Chapter 11

what are programmed decisions?

Programmed decisions are reached by following established policies and procedures; these decisions also are referred to as routine or repetitive decisions. Normally, the decision maker is familiar with the situation surrounding a programmed decision. Limited judgment is called for in making programmed decisions; these decisions are made primarily by lower-level managers and employees in an organization.

what are the Cultural Issues that Affect the Communication Process

paralanguage chronemics Proxemics Oculesics Olfactics Haptics Kinesics Chromatics Silence

28. What is a technique that provides a comparison of alternatives based on their costs and effectiveness in meeting organizational objectives?

Cost effectiveness

Selecting the Best Alternative

After evaluating the alternatives for meeting the needs of the operation and the feasibility and consequences of using them, some of the alternatives will be rejected

Implementing the Chosen Alternative

After an alternative is chosen, it should be implemented into the organization, but that can be difficult to do. When implementing a decision, managers must consider people's resistance to change, which might include insecurity, inconvenience, and fear of the unknown.

Define negotiation and give two examples of how it may be used in a manager's job.

A form of communication where two or more groups make offers and discuss until they make an agreement. Two examples of how it is used in a manager`s job is when he/she has to negotiate with his/her staff on the subject of the schedule or if they are late. Another example includes when the manager has to negotiate with his/her superiors on an issue or a necessary change at hand.

Why may a satisficing decision not necessarily be the best possible decision?

A satisficing decision might not be the best decision because when implementing a decision, managers must consider people's resistance to change, which might include insecurity, inconvenience, and fear of the unknown. So, managers do not really know if they chose the best alternative or made the best decision after a certain time passess. Sometimes, implementation has to be revised.

Recognizing and Defining the Situation

A stimulus, which can be either positive or negative, is necessary for someone to recognize that a problem exists and a decision is necessary. The problem must be clearly defined before action is taken; the foodservice manager should understand the problem and its relationship to other factors in the system.

what us upward communication?

An effective organization needs open channels of upward communication as much as it needs downward communication. In large organizations, good upward communication is especially difficult. Suggestion boxes, special meetings, and grievance procedures are devices used for upward communication.

Conditions of risk:

Because conditions of certainty are becoming less common in today's complex and rapidly changing world, estimating the likelihood or probability of various events occurring in the future is often the only possibility for planning; this condition is called risk. Under conditions of risk, various probability techniques are helpful in making decisions

what is Cost-Benefit?

Cost-benefit analysis is a technique for comparing the costs and financial benefits of a project or decision. Sometimes a financial value is placed on intangible benefits so they can be considered in the analysis. Before adding any new personnel or programs, most managers want to compare the cost of implementing and maintaining the programs with the increase in performance attributed to them

Optimistic approach:

Decision must be made, however, even though the decision maker has a little or no knowledge about the occurrence of various states of nature, one of the 3 basics approaches may be taken. The first is to choose an alternative that is best for all possible outcomes for all alternatives. Sometimes is also called maximum approach.

what are Decision Trees?

Decision trees allow management to assess the consequences of a sequence of decisions with reference to a particular problem. The approach involves linking a number of event "branches" graphically, which results in a schematic resembling a tree. The process starts with a primary decision that has at least two alternatives to be evaluated; the probability of each outcome is ascertained, along with its monetary value

how is decision making classified?

Definition of the problem Identification and analysis of possible courses of action Actual selection of a particular course of action

Robbins (2005) described two general approaches to negotiation. explain

Distributive bargaining occurs in situations where resources available are fixed and the negotiation focuses on what portion of the resources each will get. Integrative bargaining operates in situations where there is a variable amount of resources available and there can be many possible settlement options, which can result in perceived "wins" for both parties in the negotiation.

22. Non-programmed decisions are those reached by following established policies and procedures a. True b. False

F

24. Management science techniques, such as linear programming, work best under conditions of risk. a. True b. False

F

25. The decision-making technique that involves graphically displaying the flow and sequence of activities and events is termed a linear program. a. True b. False

F

27. Having production and service personnel communicate with each other to ensure quality food is ready when needed for service is an example of diagonal communication T or F

F

evaluating alternatives

Foodservice managers should evaluate all alternatives to determine if they meet the needs of the operation and the feasibility and consequences of using them.

