Chapter 11 Sexual/Affectional Orientations and Diversity

Relationships and Sex

- An individual's affectional orientation and sexual identity both impact his or her tendency to form sexual relationships with men, women, or both. - For many ppl, the relationships they form are often the most visible display of their affectional orientation and sexual identity. - A limitation of all research with members of the LGBTTIIQQ community is sample bias.

Sexual Identity Development

- Numerous models of sexual identity development have been advanced since the 1970's, but the only such model that has received any popularity is the one developed by Vivienne Cass (1979, 1966). - Cass's model proposes that gay and lesbian individuals go through six stages of development. Cass's six stages of gay/lesbian development Stage 1: Identity Confusion Milestones: The individual labels some of his or her thoughts, emotions, and/or behaviours as homosexual, which creates a deeper question of whether the person should identify as gay or lesbian. Stage2: Identity Comparison Milestones: The feelings of being different result in some degree of social alienation, and further questioning occurs. Stage 3: Identity Tolerance Milestones: The individual moves closer to identifying as a gay or lesbian person, expressed in the statement, "I probably am a gay or lesbian person". The individual begins to seek out the company of other gay or lesbian individuals and their subculture. Stage 4: Identity Acceptance Milestones: The individual accepts a gay or lesbian identity instead of merely tolerating and exploring it. Stage 5: Identity Pride Milestones: The individual is absorbed into the gay and lesbian community, spending most of his or her time with ppl in this community, and develops a certain distrust of heterosexual ppl. Stage 6: Identity Synthesis Milestones: The individual's homosexual identity becomes integrated with his or her other identities. It no longer rules the person's interactions with others. - Like any model, Cass's has been criticized mainly by those who note that not all women pass through all the stages or in the prescribed order. - Further, certain aspects of the model have become less relevant than they were when Cass first proposed the model in 1979. - i.e., the fifth stage (Identity Pride) has been viewed as being less important as the gay liberation movement progressed. - Today, this stage might not occur for the majority of those who develop a gay or lesbian identity within a reasonably tolerant social environment. - More recently, Kevin Alderson (2013) has proposed a theory of development called the ecological model of LBGTI identity. - This model, originally constructed to refer to gay male identity development only, is based in human ecology theory, which is concerned with looking at ppl in interaction with their environments. - By looking at these interacting influences, the theory suggests, the quality of daily life can be improved by creating healthy human environments. - The model recognizes that a person's sexual identity (and transgender/transsexual identity) occurs within a complex environmental context. - This context is shaped by the society in which the individual lives as well as cultural/spiritual, parental/familial and peer influences. - Thus, the model recognizes that identity formation and disclosure of that identity will be substantially different. - If LGBTTIIQQ individuals are able to question their identity (partly or wholly dependent on four contextual influences), they will begin to reflect upon their behaviour, their cognition, and their affect. - If their analysis of these personal dynamics suggests an LGBTTIIQQ identity, and if catalysts (positive influences) outweigh hindrances (negative influences), they may begin to assume an LGBTTIIQQ identity. - This effort will also involve doing inner psychological work, connecting in some way to LGBTTIIQQ culture, and reconnecting with this new identity to the dominant culture. - From this stage, individuals will move to the final stage, in which they develop a consolidated sense of their unique LGBTTIIQQ identity.

Sexual/Affectional Orientations and Identities--Sexual vs. Affectional Orientations

- When discussing peoples' intimate, sexual, and romantic attractions to others, most researchers and laypersons alike focus on the sexual aspects of such attractions, using the term sexual orientation to refer to an individual's tendency to be attracted to men and//or women. - Yet many have noted that this term is too limited, as it overemphasizes the sexual aspects of an orientation and thus oversimplifies what an orientation is. - As a result, there is growing support for rejecting the term sexual orientation in favour of the more inclusive term affectional orientation. - Affectional Orientation: The interaction between affect and cognition such that it produces attraction, erotic desire, and ultimately feelings of love for members of the other sex, the same sex, or both. - Most current researchers recognize that an orientation has a significant emotional attachment component. - There are also political reasons for moving away from the trend to classify an individual's orientation based solely on his or her sexual behaviours. - In modern times, sexual behaviour has often been used to classify people. - In the past, divisions between 'heterosexual' and 'homosexual' did not exist. - If a man had sex with another man it didn't challenge his identity. - The word homosexual did not even enter the English language until 1869. - Before then (above point), everyone was assumed to be heterosexual and to have a heterosexual orientation; same-sex orientations and bisexual orientations were simply not recognized. - Heterosexual Orientation: An affectional orientation where affect and cognition are exclusively directed at members of the other sex. - Same-Sex Orientations: An affectional orientation where affect and cognition are exclusively directed at members of the same sex. - Bisexual orientation: An affectional orientation where affect and cognition are directed at members of both sexes, to one extent or another. - As the word homosexual became popular in general usage, those who engaged in same-sex sexual activity were no longer viewed as doing a behaviour--they instead became a certain creature. (The homosexual was born). - These homosexuals were believed to be treacherous, immoral, corrupt creatures, and they were blamed for a lot of what was wrong in society. - They were viewed as neurotic, lonely, depressed, promiscuous, unhappy, fixated, unfulfilled, undependable, defective, mentally ill, incapable of intimacy, shallow, narcissistic, effiminate, predatory, prudish, and overly chatty. - Other less-commonly held beliefs included that they could not whistle, they lacked body hair, they caused the American defeat in Vietnam, and they were to blame for World War 2. - Even members of the scientific community put forth negative views of homosexuality. i.e., David Reuben, in his highly influential book 'Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Sex but were afraid to ask (1969), explained that "primary interest [in homosexuality] is the penis, not the person". - Reuben also expressed a debasing attitude toward lesbian women. - As a result of the negative connotations associated with the word 'homosexuals' and the insults that men and women who were developing real relationships with others of the same sex faced as a result of this term, the word homosexual fell out of use, and individuals who were attracted to members of their ow sex began to refer to themselves as gay or lesbian. - Along with this change in terminology came new perspectives on same-sex attraction as well as the acknowledgement that some people actually do fall in love romantically with members of their own sex--a recognition that is better reflected by the concept of affectional orientation than sexual orientation.

