Chapter 12
first Crusade
1099 CE, Jerusalem fell the Christian crusaders; the only successful crusade of 4 major Crusades, only 1st war was clear victory for forces of Christendom - they conquered Jerusalem July 1099 however, when Muslims forces under Saladin regained control of Jerusalem in 1187
guilds
Association of merchants or artisans who cooperated to protect their economic interests associations of craftspeople or merchants originated in towns each occupation was separately organized into its own guild these organizations reguated rules for apprenticeships, helped families of injured or killed workers, and exercised some degree of quality control since economic influence was centered in guild, they could apply pressure against local lord or monarch centralized states of High Middle Ages weren't yet ready to take on regulatory and social functions exercised by such groups, so guilds retained much of their power until early modern times
education and art
Church established 1st universities in Europe cause Church led in area of education, most of great thinkers of Middle Ages were Church leaders all artists worked for Church insides of Church buildings were decorated quite beautifully with paintings, statues and stained-glass windows most artwork focused on religious themes as it was 1 way to educate illiterate serf and peasant class
string of invasions
as with decline and fall of Roman empire, outside invaders pressured western European kingdoms and contributed to decentralization and chaos in region Muslims armies moved up from south until they were defeated at Tours in 732
Hanseatic league
in 13th century, cities in northern Germany and in Scandinavia formed commercial alliance called Hanseatic League controlling trade in North Sea and Baltic Sea, member cities of league, such as Lubeck, Hamburg and Riga were able to drive out pirates and monopolize trade in goods: timber, grain, leather and salted fish league ships would leave Baltic and North Seas and round Atlantic Coast of Western Europe, proceeding to ports of Mediterranean, where they might pick up valuable goods from Arab caravans league lasted until mid-17th century, when national governments became strong enough to protect their merchants
learning
scholarship in medieval period was almost entirely in hands of Church and its clergy: medical advances were almost unknown in Western Europe, since Church authorities believed that sin was cause of illness -in their minds, there was little need to look for other answers nevertheless, had it not been for scribes in monasteries, few manuscripts would've been saved and much more classical literature would've been lost in days before revival or learning in Renaissance Aristotle's writings were foundation for most of learning of period, along with Saint Jerome's translation of Bible into Latin, called Vulgate Bible, created in late Roman Empire period
Renaissance
"rebirth"; following the Middle Ages, a movement that centered on the revival of interest in the classical learning of Greece and Rome expansion of trade, as well as growth of agricultural surplus in Western Europe, led to revival of interest in learning and arts in addition, growing middle class with access to money able to patronize craftspeople and teachers Renaissance characterized by revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature, art, civic virtue, culture scholars recovered and studied decaying manuscripts and wrote secular literature part of Renaissance was humanism, focus on individuals rather than god humanists focused on education and reform: handbooks of behavior flourished in 15th and 16th centuries, as people began to consider their place in heaven and world cultural changed in Renaissance, such as increased use of vernacular language, propelled rise of powerful monarchies, centralization of government and birth of nationalism
rival popes
after Great Schism in 1054, authority of papacy in West seemed assured however, that influence waned when French pope Clement V selected - he refused to relocate to Rome and established instead papacy in France 1307-1377 this period on ~70 years sometimes referred to as Babylonian Captivity, reference to Jewish exile 6th century BCE during this period, 2nd candidate for pope and then 3rd arose for head of church - all at the same time
monasticism
although clergy withdrew to monasteries to mediate and pray, remained part of economic of Western Europe monasteries had same economic functions of agriculture and protection as other manors although they took vows of poverty and supported charities in their communities, clergy also wielded considerable;e political influence and some monasteries became quite wealthy wealth and political power led to corruption Cluniac Reforms originating from monastery at Cluny, France in 11th century, attempted to reform Church from within eventually, corruption and theological disagreements, drove reformers: John Wycliffe, John Huss and Martin Luther to part ways with Catholic Church
comparing European and Abbasid Universities
