Chapter 1 Understanding Religion

Key Critical Issues: What was Levi-Strauss's view of the basis of world religions?

Levi-Strauss did fieldwork in Brazil, where he studied the mythology of tribal groups. There he began to see great similarities in the myths of indigenous peoples. This led him to see large structural similarities between kinship patterns, languages, and social relations. He theorized that structures in the human mind formed these similarities (structuralism).

Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Religion: Give examples of the areas of religious study in Linguistic and Literary Theory.

Linguistic Theory Example. The various implications of the religious words sin and sacred. Literary Theory, on the other hand, has studied the written texts of religion as reflections of the cultural assumptions and values that have produced the texts. Literary theory has thus pointed out some of the ways in which religions have reflected and promoted the treatment of women and minorities, for example, as different from or inferior to more dominant groups.

The Sacred: What is monotheism and what key beliefs do monotheistic religions share?

Monotheism is a belief in one God. Although God may be said to have personal aspects, all monotheistic religions agree that the reality of God is beyond all categories; God is said to be pure spirit, not fully definable in words. This notion of a powerful God, distinct from the universe, describes a sacredness that is active in the world, but always distinct from it. That is, God is transcendent- unlimited by the world and all ordinary reality.

Speculations on the Sources of Religion: What primary need did religion first meet?

One of our primary needs is having a means to deal with our mortality (death).

Speculations on the Sources of Religion: What is Rudolf Otto's idea of the holy?

Otto believed that religions emerge when people experience that aspect of reality which is essentially mysterious. In general, we take our existence for granted and live with little wonder, but occasionally something disturbs our ordinary view of reality.

Speculations on the Sources of Religion: What are practical benefits offered by religion?

Religion can help us cope with death, and religious rituals can offer us comfort. Human beings also desire good health, a regular supply of food, and the conditions (such as suitable weather) necessary to ensure these things. In addition, religion offers companionship and stimulates art, music, and dance.

Third Pattern- Views of Male and Female: What is an example of the worship of the feminine in Christianity?

The Christian New Testament contains words that sometimes have been interpreted to mean that women should not play a prominent role in public worship: "I do not allow them to teach or to have authority over men; they must keep quiet. For Adam was created first, and then Eve. And it was not Adam who was deceived; it was the woman who was deceived and broke God's law." (1 Timothy 2: 12-14).

The Scared: Define Polytheism

The belief in many gods.

The Sacred: Define Pantheism

The belief that everything in the universe is divine.

Key Characteristics of Religion: What does the derivation of the word "religion" suggest?

The common translation of religion is "to join again" and "to reconnect". If this derivation is correct, then the word religion suggests the joining of our natural, human world to the sacred world.

Speculations on the Sources of Religion: What does the author see as the most basic function of religion?

The most basic function of religion is to respond to our natural wonder about ourselves and the cosmos. Religion helps us relate to the unknown universe around us by answering the basic questions of who we are, where we come from, and where we are going.

Second Pattern- Focus of Beliefs and Practices Mystical Orientation: What does Mystical Orientation seek and what are its implications?

The mystical orientation seeks union with a reality greater than oneself, such as with God, the process of nature, the universe, or reality as a whole. There are often techniques (such as seated meditation) for lessening the sense of ones individual identity to help the individual experience a greater unity.

Second Pattern- Focus of Beliefs and Practices Prophetic Orientation: What does Prophetic Orientation stress and what are its implications?

The prophetic orientation stresses that contact with the sacred is ensured by proper belief and by adherence to moral rules. This orientation also implies that a human being may be an important intermediary between the believer and the sacred; for example, a prophet may speak to believers on behalf of the sacred.

Second Pattern- Focus of Beliefs and Practices Sacramental Orientation: What purpose do rituals serve?

The sacramental orientation emphasizes carrying out rituals and ceremonies regularly and correctly as the path to salvation; in some religions, correct ritual is believed to influence the processes of nature. All religions have some degree of ritual, but the ceremonial tendency is predominant.

Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Religion: Give examples of the areas of religious study in Theology.

The study of topics as they relate to one particular religion tradition; Example. A person who is training to become a Christian minister might study Christian theology.

Key Critical Issues: What are three questions raised by research into world religions?

1) Are we genuinely listening to the voices or practitioners, or are we only paying attention to the experiences of the observer? 2) Can an outsider be truly objective, or is the outsider merely imposing theories of other cultures? 3) Doesn't scientific observation contaminate the people and culture being observed?

First Pattern- Views of the World and Life Human Purpose: What two roles for humans do religions present and what are their implications?