Affectional Orientation Development

- Affectional Orientation has many components--sexual attractions, sexual fantasies, sexual preference, propensity to fall in love romantically, being in love romantically, and the extent to which one has male and/or female sexual partners. - Each of these components is undoubtedly complex enough to warrant investigation into how it develops in different people. - Further, given that variations of affectional orientation are considered normal, we must wonder why it is that most research related to affectional oriental development is directed at understanding the development only of those who end up with a same-sex or bisexual orientation. - Few studies are constructed to find a 'heterosexual gene' or to discover how childhood social interactions might lead an individual to develop a heterosexual orientation. - Unfortunately, the widespread bias that assumes heterosexuality to be the 'default' orientation seems to have affected how researchers frame their questions about the development of affectional orientations. - Another issue that confounds studies regarding the etiology of affectional orientations is the fact that most researchers simply rely on a person'a sexual identity label (e.g., gay, lesbian, bisexual, heterosexual, asexual) to separate participants into groups. - Sexual identity and affectional orientation are different constructs. - An individual who identifies as gay or lesbian at the time in which they are participating in a study may identify as a heterosexual or bisexual at a different point in time. - Despite these issues however, researchers have managed to uncover some interesting insights into how and why individuals' affectional orientations develop the way they do.

Prejudice against Same-Sex Oriented Individuals

- Although the constructs of 'gay' and 'lesbian' developed fairly recently, relative to human history, the vast majority of past civilizations disapproved of, or at least marginalized same-sex sexual behaviour. - The ancient Greeks may have held more positive views of male-male sexual behaviour than did other cultures, but available evidence suggests that even they held mixed views; such behaviours were acceptable only for members of the upper classes, caused much moral debate among the philosophers, and were never viewed positively by the majority of citizens. - Today, negative views of same-sex sexual behaviours persist, to varying degrees, in most societies around the world. - Such views also often lead to prejudices against individuals who engage in same-sex behaviour, or anyone who is deemed to not fit neatly into the category of 'heterosexual'. - Heterosexism, whether it occurs consciously or unconsciously, minimizes LGBTIIQQ ppl, either by assuming that they do not exist or by projecting a belief that they are somehow inferior to their heterosexual counter-parts. - It is a continual process that manifests itself in nearly every setting (i.e., at home, at work, and at school). - Heterosexism: Prejudice and Discrimination against individuals of other sexual orientations and genders based on the implicit assumption that heterosexual sexuality is the norm. - Heterosexist attitudes often manifest most strongly as homophobia, biphobia, and queerphobia, which can lead to acts of hate and violence against members of the LGBTTIIQQ community. - Homophobia: The fear, dislike, and/or intolerance of gay and/or lesbian individuals. - Biphobia: The fear, dislike, and/or intolerance of bisexual individuals. - Queerphobia: The fear, dislike, and/or intolerance of members of the LGBTIIQQ community. - In some cases, these attitudes also lead to internalized homophobia, which may cause gay and lesbian individuals to fear and even hate themselves, and other gay and lesbian people, and those whom they perceive as having a gay or lesbian identity and/or a same-sex sexual/affectional orientation. - Internalized Homophobia: The fear, dislike, and/or intolerance that gay and lesbian individuals feel toward themselves and/or others with a same-sex orientation. - Further, homonegativity may make some individuals with same-sex orientations feel that they must hide or ignore their same-sex attractions, sometimes even convincing themselves that they are not actually attracted to members of their own sex. - Homonegativity: Explicitly negative attitudes toward gay and lesbian people.

Introduction

- Attributions, both personal and those offered by others, are based on characteristics, whether internal or external. - Stereotypes, for example, are often expressed externally, while cognition's and emotions are internal--at least until they are shared in some way.