Western European universities and cultural centers of Abbasid's with their capital in Baghdad interested in recording and preserving classical works from Greece and Rome in case of Abbasid culture, this classical knowledge combined with new developments coming from India, as well as from other parts of Islamic world Western universities used Latin as language of pedagogy and focused on liberal arts such as rhetoric, in addition to theological studies Arabic and Persian were languages of Abbasid's ; their new ideas in math and science used # system originally from India but later called "Arabic" numbers Arabic became language of science for this time period medical advances slow to arrive in Western Europe by contrast, best hospitals in world were in Arabic-speaking world 1 reason for difference may be due to religious sanction Muslims did autopsies and conducted research with human cadavers; in Europe church prohibited operating on cadavers Persian, Avicenna (980-1037) probably best-known scholar of time and sometimes called "the father of modern medicine" wrote Canon of Medicine, which for 600 years served as reference book for medical students and doctors manuscripts of this work have survived in Latin and Arabic translation advances of Southwest and East Asian civilizations ahead of those in medieval Europe, although Western Europe was quick to catch up after its slower start absorbing new goods and ideas would lead Europeans to vast exploration and expansion in coming centuries, using Asian technology such as paper and agricultural tools Muslims believed that Europeans were backward and even dirty Europeans believed Muslims were pagan infidels; some considered them inhuman as Western Europeans became more open to new ideas and as some unified political units looked toward protection and expansions of their own trade, conflict seemed inevitable
effects of Crusades
1.) Decline in papal prestige 2.) Decline in the power of nobles (Kings' power increases) 3.) Increase in religious intolerance 4.) Decrease in Byzantine power 5.) Increase in trade knowledge of world beyond Western Europe increased as Crusaders encountered both Byzantine and Islamic cultures encounter also increased demand in Europe for newfound wares from East in opening up to global trade, however, Western Europeans also opened themselves to disease plague, referred to as Black Death introduced to Europe by way of trading routes major epidemic broke out between 1347-1351 additional outbreaks occurred over succeeding decades as many as 25 million people in Europe may have died from plague with drastically reduced populations, economic activity declined in Europe in particular, shortage of people to work on land had lasting effects on feudal system Crusades posed temporary answer to some of growing challenges to Church from reformers and monarchs pope's call for military conquests of Holy Land brought fighting forces of Western Europe together under Christian banner and stopped squabbling among local rulers for longer term, exposure to new ideas from Byzantium and Muslim world would contribute to Renaissance and subsequent rise of secularism
High Middle Ages
1000-1500 CE; Western Europe making a comeback; time of revival and progress; huge increase in population and growth of cities by year 1000, growth of new states and Europeans increasing interest in foreign goods were leading western Europe toward more expansive and progressive period new states and greater trade were brought about in part by Christian Crusades and weakening of feudalism at local level social and political changes would produce new form of monarchy and spirit of renaissance or rebirth, both of which would shape 3 key areas: commerce, class relations and gender roles European lords and knights retreated from actually fighting each other in battles in favor or more tournaments, organized competitions that included jousts, combat between knights using blunt weapons, which also became social occasions
vikings
2nd group of invaders Scandinavian Vikings (AKA Norsemen) came from north -they traveled in light long-ships that enabled sailors to travel far inland on rivers as well as conduct coastal raids on seas these long-ships were frightening vessels, with dragons on prows and fierce sailors abroad carrying as many as 50 men each, long-ships had banks of oars and single large sail beginning in 9th century, these Scandinavians, from present-day Norway, Denmark and Sweden landed in England, Ireland, France, Belgium and harbors up and down European coastline from settlements in Iceland they reached Greenland, and then coastal area of North American that they named Vinland -also made inroads into neighboring Russia along its river - this route was 1 way that western Europe kept in touch with Constantinople and through it, with rest of Arab and Islamic world Mediterranean trade routes were still in use as well Byzantine and Islamic coins have been found as far northwest as Poland, perhaps evidence of far-flung Viking trade with Kievan Rus
Magyars
3rd wave of invaders came from east originally from central Asia encroached on Byzantine empire soon after fall of rome and went on to settle in present-day Germany, Italy and France Magyars, whose modern descendants live in Hungary were slowly assimilated into Christianity and came under control on monarchs of central Europe after 10th century political instability of Europe in this period might be compared with south Asia after fall of Carolingian in 888 in western Europe, little effective political organization existed until creation of holy Roman empire in 962 even then, much of empire's power existed at pleasure of Church similarly, Gupta dynasty in south Asia collapsed in late 6th century under pressure from white Huns (AKA Hunas) of central Asia, so there was only loose political organization in India until Mahmud of Ghazni came to power in 998 major difference between 2 regions was tht single major religion unified Europeans, while multiple religions, especially Hinduism and Sunni Islam, divided south Asians
