Chapter 13 : Comparative Cognition, Ch 5: Classical Conditioning-Underlying Processes & Practical Applications (Exam 2), L&B CH 1, ch 2 l&B, Elicited Behavior, ch 4 l&b basic phenoma, c6 L&b operant conditioning, L&B Schedules of reinfocement ch. 7,...
Skinner believed behavior divided into two categories
-involuntary, reflexive-type behavior = respondent behavior -voluntary, controlled by consequences rather than by stimuli that precede them -> operant behavior
Preconditioning works best when __(2)
-only pair stimuli a few times; prevents the animal from becoming overly familiar with the stimuli prior to conditioning -the two stimuli in the preconditioning phase are presented simultaneously as opposed to sequentially
What can be done for preference reversal?
-raise the value of the LLR at early points in time -lower the value of the SSR when it becomes imminent
Group design cons (3)
-require large amount of subjects -typically focus on average performance of subjects in group and not the individual -often analyzed @ end of experiment not during (treatment may not work on bad behavior and we wouldn't know till end)
autoshaping
A type of sign tracking in which a pigeon comes to automatically peck at a response key because the key light has been associated with the response-independent delivery of food. -used to train pigeons on protocol that are CONTINGENT on key pecking
Backward chaining in humans
Backward chaining is not required with verbally proficient humans, with whom behavior chains can be quickly established through use of instructions
What is the shuttle avoidance procedure?
An animal must shuttle back and forth in a box to avoid an aversive stimulus. ex. a dog in a chamber must climb a low barrier to stop feeling shock
Euphemistic labeling
An attempt to escape from self-contempt by calling an immoral act something other than what it really is
Disregard or distortion of consequences
An attempt to escape self-contempt by minimizing the harm caused by one's immoral actions
To distinguish bt Premack Principle and response deprivation hypothesis
-us the main point the frequency of one behavior to another (Premack) or -frequency of one behavior relative to its preferred level (response deprivation hypothesis)
What were the two conclusions of the Herrnstein & Hineline (1966) experiment?
1) Animal can learn the avoidance response when no CS is present 2) To master the task, rats must be sensitive to the average shock frequency when they respond or don't respond
OCD is characterized by 2 things:
1)Persistent thoughts, impulses, images 2) repetitive stereotyped actions
Reinforcement
According to Bandura, reinforcement gives the observer information concerning what leads to what in the environment, so that the observer can anticipate certain outcomes from certain behaviors
Observational Learning
Act of observing someone's behavior facilitates the occurrence of similar behavior in oneself
Similarities between anorexia in rats and humans: (2)
1. Both more easily induced during adolescent age 2. Approaches to food- although they eat little amounts, they take precious time preparing it (human- cooking, plating, rat- scarping with rat teeth and taking out)
Reinforcer if (3)
1. Follows behavior 2. future probability of behavior increases -S^R (reinforcing stimulis)
Aristotle's Four Laws of Association
1. Law of Similarity : similar things associated w each other 2. Law of Contrast : opposites associated w each other 3. Law of Contiguity: events that occur in close proximity to each other are readily associated 4. Law of Frequency: more frequently two items occur together, the more strongly they are associated
How can the small-but-cumulative effects model suggest ways to improve self-control: (2)
1. Make salient the fact that individual choices are not isolated events, but rather parts of a whole (self-monitoring reinforces a holistic perspective) 2. Make a relapse prevention plan to handle occasional lapses
Skinners Critcism of internal events
1. Since we can't measure internal thoughts, we must rely on verbal reports, which are often unreliable 2. It is difficult to determine actual relationship between thoughts and feelings to behavior 3. We do not have a means of directly changing internal events 4. Explanations about internal events are often pseudo-explanations
Punisher if (3)
1. follows behavior 2. future probability of behavior decreases -S^P (reinforcing stimulus)
When we view reinforcers as behaviors rather than stimuli (eating food versus food), the process of reinforcement can be conceptualized as
1. the behavior that is being reinforced followed by 2. the behavior that is the reinforcer
Multiple schedules include ____ or more
2
How is avoidance learning in phobias tend to be different in humans and rats?