Same-Sex Sexual Behaviour

- Couples vary in the amount of sex they have. - Research has established that, generally speaking, gay men in relationships have the most sex, lesbian couples have the least, and mixed-sex couples fall somewhere in between. - Over time, the amount of sex diminishes for all relationship types, and gay male couples (in contrast to lesbian and straight couples) tend to become less monogamous. - On average. gay males have 42.8 sexual partners in their lifetime, heterosexual males have 16.5, lesbian women have 9.4 and heterosexual women have 4.6. - Large-scale representative research from the US (N=9487 males and 12,336 females) reveals that the prevalence of women having sex with other women increased during the twentieth century, while findings for men are more ambiguous. - However, there is evidence that the proportion of men having sex with men increased through the 1990s. - Gay boys report having sex with other boys (on average, around 13 or 14 years of age) earlier than lesbian girls report having sex with other girls (on average, around 14 or 15 years of age). - Almost 9 put of 10 gay adolescent boys have had manual and oral sex with another male, and about half have tried oral-anal contact. - For boys who further explore having sex with other boys, there is a typical order in which sexual activities occur, if they occur: oral sex, anal sex, anilingus (sometimes called 'rimming'), and anal-dildo penetration. - Anilingus: Oral stimulation of the anus, perineum, and surrounding area. - For girls who have sex with girls, the typical order in which sexual activities occur, if they occur, is oral sex, vaginal-digital penetration, anilingus, vaginal-dildo penetration, and anal-dildo penetration. - The most common sexual practices among men who have sex with men are, in order of prevalence, mutual masturbation, oral sex, and anal intercourse. - A gay man who engages in anal sex may refer to himself as a 'top' as a 'bottom', or as a 'versatile'. - Top: A gay man who assumes the penetrator role in anal sex. - Bottom: A gay man who assumes the penetratee role in anal sex. - Versatile: A gay man who is willing to assume either the top or bottom role in anal sex. - Blumstein and Schwartz (1983) found that approximately 30% of the gay male couples they studies rarely or never engaged in anal sex. - The most commonly reported sexual activities among women who have sex with women include oral sex, vaginal-digital penetration, and mutual masturbation. - Genital-genital contact, especially in the 'scissoring' position, and other forms of 'tribadism' are also common. - Scissoring: the sexual practice where two women wrap their legs around each other and rub their vulva's together. - Tribadism: The sexual practice where a woman rubs her vulva against any part of her partner's body. - There is some difficulty noted in the literature regarding various definitions of what constitutes having sex, and several aspects of lesbian sex would be viewed by many heterosexual individuals as 'foreplay', as they do not involve penile penetration. - Comparing 407 18-to-62-year-old lesbian women with 370 17-to-59-year-old heterosexual women, Coleman, Hoon, and Hoon (1983) found that the lesbian sample reported having sex more frequently, experiencing more orgasms, and experiencing greater sexual satisfaction. - Women in this sample were also more likely to have a greater number of sexual partners. - In Loulan's (1988) study of 1566 lesbian women, 89% reported masturbating and 88% reported having partnered sex. - Just over 50% of the sample reported they enjoyed sex either fairly well or completely.

Conversion Therapy

- Fear and disapproval of same-sex oriented individuals has led to efforts to change individuals' same-sex or bisexual orientations into heterosexual orientations. - Such efforts are often referred to as conversion therapy or, when they are driven by religiously motivated people, attempts to 'pray away the gay'. - Conversion therapy: Therapy directed at changing a same-sex or bisexual orientation into heterosexual orientation. - A substantial literature has developed in this area over the past few decades, particularly following a controversial 2003 report from a highly influential psychiatrist and professor, Robert Spitzer. - Spitzer (2003) provided data showing that some gay men who were highly motivated, usually by anti-gay religious beliefs, reported that they had changed their sexual orientations (not affectional orientations, although some also claimed this occurred) from same-sex oriented to heterosexual. - His results were highly contested by researchers who believe that sexual orientation cannot be changed with criticisms focused on sampling bias and the retrospective nature of the participants's reports. - Nearly ten years after he published his original report, Spitzer apologized to the gay community for 'making unproven claims of the efficacy of reparative therapy". - Earlier, Nicolosi, Byrd, and Potts (2000) had provided similar reports of some gay men who felt they had become heterosexual after undergoing conversion therapy and/or engaging in 'self-help' practices. - Although these and other researchers have interpreted such self-reports of changes in sexual orientation as evidence that conversion therapy can be successful in its goals, the meaning of these self-reports is not entirely clear. - After all, it is easy to change one's sexual identity label: straight to gay to bisexual to back again, and in any direction. - Each of us owns our label, and we decide whether to share it with others or to put forth another label that we feel might be more socially acceptable in a given context. - Furthermore, such reports say little about affectional orientation. - Many ppl are capable of enjoying sexual situations with either males or females--bodies respond to sexual stimulation, and sexual stimulation is enjoyable in most consensual circumstances--and such enjoyment may be interpreted as indicating a certain sexual orientation. - But affectional orientations are much more complex, involving a variety of interpersonal factors; to further complicate the matter, some people may not be fully aware of their propensities when it comes to falling in love romantically. - Further, there is little evidence that the goals of conversion therapy are maintained in the long run, as many individuals, including the ex-gay movement, eventually return to their previous lives as gay men and lesbian women. - Regardless of whether conversion therapy works, there are serious ethical concerns associated with such efforts of conversion. - Conversion therapy should be immediately suspect from ethical perspective because it targets only individuals with same-sex orientations, and its goal is essentially to 'fix' a minority population that is deemed to have undesirable traits. - Further, conversion efforts seem out of line with guideline to 'avoid bringing harm to the client' that every reputable mental health professional is obliged to follow. - It is difficult to believe that conversion therapists are following this ethic, given ample research evidence demonstrating the negative consequences associated with conversion therapy: -increased suicidality increased anxiety and depression - decreased self-esteem and increased feelings of shame and self-loathing - increased levels of internalized homophobia and distorted perceptions of same-sex sexuality -intrusive imagery - sexual dysfunction - preoccupation with speech mannerisms and gender-role expression; loss of family connections, religiosity, and spirituality; - phobic anxiety toward attractive members of one's own sex; - increased aggression and hostility; feelings of in-authenticity - Slowing of the self-identification process; social isolation and loss of same-sex partners; irrational fear of being a child abuser (as a consequence of the once-prevalent stereotype that 'homosexuals' are pedophiles) and difficulty in establishing intimate relationships. - For individuals who struggle with their same-sex sexual/affectional orientations, a more positive and helpful form of guidance may come from LGBTTIIQQ affirmative therapy. - LGBTIIQQ Affirmative therapy: Therapy directed at helping LGBTTIIQQ individuals view their sexual/affectional orientation, sexual identity, and/or gender identity in a positive light. - standing in a stark contrast to conversion therapy, this form of therapy is offered by people who view LGBTTIIQQ individuals as being equal and as desreving of equal rights to those sharing the dominant discourse (usually heterosexuality). - LGBTTIIQQ affirmative therapists may hold and practice from any theoretical orientation (e.g., psychodynamic, behavioural); the important aspect is that their attitudes and behaviours are affirming of LGBTTIIQQ individuals. (The way we develop is a combination of both nature and nurture).