church and state
Church held great power in feudal system if lord displeased Church, the Church could pressure lord in various way: might cancel religious services for his serfs - this distressed serfs, who would demand that lord to do what Church wanted organized similarly to Roman Empire, the Roman Catholic Church had extensive hierarchy of regional bishops, who owed allegiance to pope, supreme bishop in Rome bishops selected and supervised local priests missionaries spread Christianity through Europe, providing common identity even as regional monarchies and vernacular languages developed to consolidate power, Roman document called Donation of Constantine from 8th century provided Church with "evidence" that pope should assume political and spiritual authority the Donation of Constantine was later discovered to be forged nevertheless, influence and power of papacy increased as exemplified by pope example of papal authority was ability to inspire members of aristocracy of Europe to embark on Crusades, beginning in 1095
economic and social change
Crusades were just part of changes occurring in Europe other forces were also causing an increase in trade and knowledge
Norman England
Normans were descendants of Vikings who settled in northwest corner of France, region known as Normandy 1066, monarch of Normandy known as William the Conqueror invaded England and ruled kingdoms on both sides of English Channel, presided over tightly organized feudal system, using royal sheriffs as his administrative officials -William also standardized law codes issued by his royal court in time, objections to power of William and his successor Norman monarchs were responsible for limits on that power in England 1st, Magna Carta, signed by King John in 1215 under pressure from leading nobles, required king to observe certain right, such as right to jury trial before noble could be sentenced to prison also, nobles won right to be consulted on issue of scutage (form of tax placed on knight who wanted to "buy out" of military service) finally, 1st English Parliament formed in 1265 -these developments increased rights of English nobility, but not of general population in 1st full parliamentary meeting in 1265, the House of Lords represented nobles and Church hierarchy, while House of Commons was made up of elected representatives of wealthy townspeople eventually, power of these 2 legislative bodies in England became stronger than that of similar bodies on European continent course of English feudalism led to modern democracy for individuals by contrast, Japanese feudalism developed on similar course, but emphasized rights of group rather than protection of individual through checks on those in authority in Hundred Years War (1337-1453), tables were turned between rival monarchies: this time England invaded France although English retained only port of Calais in France as result of war, strong sense of unity evolved in both countries during period another result of war was spreading use of gunpowder invented by Chinese and brought to Middle East by Mongols, gunpowder was in use in Europe by 14th century Mongols also popularized use of horses in Europe in addition to conquering England, Normans in 11th century also conquered Sicily, taking control of that Mediterranean island from Muslims in same century, other Christian forces began taking control of Spain from Muslim rulers this reconquista or reconquest finally completed in 1492
Carolingian dynasty
a Frankish dynasty founded by Charlemagne's father that ruled from 751 to 987 Charles Martel was military leader of Franks who led Christian forces of northern France, Belgium and western Germany to defeat Muslims at Battle of Tours in 732 - this victory stopped expansion of Muslim forces into northern Europe, although most of Iberian Peninsula, present-day Spain and Portugal, remained under Muslim control This caliphate came to be known as Al-Andalus Martel founded Carolingian dynasty of Frankish kingdom and ruled 737-741 -his son Pepin (ruled 752-768) consolidated his power by getting pope to declare his right to throne, increasing his legitimacy over rivals Pepin's song Charlemagne ruled Frankish kingdom 768-814, in exchange for conquering Lombardy in Italy, Charlemagne was named emperor of Romans by pope in 800 as emperor, he led force east that defeated Saxons and converted them to Christianity with relative peace established, Charlemagne encouraged church-based education and used regional administrators to help govern his empire although no lasting centralized government developed, Charlemagne's rule foreshadowed coming of Holy Roman Empire Carolingian dynasty lasted only through its division among grandsons of Charlemagne
scholasticism
a philosophical and theological system, associated with Thomas Aquinas, devised to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and Roman Catholic theology in the thirteenth century liter Peter Abelard, Thomas Aquinas in 13th century tried to reconcile Aristotelian knowledge with Christian faith, system of study called Scholasticism he argued that faith wasn't endangered by local thinking Aquinas's view would open way for secularism and Christian humanism of Renaissance, as well as for later Enlightenment ideas of progress, reason and natural law