Animals avoid the US while people avoid the CS. People avoid the bee, not the sting of the bee
________ contrast is when the rate of response varies _______ with an upcoming change in the rate of reinforcement
Anticipatory; inversely
Behaviorism
A natural science approach to psychology that traditionally focuses on the study of environmental influences on observable behavior
methodological behaviorism
Asserts that psychologists should study only those behaviors that can be directly observed
Empiricist (Nurture) Perspective
Assumes a person's abilities and tendencies are largely learned
What is a secondary punisher?
A secondary punisher is an event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with some other punisher. EX: Tone (NS):Shock (US)---->Fear (UR) Tone (CS)---->Fear (CR)
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
(cognitive Social learning) emphasizes the importance of observational learning and cognitive variables in explaining human behavior
What is experimental neurosis?
-A experimentally produced disorder where animals exposed to unpredictable events develop neurotic like symptoms
What did Masserman find about neurosis?
-Cats that experienced unpredictable shocks or air developed a pattern of neurotic like symptoms similar to PTSD
What is the difference between negative punishment and extinction?
-Performing the behavior no longer leads to something (extinction) -performing the behavior leads to the removal of something that you would otherwise possess.( negative punishment)
What is the benefit of researching experimental neurosis?
-Useful for investigating the development of traumatic symptoms ex.- PTSD is more likely when a person is unexpectedly attacked in their own home
operant conditioning
-also called instrumental conditioning -type of learning in which the future probability of a behavior is affected by its consequences
How is learned helplessness treated?
-encouraging patient to accomplish a graded series of relatively minor tasks -progressing to more difficult tasks
Positive punishment
The presentation of an unpleasant stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior. ex: Meow constantly -> get sprayed with water R S^P
Vicarious punishment
The process by which observing another person's behavior being punished decreases the probability of the observer acting in a similar way
Vicarious reinforcement
The process by which observing another person's behavior being reinforced increases the probability of the observer acting in a similar way
Retentional processes
The variables involved in encoding certain observations for memory. Bandura believes that observations are stored in memory through imaginal and verbal symbols
Skinner's doing something else controlling response
To prevent from engaging in certain behaviors, it is sometimes helpful to perform an alternative behavior ex: chew gum when dieting
Skinner's physical restraint controlling response
You physically manipulate the environment to prevent the occurance of some behavior ex: leaving money at home so you spend less
counterconditioning
a CS that elicits one type of response is associated with an event that elicits an incompatible response
compensatory-response model
a CS that has been repeatedly associated with the primary response (a-process) to a US will eventually come to elicit a compensatory response (b-process) (ex: heroin and blood pressure, allowing the body to prepare itself ahead of time for the onslaught of the drug)
systematic desensitization
a behavioral treatment for phobias that involves pairing relaxation with a succession of stimuli that elicit increasing levels of fear
cumulative recorder (2)
a classic device that measures the total number of responses over time and provides a graphic depiction of the rate of behavior -the steeper the line, the higher rate of response, flat line is no response, low line is low response
say-do correspondence
a close match between what we say we are going to do and what we actually do at a later time -develops a lot from childhood, if good behavior was reinforced and child did what they were supposed to do, they grew a better sense of say-do correspondence
The matching law predicts
a consistent relationship between the proportion of reinforcers and the proportion of responses obtained on a certain alternative and proportion of responsesis emitted on that alternative
positive contrast effect
a decrease in rate of reinforcement on one component results in an increase in rate of response on the other component (as one component becomes less attractive, the unchanged component becomes relatively more attractive)
Habituation (2)
a decrease in the strength of an elicited behavior following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus -more stimulus specific than sensitization ex: ticking of a clock
Ratio strain
a disruption in responding due to an overly demanding response requirement (burnout)
Rescorla-Wagner Theory
a given US can support only so much conditioning, and this amount of conditioning must be distributed among the various CSs that are present
response
a particular instance of a behavior
abolishing operation
a procedure that decreases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of a stimulus ex: satiating a rat would aversify it from food
discriminative stimulus for extinction
a stimulus that signals the absence of reinforcement
Evolutionary adaptation
adaptive trait that evolves as a result of natural selection
class of responses
all responses in that class capable of producing the consequence (left paw, right paw, forehead press -> same result = a pellet)
Later studies examine whether chimps could learn a symbolic, gestural language called ______ ______ ________
