Chapter 10: Health and Stress

Define Human contact

-Some workers have virtually no human contact on the job (forest-fire lookouts) -others have almost continuous contact with others (welfare and employment office workers) -People vary greatly in how much interaction they enjoy or even tolerate.

Type D personality

-"D" for distress -exhibit a chronic pattern of emotional distress combined with a tendency to suppress negative emotions -Many studies have revealed a link between Type D behavior pattern and heart disease -tend to display high levels of emotional distress in response to life's challenges -greater risk of developing coronary heart disease than their peers in other groups -less likely to exercise and consume healthy foods than people in other groups -find it difficult to change health related behaviors such as smoking and exercise

who smokes?

-19% of men and 15% of women in the United States smoke cigarettes -smoking among American adults has declined dramatically since the 1960s when more than half of American adults were smokers and one quarter were former smokers -The highest rates of smoking are found among Native Americans (39%), and the lowest rates are reported for Asian Americans (11%)

Lifestyle Change: If overweight, lose just 10 pounds

-34% reduction in triglyceride levels -16% decrease in total cholesterol -18% increase in HDL ("good" cholesterol) -significant reduction in blood pressure -decreased risk of diabetes, sleep apnea, and osteoarthritis

acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

-A devastating and incurable illness that is caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) -progressively weakens the body's immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to opportunistic infections that usually cause death. -the first case was diagnosed in this country in 1981 -there is still no cure for AIDS. -For example, the discovery that drugs such as AZT can prevent the transmission of HIV from a pregnant woman to her fetus has saved thousands of lives -During the 1990s, nearly 2,000 infants were diagnosed with HIV each year -fewer than 100 infants were diagnosed with HIV in 2009

Define biopsychosocial model

-A perspective that focuses on health as well as illness and holds that both are determined by a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors.

define risk/resilience model

-A perspective that proposes that risk and protective factors interact to produce or protect us from illness. -Risk factors such as exposure to pathogens, hereditary predispositions for certain illnesses, and stress increase the chances of getting sick -Protective factors counteract the effects of risk factors and enable us to "bounce back" from their effects, that is, to exhibit resilience -Researchers have identified several factors that promote resilience in the face of stress.

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

-A prolonged and severe stress reaction to a catastrophic event or to severe, chronic stress -PTSD sometimes does not appear until many years after an event has been experienced, and in some cases, it is triggered by the anniversary of a traumatic event

Define fight-or-flight response

-A response to stress in which the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine glands prepare the body to fight or flee. -It does so by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate while at the same time shutting down unnecessary functions, such as those of the digestive system. -When the stressor is no longer present, the parasympathetic nervous system reverses the fight-or-flight response, and the body returns to normal -But when stressors are present for long periods, and the person's efforts to adjust to them fail, the body's tendency to keep the fight-or-flight response going can threaten our health.

Lifestyle, Family History, and Coronary Heart Disease

-A sedentary lifestyle—one that includes a job at which one spends most of the time sitting and less than 20 minutes of exercise three times per week—is the primary modifiable risk factor contributing to death from coronary heart disease -Other modifiable risk factors are high serum cholesterol level, cigarette smoking, and obesity. -The association between family history and coronary heart disease is both genetic and behavioral -For instance, individuals whose parents have high blood pressure, but who have not yet developed the disorder themselves, exhibit the same kinds of emotional reactivity and poor coping strategies as their parents

Define Accountability

-Accountability overload occurs when people have responsibility for the physical or psychological well-being of others but only a limited degree of control (air-traffic controllers, emergency room nurses and doctors) -accountability underload occurs when workers perceive their jobs as meaningless.

African and White Americans Health Differences

-African Americans have higher rates of many chronic conditions such as high blood pressure and diabetes than do White Americans -African Americans are 40% more likely than White Americans to die of heart disease and 30% more likely to die of cancer -Even when African and White Americans of the same age suffer from similar illnesses, the mortality rate of African Americans is higher -And the rate of AIDS is more than three times higher among African Americans than among White Americans

Native Americans and health

-Among Native Americans, diabetes rates are higher than they are among Whites -Rates of alcohol abuse are higher among Native Americans as well, leading to high rates of liver disease -Deaths from liver disease are far more frequent among Native Americans than in other groups

unemployment and stress

-As the unemployment rate rises, so do the number of Interest searches with key terms such as "stress" and "distress" -People who are forced out of their jobs experience heightened risks of stress-related illnesses in the months that follow -These effects are found among people of low, middle, and high socioeconomic status, by the way. -This consistency is the result of the financial strain that accompanies the loss of income and the uncertainty about the future that is part of the experience of looking for a new job -These aspects of unemployment are stressful no matter how much money people made in their former jobs. -unemployment is also stressful because it diminishes people's sense of control over what happens to them.

obesity

-BMI over 30 -increases a person's chances of developing several chronic diseases: high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, gallbladder disease, arthritis, and respiratory disorders -more likely to develop coronary heart disease -more likely to have elevated levels of LDL cholesterol (the bad cholesterol that is associated with heart disease).

Pelvic inflammatory disease

-Bacterial STD -an infection of the female reproductive tract that can cause infertility. -One of the long-term effects of both chlamydia and gonorrhea

Chlamydia

-Bacterial STD -can be transmitted through many kinds of physical contact involving the genitals as well as actual intercourse -can be transmitted through many kinds of physical contact involving the genitals as well as actual intercourse

Syphilis

-Bacterial STD -can lead to serious mental disorders and death if it is not treated in the early stages of infection -At one time, syphilis had been almost completely eradicated -in 2014, about 19,999 new cases were reported -Most of these cases involved homosexual males who live in urban areas

What should I do if I think someone has alcohol poisoning?