northern Renaissance
by 1400, Renaissance spirit established in northern Europe as well, where there was great emphasis on piety among lay people, those who weren't members of clergy at same time, there was increasing interest in understanding physical world Geoffrey Chaucer, writing in The Canterbury Tales in later 1300s, portrayed microcosm of middle-class occupations in England, including several Church positions his social satire of monks who loved hunting an overly sentimental nuns provided example of humanism in that Chaucer focused on worldly secular life while still acknowledging importance of Church and occupations connected with it like Dante, century earlier, Chaucer chose vernacular, Middle English, for this work, although many of his other writings were in Latin subsequent events in northern Europe reflect influence of Renaissance: on political front, development of newly centralized monarchies in England and France Northern Renaissance art differed from religious and classical art of Italy, in that it often reflected middle-class occupations and peasant celebration priest from Netherlands, Desiderius Erasmus, author of In Praise of Folly, was most influential northern humanist of late 15th century scientists such as Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1553) originally from Poland, showed increasing interest in understanding physical world, an interest that would sometimes lead to conflict with Catholic Church
urban life
dirty and unsanitary, streets of medieval town dangerous for passerby as slop pails dumped from windows and resulting raw sewage on ground spawned rats and fleas fire was ever-present threat since buildings were constructed mostly of wood in upper stories overcrowding was severe problem cause buildings huddled within defensive walls had no room to expand in most of Western Europe, roughly 5% of population lived in towns, but in Italian peninsula and Low Countries in 13th century, # was around 20% towns that could afford it had outstanding feature - cathedral in new Gothic style, which replaced style common since mid-11th century known as Romanesque Rectangular in shape with stone vaulted ceilings, Romanesque cathedrals rested upon massive pillar and walls, and windows were few and narrow -these traits created dark and forbidding appearance beginning in middle of 12th century, new Gothic C=cathedrals were lighter and airier, featuring architectural details such as arches; spires; stained-glass windows; gargoyles, which were exaggerated carvings of humans or animals designed to serve as water sprouts; and flying buttresses, in which buttresses, or supports were extended outward from wall to stone foundation, rather than running alongside wall
4th Crusade
during 4th and last major Crusade (1202-1204), Venice, a wealthy city-state in northern Italy had contract to transport Crusaders to Middle East which they referred to as Levant however, Venice wasn't paid all of what was due, so Venetians persuaded Crusader debtors 1st to sack Zara, Italian city and then Constantinople, a major trade competitor of Venice 4th Crusade never made it to Holy Land eventually, Islamic forces prevailed in Levant
social change
growth in commerce caused development of small bourgeoisie, middle glass, AKA burghers social pyramid of Western Europe thus evolved to have clergy and nobility at top, large #s of urban poor and serfs at bottom and growing middle class of shopkeepers, merchants, craftspeople and small landowners in middle early beginnings of middle class took shape as Europe joined Byzantine Empire and Muslim nations in long-distance exchanges of money and goods social structures became more fluid, with new emphasis on economics rather than on purely Christian ideals or on military defense and conquest
Roman Catholic Church during the Middle Ages
in 1054, Christian Church experienced division, often called Great Schism and split into 2 branches: the Roman Catholic and the Orthodox Roman Catholic Church continued to dominate Western Europe until Reformation in 16th century, while Orthodox Church was strong farther east, into Russia Roman Catholic Church extremely influential during Middle Ages indeed, it was only authority that covered much of Europe many factors helped Church keep influence 1st, few people knew how to read or write most Church staff, however, were literate if common people needed something written or read, they asked Church official to do it most manors had small church and priest on grounds
southern Renaissance
in city-states of Italy and Spain, focus of Renaissance still clearly under Church domination and patronage: writer Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) used religious framework for The Divine Comedy, which features hell, purgatory and heaven nevertheless, inquiring spirit of Renaissance apparent in Dante's reverence for pagan writers, fearlessness in his criticism of corrupt Church officials, and most important, his use of Italian vernacular rather than Latin Renaissance popes were patrons of famous artists of Renaissance, and many of most important sculptures and paintings have religious subjects as Renaissance in south continued until 16th century, close connection with Church remained, even as secular thought grew
political and social structures of early middle ages
