Chapter 11 REVIEW
*William Shakespeare*
- wrote in newly Anglican England - not a lot of factual knowledge about this person - interested in politics which is seen through how he viewed the government through a character - political conservative - Thomas Kyd wrote the first dramatic version of Hamlet - Shakespeare wrote histories, comedies, and tragedies
*indulgences*
-it is a *remission of temporal punishment in purgatory granted by the pope as a "work of satisfaction" for their confessed mortal sins* - indulgences were attacked before Martin Luther. - on the eve of the reformation, this practice expanded to permit people to buy release from time in purgatory for both themselves and their deceased loved ones. - sale of indulgences would not end until rulers found a new way to profit from religions. these were originally given to crusades. - pope clement vi & pope sixties iv supported this; pretty much all popes did
factors that contributed to the lay criticism of the church
1. urban laypeople were increasingly knowledgeable about the wold around them and about their rulers. they even traveled. 2. new postal systems & the printing press increased the information 3. books and libraries raised literacy and curiosity - lay religious movements shared a common goal of religious simplicity in the imitation of Jesus, & laity was inspired by ideals of apostolic poverty in religion. the laity sought an egalitarian church
*Schmaldkaldic League* (1530s)
German Protestant lands formed a powerful defensive alliance and prepared for war with the Catholic emperor
*Martin Luther*
Luther entered order of Hermits to Saint Augustine & traveled to become a leader in a monastery. He despised the phrase "righteousness of God" because it demanded of him a perfection, which he couldn't attain. this led to sola fide. - Luther debated the Ingolstadt professor John Eck in Leipzig (1519). He challenged the pope and church councils & "burned his bridges" with the church when he defended certain teachings of John Huss, who had been condemned to death for heresy at the Council of Constance. - "Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation," "Babylonian Captivity of the Church," & "Freedom of a Christian" - *Pope leo's papel bull "Exsurge Domine" condemned Luther for heresy and gave his sixty days to contract. the final bull of excommunication was January 3, 1521.*
*schmalkadic articles*
Luther made this word as a more strongly worded Protestant confession
*Ninty-Five Theses (1517)*
Luther posted his ninty-five theses against indulgences on the door of Castle Church in Wittenburg (1517). He protested what Tezel proclaimed. - embraced by Nuremberg humanists
*Frederick the Wise*
Luther's lord and protector
*submission of clergy*
placed canon law under royal control and thereby the clergy under royal jurisdiction
*Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, Don Quixote*
- wrote in Catholic Spain - - the *first* part of "Don Quixote" appeared in 1605. it was made to satirize the chivalric romances, which were popular in Spain.
*Anabaptists*
"to rebaptize" the 16th century ancestors of modern Mennonites and Amish. they had a rejection of infant baptism because Jesus was baptized as an adult. only an adult could understand the scriptures to enter faith. - Luther and Zwingli believed in this - physically separated from the society to form a more perfect communion modeled on the first Christians - at first anabaptists came from all classes, but eventually a rural, agrarian class made up the majority - *rebaptism became a criminal offense in the HRE in 1529* - Jan Beukelsz of Lieden and Jan Matthys of Haarlem forced Lutherans and Catholics to convert or die in Munster.
war with France and turks
(1521-1559) Spain and France fought four major wars over territories within Italy.
*Reformation Parliament* or English Parliament
(1529) seven year session where the clergy was harassed by a flood of legislation. it led to the idea that the monarch must consult with and work through parliament. - (1531) convocation recognized *Henry* as the head of the church in English. - (1532) Parliament published official grievances against the church - (1532) submission of clergy - (1533) made the king the highest court of appeal for all English subjects - (1534) parliament ended all payments by the English clergy and laity to Rome and gave Henry sole jurisdiction over high ecclesiastical appointments - (1538) dissolved England's monasteries and nunneries
Antitrinitarians
*final* group of persecuted racial Protestants - Spaniard Michael Servetus was prominent among them & was executed
*benefice system*
*system of the medieval church that permitted important ecclesiastical posts to be sold to the highest bidders*, and it failed to enforce the requirement that priests and bishops had. the system threatened a vibrant, lay spiritual life.