Would group decision making be beneficial to use?

Group decision making would only be beneficial to use in certain situations. For example, when two or more organizational units will be affected by the decisions. Also, when the input and information about a situation is needed from other people, mostly in non programmed decisions.

There are three possibilities for managerial decision making:

Individual decision. Managers can make decisions themselves using information available to them. Combination decision. Managers can make decisions after consulting with others. Group decision. Managers can allow decisions to be made by the group, of which the manager is usually a member.

what are the barriers to communication?

Hearing an expected message. Past experience leads one to expect to hear certain messages that may not be correct in some situations. Ignoring conflicting information. A message that disagrees with one's preconceptions is likely to be ignored. Differing perceptions. Words, actions, and situations are perceived in accordance with the receiver's values and experiences; different people react differently to the same message. Evaluating the source. The meaning applied to any message is influenced by evaluation of the source. Interpreting words differently. Because of the complexity of language, words have many different meanings. Ignoring nonverbal cues. Tone of voice, facial expressions, and gestures may affect communication. Becoming emotional. Emotion will affect transmission and interpretation of messages. Cultural differences. Differences in ethnic, religious, and/or social status may impact the understanding of a message. Linguistics. Different languages, dialects, and accents spoken by the sender and receiver or use of a vocabulary by the sender that is beyond the comprehension of the listener may alter understanding of the message being sent.

When should a decision be made by a group rather than an individual?

Individual-versus-group decision making largely depends on factors such as complexity and importance of the problem, time available, degree of acceptance required, amount of information needed to make a decision, and the usual manner in which decisions are made in an organization.

what is downward communication?

Individuals at higher levels of the organization communicate downward to those at lower levels. The most common forms of communication are job instructions, policy statements, procedure manuals, and official publications of the organization

Pessimistic approach:

Is dealing with uncertainty is to compare the worst possible outcome of each of the alternatives and select the alternative with the least possible negative outcome. Sometimes called maximin approach

Risk-averting approach:

Is to choose the alternative that has the least variation among its possible outcomes. It is a risk-averting approach and may make for effective planning; however, the payoff potential is less than with the with the optimistic approach.

follow up and evaluation

Managers finally have to evaluate the effectiveness of their decision - they need to decide if their chosen alternative was the correct one. If it is not, maybe the second or third alternative would be better or maybe the problem was not correctly defined; perhaps the chosen alternative is the best, but more time may be needed or perhaps the implementation needs to be revised.

what are non-programmed desicions?

Nonprogrammed decisions are unique and have little or no precedent; these decisions are relatively unstructured and generally require a more creative approach on the part of the decision maker than programmed decisions. Often when dealing with nonprogrammed decisions, the decision maker must develop the procedure to be used.; naturally, these decisions tend to be more difficult to make than programmed decisions.

Identifying Alternatives

Once the decision is recognized and defined, alternatives should be identified. Obvious alternatives should be examined along with those that are creative; the more important the decision, the more attention should be placed on selecting alternatives.

programmed decisions are sub-divided into 2

Organizational decisions relate to the purposes, objectives, and activities of the organization. Personal decisions are concerned with the manager's individual goals.

what is horizontal communication?

Provision for horizontal flow of communication will enhance organizational effectiveness. Within the foodservice operation, effective horizontal communication between production and service is critical to ensure that quality food is available at the right time in the right place.

hows the decision making process?