in contrast to large Roman empire of past, smaller, less-centralized states developed in early middle ages Franks, despite their name, weren't French but Germanic - they established an early capital in Paris King Clovis (ruled 481-511) became 1st monarch to unite all Frankish tribes and was also 1st Roman catholic ruler of Franks however, government under his heirs was unstable in recurring historical pattern, succession problems haunted those who tried to establish centralized monarchy in western Europe
Christian Crusades
just as Europeans fought to drive Muslims out of Europe, they also sought to reclaim control of Holy Land, region of Palestine in Middle East that contains sites of spiritual significance to Jews, Christians and Muslims Europeans Christians had enjoyed access to these lands for centuries, even after they came under control of Muslims - this access was reduced when Seljuk Turks took control of region around 1071 social and economic trends of 11th century added to pressure among Europeans to invade Middle East rules of primogeniture, in which eldest brother in family inherited entire estate, left generation of younger sons with little access to land and wealth landed nobles saw military campaign as way to divert ambitions of these restless nobles as well as unemployed peasants, who often pillaged lands of neighboring lords merchants began to desire unfettered access to trade routes through Middle East combination of these religious, social and economic pressures resulted in series of European military campaigns between 1095 and 1200s in Middle East known as Crusades politics shaped manner in which Crusades conducted tensions between popes and kings and between different rulers strengthened intention of Church to take control Church could also use its spiritual authority to recruit believers sinners promised heaven and, of more immediate concern, relief from their required acts of atonement and penance, if they would join Crusade support also came for Eastern branch of Christianity as well alarmed by news of persecution and massacre of Christian pilgrims by Seljuk Turks, Orthodox patriarch at Constantinople appealed to Pope Urban II to help retake Holy Land from Islamic control
manorial system
large fiefs or estates were also referred to as manors manorial system provided economic self-sufficiency and defense manor grounds were small villages that often included church, blacksmith shop, mill and presses for making cider, wine or oil in addition to homes of peasants known as serfs serfs, while not slaves were tied to land and they couldn't marry or travel without permission from their lords in exchange for protection provided by lord of manor, they paid tribute in form of crops, labor, or in rare cases, coins children born to serfs also became to serfs less than 10% of land was cultivated in Early Middle Ages and climatic conditions were wet and cold as both weather and technology improved around 9th century, the amount of arable or farm-able land gradually increased agriculture became more efficient toward end of Middle Ages due to several developments the 3-field system, in which crops were rotated in and out of 3 fields, came into use -1 field was planted to wheat or rye, crops that provided food -2nd field was planted to legume plants: peas, lentils or beans these plants made soil more fertile by adding nitrogen to it -3rd field was allowed to remain fallow, or unused each year technological developments: windmills and several new types of plows -heavier plows with wheels were developed to deal with type of soil in areas north of Alps, while lighter plows were sufficient for soil in southern Europe drawn at 1st by oxen, plows became more efficient and swift after invention of horse collar to toke teams of horses riding horses became easier too, when use of stirrups spread from central Asia to Europe bout 7th century stirrups distributed rider's weight more evenly over horse's back, saving horse discomfort and back injury while helping rider be more secure manor produced everything that people living on it required limiting need for trade or contact with outsiders many serfs spent their entire life on single manor, unaware of what was happening in rest of Europe serf might not see more than 100 different people in entire lifetime languages that almost everyone understood - Latin and German - evolved as areas developed their own dialects, or regional ways of speaking over time, Latin dialects developed into new vernacular languages: French, Italian and Spanish Latin remained formal language used by clergy, scholars and lawyers, while vernacular languages were used by common people literacy works developed in these new languages as well
commerce
local economic self-sufficiency in Europe gradually gave way to an interest in goods from other European areas and from far-flung ports Crusades helped pave way, as lords and their armies of knights brought back fabrics and spices from East despite inroads of Byzantine Empire by Ottoman Turks, Silk Road trade routes remained in operation, as did sea routes across Mediterranean and Indian Ocean China was still eager for Europe's gold and silver and Europe was growing more eager than ever for silk, tea and rhubarb global trade increased although Europeans had not yet found route around Cape of Good Hope at southern tip of Africa, they had been making overland trips across Europe for many centuries in late 13th century, Marco Polo, Italian native from Venice, visited court of Kublai Khan Polo's captivating descriptions of customs of people her met intrigued Europeans: wrote history of Mongols in which he described their practice of multiples marriages and of drinking mare's milk curiosity about Asia skyrocketed, stimulating interest in cartography, or mapmaking
