Chapter 12: Sexual Assault

Rape myths

A variety of mistaken beliefs about the crime of rape and its victims held by many men and women.

1. One group of offenders peaking at age 25. 2. A second group peeking around age 30. 3. A third group peaking at age 32.

Although the rape arrest patterns indicate that youths dominate the data, we should emphasize that there are many exceptions. For instance, some studies conclude that there are at least what three distinct sexual arrest trajectories (Francis, Harris, Wallace, Knight, & Soothill, 2014; Freiburger, Marcum, Iannacchione, & Higgins, 2012)?

1. Hostility. 2. Criminality. 3. Sexual exploitation/involvement.

In the stranger rape study, Lehmann et al. (2013) explored the recidivistic predictability of what three themes?

Global risk recognition failure

Term used in victimology literature for the tendency of some people to believe they are immune to sexual assault.

1. The Summary Reporting System (SRS). 2. The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS).

The UCR program collects offense data through what two systems?

Incapacitated sexual assault

"Any unwanted sexual contact occurring when a victim is unable to provide consent or stop what is happening because they are passed out, drugged, drunk, incapacitated, or asleep, regardless of whether the perpetrator was responsible for the substance use or whether substances were administered without the victim's knowledge." (Krebs et al., 2007, p. ix).

Sexual assault vulnerability

- Younger than 17 years old. - Adult victims are raped by intimate partners . - Consumption of alcohol. - History of victimization. Risk recognition failure: - Global risk recognition failure. - Specific risk failure.

Antisociality/impulsivity

Characterized as exhibiting poor behavioral control, early behavior problems, and general criminal behavior.

1. Anger rape. 2. Power rape. 3. Sadistic rape.

Groth (1979) divided rape into what 3 major categories?

Pornography

May be described as depictions of sexual contact where one of the participants is portrayed as powerless or nonconsenting, or as little more than an object for the pleasure of the other participant or participants.

Rape by fraud

The act of having sexual relations with a supposedly consenting adult female under fraudulent conditions, such as when a physician or psychotherapist has sexual intercourse with a patient under the guise of "effective treatment".

Risk assessment

The first step in treatment and rehabilitation is to assess the risk of reoffending, commonly referred to as this.

General criminality

"Includes a global propensity for rule violation, meanness, and impulsivity, and overlaps with the constructs of antisocial personality disorder, psychopathy, and antisocial personality pattern (Babchishin et al., in press, p. 3).

Hostility theme

Applied to rapists, characterizes offenders who are particularly brutal in their attacks and who use the victim to vent their anger.

1. Callous unemotionality. 2. Anti-sociality/impulsivity. 3. Hypersexuality/sexualization.

Based on previous research, (Knight & Sims-Knight, 2003), Knight emphasizes the importance of what three core personality traits that are believed to define three paths that lead to sexual offending in both juveniles and adults?

Stranger rape

Hostility theme: Not predictive. Criminality theme: Predictive. Pseudo-intimacy theme: Not predictive. (Themes Predictive of Recidivism in Stranger and Acquaintance Rapes) Source: Adapted from Lehmann, R. J. B., Goodwill, A. M., Galasch-Nemitz, F., Biedermann, J., & Dahl, K-P. (2013). Applying crime scene analysis to the prediction of sexual recidivism in stranger rapes. Law and Human Behavior, 37, 241-254.

Sexual burglary

A burglary committed with the primary motive of carrying out a sexual assault or obtaining objects supportive of a fetish.

Crime scene analysis (CSA)

A form of the criminal profiling that focuses on features of the crime that might help determine not only the identity of the offender but also whether the offender is likely to continue the criminal activity.

Expressive sexual aggression

A rape situation in which the offender's primary goal is to gain some control over his life.

Anger rape

A rape situation, identified by Groth, in which an offender uses more force than necessary for compliance and engages in a variety of sexual acts that are particularly degrading or humiliating to the victim.

Power rape

A rape situation, identified by Groth, in which the assailant seeks to establish power and control over his victim. Thus, the amount of force and threats used depends on the degree of submission shown by the victim.