Recognizing and Defining the Situation Identifying Alternatives Evaluating Alternatives Implementing the Chosen Alternative Follow-Up and Evaluation

The structure of the organization is based on three pillars

Stability pillar—responds to the need for efficiency and is found in a departmentalized structure. Entrepreneurial pillar—keeps the structure small, which is a requisite for continual adaptiveness and innovation. Habit-breaking pillar—includes a willingness to reorganize frequently, adjusting to various forces

20. Decision making is the selection of a course of action from a variety of alternatives. a. True b. False

T

21. Managerial adaptation to the changing environment is termed balance. a. True b. False

T

23. Programmed decisions are those reached by following established policies and procedures. a. True b. False

T

26. All communication includes three primary elements: sender, message, and receiver. a. True b. False

T

There are four factors that influence the effectiveness of organizational communication:

The Formal Channels of Communication. Formal channels influence communication effectiveness in space First, as organizations grow, the channels cover an increasingly larger distance. Second, the formal channels of communication may inhibit the flow of information between levels in the organization. The Authority Structure. The authority structure affects communication because of status and power differences among organizational members. Job Specialization. Job specialization can be both a help and hindrance in communication; it facilitates communication within a work group because members speak the same jargon and frequently develop a group cohesiveness. Information Ownership. The term information ownership means that individuals possess unique information and knowledge about their jobs; such information is a form of power for those who possess it, making them unwilling to share the information with others.

what are networks for decision making?

The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) and Critical Path Method (CPM) are networks for decision making; a network is a graphic representation of a project, depicting the flow and sequence of defined activities and events. An activity defines the work to be performed; an event marks the beginning or end of an activity. PERT and CPM are two widely known and used management science techniques for planning, scheduling, and controlling large projects

what us diagonal communication?

The use of diagonal channels of communication is a way of minimizing time and effort expended in organizations. Having reports and other information flow directly between departments or units that have a diagonal placement in the organization may result in more effective flow of information.

what is limitation in decision making?

The concept of simulation is to use some device for imitating a real-life occurrence and studying its properties, behavior, and operating characteristics. The device can be physical, mathematical, or some other model for describing the behavior of an occurrence that a manager wishes to design, improve, or operate.

Silence:

The duration and appropriateness of silence can be interpreted in different ways depending on the culture. Long periods of silence are often not comfortable for U.S. businesspeople but are common in negotiations by Japanese businesspeople

how does the process of communication start?

The sender has a message, an idea, a fact, or some other information to transmit to someone or some group. This idea may have simple or complex meaning to the sender. Meaning is an abstract concept that is highly personal. The sender must encode the information to be transmitted into a series of symbols or gestures. The encoding process is influenced by the content of the message and the familiarity of the sender and receiver. After the message is encoded, it is transmitted through the appropriate channel. Channels in an organization include meetings, face-to-face discussions, memos, letters, e-mails, reports, and telephone calls. Noise refers to all the types of interference that may distort or compete with the message during its transmission. Examples of noise are the inability to hear the sender, who is speaking too softly, distortion of the message by extraneous sounds, and inattention of the receiver. Communication may be one-way or two-way. In one-way communication, the sender communicates without expecting or getting feedback from the receiver; one-way communication takes considerably less time than two-way communication, but it is less accurate. Two-way communication exists when feedback is provided by the receiver; feedback enhances the effectiveness of the communication process and helps to ensure that the intended message is received by allowing the receiver to clarify the message and permitting the sender to refine the communication.

1. How are the linking processes of decision making, communication, and balance interrelated?

They are interrelated because together they govern the flow of resources or system inputs; through the use of decision making and communication, people, money, and equipment are moved through the system. Decision making, communication, and balance are needed to coordinate the activities of the system so they can accomplish the goals and objectives.

explain Conditions of Certainty

Under conditions of certainty, a decision maker has adequate information to assure results. A decision under conditions of certainty involves choosing the alternative that will maximize the objective.

what are techniques for improve communication?

Using feedback can result in more effective communication because it allows the sender to search for verbal and nonverbal cues from the receiver. Using several channels will improve the chances that a proper message is communicated. Sensitivity to the receiver will enable the communicator to adapt the message to the situation. Awareness of symbolic meanings can be particularly important in communication. "It's not what you say, but what you do" is another tenet for improving communication. Using direct, simple language and avoiding jargon is another rule for improving communications. Listening is basic to effective communication because receiving messages is as much a part of the process as sending them.