Holy Roman Empire
loose federation of mostly German states and principalities, headed by an emperor elected by the princes. It lasted from 962 to 1806 German king Otto I crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962, hearkening back to Charlemagne's designation as emperor of Romans Otto's successors survived power struggle with papacy over lay investiture controversy of 11th and 12th century -the dispite was over whether a secular leader, rather than pope, could invest bishops with symbols of office, was finally resolved in Concordat of Worms of 1122, when Church achieved autonomy from secular authorities Holy Roman Empire remained vibrant until virtually destroyed during Thirty Years War (1618-1648), from which it never recovered empire came to end with Napoleon's invasion in 1806
universities
often sharing books when attending lectures, students at University of Paris in 12th century could study liberal arts or theology in response to disputes between students and townspeople, universities set up colleges, boardinghouses for scholar, which were sometimes divided according to students nationality or discipline university granted students licenses to teach after they completed years of study and passed examination Cambridge and Oxford universities were founded in England 12th century, preceded in Europe only by university in Italy at Salerno, the Salerno Medical School, founded in 9th century teaching at Salerno based on knowledge handed down from time to Hippocrates, Greek physician Galen (129-217 CE), who lived in area that's now Turkey, and on medical information available from ongoing learning in Arab world although Galen was skilled surgeon for his time and advanced in study of anatomy, anatomy in that period almost wholly based on study of animals rather than humans
changes in agriculture
population growth in Middle Ages after 10th century resulted from decreases in Viking raids and improvements in agricultural methods for producing food -this agricultural surplus encouraged growth of towns and markets that could operate more frequently than just on holidays need for more labor on manors, particularly after 14th century plagues gave serfs more bargaining power with lords urban growth hampered after ~1300 by 5-century cooling of climate known as Little Ice Age lower temperatures reduced agricultural productivity, so people had less to trade and cities grew more slowly
religious orders
various groups of monks and nuns, usually living in vowed communities of the Catholic Church; advanced Europe's progress by keeping learning alive and by promoting practical advice, such as better agricultural methods various groups of monks and nuns, usually living in vowed communities, known as religious orders of Catholic Church, advanced Europe's progress by keeping learning alive and promoting practical advice, such as better agricultural methods orders such as Benedictines, Franciscans, Dominicans, and Knights Templar followed their own regulations while combining clerical, missionary and secular duties after their founding during Crusades, Knights Templar combined functions of knights and monks they not only fought to reclaim Holy Land from Muslims but also cared for sick and injured to north, Teutonic Knights fought pagan Slavs near Baltic and introduced Christian missions and churches there
comparing Carolingians and Tang China
similar- they used religion to legitimize rule, placed high value on education, tried to control nobles through administration. different- they had opposite outcomes where the split of the Carolingian dynasty led to feudalism and local power and china faced prosperity under a strong central government numerous political similarities existed between Carolingian in France and Tang in China (618-907) -both used religion to legitimize their rule -placed high value on education -attempted to control nobles through regional administrators in addition, both were successful in repelling invaders: Charles Martel in Europe turned back Muslims at Tours in 732 and Li Yuan, duke of Tang, defeated nomadic border peoples and agrarian rebels in 615 despite similarities, 2 political systems faced opposite outcomes splitting of Carolingian kingdom in 814 led to intensification of feudalism and local power in contrast, China entered period of great prosperity under strong central government China's rulers built Grand Canal to facilitate its rule in 2 ways: maintaining better contact with southern Chinese regions and providing better way for these regions to send tribute Tang prosperity led to more international contacts through now-safer silk road, with its fortified command posts and garrisons of soldiers challenging civil service exams, which required an expanded educational system in China, were unknown in Europe while leaders in western Europe and China used religion to legitimize rule, ideologies differed as result of religious and philosophical trends in each area Roman catholic church provided major ideology for western Europe and leaders sought legitimacy through their relationships with papacy Chinese rulers thought to be legitimate claimed to have Confucian Mandate of Heaven, but Confucianism and Buddhist vied for influence in China Empress Wu (ruled 665-705) tried to make Buddhist state religion, but persecution of Buddhists followed her reign and Confucianism triumphed until 20th century