-Call 911 -Stay with the person -Keep the person from choking on vomit -Tell paramedics how much and what type of alcohol the person drank

Immune System and Stress

-Composed of an army of highly specialized cells and organs, the immune system works to identify and search out and destroy bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and any other foreign matter that may enter the body. -The key components of the immune system are white blood cells known as lymphocytes, which include B cells and T cells -B cells are so named because they are produced in the bone marrow. -T cells derive their name from the thymus gland, where they are produced -All cells foreign to the body are known as antigens. -B cells produce proteins called antibodies, which are highly effective in destroying antigens that live in the bloodstream and in the fluid surrounding body tissues -For defeating harmful foreign invaders that have taken up residence inside the body's cells, however, T cells are critically important.

What are the signs of alcohol poisoning?

-Confusion, stupor, coma, or person can't be roused -Unresponsive to stimuli -Vomiting while asleep -Seizures -Slow breathing (fewer than 8 breaths per minute) -Irregular breathing (10 seconds or more between breaths) -Low body temperature, bluish skin, paleness

Coping Strategies

-Coping refers to a person's efforts through action and thought to deal with demands perceived as taxing or overwhelming -Researchers studied 116 people who had experienced heart attacks. All of the participants reported being worried about suffering another attack. However, those who tried to ignore their worries were less likely to exhibit anxiety-related symptoms such as nightmares and flashbacks -Other emotion-focused strategies, though, such as keeping a journal in which you write about things you feel grateful for, may be even more effective.

Symptoms of PTSD

-Flashbacks, nightmares, or intrusive memories that make them feel as though they are actually re-experiencing the traumatic event -Many survivors of war or catastrophic events experience survivor guilt, one factor in a cluster of variables known as moral injury because they lived while others died -Some feel that perhaps they could have done more to save others; moral injuries experienced by others include deep feelings of regret over having taken another person's life. -Extreme combat-related guilt is a risk factor for suicide and other mental health issues -There is also an association between PTSD and substance abuse -Individuals with PTSD also experience cognitive difficulties, such as poor concentration

Perceived Control

-Further evidence for the notion that how we perceive a stress-inducing situation may be just as important as the objective features of it comes from research showing that resilience is influenced by perceived control, the degree to which we feel a sense of control over our lives In one classic study: -Langer and Rodin (1976) studied the effects of perceived control on nursing-home residents. -Residents in one group were given some measure of control over their lives, such as choices in arranging their rooms and in the times they could see movies. -They showed improved health and well-being and had a lower death rate than another group who were not given such control -Within 18 months, 30% of the residents given no choices had died, compared with only 15% of those who had been given some control over their lives -when social conditions such as warfare force individuals to become refugees, those who feel that they have some control over their situations through the choices they make show more resilience to migration-related stressors -Several studies suggest that we are less subject to stress when we have the power to do something about it, whether we exercise that power or not -Glass and Singer (1972) subjected two groups of participants to the same loud noise -Participants in one group were told that they could, if necessary, terminate the noise by pressing a switch. -These participants suffered less stress, even though they never did exercise the control they were given. -Friedland and others (1992) suggest that when people experience a loss of control because of a stressor, they are motivated to try to reestablish control in the stressful situation. -Failing this, they often attempt to increase their sense of control in other areas of their lives. -For instance, a person in the midst of an inescapable stressful situation over which she has little control, such as loss of a job, might initiate a goal-oriented exercise regimen. -Implementing the regimen and tracking progress towards its goals helps her regain a sense of control over her life in the face of an uncontrollable stressor.

Reduction of Transmission of HIV

-HAART reduces HIV transmission rates -circumcision substantially reduces the risk of HIV transmission -In response, public health officials in many of the developing nations that have large populations of HIV-positive men, such as Uganda, have begun educating the public about the procedure along with other ways of reducing risk of infection -Research has shown that the presence of another STD in an HIV-infected person causes him or her to have higher levels of the communicable form of the virus in his or her bodily fluids -Anyone who has sex with such a person is, therefore, at a greatly increased risk of becoming infected with HIV.

HIV resisting HART

-HIV appears to be developing the ability to resist the disruptive effects of HAART -In 2016, researchers recorded the first case of an individual who became infected with the virus while regularly taking a HAART drug that was known to prevent HIV transmission for 2 years -research aimed at developing a vaccine to prevent HIV infection continues to be of paramount importance in the fight against HIV/AIDS.

insufficient amounts of particular nutrients and health risk

-Health problems may also develop in people whose diets have insufficient amounts of particular nutrients -a diet that is deficient in iron leads to anemia, a condition that impairs the blood's ability to deliver oxygen to the body's organs -a diet that lacks sufficient calcium may cause degeneration of the bones -pregnant women whose diets lack folic acid are more likely to deliver infants with spinal defects.

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale and health problems

-Holmes and Rahe claim that there is a connection between the degree of life stress and major health problems -People who score 300 or more on the SRRS, the researchers say, run about an 80% risk of suffering a major health problem within the next 2 years -Those who score between 150 and 300 have a 50% chance of becoming ill within a 2-year period -More recent research has shown that the weights given to life events by Holmes and Rahe continue to be appropriate for adults in North America and that SRRS scores are correlated with a variety of health indicators

Hispanic Americans and Health

-Hypertension is more prevalent among Hispanic Americans than among non-Hispanic White Americans. However, heart problems are less prevalent -Rates of diabetes are also dramatically higher among Hispanic Americans than for other groups

Lifestyle change: Add 20 to 30 grams of fiber to your diet each day.