Conditions of certainty:

When a decision maker has adequate information to assure results. A decision under conditions of certainty involves choosing the alternative that will maximize the objective.

explain Conditions of Uncertainty.

When the occurrence of future events cannot be predicted, a state of uncertainty exists. Many changes or unknown facts can emerge when decision time frames are long; to predict what is likely to occur with any degree of certainty, therefore, is quite difficult. In these situations, foodservice managers frequently apply their experience, judgment, and intuition to narrow the range of choices.

3. One technique to improve communication would be to use a. one-way communication. b. only one channel of communication. c. limited repetition. d. face-to-face communication.

d

Conditions of uncertainty:

When the occurrence of future events cannot be predicted, a state of uncertainty exists. Many changes or unknown facts can emerge when decision time frames are long; to predict what is likely to occur with any degree of certainty, therefore, is quite difficult. • In these situations, foodservice managers frequently apply their experience, judgment, and intuition to narrow the range of choices.

17. The acculturation process when individuals are absorbed in a new culture and withdraw from their former culture is termed a. assimilation. b. integration. c. separation. d. deculturation.

a

5. The decision-making technique used to examine ways to reduce the amount of time people wait in line is termed a. queuing theory. b. game theory. c. linear programming. d. PERT charting.

a

7. Groupthink a. occurs when reaching an agreement becomes more important than finding the best decision. b. is the tendency of groups to accept more risk than individual members would accept. c. is a structured technique for generating innovative ideas. d. is the desired goal by managers who use group decision-making techniques.

a

When managers make a decision under conditions of uncertainty, the a. have adequate information to assure results. b. are faced with the possibility that several outcomes may occur. c. often use probability techniques to evaluate alternatives. d. have to use their experience, judgment, and intuition to narrow the range of choices.

a

How could the following decision-making techniques be used by management to analyze information:

a. Decision trees: Allows management to assess the consequences of a sequence of of decisions with reference to a particular problem. b. Cost-benefit": A technique for comparing the cost and financial benefits of a projects or decision. c. Cost-effectiveness: Is a technique that provides a comparison of alternative courses of action in terms of the cost and effectiveness in attaining a specific objective.

If you were an outpatient dietitian counseling primarily diabetic clients, what would be an example you might make of an

a. Organizational decision: Giving a premade, generic meal plan that is given to everyone that comes into the clinic to have them meet the goal that the whole clinic makes everyone meet. b. Personal decision? Dietician prescribe diabetic diet to the patient based on his/her knowledge

Explain how the following network methods could help management provide data for decision making:

a. PERT: it is used for planning, scheduling, and controlling large projects. b. Linear programming: useful for determining an optimal combination of resources to obtain a desired objective.

Explain and give an example of the following types of decisions:

a. Programmed decisions: Programmed decisions are reached by following established policies and procedures; these decisions also are referred to as routine or repetitive decisions. •Normally, the decision maker is familiar with the situation surrounding a programmed decision. •Limited judgment is called for in making programmed decisions; these decisions are made primarily by lower-level managers and employees in an organization. b. Non-programmed decisions: are unique and have little or no precedent; these decisions are relatively unstructured and generally require a more creative approach on the part of the decision maker than programmed decisions. Often when dealing with nonprogrammed decisions, the decision maker must develop the procedure to be used.; naturally, these decisions tend to be more difficult to make than programmed decisions.

List and describe the steps in the decision-making process.

a. Recognizing and Defining the Situation. A stimulus, which can be either positive or negative, is necessary for someone to recognize that a problem exists and a decision is necessary. The problem must be clearly defined before action is taken; the foodservice manager should understand the problem and its relationship to other factors in the system. b. Identifying Alternatives. Once the decision is recognized and defined, alternatives should be identified. Obvious alternatives should be examined along with those that are creative; the more important the decision, the more attention should be placed on selecting alternatives. c. Evaluating Alternatives. Foodservice managers should evaluate all alternatives to determine if they meet the needs of the operation and the 6 feasibility and consequences of using them. d. Selecting the Best Alternative. After evaluating the alternatives for meeting the needs of the operation and the feasibility and consequences of using them, some of the alternatives will be rejected. e. Implementing the Chosen Alternative. After an alternative is chosen, it should be implemented into the organization, but that can be difficult to do. f. Follow-Up and Evaluation. Managers finally have to evaluate the effectiveness of their decision - they need to decide if their chosen alternative was the correct one. • If it is not, maybe the second or third alternative would be better or maybe the problem was not correctly defined; perhaps the chosen alternative is the best, but more time may be needed or perhaps the implementation needs to be revised.