american sign language
VR
among the four basic intermittent schedules, the ___ schedule is particularly likely to produce strong resistance to extinction
backward chaining
an efficient way to establish responding on a chained schedule by training the final link first and the initial link last ex: train pigeon to respond on red key for food. This will establish red key as reinforcer through association of food. This can then be used to reinforce responding on green key and so on
pseudoconditioning
an elicited response that appears to be a conditioned response is actually the result of sensitization rather than conditioning -in reality, we may have hypersenstized the organism
Aversive stimulus
an event that an organism will avoid (shock and extreme heat) -aversive is NOT adversive
selective sensitization
an increase in one's reactivity to a potentially fearful stimulus following exposure to an unrelated stressful event (stressful even affects response to other aversive events)
CS-US relevance
an innate tendency to easily associate certain types of stimuli with each other ex: rats have a predisposition to readily associate nausea with taste and predisposition to associate tactually painful events with visual and auditory stimuli
_______ _________: varies inversely with expected change
anticipatory contrast
Behavior
any activity of an organism that can be observed or somehow measured
stimulus
any event that can potentially influence behavior
Studies of animals ability to use symbolic languages created by researchers in a labratory setting are known as _________ language experiements
artificial
independent variable
aspect of an experiment that is made to systematically vary across conditions in experiments -what is manipulated in an experiment ex: # of food pellets the rats receive in each group when they reach the goal box
Humans have a tendency to be interested in animals and nature. According to ______________ hypothesis, this is an ____________ tendency
biophilia inherited
The case of clever hans reminds us that it is often important to have testers who are _________ to the conditions or expectations of the test
blind to
Two birds that have great spatial memory
chickadees nutcrakcers
In Shenger-Krestovnikova's experiment the animal suffered a nervous breakdown when exposed to a CS+ and a CS- that were made progressively (more/less) similar.
circle= food; ellipse = no food -cs+ and cs_ became more similar
vicarious emotional responses
classically conditioned emotional responses that result from seeing those emotional responses exhibited by others -this type of conditioning is called vicarious emotional conditioning ex: smiles and laughter of other children
in vivo exposure therapy
clients are encouraged to approach the feared object as closely as possible, remain there until anxiety fades away, and then approach the object even more closely
exposure therapies
combine aspects of systematic desensitization and flooding along with additional processes such as observational learning
In general, the extent to which we follow instructions- as well as the specific instructions we choose to follow- depends largely on the _________ we have received for following instructions.
consequences
Complex Schedules of Reinforcement
consists of a combination of two or more schedules
Positive reinforcement
consists of a presentation of a stimulus following a response, which then leads to an increase in the future strength in that response Turn on TV > See show R S^R
Chained schedule
consists of a sequence of two or more simple schedules, each of which has its own SD and the last of which results in a terminal reinforcer -aka person must work through a series of component schedules to obtain the sought after reinforcer -must be completed in a particular order unlike conjunctive schedule ex: rat must use VR20 schedule with greek key and FI-10 sec schedule for red key for food, thus following Green key: Peck -VR20-> Red key: -FI10 SEC PECK-> Food S^D R S^R R S^R
Concurrent schedule of reinforcement
consists of the simultaneous presentation of two or more independent schedules, each leading to a reinforcer -the organism is allowed to make a choice between responding on one schedule versus the other
FR-1
continuous reinforcement because it would deliver reinforcement for every response
incubation
covert exposures to the stimulus--as in worrying about it--may also result in _____
Chimps have also shown the ability to ____________ tools
create and modify
A discriminative stimulus (does/does not) elicit behavior as opposed to conditioned stimulus
does not
In humans, ______ has been found in environments that provide ____ levels of economic and social reinforcment, suggesting that _____ processes contribute to the development of drug and alcohol abuse
drug and alcohol abuse sparse adjunctive
resurgence
during extinction, the reappearance of other behaviors that had once been effective in obtaining reinforcement. (ex. a rat will attempt to make food appear by repeating a maze pattern that had earlier been effective)
Pattern of responding for DRH schedules
ensure a high rate of response
Primary Reinforcer (unconditioned reinforcer)
event that is innately reinforcing -things we are BORN to like -food, water, warmth , contact -effectiveness is high when close to state of deprivation (physical or psychological)
_____ is the process of gradually altering the intensity of a stimulus
fading
The _________ ____ _________ is used to determine whether a child can use information correctly to infer what someone else would know
false belief task
higher-order conditioning Diagram
first-order, the second-order and sometimes third-order
Fading is _______.