-Improved bowel function -reduced risk of colon cancer and other digestive system diseases -decrease in total cholesterol -reduced blood pressure -improved insulin function in both diabetics and nondiabetics

Benefits of exercise

-Improves mood -Combats chronic diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and osteoporosis -Helps manage weight -Boosts energy level -Promotes better sleep -Improves sexual intimacy -Enhances enjoyment of life -Exercise also appears to moderate the effects of aging on the body -Strength training has been found to reduce sarcopenia, an age-related process in which the muscles deteriorate -Such training appears to prevent the loss of bone mass or osteoporosis, as well -physical exercise helps seniors with balance, coordination, and stamina.

hassles

-Irritating demands that occur daily and may cause more stress than major life changes do -Richard Lazarus believes that everyday stressors, which he calls hassles, cause more stress than major life events -Research also indicates that minor hassles that accompany stressful major life events are better predictors of a person's level of psychological distress than the major events themselves

neuropeptide Y

-NPY helps us adapt to stress by reducing anxiety -However, it also constricts the blood vessels that serve the heart and brain -the vessels become more vulnerable to blockages, an important cause of heart attacks and strokes

Alternative Medicine

-National Science Foundation (NSF, 2002) found that 88% of Americans believe that there are valid ways of preventing and curing illnesses that are not recognized by the medical profession -nearly 70% of adults in the United States use some kind of nutritional supplement, such as Vitamin C, at least occasionally, and about half use supplements every day -38% of adults and 12% of children use some kind of nonmedical therapy to treat a current medical condition

Guidelines to Interpret Health Information on the Internet

-No Rules Governing Published Material on the Internet -Consider the Source -Get a Second Opinion -Examine References -How Current Is the Information? -Is it Too Good to Be True?

Are there any quick ways to sober up?

-No. -There is no way to speed up elimination of alcohol from the body. -Coffee, cold showers, walking it off, and sleeping it off don't work.

Cause of Cancer

-Normal cells in all parts of the body divide, but fortunately they have built-in instructions about when to stop dividing. -Unlike normal cells, cancer cells do not stop dividing -unless caught in time and destroyed, they continue to grow and spread, eventually killing the organism -Health psychologists point out that an unhealthy diet, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, promiscuous sexual behavior, or becoming sexually active in the early teens (especially for females) are all behaviors that increase the risk of cancer -Moreover, although there is no solid evidence that stress causes cancer, it does influence how people with the disease respond to and cope with treatment

Effects of HIV/AIDS

-Once AIDS develops, a sequence of events that devastates the brains of many of its victims is set in motion -The cortex of an AIDS victim gradually thins as the disease gains ground in its attack on the person's immune system -Motor and language impairments often result from slow deterioration of the areas of the cortex that are involved in these functions -Cortical thinning causes some AIDS patients to develop AIDS-related dementia, a disorder that is similar to Alzheimer's disease -some people who are HIV-positive but who have not developed AIDS show cortical thinning to some extent as well.

primary appraisal

-an evaluation of the meaning and significance of the situation—whether its effect on one's well-being is positive, irrelevant, or negative -An event appraised as stressful could involve: (1) harm or loss; that is, damage that has already occurred (2) threat, or the potential for harm or loss (3) challenge; that is, the opportunity to grow or to gain. -An appraisal of threat, harm, or loss can occur in relation to anything important to you -When people appraise a situation as involving threat, harm, or loss, they experience negative emotions -An appraisal that sees a challenge is usually accompanied by positive emotions

Gender and Health

-One area where the failure to study women's health care needs has been particularly evident is in research examining mortality risk following open-heart surgery. -Women are more likely to die after such surgery than are men -Studies have shown that the gender gap in surgical survival narrows with age, but researchers are still investigating why women's postsurgical mortality rate is higher than men's -One important reason for the disparity is that women are more likely than men to have an additional chronic disease, such as diabetes, that impairs their ability to recover from surgery -Another is that women have higher rates of postsurgical infection and stroke than men -Higher rates of blood transfusion among female patients may be responsible for the gender gap in postoperative infections -Both men and women who receive transfusions during or after heart surgery have higher infection rates than nontransfused patients, but women are about 50% more likely than men to require transfusions during or after surgery. -men have higher death rates from most causes than women do, although women tend to be less healthy -These seemingly contradictory findings have puzzled researchers for decades -The finding that women are 50% more likely than men are to seek medical care explains some of this difference -differences in care seeking fall short of fully explaining gender differences in illness and death.

fast foods and heath risk

-People who regularly consume fast foods are at risk for both obesity and specific nutritional deficiencies -nutrition experts recommend that such food be eaten infrequently or not at all -"5-a-day" plan in which people are advised to try to eat at least five servings of fruits and vegetables every day -read the labels of processed foods and avoiding those that are high in saturated fats, trans fats, and sodium, all of which are associated with high levels of LDL cholesterol -Labels can also guide people to foods that are high in monosaturated fats, a type of fat that may increase levels of HDL cholesterol (the good cholesterol).

Define Job status

-People with very low-paying, low-status jobs may feel psychological discomfort -those with celebrity status often cannot handle the stress that fame brings.

Personality and Coronary Heart Disease

-Personality type is also associated with an individual's risk of heart disease. -After extensive research, cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman (1974) concluded that there are two types of personality: -Type A, associated with a high rate of coronary heart disease, and Type B, commonly found in persons unlikely to develop heart disease -More recently, researchers have found that increased risk of coronary heart disease are associated with Type D personality.

Problem-focused and emotion-focused coping

-Problem-focused coping is direct; it consists of reducing, modifying, or eliminating the source of stress itself. -Emotion-focused coping involves reappraising a stressor to reduce its emotional impact. -Research has shown that emotion-focused coping can be a very effective way of managing stress. -Despite what you may have heard, ignoring a stressor—one form of emotion-focused coping—can be an effective way of managing stress -A combination of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping is probably the best stress-management strategy

Lazarus's Cognitive Theory of Stress

-Psychologist Richard Lazarus contends that it is not the stressor that causes stress but rather a person's perception of it -According to Lazarus, when people are confronted with a potentially stressful event, they engage in a cognitive process that involves a primary and a secondary appraisal.