Protestant *Reformation*
*the 16th century religious movement that sought to reform the Roman Catholic Church and led to the establishment of Protestantism* - occurred at a time of conflict b/w emerging nation-states and self governing towns and villages - broke out *first* in the free imperial cities of Germany and Switzerland, and the basic tenets of Lutheran and Zwinglian Protestantism remained visible in Protestant movements. - *guilds* & people who felt bullied or pushed around by a local authority usually supported the Protestant movement. - *couldn't have occurred without monumental challenges to the medieval church during it's "exile" in Avignon, the Great Schism, the Conciliar period, and the Renaissance papacy* - elector of Saxony and prince of Hesse, most powerful German Port. leaders, led the politicalization of religious reform within their territories.
*sola fide (justification by faith alone*
*the righteousness that God demands did not result from charitable acts and religious ceremonies but was given in full measure to any and all who believe in and trust Jesus Christ as the perfect righteousness satisfying to God.* the medieval church taught that salvation was a combination of divine mercy and human good works, what God could do alone and what humans are expected to do in return. *the issue was not whether good works should be done, but how those works should be regarded. it is knowledge of faith that sets corrupt souls free to serve their neighbors selflessly*
Later Marriages
- between 1500 & 1800, men & women in Western Europe married at later ages than they had in previous centuries. for men, it was in their mid to late twenties. for women it was early to mid twenties. - it reflected the difficulty couples had supporting themselves independently - later marriage = shorter marriage & more frequent remarriage for men
loving families? (not really)
- children between the ages of 8-14 sent from their homes into school or employment.
In Perspective
- christendom had been divided into western and eastern churches with theological differences - Martin Luther created a division with western christendom itself - an internal division between Protestants and Catholics - clergy was exempted from many secular laws and taxes while remaining powerful landowners whose personal lifestyles were not al that different from those of the laity - catholics had been pursuing reform before the reformation broke out in Germany - after the reformation, plurals steadily became a fact of western religious life - during the 16th and 17th centuries, only those groups that fought doggedly for their faith gained the right to practice it freely. - never again would there be only a catholic christian church in Europe.
wet nursing
- church and physicians condemned women who hired wet nurses for their newborns - it was popular among upper class women, & it increased the risk of infant mortality by exposing infants to a shared milk supply from women who were not as healthy as the infant's mothers & who lived in poor conditions - vanity & convenience were motives
family size
- conjugal, or nuclear, consisting of a father and a mother and two to four children who survived into adulthood - larger household with servants, laborers, and boarders - usually six to seven children; an estimated one-third died by age five & one half by their teens
lutheranism
- thrived under Frederick I, who joined the Schmalkaldic League, and became an official state religion under Christian III
Swiss civil wars
- two majors battles both at Kappel in 1529 & 1531. *the first ended a protestant victory, which forced Catholic cantons to break their foreign alliances and to recognize the rights of Swiss Protestants* After the second battle, *Zwingli* was executed.
*Counter-Reformation* or Catholic Reformation
Catholic resurgence initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation; how the church responds - Theatines: founded in 1524 to groom devout and reform-minded leaders at higher levels of the church hierarchy -Capuchins: they sought to return to the original ideals of Saint Francis and became popular among the ordinary people to whom they directed their ministry - Somaschi - Barnabites: worked to repair the moral, spiritual, and physical damage done to people in war-torn Italy - Ursulines: established convents in Italy and France for religious education of girls from different social classes - Oratorians: an elite group of clerics devoted to the promotion of religious literature and church music
*Council of Trent (1545 - 1563)*
Charles V forced Pope Paul III called a general council of the church to reassert church doctrine. the council of the church met in 1545 in Trent (northern Italy) there were three sessions, which were 18 years with long interruptions because of war, plague, politics. this was strictly under the pope's control. it strengthened the authority of local bishops, and the bishops were subjected to new rules. it reaffirmed the scholastic education of the clergy, role of good works in salvation, authority of tradition, seven sacraments, transubstantiation, withholding of the eucharistic cup from laity, clerical celibacy, purgatory, veneration of saints, relics, sacred images, and indulgences. it resolved medieval scholastic quarrels.
*German Peasants' Revolt* (1524-25)
German peasants first believed Luther to be an ally. The peasants opposed the efforts of their secular lords to override their traditional laws and customs. peasant leaders looked the Luther's teaching about freedom and Luther's criticism of landowners. Luther initially sympathized with them, but lutherans were not social revolutionaries. *when the peasants revolted against their landlords, invoking Luther's name, Luther condemned them as "un-christian" and urged the princes to crush them.* luther would have contradicted his own beliefs by joining the peasants. German reformation didn't last long.
German Reformation
It was the *first,* but Switzerland and France had there's simultaneously with Germany's.