9. The decision-making technique that involves graphically displaying alternatives considered in a decision and the outcomes expected as a result is termed a a. PERT chart. b. CPM chart. c. Decision Network Chart. d. Decision Tree.

d

1. Two-way communication differs from one-way communication in that a. two-way communication involves a receiver; one-way does not. b. two-way communication includes feedback; one-way does not. c. two-way communication involves encoding a message; one-way does not. d. two-way communication includes noise; one-way does not.

b

10. When selecting a food supplier, Jim Jones, the foodservice manager compared the dependability, price, and variety of products offered by three different suppliers. This illustrates which step in the decision-making process? a. Defining the problem. b. Evaluating alternatives. c. Implementing the decision. d. Evaluating the decision.

b

11. When managesr make a "satisficing" decision they have made a. the optimal decision. manager makes a "satisficing" decision they have made b. an acceptable but not optimal decision. c. an unacceptable d. an inappropriate decision.

b

13. The longer the time into the future that a decision is being made for a. the greater the degree of certainty in the decision. b. the greater the degree of risk in the decision. c. the greater the degree of knowledge of the manager about the situation. d. the greater the degree of programmability of the decision.

b

16. The communication between management and union representative to finalize a collective bargaining agreement is an example of a. delphi group interaction. b. negotiation. c. upward communication. d. downward communication.

b

19. The use of the symbols to indicate a sense of happiness is an example of an a. acronym. b. emoticon. c. icon. d. chromatic.

b

4. The critical path in a PERT diagram is the one that a. has the most activities on it. b. takes the longest amount of time. c. is the most likely to occur. d. has activities that can be delayed and not impact the completion date of the project.

b

how are Important decisions being made in organizations?

by groups rather than by individuals; croup decision making most often is accomplished within interacting, Delphi, nominal, or focus groups.

15. Non-programmed decisions are most likely to be made by what level of managers? a. first-line b. middle c. top

c

18. What is the use of eye contact during communication? a. Chronemics b. Proxemics c. Oculesics d. Olfactics

c

6. Group decision making is more likely to be used for a. programmed decisions. b. decisions with a higher degree of certainty. c. non-programmed decisions. d. decisions with minimal risk.

c

8. Identifying the worst possible outcomes for each alternative in the decision-making process is referred to as the a. optimistic approach. b. risk averting approach. c. pessimistic approach. d. satisficing approach.

c

what is balance?

concerns management's ability to maintain organizational stability, which is related to effective decision making and communication

14. Deciding where to open a new restaurant would be considered which type of decision? a. programmed b. input c. transformation d. non-programmed

d

2. The fact that the word "dinner" may mean the noon meal to one individual and the evening meal to another is an example of a. a barrier to communication. b. noise in the communication process. c. improper encoding of a message. d. ineffective decoding of a message.

d

when should we use interacting group decisions?

decision-making group in which members discuss, argue, and agree upon the best alternative. Existing groups may be departments, work groups, or standing committees; new groups can be ad hoc committees, work teams, or task forces. An advantage of this method is that interacting promotes new ideas and understanding.

what are the decision making techniques?

decisions trees cost-benefits networks linear programming

what is queuing theory for decision making?

develops relationships involved in waiting in line. The theory balances the cost of waiting lines against the cost of preventing them by expanding facilities; the problem is figuring out the cost of total waiting—that is, the cost of tolerating the queue—and weighing it against the expense of constructing enough facilities to decrease the need for the queue.