comparing social classes in Europe and Asia
social classes were hierarchical in western Europe and Asia while some similarities existed between feudal system of western Europe and caste system of south Asia during post-classical era, European feudalism allowed for more social mobility while practice of serfdom became hereditary in some areas, never as restrictive as was position of untouchables in Hindu caste system in addition, knights could receive additional fiefs for services rendered to their lords and squire, who served knights, could rise to knighthood through deeds of valor Church offered priests opportunities for upward mobility in Tang China (618-907), emperor ruled strong central government supported by efficient bureaucracy although there was class of aristocrats, there were few large estates as land ownership was more widespread than in Europe merchants were not as frowned upon as they were in western Europe, as profit-making was not despised to extent that it was by Catholic Church scholar-gentry class also developed under Tangs organized religions in western Europe and South Asia provided some opportunities for women through convent life in Christian areas and Jainist or Buddhist religious communities in south Asia women in Tang China were better off now than they were later under song (960-1279) when foot-binding came into fashion
political trends in the Later Middle Ages
strongest monarchies that developed in later Middle Ages displayed 2 common characteristics that increased power of monarchy as expense of feudal lords: growing bureaucracy to carry out monarch's decisions and organized army that was controlled by monarch in many instances, desire of people for representation and desire of monarchs for strong absolutist government conflicted sometimes the desire for power also created tension between monarchs and pope
Capetian France
term for France during the high middle ages after Hugh Capet, the first Capetian king who reigned beginning in 987; during the following three centuries, Capetian kings gradually gained power and resources to establish centralized authority in France when Carolingian split into 3 sections in 987, western Frankish nobles chose Hugh Capet as their king - area was called Gaul by Romans and had been part of Charlemagne's empire; by time Hugh Capet became king, was called "Kingdom of the French" in spite of his title, however, Capet held little real power - it would be left to later kings, such as Philip II (ruled 1180-1223) to develop 1st real bureaucracy not until Philip IV (ruled 1285-1314) did 1st Estates-General - body to advise king that included representatives from each of 3 legal classes, or estates in France: clergy, nobility and commoners - meet although French kings consulted this Estates-General when necessary, they didn't exact regular taxes from upper 2 estates, clergy and nobility consequently, Estates-General had little power clergy and nobility felt little responsibility to protect government that they weren't financing, problem that only continued to increase in France up to eve of French Revolution of 1789
feudalism: political and social systems
while kings fought, they needed people to protect their lands: -kings paid nobles with land called fiefs; the amount of land owned determined person's wealth in return, these landowners, called lords, promised to fight for the kind lords were kings vassals, people who owed service to another person lords could have their own vassals if they had enough land to spare: lords could hire knights to fight for them by offering a piece of land knights would be vassals of lords and owe lords service system of obligations, called feudalism, was widespread in Europe from 800s to 1200s feudalism was mutually beneficial relationship of free persons sanctioned by oaths of loyalty, system cut down on losses to robbers and bandits, provided equipment for fighters who could hope to become knights and gave land in return for service of lord a king controlled larger areas of land and could giver larger fiefdoms to lords loyal to him local lords often represented the only law and order in their areas, and their power was absolute feudal system incorporated code of chivalry as way to resolve disputes and show etiquette since women were to be protected, code put them on pedestal while not investing them with any significant additional importance in practice, women didn't have many rights
gender roles
women found their rights eroding as wave of patriarchal thinking and writing accompanied movement from agricultural society to more urban 1 men thought that less education necessary for women, even though women often managed manor accounts however, Christine de Pisan of Venice strongly challenged idea that women couldn't be literate -she wrote prose and poetry in praise of women's accomplishments, including The Book of the Cty of Ladies women in religious order had more opportunities to demonstrate their administrative skills that most other women of time some women allowed to become guild members and artisans, although not all had property rights women in Islamic societies tended to enjoy higher levels of equality, particularly in parts of Africa and Southeast Asia