Self-Identification and Identity Disclosure: Self-Identification as Lesbian, Gay, or Bisexual.

- In Canada and the U.S, self-identification as lesbian, gay, or bisexual has been considered a necessary prerequisite for optimal emotional health among LGB individuals. - Self-Identification: The process of coming to accept for oneself in a particular sexual identity label. - Every theory of sexual identity formation requires the self-identification process to occur before a positive identity can develop. - For some LGB individuals, however, internalized homophobia or biphobia can be so great that the self-identification process becomes effectively blocked, either through denial, a destructive defense mechanism, or self-loathing. - Erik Erikson (1968) believed that ppl need to have a secure identity before they can become capable of true intimacy and love. - Those who block their sexuality by attempting to make it invisible are likely to make bad decisions. - There have been innumerable men and women with strong same-sex sexual/affectional orientations who have denied their sexual identity and married heterosexually, only to later regret this decision. - Those who dislike or hate their affectional orientation can develop very negative sequeale. "If men are ashamed of themselves b/c of their same-sex feelings, they may engage in behaviours that are harmful (i.e., unprotected sex). - Internalized homphobia usually underlies this self-loathing, and it is viewed as the biggest barrier to developing a positive LGB identity. - A recent study on 156 LGB youths (aged 14 to 21) in New York City found that those who had greater identity integration experienced fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety, fewer behavioural problems, and greater self-esteem.

Biological Explanations

- In a recent investigation involving expert analysis and critical review of the available literature, Jannini, Blanchard, Camperio-Ciani, and Bancroft (2010) investigated the role of biological as well as cultural factors in determining affectional orientation. - They restricted their focus to male-male sexuality for three reasons (a): Same-sex sexual behaviour is more common among males than among females, (b): there is more scientific research regarding male-male sexual behaviour, and (c): religious and moral concerns are more focused on male-male sexuality as compared to female-female sexuality . - Jannini and colleagues concluded that the issues are 'complicated and multi-factorial', and neither biological nor environmental factors can explain all cases of same-sex orientation in males. - In relation to biological factors, they noted that certain 'genetic and immunological factors, birth order, and fertility of relatives' seem to play a role in the development of affectional orientation. - Most research looking at biological explanations of sexual/affectional orientation focuses on either the structures or the functioning of the brain. - studies that focus on the brain's structures usually involve measuring the size of certain brain regions in same-sex oriented and other-sex oriented individuals. - An example of such a study is Simon Levay's (1991) investigation that found that a part of the hypothalamus was two to three times smaller in gay man than it was in heterosexual men. - Other studies focusing on brain structures have found that gay men have a larger corpus callosum (this structure connects the two hempispheres of the brain) than do straight men (Whitleson and Colleagues, 2008). - Studies that focus on the functioning of the brain generally investigate how neural processes occur. - These sorts of studies have led to the finding that the brain is activated differently (faster or slower) in some gay men than it is in some straight men, and that it is activated differently in some lesbian women than it is in some straight women (Alexander, 2000). - The two most consistent findings that support a biological causality of same-sex sexual/affectional orientation concern hand preference and fraternal birth order. - Blanchard and colleagues note that many studies have found that gay men are more frequently left-handed compared to heterosexual men, and that one study, has suggested that gay men have a 34% greater chance of being left-handed. - They also note that Blanchard (2004) found in a meta-analysis representing 10,143 males, that the greater number of older brothers a male has, the more likely he will identify as gay. - Blanchard and colleague's own research qualified this finding, suggesting it is true only for gay males who are right-handed. - It also suggested that gay males without older brothers are more likely to be left-handed than are heterosexual males without older brothers. - Researcher John Money-provided evidence that sexual orientation is determined largely by prenatal hormones. - His research suggested that males who are prenatally exposed to too little testosterone have an increased chance of identifying as gay later in life, and that females who are prenatally exposed to too much testosterone have an increased chance of identifying as either bisexual or lesbian later in life. - More recent research, however, suggests that Money's conclusions were too broad. I.E., Brown, Finn, Cooke, and Breedlove (2002) suggest that prenatal exposure to high levels of androgens in females plays a role only in some cases of masculine lesbian women but not in feminine lesbian women. - Studies with twins have shown that there may be a genetic component to same-sex sexual/affectional orientation. - i.e., in an Australian study comparing 25,000 pairs of male identical and fraternal twins aged 13 to 52, Kirk, Bailey, and Martin (2000) found evidence that components of sexuality related to sexual/affectional orientation are inherited. - They found that genetic influences could explain approximately 42 to 60% of the observed variance in such components as sexual feelings and fantasies, sexual attraction toward men, attitudes toward same-sex sexual behaviour, and the number of actual male and female sexual partners.