Sadistic rape

A rape situation, identified by Groth, in which the offender experiences sexual arousal and excitement as a result of the victim's torment, distress, helplessness, and suffering. The assault usually involves bondage and torture, and the rapist directs considerable abuse and injury on various areas of the victim's body.

Sexual aggressive rapist (sadistic rapist)

A rapist who demonstrates both sexual and aggressive features in his attack. In order for him to experience sexual arousal, it must be associated with violence and pain, which excite him. - Sadistic rapist. - Both sexual arousal and aggression. - History of domestic violence. - Low frustration tolerance.

Impulsive (exploitative) rapist

A rapist who demonstrates neither strong sexual nor aggressive features, but engages in spontaneous rape when the opportunity presents itself. The rape is usually carried out in the context of another crime, such as robbery or burglary.

Date rape (acquaintance rape)

A sexual assault that occurs within the context of a dating relationship or when rapist and victim know one another. Hostility theme: Predictive. Criminality theme: Not predictive. Pseudo-intimacy theme: Predictive. (Themes Predictive of Recidivism in Stranger and Acquaintance Rapes) Source: Adapted from Lehmann, R. J. B., Goodwill, A. M., Galasch-Nemitz, F., Biedermann, J., & Dahl, K-P. (2013). Applying crime scene analysis to the prediction of sexual recidivism in stranger rapes. Law and Human Behavior, 37, 241-254.

1. The presence of a high degree of non-sexualized aggression or rage expressed either through verbal and/or physical assault that clearly exceeds what is necessary to force compliance of the victim. 2. Clear evidence, in verbalization or behavior, of the intent to demean, degrade, or humiliate the victim. 3. No evidence that the aggressive behavior is eroticized or that sexual pleasure is drive from the injurious acts. 4. The injurious acts are not focused exclusively on parts of the body that have sexual significance.

According to Knight and Prentky (1987), an offender must demonstrate what 4 characteristics during the attack in order to be assigned to the displaced aggression category?

Compensatory rapists

An offender who rapes in response to an intense sexual arousal initiated by stimuli in the environment, often quite specific stimuli (e.g., dark-haired women). His main motive is to prove his sexual prowess. - Sexual gratification, nonsadistic type. - Intense sexual arousal. (Specific stimuli). - Desire to prove sexual prowess and adequacy. - Passive or withdrawn. - Fantasy

1. Assumes that criminal behavior can be predicted. 2. Involves the notion that the levels of treatment should match the risk level of the offender.

Andrews and Bonta (2010) point out that there are what 2 aspects to the risk principle?

Criminality theme

Applied to rapists, characterizes chronic offenders committing many other crimes and likely to recidivate. Regards victim as an object that must be incapacitated.

Sexual exploitation/involvement (pseudo-intimacy) theme

Characterizes the rapist two attempts to bond with a victim, such as by apologizing or attempting to show affection. Treats victim as a person rather than an object.

Fetishistic non-contact burglary

Committed to access properties that has a sexually arousing value for the burglar, such as underclothing or other personal items. Usually, these breaking and entering incidents do not involve the sexual assault of a victim. In most cases, the residence is an occupied.

Sodomy

Defined as oral or anal sexual intercourse with another person, without the consent of victim, including instances where the victim is incapable of giving consent because of age or because of temporary or permanent mental or physical incapacity. NIBRS: Oral or anal intercourse without consent. (Key Components of Definitions of Sex Crimes from SRS, NIBRS, and NCVS).

Callous unemotionality

Demonstrated by such behaviors as pathological lying, grandiose sense of self-worth, superficial charm, little empathy or compassion for others, and a conning, manipulative behavioral pattern.

Incidence and Prevalence

Global problem. United States: - Rate is greatly underestimated. - 54.2 per 100,000 females in 2010. - Male rape underreported.

Versatile contact burglary

Has multiple motivations for entering a residence, and sexual behaviors are only part of the spectrum of motivations. The sexual assault is committed in combination with theft, violence, and the use of weapons.