Lifestyle change: Engage in moderate physical activity every day (e.g., walk up and down stairs for 15 minutes; spend 30 minutes washing a car).

-Reduced feelings of anxiety and sadness -increased bone density -reduced risk of diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, and many other life-shortening diseases

alcoholism

-Since the late 1950s, the American Medical Association has maintained that alcoholism is a disease -once an alcoholic, always an alcoholic. -According to this view, even a small amount of alcohol can cause an irresistible craving for more, leading alcoholics to lose control of their drinking -total abstinence is seen as the only acceptable and effective method of treatment -Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) also endorses both the disease concept and the total abstinence approach to treatment -Researchers report that the drug acamprosate helps prevent relapse in recovering alcoholics

Effects of smoking on health

-Smoking increases the risk for heart disease, lung cancer, other smoking-related cancers, and emphysema -smoking suppresses the action of T cells in the lungs, increasing susceptibility to respiratory tract infections and tumors -widespread incidence of chronic bronchitis and other respiratory problems -the deaths and injuries from fires caused by smoking -low birth weight and retarded fetal development in babies born to smoking mothers.

Social Support

-Social support is support provided, usually in time of need, by a spouse, other family members, friends, neighbors, colleagues, support groups, or others -can involve tangible aid such as food or money, information, and advice, as well as emotional support -It can also be viewed as the feeling of being loved, valued, and cared for by those toward whom we feel a similar obligation. -Social support appears to have positive effects on the body's immune system as well as on the cardiovascular and endocrine systems -Social support may help encourage health-promoting behaviors and reduce the impact of stress so that people are less likely to resort to unhealthy methods of coping, such as smoking or drinking. -Further, social support has been shown to reduce distress and enhance resilience among refugee youth -youth who migrate along with parents and other close family members display greater resilience than peers who are forced to migrate alone. -researchers distinguish between perceived support, the degree to which a person believes help is available when needed, and received support, the actual help a person receives from others -Interestingly, many have found that perceived support is more important than received support

genetic influence on alcoholism

-Some studies suggest a genetic influence on alcoholism and lend support to the disease model -the late neuroscientist Henri Begleiter and his colleagues have accumulated a large body of evidence suggesting that the brains of alcoholics respond differently to visual and auditory stimuli than those of non-alcoholics -many relatives of alcoholics, even children and adults who have never consumed any alcohol in their lives, display the same types of response patterns -The relatives of alcoholics who do display these patterns are more likely to become alcoholics themselves or to suffer from other types of addictions -Begleiter suggested that the brain-imaging techniques he used in his research may someday be used to determine which relatives of alcoholics are genetically predisposed to addiction

Smoking Cessation

-The circumstances in smokers' lives may affect the outcome of their attempts to quit smoking. -In one study involving more than 600 college students, researchers found that those who perceived that their lives were not very stressful had more success than other participants who felt more stress -Participants' overall success rate over the 18-month-long study was only 18%, but the low-perceived-stress group achieved a success rate of 52% -only 13% of participants who perceived their lives to be highly stressful managed to quit in 18 months -The implication of these findings for others who want to quit smoking is that the often-heard recommendation that they choose a "quit date" is probably good advice. -Planning a quit date to coincide with times of reduced stress, such as immediately after final exams, might be better than trying to quit at times of great stress.

Define The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

-The predictable sequence of reactions (alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages) that organisms show in response to stressors. -discovered by Hans Selye (1907-1982), the researcher most prominently associated with the effects of stress on health, established the field of stress research -most harmful effects of stress are due to the prolonged secretion of glucocorticoids, which can lead to permanent increases in blood pressure, suppression of the immune system, weakening of muscles, and even damage to the hippocampus

Emotions and HIV/AIDS

-The reaction to the news that one is HIV-positive is frequently shock, bewilderment, confusion, or disbelief -anger—at past or present sexual partners, family members, health care professionals, or society in general -guilt, a sense that one is being punished for homosexuality or drug abuse -Other people exhibit denial, ignoring medical advice, and continuing to act as if nothing has changed in their lives. -fear of death; of mental and physical deterioration; of rejection by friends, family, and coworkers; of sexual rejection; of abandonment -Experiencing emotional swings ranging from shock to anger to guilt to fear can lead to serious clinical depression and apathy -Once apathy sets in, HIV-positive patients may become less likely to comply with treatment

Define health psychology

-The subfield within psychology that is concerned with the psychological factors that contribute to health, illness, and recovery. -for health psychologists, the concept of health extends beyond the simple absence of disease -It includes all aspects of well-being in the physical, psychological, and social domains Goals: -find ways to improve communication between health care professionals and the people they serve -identify the psychological, behavioral, and social factors that contribute to conditions such as chronic pain, asthma, heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and so on -Health psychologists also design strategies for helping people make behavioral changes that can enhance people's health.

Define life events approach

-The view that a person's state of well-being can be threatened by major life changes. -includes events that most people experience at one time or another -includes both positive and negative events that most of us never or rarely experience firsthand

How to cope with HIV/AIDS

-To cope psychologically, AIDS patients, those infected with HIV, and their loved ones need education and information about the disease -They can be helped by psychotherapy, self-help groups, and medications such as antidepressants and anti-anxiety drugs -Self-help groups and group therapy may serve as an extended family for some patients.

Define Task variety

-To function well, people need a comfortable amount of variety and stimulation.

Define Workload

-Too much or too little to do can cause people to feel anxious, frustrated, and unrewarded.