Intimate Relationships

- In general, the more committed ppl are in their relationships, the better their sense of well-being. - A recent American study compared a large group of heterosexual couples with gay and lesbian couples. - Results indicated that the happier group was the married mixed-sex couples (there were no married same-sex couples in the study), followed next by cohabiting mixed-and same-sex couples (no differences were found between these two groups), and least happy were the single people, regardless of their sexual identity. - In terms of relationship satisfaction, research has found that lesbian couples report greater relationship satisfaction than do other gay or heterosexual couples. - Reasons include (a): their desire for and achievement of equality in their relationships, (b): the high value placed on emotional intimacy, (c): their attachment styles, (d): their ability to resolve conflict, (e): their high levels of self-esteem, (f): the social support they garner for their lives together. - For gay men, relationship satisfaction does not seem to depend on monogamy: non-monogamous gay male couples are as satisfied in their relationship as monogamous gay male couples. - Furthermore, the most satisfied men in open relationships are those who have explicit rules about outside sexual activity. - Regardless of affectional orientation, men are more inclined to look for an attractive partner whereas women place greater value on their partner's personality. - Women also tend to be more expressive in their relationships compared to men. - One difference between mixed-and-same-sex relationships is that same-sex partners are more likely than mixed-sex partners to remain friends after relationship dissolution. - Same-sex oriented individuals are also less likely to seek partners whose demographic characteristics--including age, race, and socioeconomic status--are similar to their own. - Further, both gay and lesbian couples tend to be less controlling and to use fewer hostile tactics during times of conflict compared to mixed-sex couples. - Current research finds few differences between same-and-mixed-sex relationships regarding relationship quality. - Research does suggest, however, that same-sex relationships have a higher likelihood of ending compared to mixed-sex relationships. - This finding is based on comparisons between cohabiting same-sex couples and cohabiting mixed-sex couples. - Researchers from Norway and Sweden where registered domestic partnerships (not marriages) have been recognized since the 1990's, have found similar results. - The majority of gay and lesbian individuals (74%) express the desire to get married at some point. - Indeed, may same-sex couples have elected to get married in Canada since the country legalized same-sex marriage in 2005 - Given that most same-sex couples are not raising children, and that many unhappy heterosexual couples remain together only so that they can raise their children together, it seems logical that there may be a greater percentage of same-sex divorces compared to mixed-sex divorces. - Research from Denmark, Sweden and Norway has found that lesbian couples have a higher divorce rate (divorce from registered domestic partnerships, that is) compared to gay men. - Anderson and Colleagues (2006) postulate that this difference may be because women are generally more sensitive to the quality of their relationships than men are, regardless of affectional orientation, or that men and women enter into registered partnerships for different reasons that have not been explored. - By comparison, Kurdek's (1998) American study of 66 gay and 51 lesbian cohabiting couples living together for five years found no significant difference in dissolution rates between the two groups. - Internalized homophobhia is one of the worst obstacles to establishing and maintaining same-sex relationships. - It presents gay men and lesbian women from having the ability to fully give of themselves and commit wholeheartedly to their partner. - Another factor that makes it difficult for gay men to create sustainable relationships, is, as research has shown, that they are particularly sensitive to interpersonal rejection, a factor than can play havoc during times of conflict.