1. Establish resources and support services for survivors of sexual assault. 2. Insure due process protections for both survivors and persons accused. 3. Initiate a nationwide anonymous survey to gauge the prevalence of sexual assault on campuses. 4. Assure that staff meet minimum training standards to address sexual assault complaints. 5. Establish uniform disciplinary process to coordinate responses with local law enforcement.

In 2015, U.S. Senators Kirsten Gillibrand (D-NY) and Claire McCaskill (D-MO) cosponsored a revised version of the Campus Accountability and Safety Act (CASA), along with a bipartisan group of additional senators. The proposed law would, among other things, do what five things?

Risk principle

In RNR treatment, the assessment of risk factors in a person's life that make the person susceptible to antisocial behavior. An example of a risk factor is conduct disorder as a 6-year-old.

Vindictive offender types

Rapists whose attacks are driven by central and focused hatred of women.

Responsivity principle

In RNR treatment, the assessment of the extent to which an individual will cooperate with and benefit from the treatment.

1. The level of arousal elicited by pornographic films. 2. The level of aggressive content. 3. The reactions of the victims portrayed in these films and photographs.

In a series of ongoing experiments, Donnerstein found evidence that what three factors influence the relationship between pornography and human aggression?

1. Callous indifference to the welfare and comfort of the victim. 2. The presence of no more force than is necessary to gain the compliance of the victim.

In order to be assigned to the impulsive/explicative rapist category, the offender must show what two things?

1. A level of aggression or violence that clearly exceeds what is necessary to force compliance of the victim. 2. The explicit, unambiguous evidence that aggression is sexually exciting to them.

In order to qualify for assignment to the sexual aggressive rapist (sadistic rapist) category, the offender needs to demonstrate what two things?

1. The behavior, cognitions, and the tactics of offenders. 2. The risk factors faced by the victims.

Investigations examining the causes of sexual assault and general violence against women have focused on one of what two issues (Siegel & Williams, 2001).

• 24.4% of the assaulters were strangers. • 21.9% were husband or ex-husbands. • 19.5% were boyfriends or ex-boyfriends. • 9.8% were relatives. • 14.6% were other non-relatives, such as friends or neighbors.

Kilpatrick et al. (2000, p. 12) report cogent evidence that most of those who rape adults are intimate partners and not strangers. They list the following victimization Information on Adult women gathered from the national women's survey. What are some of the highlights?

Sexually oriented contact burglary

Occurs because the offender has the planned, specific goal of gaining access to a sexual victim, without any intent to steal possessions or commit theft or violence other than a sexual assault.

Criminogenic need principle

One of the components of RNR treatment, it refers to the fact that clinicians must identify needs in offenders that make them susceptible to future antisocial behavior. Substance abuse is an example of a criminogenic need.

1. Fetishistic non-contact. 2. Versatile contact. 3. Sexually oriented contact.

Pedneault, Harris, & Knight (2012) had identified what 3 different types of sexual burglars?

Rape

Penetration of a vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim. SRS of UCR (new definition): Penetration without consent by sex organ of another or by an object. SRS of UCR (legacy definition): Carnal knowledge of a female against her will. NIBRS: Carnal knowledge of a person without consent. NCVS: Unlawful penetration of a person against their will. Includes penetration from an object. (Key Components of Definitions of Sex Crimes from SRS, NIBRS, and NCVS).

The Knight and Sims-Knight Three Path Model

Physical and/or: Arrogant, deceitful, callousness, emotional detachment. Verbal abuse: Aggressive and antisocial behavior, impulsive acting out. Sexual abuse: Sexual preoccupation, sexual compulsivity, hypersexuality, aggressive sexual fantasies.

Impact on victims

Psychological Victimization: - Perpetrator. - Criminal justice system. - Medical examination. - Detailed questioning. - Victim credibility. - Media. Physical Injury: - One-fourth need medical attention. - 5% sustain serious injury.