Hassles Scale cont

-Unlike the Holmes and Rahe scale, the Hassles Scale takes into account the fact that items may or may not represent stressors to individuals and that the amount of stress produced by an item varies from person to person -People completing the scale indicate the items that have been a hassle for them and rate those items for severity on a 3-point scale. -studied 75 American couples over a 6-month period and found that daily stress (as measured on the Hassles Scale) related significantly to present and future "health problems such as flu, sore throat, headaches, and backaches"

Effects of Alcohol Abuse

-When consumed to excess, alcohol can damage virtually every organ in the body, but it is especially harmful to the liver -One Norwegian longitudinal study involving more than 40,000 male participants found that the rate of death prior to age 60 was significantly higher among alcoholics than non-alcoholics -Alcoholics are about three times as likely to die in automobile accidents or of heart disease as non-alcoholics, and they have twice the rate of deaths from cancer. -Damage to the brains of alcoholics has been found by researchers using MRI scans -CT scans also show brain shrinkage in a high percentage of alcoholics, even in those who are young and in those who show normal cognitive functioning -Moreover, heavy drinking can cause cognitive impairment that continues for several months after the drinking stops -The only good news in recent studies is that some of the effects of alcohol on the brain seem to be partially reversible with prolonged abstinence -the brains of those who abuse alcohol begin to recover within a few days of stopping drinking

Genital herpes

-a disease that can be acquired through either intercourse or oral sex -The CDC reports that 16% of the adult population in the United States is infected with herpes -Outbreaks of the disease, which include the development of painful blisters on the genitals, occur periodically in most people who carry the virus.

stressor

-a stimulus or an event that is capable of producing a stress response -stressors can be either positive or negative life events

Hassles Scale

-a test that measures people's stress levels -assess various categories of hassles -The questions on the test came from a survey of college students taken in 1981. -The researchers presented students with a list of potentially irritating things and asked them to identify the items that were currently causing stress for them.

exhaustion stage

-all the stores of deep energy are depleted, and disintegration and death follow.

hypertension

-among men, African Americans and White have higher rates of hypertension than members of other groups -Among women, the highest rates of hypertension are found among African Americans and Hispanics.

Define Alternative Medicine

-any treatment or therapy that has not been scientifically demonstrated to be effective. -Even a simple practice such as taking vitamins sometimes falls into this category -For instance, if you take Vitamin C to protect yourself against the common cold, you are using alternative medicine because Vitamin C has not been scientifically proven to prevent colds.

Racial patterning

-bioethics professor Pilar Ossorio and sociologist Troy Duster suggest that the phenomenon of racial patterning underlies such differences -Racial patterning is the tendency of groups of people to maintain their collective identities through shared behavior patterns (e.g., diet, leisure activities, multigenerational living arrangements). -groups tend to share certain aspects of living conditions that may have health consequences as well (e.g., the concentration of Hispanic Americans in the desert regions of the southwestern United States) -As a result of these patterns, risk and protective factors occur at different rates in different groups.

Workplace stress and women

-can be especially problematic for women because they experience sex discrimination and sexual harassment in the workplace more frequently than men do -many women report that they find the difficulties associated with combining work and family roles to be especially stressful -These added stressors have been shown to increase the negative effects of occupational stress on the health and well-being of working women

Viral STDs

-cannot be treated with antibiotics -are considered to be incurable Examples: Genital Herpes, genital warts

Coronary heart disease cause

-caused by the narrowing or the blockage of the coronary arteries, the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle -stress-related biochemicals play an important role in this process -Although coronary heart disease remains the leading cause of death in the United States, responsible for 38% of all deaths, deaths due to this cause have declined 50% during the past 40 years

proactive coping

-consists of efforts or actions taken in advance of a potentially stressful situation to prevent its occurrence or to minimize its consequences -Proactive copers anticipate and then prepare for upcoming stressful events and situations -Research suggests that proactive coping diminishes the anxieties that are associated with everyday stressors such as these -Moreover, trauma survivors who learn to cope proactively with PTSD symptoms are less likely to develop other types of emotional problems

Gonorrhea

-declined considerably from 1975 to 2009 -the prevalence is once again on the rise -Public health officials are concerned about this uptick in gonorrhea cases because the strains that exist today are far more resistant to antibiotics than those that existed decades ago

Uplifts Scale

-developed by Lazarus and his colleagues -As with the Hassles Scale, people completing this scale make a cognitive appraisal of what they consider to be an uplift -Research has demonstrated links among hassles, uplifts, and a personal sense of well-being -It appears that a hectic daily schedule increases hassles, decreases uplifts, and diminishes their subjective sense of how well they feel

Bacterial STDs

-diseases that can be cured by antibiotics Examples: Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, Pelvic inflammatory disease, Syphilis

Transmission of HIV

-exchange of blood, semen, or vaginal secretions during sexual contact -when IV drug users share contaminated needles or syringes -In the United States, about 11% of those with AIDS are IV drug users, but homosexual men represent the largest number of HIV carriers and AIDS cases -Anal intercourse is more dangerous than coitus because rectal tissue often tears during penetration, allowing HIV ready entry into the bloodstream -about one quarter of those diagnosed with AIDS are women. Modes of transmission: (1) male/male sexual relations (2) male/female sexual relations (3) intravenous drug use (4) male/male sexual relations combined with intravenous drug use

biomedical model

-explanatory model that defined health as the absence of disease -explains illness exclusively in terms of biological factors -focuses on illness more than it does on health

Health psychologists and stress

-found that stress contributes to individual differences in each of these areas. -some patients find communicating with health professionals about their condition to be highly stressful -Researchers hypothesize that stress distracts such patients from the information that care providers are attempting to convey to them -these patients are less likely to follow instructions about medication and other aspects of their treatment than those for whom communication with providers is less stressful -Thus, patients' responses to providers' instructions may improve if they learn how to manage their stress responses more effectively. -Another important finding in health psychology is that providing people with training in stress management can improve their health in more direct ways.

highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART)