Psychological Explanations

- Many researchers have proposed that affectional orientation development is heavily influenced by psycho-social factors. i.e., Stein (1997) supported the social constructionist view that this development occurs as we process our experiences of ourselves interacting with others. - Similarly, Michael D. Storms has proposed that sexual/affectional orientation (which he referred to as 'erotic orientation') 'emerges from an interaction between sex drive development and social development during early adolescence'/ - Due to the complex, often un-measurable ways in which social interactions shape psychological development, it is difficult for researchers to provide conclusive evidence to support psycho-social explanations of how an individual's affectional orientation develops. - Thus, such explanations remain largely theoretical. - In addition, it seems that theories about how psycho-social factors influence affectional orientation development become less supportable as they become more specific. i.e., consider that few people would object to the broad suggestion that childhood and adolescent experiences may affect how our affectional orientations develop. - The model of the nuclear family was the norm in North America and elsewhere for much of our modern history, yet most children who grew up in these families did not develop a same-sex affectional orientation. - Nonetheless, investigations into the psychosocial aspects of affectional orientation development have given us some significant insights. - First, it seems that an individual's affectional orientation is not dependent on the affectional orientation of her or his parents--most gay and lesbian ppl were raised by heterosexual parents, and most children raised by same-sex parents turn out to be heterosexual. - Second, although childhood sexual abuse can cause psychological damage and lead to confusion regarding one's sexual identity, there is no evidence that such trauma can alter one's affectional orientation. - Third, although same-sex oriented individuals may question their sexual identity to a great extent at some point in their lives than do their heterosexual counterparts, most gay men believe they always had a strong sexual/affectional orientation to men. - Fourth, although it it is clear that social and cultural influences can significantly shape how we understand and express our gender and sexual identity, it is less clear that such influences have a great impact on our ability to fall in love romantically with males, females, or both. - Finally, most research does not find etiological differences between gay men and heterosexual men, or between lesbian women and heterosexual women, in terms of how affectional orientation develops. - Available research does suggest, however, that affectional orientation may develop differently in women than it does in men. i.e., it seems that affectional orientation is substantially more fluid for women than for men.

Bisexual Individuals in Relationships

- Most bisexual individuals enter heterosexual relationships long before they begin exploring their same-sex interests. - In a large-scale study of bisexual individuals from eight countries, Rust (2001) concluded that both bisexual men and bisexual women are more emotionally attracted to women but more sexually attracted to men. - Less than 20% of bisexual people in one study were involved with men and women simultaneously. - A more recent study found that 11% of those surveyed were living a poly-amorous lifestyle, with 54% of the sample reporting that polyamory was their preferred lifestyle. - While many bisexual men and women maintain monogamous relationships, others regularly engage in sexual activities outside of their primary relationship. - Bisexual individuals who choose to establish open relationships must deal with the same issues that others face when creating non-monogamous arrangements, such as handling jealousy, setting boundaries, and maintaining open communication. - In one study of 36 married couples where the husband engaged in outside same-sex sexual behaviour, most couples reported that they were happy in their marriage. - There were caveats, however. While all of the wives were aware of their husbands' same-sex sexual behaviour, the couples did report 'intense conflict dealing with their open marriage styles'. - Furthermore, participants in this study were highly educated and earned high incomes, meaning that their reactions may not reflect those of the general population. - Due to the small percentage of individuals who define themselves as bisexual (0.9% of women and 0.5% men), a substantial bisexual community does not exist. - Many bisexual men and women report feeling isolated, at least in part b/c they are often viewed by non-bisexual individuals as 'fence-sitters' who hedonistically pursue pleasure without taking on the stigma that too often comes with a gay or lesbian identity.

Identity Disclosure

- One decision to disclose or not disclose an LGBTTIIQQ identity is dependent on many personal and environmental factors. - In some countries, disclosing a gay identity may have serious social and even life-threatening consequences. - In Canada and the US, many ppl are able to disclose their identity to others without facing insurmountable consequences, although not all reactions to such disclosures are positive. - For those who have reservations about identity disclosure, many resources are available from organizations such as Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG), which has a Canadian contingent. - Identity Disclosure: The process of telling another person or other ppl your sexual identity label. - The general trend over the past few years is that LGBTTIIQQ individuals are both self-identifying and disclosing their identities at younger ages than in the past. - For LGB individuals, self-identifying as gay, lesbian, or bisexual and disclosing this identity to others is associated with having better physical and mental health. - Cole, Kemeny, Taylot, and Visscher (1996) tracked the incidence of cancer, pneumonia, bronchitis, sinusitis and tuberculosis in a sample of 222 gay and bisexual men over a period of five years. - Overall, the incidence of these diseases was higher among the men who hid their gay identity from others. - Several studies have also found that gay men and lesbian women who disclose their sexual identity to others experience greater mental health outcomes. - At the same time, it is not entirely clear whether disclosure leads to good mental health or if good mental health makes it easier to disclose. - Some LGB individuals may also have very good reasons for not disclosing their sexual identity to others. i.e., dependent children who feel that their parents might react very negatively to such a disclosure might choose not to confront the issue until they are older and able to support themselves. - Indeed, many homeless LGBTIIQQ youth have ended up on the streets because they were rejected by their families. - Some adults may also choose not to disclose their sexual identity to their coworkers for fear that they may be denied advancement opportunities. - Despite legislation meant to prevent discrimination based on sexual identity, some employers continue to favour those who fit the dominant cultural discourse (most often, able-bodied heterosexual males) - Identity disclosure may also be particular difficult for LGB individuals who are deeply connected to communities in which homophobia is highly prevalent. - This is often the case for Black and Latino men in Canada and the U.S who may feel that disclosing an other-than heterosexual identity will lead to their being ostracized from their community. - In some cases, parents may be aware of their child's same-sex sexual/affectional orientation before the child discloses to them. - This awareness may result from their child displaying atypical gender interests (e.g., a boy preferring traditionally female activities), from an earlier disclosure of same-sex attractions, or because the parents are non-homophobic and more sensitive to early signs of a possible same-sex orientation. - However, even if parents suspect that their child has a same-sex sexual/affectional orientation, they should not impose a gay, lesbian, or bisexual identity on that child; rather, they should let their child self-disclose on his or her own terms.