Statutory rape

Rape for when the age of the victim is the crucial distinction, on the premise that a victim below a certain age (usually 16) cannot validly consent to sexual intercourse with an adult. NIBRS: Consensual intercourse when one party is not of legal age as defined by statute. (Key Components of Definitions of Sex Crimes from SRS, NIBRS, and NCVS).

Displaced aggression rapists (displaced anger rapists / anger-retaliation rapists)

Rapists whose attacks are violent and aggressive, displaying minimum or total absence of sexual feeling. - Violent and aggressive attacks. - Minimal sexual feeling. - Sadistic acts. - Chaotic and unstable childhood (e.g., Neglect or abuse).

Erotica

Refers to "sexually explicit material that depicts adult men and women consensually involved in pleasurable, non-violent, non-degrading, sexual interactions" (Seto, Maric, & Barbaree, 2001, p. 37).

Opportunistic types

Refers to rapists whose sexual assaults are impulsive, predatory acts that are controlled by situational and contextual factors, such as a woman being present during the commission of another crime.

Crossover offending

Refers to the extent that an offender "crosses over" to selected victims regardless of age, gender, or physical characteristics.

Hypersexuality/sexualization

Represented by sexual preoccupation, sexual compulsively, and sexual coerciveness.

1. Opportunity. 2. Pervasive anger. 3. Sexual gratification. 4. Vindictiveness.

Researchers found that identifying four primary MOTIVATIONS for rape could improve the Massachusetts Treatment Classification Scheme (MTC)'s effectiveness significantly. What are the four motivations? (Knight, 1999; Knight, Warren, Reboussin, & Soley, 1998).

1. Global. 2. Specific.

Researchers have identified what two kinds of risk recognition failure in vulnerable women (Gidycz, McNamara, & Edwards, 2006; Nurius, 2000).

1. Instrumental 2. Expressive.

Sexual aggression can be divided into at least what two major categories?

Incest

Sexual relations between individuals who are prohibited by law from having such relations, such as brothers and sisters. ______ is rarely prosecuted unless it involves a child, in which case it is prosecuted as child sexual assault or abuse. NIBRS: Non-forcible sexual intercourse between persons related to a degree that marriage would prohibit. (Key Components of Definitions of Sex Crimes from SRS, NIBRS, and NCVS).

Pervasively angry type

Similar to displaced aggression rapists but with the difference that his generalized anger pervades all areas of his life.

Sexual assault

Term for any one of various criminal behaviors that involve a sexual attack on the body of another person; has replaced the term "rape" in many criminal statutes. SRS of UCR: Variety of offenses of a sexual nature; includes statutory rape. NIBRS (with an object): Unlawful penetration of vaginal or anal opening. NCVS: Attack involving unwanted sexual contact; may include fondling or grabbing. (Key Components of Definitions of Sex Crimes from SRS, NIBRS, and NCVS).

1. Displaced aggression rapists. 2. Compensatory rapists. 3. Sexual aggressive rapists. 4. Impulsive rapists.

The Massachusetts Treatment Center (MTC) originally identified what four major categories of rapists?

Specific risk failure (situational risk failure)

The tendency to not recognize certain situations that are likely to put someone in danger of assault

Burglary

The unlawful entry into a residence, commercial establishment, or other building for the purposes of committing a felony.

Typology

Used to organize a wide assortment of observations or measurements for research and clinical diagnosis and treatment purposes.

Instrumental sexual aggression

When the sexual offender uses just enough coercion to gain compliance from his victim.

Rape offender characteristics

Young: - Under age 25. Prior criminal record: - Not necessarily sexual. Attitudes: - Men should be dominant, women submissive. - Fantasy. - Nonsexual aggression. Cognitive-Perceptual Distortions in Communication: - Misconceptions of verbal or nonverbal communication. - Erroneous perceptions of seductive behavior or sexual interest. Pornography: - Difficulty defining. - May promote aggression under certain conditions.

Sexual gratification

motivations characterized four subtypes of rapists and subdivided into overt and muted types. nonsadistic sexual rapists are subdivided by social competence.