1) In some religions, human beings are part of a great divine plan, and although each person is unique, individual meaning comes also from the cosmic plan. The cosmic plan may be viewed as a struggle between forces of good and evil, with human beings at the center of the stage and the forces of good and evil at work within them. Because human actions are important, they must be guided by a prescribed moral code that is meant to be internalized by the individual 2) In contrast, other religions do not see human life in similarly dramatic terms, and the individual is only part of much larger realities. Such religions place less emphasis on individual rights and more emphasis on how the individual can maintain harmony with the whole. Actions are not guided by an internalized moral system, but by society, tradition, and a sense of mutual obligation.

First Pattern- Views of the World and Life Exclusiveness and Inclusiveness: Give examples of religions that emphasize exclusiveness and inclusiveness and those that do not.

1) Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are among the religions that have been generally exclusive, making it impossible to belong to more than one religion at the same time. 2) Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism are inclusive. Their inclusiveness has led them to admit many types of beliefs and practices into their religions, to the point that it is possible for an individual to belong to several religions simultaneously.

Religious Symbolism: What are two non-materisitc symbols addressed by the author?

1) Religions frequently use words in a symbolic way (Ex. A person can feel "reborn") 2) Religious buildings are placed on hills or are raised on mounds and reached by stairs- all suggesting the symbol of the holy mountain, where the sacred can be encountered

First Pattern- Views of the World and Life Time: What two religious outlooks are expressed in Time and what are their implications?

1) Religions that emphasize a creation tend to see time as being linear (moving in a straight line from the beginning of the universe to its end); Time is limited and unrepeatable 2) In some other religions, time is cyclical. The universe simply moves through endless changes, which repeat themselves over grand periods of time. In such a religion, time is not as crucial or "real" because, ultimately, the universe is not moving to some final point; consequently, appreciating the present may be more important than being oriented to the future

First Pattern- Views of the World and Life The Human Attitude toward Nature: What are the three attitudes expressed about The Human Attitude toward Nature?

1) See nature as the realm of evil forces that must be overcome. For them, nature is gross and contaminating, existing in opposition to the nonmaterial world of the spirit (dualism) 2) Hold that the natural world originated from a divine action, but that human beings are called upon to continue to shape it (middle ground) 3) Nature is considered to be sacred and needs no alteration

First Pattern- Views of the World and Life Nature of Sacred Reality: What are two conflicting views expressed under Nature of Sacred Reality?

1) Some Religions speak of the sacred as transcendent (existing in a realm beyond the everyday world). In other religions, sacred reality is spoken as being immanent (within nature and human beings) and can be experienced as energy or holiness. 2) The sacred viewed as having personal attributes vs. an impersonal entity.

First Pattern- Views of the World and Life Nature of the Universe: What are two views that religions hold about the universe and what are their implications?

1) Some religions see the universe as having been begun by an intelligent, personal creator who continues to guide the universe according to a cosmic plan. 2) Other religions view the universe as being eternal; that is, having no beginning or end. Implications: If the universe is created, especially by a transcendent deity, the center of sacredness is the creator rather than the universe, but human beings imitate the creator by changing and perfecting the world. If however, the universe is eternal, the material universe itself is sacred and perfect and requires no change.

Religious Symbolism: What examples of religious symbols does the author offer?

1) Water: Symbolizes Spiritual Cleansing 2) Sun: Symbolizes Health 3) Mountain: Symbolizes Strength 4) Circle: Symbolizes Eternity

Key Critical Issues: How was the viewpoint of Michael Foucault different from Levi- Strauss?

A countermovement, called poststructuralism, soon emerged after Strauss's theory (structuralism). It emphasized the individuality of each experience and argued that belief in grand structures may keep investigators from appreciating individuality. Foucault is thought as the primary exponent. His work especially focused on those marginalized by society- prisoners, medical patients, and the insane.

Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Religion: Give examples of the areas of religious study in Psychology.

A few areas of study include religious influences on childrearing (bringing up a child), human behavior, gender expectations, and self identity.

The Sacred: Define Nontheism

A position that is unconcerned with the supernatural, not asserting or denying the existence of any deity.

Religious Symbolism: How is "symbol" described?

A symbol is something fairly concrete, ordinary, and universal that can represent- and help human beings intensely experience- something of greater complexity.

First Encounter: How does the person in the opening chapter of the textbook discover the deeper questions of life and its meaning?

By paying attention to the natural world around them. For example, the smell in the air, the strong breeze that creates a whispering sound, etc.)

Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Religion: Give examples of the areas of religious study in Archeology.

Example. The excavation (digging up) of a cuneiform (ancient writing) library at Nineveh 150 years ago revealed a story that is similar to- and may have influenced- the biblical story of Noah and the flood.

Speculations on the Sources of Religion: Many people think that people believe for security. How did James Frazer understand religion in this regard?

Frazer saw the origins of religion in early attempts by human beings to influence nature, and he identified religion as an intermediate stage between magic and science.