Spiritualists
Protestant dissenters who were isolated individuals. they believed the only religious authority was the spirit of God. - several lutherans believed in this, like Thomas Muntzer who died as a leader of a peasants revolt in Germany
*Charles V*
When Emperor Maximilian I died, Charles I of Spain/Charles V stepped in. When he was Charles I, he agreed to revive the German-based Imperial Supreme Court and the council of regency and also promised to consult with a diet of the empire on all major domestic and forge in affairs. - needed German troops, which he received by being friendly with German princes.
social and political experience influenced religious change in town and countryside
When Martin Luther scorned the authority of landlords and ridiculed papal laws, they touched political and religious nerves. When city dwellers & peasants heard this, this gave them hope.
*Sir Thomas More*
Wolsey's successor. he wrote "response to Luther"
Augsburg confession **
a moderate statement of protestant beliefs that had been spurned by the emperor at the diet of Augsburg
*peace of ausburg*
asserted regional princely control over religion; cuius regio, eius religio. lutheranism & catholicism are now legal in the empire. - the division of christendom was made permanent. - this did not extend official recognition to Calvinism and Anabaptism as legal forms of Christian belief and practice. (Calvinists weren't separatists, but Anabaptists were). - treaty between Charles v and Schmalkadic League
Heinrich Bullinger
became the new leader of the Swiss Reformation of Zwingli was executed, and guided its development into an established religion, to merge with Calvinism.
Brothers of Common Life/Modern Devotion
boarding school for the reform-minded laity; a lay religious life of prayer and study without surrendering the world. - Nicholas of Cusa, Hebraist Johannes Reuchlin, and Desiderius Erasmus were looked after by these brothers. - the BCL has been seen as the source of humanist, protestant, and catholic reform movements in the sixteenth century. it was a conservative movement.
*"Book of Common Prayer"*
book written by Thomas Cramner
*Edward VI*
came into power after Henry died in 1547 - henry's six articles and laws against protestant heresy were repealed
*Cardinal Thomas Wolsey*
chief minister of *King Henry VIII* and *Sir Thomas More* he guided the royal opposition to incipient English Protestantism. he was placed in charge of securing the royal annulment. when he failed to do this, he was dismissed. Thomas crammer and Thomas Cromwell replaced him.
*act of supremacy*
declared Henry "the only supreme head in earth of the church of England" - when Thomas more and John fisher refused to accept both of these acts, Henry executed them.
*King Henry VIII*
defended the seven sacraments against Luther, receiving "Defender of the Faith" from Pope Leo X - he married Catherine of Aragon, but they only produced one child, Mary. He desperately wanted a male heir, and believed god cursed him because of his son Arthur's premature death. He divorced Catherine and this required special dispensation from Pope Julius II because it goes against the Bible. He was going to marry Anne Boleyn, but he couldn't do it without a papal annulment of his marriage with Catherine. Cranmer and Cromwell thought of solving the problem by declaring himself supreme in English spiritual affairs like he was in temporal affairs, so he could settle the affair himself. - (1533) Henry married Anne Boleyn, which was officiated by Thomas Cramner. Cramner led the Convocation in invalidating the king's marriage to Catherine - had four more marriages after this: Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr. - forbade the English clergy to marry and threatened to execute clergy who were caught twice in concubinage
German diet of speyer (1526)
emperor agreed through reps at this diet that each German territory was free to enforce the edict of worms against Luther. - this gave German princes territorial sovereignty in religious matters, and also bought the formation time to put down deep roots in Germany and Switzerland. - this proved to be a precedent for the *final* settlement of the religious conflict in the empire
peace of Augsburg (1555)
enforces regional princely control over religion in imperial law
John Tezel
famous indulgence preached who was enlisted to trace the indulgence in Albrecht's territories
protestant reformers
favored clerical marriage and opposed monasticism and celibate life, but were more willing to permit divorce and remarriage on grounds of adultery and abandonment - protestants stressed the sacredness of home and family - nuns exposed the nunneries - protestants encouraged education for women
Geneva
genevans revolted against their resident prince-bishop. Geneva voted officially to adopt the reformation in 1536. - geneva elected officials in favor of Calvin, & Calvin became a good ally. - became home to thousands of exiled protestants who had been driven out of France, England, and Scotland
*John Calvin*
he produced *"institutes of the christian religion,"* about protestant faith & predestination. - Calvin's controversy: predestination - faith conformed every action to God's law - he executed Michael Servetus for denying the doctrine of the Trinity
philip Melanchthon
his first act was to reform the curriculum on the humanist model - he restricted the university of wittenberg's curriculum with Luther
*act of uniformity (1549)*
imposed Thomas Cramner's "book of common prayer" on all English churches. images and altars were removed from churches. - the second act of uniformity imposed revision on the book
*Calvinism*
in the second half of the sixteenth century, calvinism replaced lutheranism as the dominant protestant force in Europe. it's the *religious ideology that inspired massive political resistance in France, the Netherlands, and Scotland* - believed in predestination and individual's responsibility to reorder society according to God's plan
late medieval Germany
it lacked the political unity to enforce "national" religious reforms during the late Middle Ages. as resentment of clerical immunities and ecclesiastical abuses spread, an unorganized "national" opposition to Rome formed.