-has prevented millions of deaths from AIDS by interfering with HIV's ability to invade healthy cells -survival rates have risen dramatically -Prior to the advent of HAART in 1996, a 25-year-old diagnosed with HIV had nearly no chance of surviving until age 65 -most such individuals did not survive to middle age -Today, a 25-year-old who is diagnosed with HIV and receives appropriate medical therapies has about a 75% chance of surviving to age 50 and a 50% chance of surviving to age 65. -Over the past decade or so, the United Nations, aided by the World Bank, governments throughout the industrialized world, corporations, charitable foundations, and celebrity spokespersons, such as U2 singer Bono, has worked to provide the funding needed to supply antiretroviral drugs to developing regions in which HIV-infection rates are particularly high, such as sub-Saharan Africa -The number of new cases of HIV/AIDS in developing regions has declined 6% among adults and 50% among children -These programs have also reduced rates of mother-to-child transmission of the disease as well as HIV-related infant deaths in these parts of the world

Type A Personality

-have a strong sense of time urgency -Most try to achieve as much as possible in as little time as is feasible -This pattern is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease -Some people with Type A personality also tend to respond to frustrating life situations with anger, hostility, and cynicism -find it difficult to change health-related behaviors such as smoking and exercise

Social Involvement

-health psychologists cite research showing that other forms of social involvement promote health In one study: -researchers gave volunteers nasal drops containing a cold virus -Within the next few days, symptoms of the viral infection rose sharply in some of the 151 women and 125 men who participated in the study, but less so or not at all in others. -Participants with a rich social life in the form of frequent interactions with others—spouses, children, parents, coworkers, friends, and volunteer and religious groups—seemed to enjoy a powerful shield of protection against the virus infection. -This pattern of protection held across age and racial groups, for both sexes, at all educational levels, and at every season of the year

Group Differences in Health

-historical racism is one possible explanatory factor -Another is socioeconomic status. -About one fifth of African Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanic Americans live in poverty -variables related to poverty—nutritional status, access to health care, and education, for example—explain racial differences in health -more detailed studies of socioeconomic factors suggest that variations in poverty rates alone cannot explain group differences in health -about 70% of poor White Americans and African Americans have health insurance, whereas only about one third of Hispanic Americans do -poor African Americans, on average, are less healthy than either poor Whites or Hispanics -low-income African-American children are nearly twice as likely as White or Hispanic poor children to have asthma -poor White children are more likely than their African-American or Hispanic peers to be diagnosed with neuropsychological disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder -With regard to obesity, poverty increases the risk of obesity among Whites, Asians, and African-American women, but it decreases the risk among Hispanic Americans and African-American men

Racism and Stress

-historical racism—experienced by members of groups that have a history of repression, such as Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, and African Americans—is a source of social stress -high blood pressure among African Americans is attributable to stress associated with historical racism -Surveys have shown that African Americans experience more race-related stress than members of other minority groups do -Those African Americans who express the highest levels of concern about racism display higher levels of cardiovascular reactivity to experimentally induced stressors -At least one study has demonstrated a correlation between African Americans' perceptions of racism and hypertension -Researchers found that African Americans who reported the highest levels of race-related stressors in their workplaces were more likely to have high blood pressure than workers who reported fewer such stressors -African Americans are also more likely than members of other minority groups to have a strong sense of ethnic identity, a factor that helps moderate the effects of racial stress

Stress and Perception

-how we perceive a stress-inducing situation may be just as important as the objective features of it comes from research showing that resilience is influenced by perceived control, the degree to which we feel a sense of control over our lives classic study: -Researchers: Langer and Rodin -studied the effects of perceived control on nursing-home residents -Residents in one group were given some measure of control over their lives, such as choices in arranging their rooms and in the times they could see movies. -They showed improved health and well-being and had a lower death rate than another group who were not given such control -Within 18 months, 30% of the residents given no choices had died, compared with only 15% of those who had been given some control over their lives -Moreover, when social conditions such as warfare force individuals to become refugees, those who feel that they have some control over their situations through the choices they make show more resilience to migration-related stressor

secondary appraisal

-if people judge the situation to be within their control, they make an evaluation of available resources—physical, social, material, and time. -Then, they consider the options and decide how to deal with the stressor -The level of stress they feel is largely a function of whether their resources are adequate to cope with the threat, and how severely those resources will be taxed in the process. -Research supports their claim that the physiological, emotional, and behavioral reactions to stressors depend partly on whether the stressors are appraised as challenging or threatening.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD)

-infections spread primarily through sexual contact -The incidence of many STDs has increased dramatically over the past 30 years or so. -This trend can be partly explained by more permissive attitudes toward sex and increased sexual activity among young people, some of whom have had several sexual partners by the time they graduate from high school. -Another factor is the greater use of non-barrier methods of contraception which do not prevent the spread of STDs.

shortcomings of the SRRS

-it assigns a point value to each life change without taking into account how an individual copes with that stressor -One study found that SRRS scores did reliably predict disease progression in multiple sclerosis patients -But the patients who used more effective coping strategies displayed less disease progression than did those who experienced similar stressors but coped poorly with them.

Asian Americans and Health

-less likely than adults of other ethnicities to be diagnosed with chronic disorders such as diabetes and high blood pressure. -This general trend is true for cancer as well -cancer is the leading cause of death among Asian Americans -far more likely to be diagnosed with stomach and liver cancer than members of other groups -This disparity is thought to have an infectious source. -Rates of infection with various strains of viruses that cause hepatitis (liver inflammation) and contribute to the development of liver cancer and Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium linked to stomach cancer, are far higher among Asian Americans and among residents of most Asian countries than is true for other groups. -researchers are examining factors such as the characteristics of strains of hepatitis B and H. pylori that more commonly infect Asians than other groups, cultural practices that may increase Asians' exposure to these pathogens, and inherited susceptibilities to their effects

PTSD and veterans

-mental health professionals in the United States reported that the number of World War II veterans seeking treatment from the Veterans Administration for war-related symptoms of PTSD increased substantially in the years that followed the fiftieth anniversary of the war's end in 1945 -Researchers hypothesize that age-related changes in the brain lessened some older veterans' ability to manage the emotions that were associated with traumatic combat experiences, an effect that was particularly marked in veterans who also suffered from dementia.