The Sacred: Define Atheism

"Not God"; A position asserting that there is no God or Gods.

The Sacred: Define Agnosticism

"Not Know"; A position asserting that the existence of God cannot be proven.

The Sacred: Define Animism

A worldview common among oral religions that sees all elements of nature as being filled with spirit or spirits.

Key Characteristics of Religion: List the eight elements found in world religions.

A. Belief System (another understanding of this term is "worldview") B. Community C. Central Myths (myth does NOT in itself mean that the stories are historically untrue) D. Ritual E. Ethics F. Characteristic Emotional Experiences G. Material Expression H. Sacredness

The Sacred: Religions that see the sacred reality as an energy in the world use what term to define the sacred reality?

Immanent

Key Critical Issues: How does deconstruction view religion?

Deconstruction refers to going behind the ordinary interpretation of texts to discover new cultural meanings. For example, traditional religious texts can be look at from many new points of view.

Key Critical Issues: What was Durkheim's belief about the creation of great world religions?

Durkheim pointed out how religions seem to emerge from whole tribes and people. He noted how religions reinforce the values of groups, and his approach was empirical (based on research).

Key Characteristics of Religion: What is an understanding of religion from other cultures that might be left out by this suggestion?

In classical Latin, the term religion meant awe for the gods and concern for proper ritual. We must recognize, though, that the term religion arose in Western culture and may not be entirely appropriate when applied across cultures. For example, spiritual path might be a more fitting designation to refer to other religious systems.

Speculations on the Sources of Religion: What is a key problem of seeing religion as evolutionary?

Evolution leads to subjunctive judgements that one religion is more "highly evolved" than another- a shortsightedness that has kept many people from appreciating the unique insights and contributions of every religion.

Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Religion: Give examples of the areas of religious study in The Arts.

Example. Religious architecture often uses symmetry, height, and archaic styles to suggest the sacred; Religious music frequently employs a slow pace and repeated rhythms to induce (create) tranquility; And religious art often incorporates gold, haloes, equilateral designs, and circles to suggest otherworldliness and perfection.

Speculations on the Sources of Religion: Psychology also plays a part in understanding religion. How did understanding of Sigmund Freud and William James diverge in this regard?

Freud: Theorized that belief in a God or gods arises from the long-lasting impressions made on adults by their childhood experiences, in which their parents play a major part; these adults then project their sense of their parents into their image of the God or gods. These experiences, of fear as well as of security, are the basis for adults' attempts to deal with anxieties of complicated present and an unknown future. Since a major function of religion is to help human beings feel secure in an unsafe universe, religion becomes less necessary as human beings gain greater physical and mental security. James: Saw religion growing out of psychological needs. James viewed religion as a positive way of fulfilling these needs and praised its positive influence on the lives of individuals.

Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Religion: Give examples of the areas of religious study in Anthropology.

Has been interested in how religions influence the ways different cultures deal with family interaction, individual roles, property rights, marriage, and division of labor.

Why Study the Major Religions of the World?

I think we should study the major religions of the world because they offer "insight into religious traditions". I am fascinated with the values, relationships, personalities, and human creativity that each religion holds.

The Sacred: How can those embracing Agnosticism, Nontheism, and Animism be seen as religious?

If one sees religion broadly, as a "spiritual path", then even systems based on these three views- particularly if they show other typical characteristics of a religion, can also be called religions.

Third Pattern- Views of Male and Female: According to the author, what is a cause of the decline of female deities?

It has been argued that male dominance in religion became more common as the result of the growth of city-states, which needed organized defense and so elevated the status of men because of their fighting ability.

What is Religion: What did Vincent Van Gogh want to share?

It was his special sense of the sacredness he saw all around him that he wanted to share.

Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Religion: Give examples of the areas of religious study in Mythology.

Mythology is full of the recurrent images and themes found in religions, such as the tree of knowledge, the ladder to heaven, and the fountain of life.

Religious Symbolism: What is a reservation of religious leaders about overdoing symbolism in religion?

Some religious leaders have been cautious about this approach- if everything is turned into a symbol then all literal meaning will be lost.

Multidisciplinary Approaches to the Study of Religion: Give examples of the areas of religious study in Philosophy. How is philosophy different from religion?

Unlike religion, philosophy does not automatically accept the answers given by any religion to the great questions. Instead, philosophy seeks answers independently, following reason rather than religious authority, and it tries to fit its answers into a rational, systematic whole.

First Pattern- Views of the World and Life Words and Scriptures: Give examples of religions that emphasize words and scriptures and those that do not.

We see the importance of words in indigenous religions (which primarily pass on their traditions orally) in Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and in Hinduism. Other religions, such as Daoism and Zen Buddhism, which show a certain mistrust of words, value silence and wordless meditation.