*act of succession (1534)*
made Anne boleyn's children legitimate heirs to the throne - Anne Boleyn was executed for alleged treason and adultery and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate by her father.
*Jesuits (the Society of Jesus)*
most instrumental reform, group in the Counter Reformation, & the church recognized it in 1530s.
*imperial electors*
nine German princes who had the right to elect the holy Roman Emperor, the most prominent was Frederick the Wise
*Ignatius of Loyola*
organized the Jesuits. he intended to teach good Catholics to deny themselves and submit without question to higher church authority and spiritual direction.
Conrad Grebel
originated Anabaptism and performed the first adult re-baptism in Zurich in January 1525.
Arranged Marriages
parents met and discussed the terms of the marriage - parents respected the couple's feelings for each other - best marriage was one desired by both the bride and the groom and their families
Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation
published by Martin Luther about the economic grievances
*Six Articles of 1539*
reaffirmed transubstantiation, denied the Eucharistic cup to laity, declared celibate vows inviolable, provided for private Masses, and order the continuation of oral confession. - this angered the protestants
Edward I
rejected efforts by Pope Boniface VIII to prevent secular taxation of the clergy
*Mary I*
restored Catholic doctrine and practice
*Pope Leo X*
revived a plenary Jubilee Indulgence that had first been issued by Pope Julius II, the proceeds of which were to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica in Rome
Landgrave Philip of Hesse
sought to unite Swiss and German Protestants in a mutual defense pact - he brought Swiss and Zwingli together in his castle in Marburg in early October 1529, so they could work out their differences. This didn't help their relationship. Separate defenses formed: semi-Zwinglian theological views came to be embodied in the non-Lutheran "Tetrapolitan Confession" by Martin Bucer & Caspar Hedio
cantons
states; some became Protestant & some became Catholic
*Ulrich Zwingli*
the *leader of the Swiss Reformation*, critic of Swiss mercenary service, & had an opposition towards the sale of indulgences and to religious superstition. - petitioned for an end to clerical celibacy and for the right of clergy legally to marry (marriage of the clergy was accepted in all Protestant lands) - his belief was that whatever lacked literal support in Scripture was to be neither believed nor practiced - on January 29, 1523: a disputation concluded the city government's sanction of Zwingli's scripture test. - *zurich became the center of the Swiss reformation & the city was one of the first examples of puritanical protestantism* - *Luther and Zwingli had differences. Zwingli favored a symbolic interpretation of Christ's words, and thought of a spiritual presentation. Luther insisted that Christ's human nature shared the properties of his divine nature, & he could be spiritually and bodily present.
*Diet of Worms (1521)*
the German nobility presented the emperor with a list of 102 "oppressive church burdens and abuses" said to be corrupting the care of German souls. - *Luther presented his views before the diet of worms, over which Charles v presided. Luther was declared an outlaw, but hid with friends. he translated the New Testament into groan using Erasmus's new greek text and Latin translation, while overseeing by correspond the first steps of the reformation in wittenberg* - made efforts to enforce a compromise between protestants and catholics, but this failed. he went towards a military solution. the imperial armies crushed the protestant schmalkaldic league
birth control
the church's condemnation of coitus interrupts (male withdrawal before ejuculation) during the 13th & 14h centuries suggests the existence of a contraceptive mentality that is a conscious, regular effort at birth control.
*Predestination*
the doctrine that god had foreordained all souls to salvation or damnation; Calvinism
vernacular
the everyday language spoken by the people as opposed to Latin
Menno Simons
the founder of Mennonites who set an example of non-provocative separatist Anabaptism
*cuius regio, eius relgio*
the ruler of a land would determine its religion
*William Tyndale*
translated the New Testament into English in 1524-1525 while in Germany. it began to circulate in England in 1526.