Identity Labels

- Regardless of the debates between essentialists (who believe that there is something innate about sexual desire and affectional orientation) and social constructionists (who believe that all aspects of our sexuality are constructed as a result of interactions among historical, social and psychological variables and contexts), there is little question that sexual identity labels are socially constructed. - Such labels as gay identity, lesbian identity, and bisexual identity indicate more than just preference for engaging in sexual and romantic relationships with members of a certain sex; they also entail certain self-perceptions and worldviews. - Sexual Identity Label: The general label one chooses to use to describe one's sexual attractions (typically gay, lesbian, bisexual, questioning, or queer). - Gay Identity: An identity status denoting those individuals who have come to identify themselves as having primarily same-sex oriented cognition, affect, and/or behaviour, and who have adopted the construct of 'gay' as having personal significance to them. - Lesbian Identity: An identity status denoting those female-gendered individuals who have adopted the construct of 'lesbian' as having personal significance to them. - Bisexual Identity: An identity status denoting individuals who have come to identify themselves as having both other-sex and same-sex oriented cognition, affect, and/or behaviour, and who have adopted the construct of 'bisexual' as having personal significance to them. - While both males and females may label themselves as gay, most gay females prefer to refer to themselves as lesbian because a lesbian identity generally carries with it certain political allegiances to female solidarity and feminist ideological views have personal significance to them. - In fact, an important factor in adopting a certain sexual identity label is that the identity it signifies has a personal significance to the label. - The sexual identity labels people give themselves may change over the course of their lives. - Most gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals for example, at some point defined themselves as heterosexual, which is the default label in most societies. - Many bisexual individuals may also have identified as gay or lesbian before coming to a bisexual label. - In some cases, people assume a label that does not accurately reflect their sexual/affectional orientation because they are unaware of their romantic proclivities; this is often the case when gay, lesbian, or bisexual individuals assume the default label of heterosexual early in their lives. - Others assume a label that they deem to be most socially acceptable, which is often the case for individuals who assume a heterosexual identity despite their involvement in same-sex sexual relationships. - A nationally representative American Study by Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, and Michaels (1994) found that there were often discrepancies among sexual identity, sexual behaviour, and sexual desire. - Most men reported a same-sex sexual experience at some point in their lives but did not self-identify as gay. - For reasons such as this, HIV-prevention efforts are targeted at men who have sex with men, not a gay or bisexual men. - Unsafe sexual behaviour can lead to HIV infection, regardless of one's sexual identity label. - Furthermore, Laumann and colleagues found that 22% and 13% of women reported engaging in same-sex behaviour despite reporting no sexual desire for members of the same sex. - Some individuals today prefer not to use identity labels to describe themselves. - This preference has its roots in the relatively new field of queer studies, which generally accepts the socially constructionist view that our sexuality in its entirety is socially constructed. - Individuals who are trying to avoid sexual identity labels often identify as queer or unlabeled. However, a queer identity is, in a sense, an oxymoron--to say one has a queer identity is to label one's identity. - Queer Identity: An identity status that is intended to not label's one's sexual identity. - Finally, note that such words as lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, and heterosexual are better used as adjectives than nouns. - Recognizing that identity labels are socially constructed. we must remember that they refer to an identity and not to a person's 'essence' meaning that they are not intrinsically predetermined (i.e., genetically, biologically). - The cause of affectional orientation is still debated, and some believe the debate between essentialism and social construction-ism can never be resolved. - Identities, however, are ascribed; hence, the words that signify them are descriptive rather than concrete--adjectives, not nouns.

LGB parenting and adoption

- Research regarding LGB parenting has increased in recent years, especially since the legalization of same-sex marriage throughout Canada and in some US states. - The available psychological research suggests that same-sex relationships are not appreciably different from mixed-sex ones, and parents' sexual orientation has no nearing on parents' capacity to provide a safe, healthy, and nurturant environment for children. - Some research has actually shown that children raised by lesbian-mother families from birth demonstrate more competencies, and express fewer behavioural problems compared to children raised by mixed-sex parents. - Overall, the available research indicates that parental sexual orientation is unrelated to outcomes regarding the socialization of children. - While research does suggest that psychological outcomes are generally between when children are raised by two parents instead of only one, variables such as parental gender, marital status, and sexual identity appear to have no measurable effect. - In Canada, same-sex couples are legally entitled to adopt children. - However, research has shown that they are less likely to actually be matched to children compared to mixed-sex couples.