Hardiness

-moderate the effects of stress on health -The term was coined by psychologist Suzanne Kobasa who grouped the characteristics into three major factors, commitment, control, and challenge In a classic study of male executives with high levels of stress, Kobasa and her colleagues found that "hardy" individuals: -feel a strong sense of commitment to both their work and their personal life -see themselves not as victims of whatever life brings but as people who have control over consequences and outcomes -act to solve their own problems -they welcome challenges in life, viewing them not as threats but as opportunities for growth and improvement. -adults with high levels of hardiness adjusted more effectively to the stressors associated with recovering from a sports-related injury than low-hardiness peers did -high-hardiness participants responded more positively to the demands of the injury recovery process. -In a follow-up study, the researchers found that the critical difference between the two groups was that high-hardiness participants used more effective emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies than their low-hardiness counterparts did -These strategies appeared to have been developed by high-hardness participants through successful navigation of previous stress-inducing experiencese

genital warts

-more serious viral STD -caused by infection with human papillomavirus (HPV) -The primary symptom of the disease, the presence of growths on the genitals, is not its most serious effect, however -HPV is strongly associated with cervical cancer -Studies indicate that, in the United States, 50% of sexually active men and 43% of sexually active women are infected with HPV -The Food and Drug Administration approved a vaccine that officials believe will protect both men and women against four types of HPV -researchers do not yet know how long the vaccine's protective effects will last. -officials point out that there are other forms of HPV against which the vaccine offers no protection -For these reasons, public health officials state that those who get the vaccine should continue to be vigilant about safe sex practices and routine medical screening.

socioeconomic status and stress

-often used to refer to differences in income levels, but it includes much more than just financial resources. -Occupation and education are also important components of socioeconomic status. -People who are low in socioeconomic status are usually found to more frequently have stress-related health conditions such as colds and the flu -health risk factors are typically more common among them -researchers have found higher rates of smoking, more limited social networks, and less regular patterns of eating among people of lower socioeconomic status -This is not to say that these factors apply to everyone who has a low income, but they are found more frequently among those who are economically disadvantaged

passive smoking

-passive smoking: breathing smoke-filled air -Research indicates that nonsmokers who are regularly exposed to secondhand smoke have twice the risk of heart attack of those who are not exposed -secondhand smoke increases children's risk of a variety of lung disorders, including asthma, bronchitis, and pneumonia -people who live in multiunit housing facilities, such as apartment buildings, are frequently unaware that they are being exposed to secondhand smoke

Religious Involvement

-personal factor that contributes to resilience is religious involvement a meta-analysis of 42 separate studies combined data on some 126,000 individuals and revealed that: -religious involvement is positively associated with measures of physical health and lower rates of cancer, heart disease, and stroke -attendance at religious services is linked to healthy habits and positive emotions -people who attend church regularly are less likely to smoke and to drink alcohol to excess than other adults. -they are more likely to tell researchers that they are content with their lives than nonattenders are.

stress

-physiological and psychological response to a condition that threatens or challenges an individual -requires some form of adaptation or adjustment

uplifts

-positive experiences in life such as getting a better grade on an assignment than you expected, may neutralize the effects of many hassles

fight-or-flight response over an extended period effects

-psychoneuroimmunologists' studies show that periods of high stress are correlated with increased inflammation in many kinds of tissue as well as symptoms of many infectious diseases, including oral and genital herpes, mononucleosis, colds, and flu -Stress may also decrease the effectiveness of certain kinds of vaccines -stress has the power to suppress the immune system long after the stressful experience is over' Study: -An experimental group of medical students who were enduring the stress of major exams was compared with a control group of medical students who were on vacation from classes and exams. -When tested for the presence of disease-fighting antibodies, participants in the exam group, but not those in the control group, had a significant reduction in their antibody count because of the stress. -The lowered antibody count was still present 14 days after the exams were over. -At that point, the students were not even aware that they were still stressed and reported feeling no stress

Job Stress Consequences

-reduced effectiveness on the job -lead to absenteeism, tardiness, accidents, substance abuse, and lower morale -Chronic stress can also lead to work-related burnout -People with burnout lack energy, feel emotionally drained, and are pessimistic about the possibility of changing their situations -People who feel that their work is unappreciated are more subject to burnout than others. Example: -one survey suggested that nearly half of the social workers in the United Kingdom suffer from burnout, and the sense of being unappreciated was the best predictor of the condition -nurses who care for patients in vegetative states exhibit higher rates of emotional exhaustion and burnout than other types of health care professionals

exercise and health

-regular exercise also pays rich dividends in the form of physical and mental fitness -many people still express reluctance to exercise -About half of Americans do not engage in any kind of physical activity on a regular basis -Some simply prefer not to be physically active; others blame such factors as the cost of joining a health club or even the unpredictability of the weather for their lack of physical activity -Such individuals are missing out on one of the simplest and most effective ways of enhancing one's health -Aerobic exercise (such as running, swimming, brisk walking, bicycling, rowing, and jumping rope) is exercise that uses the large muscle groups in continuous, repetitive action and increases oxygen intake and breathing and heart rates -To improve cardiovascular fitness and endurance and to lessen the risk of heart attack, an individual should perform aerobic exercise regularly—five times a week for 20 to 30 minutes -Individuals who engage in more than 3 hours of aerobic activity each week are more successful at losing excess weight and keeping it off than are those who exercise less

