragansett comrades fell upon a sleeping Pequot camp on the Mystic River. Mason's original orders had been to attack the fortified camp of the Pequot leader Sassacus, but upon hearing that hundreds of Pequot were concentrated at the Mystic River camp, Mason turned his force toward that new objective. Mason and his men may have deliberately moved on Mystic to massacre women and children in the hope of bringing the warriors under control.

What did the Army of the United Colonies do under the command of governor Josiah Winslow?

Under the command of Plymouth governor Josiah Winslow, this force of 1,000 slogged its way through a severe snowstorm to attack a Narragansett for and encampment in a frozen swamp near Kingston, Rhode Island. On December 19, the Army of the United Colonies attacked in bitter cold across a landscape covered with deep snow. Winslow's men set fire to wigwams and then waited to shoot down helpless men, women, and children as they tried to escape the flames. As many as 600 of the estimated 3,000 - 4,000 Indians were killed that cold day, while Winslow's force lost a not inconsequential 80 men, including 14 company commanders. Winslow ordered a withdrawal to allow the now disorganized Army of the Unified Colonies, low on supplies and suffering from cold, a month's recovery from its 'victory.'

Explain the expeditionary model.

Under the expeditionary model, local militia deferred to expeditionary commanders appointed appointed by the governor by the governor and assembly. Individual militiamen were singled out or volunteered to serve in an expeditionary force.

Explain how New England differed from other English colonies for the militia.

Unlike other English colonies in America, in New England substitutes were illegal. All men, including servants, had to provide for their own weapon, and each village had to keep a store and powder and shot. Each trainband unit consisted of members of the local congregation. Because the local militia unit was so closely tied with the local church, pressure within the congregation to serve and to serve well was indeed great. One did not want to let friends and neighbors, and pastor, down.

How did Virginia respond to this assault coordinated by Opechancanough?

Virginia militia staged several attacks on Powhatan villages, again destroying crops and homes. Sensing the colony was now simply too big for them to fight, the Powhatan capitulated in 1646. What was once a grand alliance of Algonquin tribes, numbering some 10,000 people, was now a shell of its former self. Only around 4,000 Powhatan remained. For the Native Americans, political disorganization, the incapacity to produce powder, and the inability to maintain sustained military campaigns doomed any long-term effort against the Virginia colonists.

Describe Torture by the Native Americans.

While Europeans eschewed the practice in warfare but seemed to delight in it in jurisprudence, it was not uncommon for Native Americans along the eastern coast of North America to ritually torture and kill male prisoners of war.

Explain the Puritans when they first arrived to the America?

When they first arrived in America, the Puritans did not attempt to convert the Native Americans, but, beginning in the 1640s, they turned to missionary work as a means to pacify local tribes and avoid repeating the terrible slaughter of the Pequot War. The great irony, of course, was that this effort now provided the colonists with an accessible killing ground.

What was the downfall of this war for the New England colony?

While King Philip's War was not the only factor that forced England to reorganize its imperial administration, it indeed removed whatever obstacles there were to creating the Dominion of New England. Still, the New England colonies were in shambles despite the victory, and they had driven many surviving tribes into the open and waiting arms of England's enemies, the French.

Were women, and slaves apart of war?

Women, indigenous and colonist alike, and slaves also participated in and were subject to the violence of war. For the most part, these groups engaged in violence only when they had to, but they were always part of the landscape of war.