Attempts to Measure Sexual/Affectional Orientation

- Sexual researchers have attempted to measure sexual/affectional orientation through the use of scales, thereby creation operational definitions of these constructs. (An operational definition defines something by how it is measured.) - The Kinsey scale offers operational definitions of sexual orientation that range from exclusively heterosexual (a score of 0) to exclusively homosexual (a score of 6). - Placement on the scale is determined primarily by self-reported sexual behaviour and secondarily by self-reported sexual desires and attractions. - Another notable scale is the one developed by Klein, Sepekoff, and Wolf. - It is commonly referred to as the Klein Sexual Orientation Grid and includes measures of seven components: sexual attractions, sexual behaviour, sexual fantasies, emotional preference, social preference, self-identification, and heterosexual/homosexual lifestyle. - Each component is assigned a number from 1 (other sex only) to 7 (same sex only) in terms of past, present (over the past 12 months), and self-defined 'ideal' circumstances. - As a whole this scale is more detailed and inclusive than is the Kinsey scale. - An even more detailed scale is the relatively recent one created by Alderson, Orzeck, Davis and Boyes (2013). - This scale, which is based on the Sexuality Questionnaire, incorporates suggestions made by several researchers to measure affectional orientation on two separate scales: one that measures interest in males, and one that measures interest in females. - Factor analytic work has shown that affectional orientation can operationally be defined and measured as a combination of six components: sexual attraction, sexual fantasies, sexual preference, propensity to fall in love romantically, being in love romantically, and the extent to which one has male and/or female sexual partners.

Bisexuality and Relationships

- Sigmund Freud (1925/1959) believed that were are constitutionally bisexual. - We can take this into consideration by examining the components of affectional orientation (sexual attraction, sexual fantasies, sexual preference, the extent to which one has male and/or female sexual partners, propensity to fall in love romantically, and being in love romantically), as in most cases an individual's affectional orientation directly influences whether that person will build intimate relationships with men, women or both. - The first four of these components do not seem to rule out the likelihood of our forming relationships with men as well as women. - For one thing, we know that some changes to our sexual attraction mechanism occur over time. - Many adolescents have some degree of sexual interest in members of their own sex, and some enjoy sexual activity with members of their own sex. - Thus, the fact that the majority of the population focuses exclusively on heterosexual relations in adulthood may simply indicate that bisexuality is eventually lost through socialization. - In addition, many ppl have sexual fantasies that involve both men and women; if ppl are asked to spend more time sexually fantasizing about one sex or the other than is typical, they can generally do it while maintaining sexual arousability. - Regarding sexual preference, most ppl prefer having sex with members of the other sex, likely a necessary requirement for sustaining the human race, but not all do; further, preference for having sex witht members of one sex does not rule out interest in having sex with members of the other sex. - Who we actually have sex with depends on several factors (e.g., personal values, the availability of members of the preferred sex/gender, our ability to attract these individuals). - When it comes to consensual sex, there are many choices available to us. - That brings us to the two components that have to do with romantic love, which for most ppl is central to the desire to build a long-term relationship with another person. - Most ppl believe that who we do or do not fall in love with romantically is not something that we consciously choose or that we can control. - Anecdotally, there are innumerable examples of ppl who fell in love with and formed an intimate relationship with someone they did not believe was 'right for them', just as examples abound of those who could not fall in love with someone who met their conscious criteria. - Ultimately, observation evidence does not seem to suggest that the majority of ppl fall in love romantically with members of both sexes.

Asexuality

- There is also the special case of asexuality. - A recent national probability sample from Britain found that approximately 1% of individuals in the sample (N>18,000) indicated that they were asexual. - Bogaert (2006) provided arguments both for and against classifying asexuality as a separate 'sexual orientation' (his definition of sexual orientation was 'one's subjective sexual attraction to the sex of others'). - There are various definitions of asexuality that focus on low levels of sexual attraction, lack of interest in sexual behaviour, lack of sexual orientation and/or lack of sexual excitation. - Lori Brotto and her colleagues conducted two studies in order to understand asexuality. - In their first study, they surveyed 54 self-identified asexual men and 113 self-identified asexual women; in their second study, they telephone interviewed 15 from their original sample. - The found that although men in the asexual group reported lower sexual response than is indicated by available normative data for men, these men masturbated with the same frequency as normative men. - The combined data from both studies suggested that asexuality 'is best conceptualized as a lack of sexual attraction; however, asexuals varied greatly in their experience of sexual response and behaviour'. - Prause and Graham (2007) concluded from their content analysis of 41 questionnaires completed by self-identified asexual individuals that low sexual desire was the primary feature contributing to the construction of an asexual identity. - Asexual Identity: An identity label acknowledging that a person perceives little or no interest in engaging in sex with others. - They also found that masturbation frequency among these individuals was in the normative range. - Neither Brotto nor Prause and Graham found that participants were distressed because of their reported asexuality. - Prause and Graham found, however, that the majority emphasized romantic as opposed to sexual aspects of their relationship. - Given our understanding of asexuality to date, we can surmise that asexual individuals have an affectional orientation--they have the capacity to fall in love romantically with another person, even if they do not feel sexual desire with that person. - Further, they may or may not construct an asexual identity. - Finally, compared with non-asexual individuals, they report lower interest in engaging sexually with others.