Within the organization, managers must provide for communication in four distinct directions. what are they?

downward, upward, horizontal, and diagonal

what are other decision making-techniques?

game theory queing theory simulation artificial intelligence

effective organizational communication involves ?

getting an accurate message from one person to another.

what is game theory for decision making?

introduces a competitive note in decision making by bringing into a simulated decision situation the actions of an opponent. Game theory will show the highest gain with the smallest amount of losses, regardless of what the competitor does.

what is artificial memory for decision making?

is a computer program that attempts to duplicate the thought processes of experienced decision makers. Expert systems are artificially intelligent computer software programs; these systems solve problems by emulating the problem-solving behavior of human experts. Decision making starts with exploring "if . . . then" situations that could occur in solving a problem, and these situations become the knowledge base for the system

Negotiation, as a form of communication is?

is a process in which two or more parties make offers, counteroffers, and concessions to reach an agreement

when should we use focus group decisions?

is a qualitative information gathering method; tt has been used successfully for many years by large, multiunit chains and independents looking for customer feedback. The focus group consists of 10 to 20 people brought together for a one-time meeting of about 2 hours to discuss some predetermined aspect of a particular establishment; men and women are selected to participate if they meet certain criteria, such as being a frequent customer in the restaurant or in a competitor's establishment. Focus groups examine the motivation behind human behavior and, therefore, examine why people act the way they do, not what they do

when should we use Nominal group decisions?s

is a structured technique for generating creative and innovative alternatives or ideas; members of the group meet together but do not talk freely among themselves like members of interacting groups. The manager presents the problem to group members and asks them to write down as many alternatives for solutions as possible; they then take turns presenting their ideas, which are recorded on a flip chart. Members then vote by rank-ordering the various alternatives; he top-ranking alternative represents the decision of the group, which can be accepted or rejected by the manager.

what is linear programming for decision making?

is a technique useful in determining an optimal combination of resources to obtain a desired objective. Linear programming is one of the most versatile, powerful, and useful techniques for making managerial decisions. This concept has been used in solving a broad range of problems in industry, government, healthcare, and education.

what is decision making?

is the selection of a course of action from a variety of alternatives.

what is communication?

is the vehicle whereby decisions and other information are transmitted.

when is group-decision making ok?

is used because managers frequently confront situations in which they must seek information and elicit judgments from other people; this is especially true for nonprogrammed decisions. Group decision making also may be used when two or more organizational units will be affected by the decisions.

when should we use delphi group decisions?

is used for developing a consensus of expert opinion; a panel of experts, who contribute individually, makes predictions about a specific problem. Their opinions are combined and averaged and then returned to the panel for a second prediction Members who made unusual predictions may be asked to justify them before sending them to the other members of the panel; when the predictions stabilize, the average prediction represents the decision of the group of experts. The Delphi method is good for forecasting technological breakthroughs but takes too much time and is too expensive for everyday decision making

what are the types of decisions?

programmed non-programmed

Proxemics

the physical space between individuals when they are communicating, also differs among cultures and may alter interpretation of the message being given. People in the United States tend to need more space, for example, than do persons from Greek, Latin American, or Arab cultures. There are four zones of interaction: Intimate zone (less than 18 inches, reserved for very close friends or business handshakes) Personal zone (18 inches to 4 feet, used when giving instructions or working closely with another) Social zone (4 to 12 feet, used for most business interaction) Public distance (greater than 12 feet, very formal interaction).

Paralanguage

the rate, pitch, and volume of the voice giving the message, can affect the meaning interpreted from that message. Paralanguage can convey positive or negative emotions and attitudes; for example, in some cultures talking rapidly and loudly is perceived as normal; in others it is thought to show anger.

The linking processes govern the flow of resources or system inputs through what?

the use of decision making and communication, people, money, and equipment are moved through the system.

what are linking processes needed for?

they are needed to coordinate the activities of the system so they can accomplish the goals and objectives

Balance refers to

to managerial adaptations to changing economical, political, social, and technological conditions