Type B Personality

-relaxed and easygoing and are not driven by a sense of time urgency -They are not impatient or hostile -are able to relax without guilt -They play for fun and relaxation rather than to exhibit superiority over others -a Type B individual may be as bright and ambitious as a Type A person, and more successful as well -People with Type B personality tend to have lower rates of coronary heart disease than their peers

Dealing with Cancer

-researchers claim that cancer patients need more than medical treatment -Their therapy should include help with psychological and behavioral factors that can influence their quality of life. -Carver and others (1993) found that 3 and 6 months after surgery, breast cancer patients who maintained an optimistic outlook, accepted the reality of their situation, and maintained a sense of humor experienced less distress. -Patients who engaged in denial—refusal to accept the reality of their situation—and had thoughts of giving up experienced much higher levels of distress. -Dunkel-Schetter and others (1992) found that the most effective elements of a strategy for coping with cancer were social support (such as through self-help groups), a focus on the positive, and distraction. -Avoidant coping strategies, such as fantasizing, denial, and social withdrawal, were associated with more emotional distress.

Cancer

-second leading cause of death in the United States, accounting for 21% of all deaths -strikes frequently in the adult population, and about 30% of Americans will develop cancer at some time in their lives -it takes the lives of more children age 3 to 14 than any other disease

Optimism

-tend to cope more effectively with stress, which in turn may reduce their risk of illness -generally expect good outcomes -Such positive expectations help make them more stress-resistant than pessimists, who tend to expect bad outcomes -find positives even in the darkest of circumstances -An especially lethal form of pessimism is hopelessness. -A longitudinal study of a large number of Finnish men revealed that participants who reported feeling moderate to high hopelessness died from all causes at two to three times the rates of those reporting low or no hopelessness

resistance stage

-the adrenal cortex continues to release glucocorticoids to help the body resist stressors -The length of the resistance stage depends both on the intensity of the stressor and on the body's power to adapt -If the organism finally fails in its efforts to resist, it reaches the exhaustion stage

alarm stage

-the adrenal cortex releases hormones called glucocorticoids that increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels, supplying a burst of energy that helps the person deal with the stressful situation, that is, the fight-or-flight syndrome

fight-or-flight response over an extended period

1) research suggests that the biochemicals associated with the fight-or-flight response directly affect how the body functions -Example: when we are exposed to stressors, our bodies pump out large amounts of a substance called neuropeptide Y 2)the fight-or-flight response indirectly affects health by suppressing the body's immune system

Define psychoneuroimmunology

A field in which psychologists, biologists, and medical researchers combine their expertise to study the effects of psychological factors on the immune system.

Define Clarity of job description and evaluation criteria

Anxiety arises from confusion about job responsibilities and performance criteria or from a job description that is too rigidly defined to leave room for individual initiative.

Lifestyle change: Stop smoking at any age, after any number of years of smoking.

Immediate: -Improved circulation -reduced blood level of carbon monoxide -stabilization of pulse rate and blood pressure -improved sense of smell and taste -improved lung function and endurance -reduced risk of lung infections such as pneumonia and bronchitis. Long-term: -Reduced risk of lung cancer (declines substantially with each year of abstinence) -decreased risk of other smoking-related illnesses such as emphysema and heart disease -decreased risk of cancer recurrence in those who have been treated for some form of cancer

Define Physical challenge

Jobs range from being physically demanding (construction work, professional sports) to requiring little to no physical activity. Some jobs (firefighting, police work) involve physical risk.

Define Mental challenge

Jobs that tax people beyond their mental capability, as well as those that require too little mental challenge, can be frustrating.

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

Researchers: Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe -developed to measure stress by ranking different life events from most to least stressful and assigning a point value to each event -Life events that produce the greatest life changes and require the greatest adaptation are considered the most stressful, regardless of whether the events are positive or negative

Substance Abuse

Substance abuse: continued use of a substance that interferes with a person's major life roles at home, in school, at work, or elsewhere and contributes to legal difficulties or any psychological problems -Alcohol is perhaps the most frequently abused substance of all, and the health costs of alcohol abuse are staggering—in fatalities, medical bills, lost work, and family problems.

Define Physical variables

Temperature, noise, humidity, pollution, amount of workspace, and the physical positions (standing or sitting) required to carry out job duties should fall within a person's comfort zone.

How much alcohol does it take to cause alcohol poisoning?

This varies according to weight and tolerance for alcohol.

Lifestyle change: Get recommended annual or 5-year screenings beginning at these ages

Women: (21) Chlamydia, cervical cancer screenings if sexually active (35), cholesterol test (50) mammogram, colorectal exam (65) vision, hearing tests Men: (30) EKG, cholesterol test (40) PSA test for prostate cancer (50) colorectal exam (65) vision, hearing tests

Acculturative Stress

acculturative stress: -Adjusting to life in a new culture can be extremely stressful -Some theorists suggest that immigrants who develop an integration orientation, the belief that they will be able to fit into the social structure of the new culture while retaining links to their home cultures, are well equipped to manage the stresses that go along with transitioning from one culture to another -Research shows that immigrants with an integration orientation are more satisfied with their lives than those who adopt a different way of thinking about the immigration experience, such as turning completely away from their culture of origin -Thus, cultural psychologists suggest that schools and other institutions encourage immigrants to maintain ties to their cultures of origin as they acquire the skills they need to fit in to their new surroundings.

Types of Conflicts

approach-approach conflicts: -Some approach-approach conflicts are minor, such as deciding which movie to see -Others can have major consequences, such as the conflict between building a promising career or interrupting that career to raise a child avoidance-avoidance conflict: -a person must choose between two undesirable alternatives -For example, you may want to avoid studying for an exam, but at the same time you want to avoid failing the test approach-avoidance conflict: -involves a single choice that has both desirable and undesirable features -The person facing this type of conflict is simultaneously drawn to and repelled by a choice—for example, wanting to take a wonderful vacation but having to empty a savings account to do so.