flexible
extinction
flooding is more clearly based on the principle of _____
_______ ______ training is where behavior of clear and ______ communication is _______ reinforced
functional communication; appropriate; differentially
Peak shift effect is when the peak of _______ ______ following discrimination training will shift from the ____ to a stimulus ______ ______ from S-delta during discrimination
generalization gradient SD; further removed
SD is to ________ as _______ is to discrimination
generalization; S delta
The result is most children acquire a (generalized/localized) tendency to follow instructions
generalized
opponent-process theory can be used to explain
hedonics of abusive relationships and drug use
biophilia hypothesis
humans have inherited predispositions to be drawn to nature including other animals e.g humans keep pets
Flattening out the delay gradient for the larger later reward (making it less deeply scalloped) is perhaps the ___
ideal answer to problems of self-control
stimulus discrimination
in operant conditioning, the tendency for an operant response to be emitted more in the presence of one stimulus than another.
example of negative contrast effect: VI30 _______ as VI60 _______
increases; decreases
extinction
incubation contradicts the general rule the presentation of the CS without the US will result in ______
Multiple is to ______ as chained is to ______
independent; order
Descriptive research
involves gathering information about a behavior and the circumstances within which it occurs. It does not involve manipulation of variables include: survey, case study and naturalistic observation
NS; US
many basic conditioning procedures seem to cause an association to develop between the _____ and the _____
recall
many people with phobias are unable to _____ any particular conditioning event before the development of their symptoms
Differential reinforcement
means that one type of response is reinforced while another is not
Greater degree of deprivation= _______resistance
more
Group designs
most common experimental design in which one manipulates one or more independent variables across groups of subjects
salient
most noticeable or important
Is fading more effective than error training?
no
Extinction is _____ of previously reinforced responses
nonreinforcement
Orienting responses
occur when surprising and new events capture our attention
Stimulus generalization with aversive conditioning
occurs when food items that taste similar to the aversive item are also perceived as aversive ex: aversive response to salmon may translate to other forms of fish
self-punishment procedure
people apply an aversive consequence to themselves each time they engage in an unwanted target behavior
How does learned helplessness show in humans?
people who suffer uncontrollable aversive events (Lost job, illness, divorce) become passive and despondent (low spirits)
Folding your arms to keep from chewing your nails is an example of the use of __ __ to control your behavior.
physical restraint
In order to make punishment most effective, it should be combined with use of ...?
positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior
Saving a tool for later use is common among _________ but ___________ seen in other animals
primates sometimes
Results from koehlers studies indicate that some birds can distinguish _____________ from ___________ or __________
quantity volume size
Hans the horse describe the outcome?
question (SD)- tap out correct (R) -- treat (SR) Did not answer questions correctly, when: 1) he could not see the person asking the question 2) the person asking the question did not know the answer to the question THUS: Change in appearance of questioner was the SR and SD
As with FR Ratio an extremely lean VR schedule can result in
ratio strain
example of behavioral contrast: FI30 and FR30-can do either and will still get ______.
reinforced
You are more likely to pay attention to a model whose behavior is (reinforced/not reinforced), who is (similar/dissimilar) to you, who is (admired/hated), and who is noted ___ in that activity
reinforced similar admired authority
Extinction is the non-reinforcement of previously _____ response and results in a _____ in response strength.
reinforced; decrease
possible explanation of peak shift effect: respond in terms of _____ rather than _____ values
relative; absolute
Negative punishmet
removal of a stimulus (usually pleasant) following a response, which than leads to a decrease, in the future strength of that response ex: Stay past curfew -> Lose car priveldges R S^P John talks to other women -> girlfriend ignores him R S^P
high
resistance to extinction is generally greater when the behavior that is being extinguished has been reinforced with a ___ magnitude reinforcer (large food pellet vs small food pellet), though the opposite effect has also been found
Activity anorexia in rats is most similar to __ type of anorexia in humans rather than the ____ type.
restricting binge-eating
Escape behavior
results in the termination (stopping) of an aversive stimulus ex: taking an aspirin to remove headache
In the morning you said you would study but after the afternoon, you preferred socializing. this is an example of
reversal of preference: as time passed and the smaller sooner reward (socializing) becomes imminent -via ainslie-rachlin model of self control
Pavlov Circle Exp
said dog behavior was due to temperment to the experiment. and lead to theories of personality
One factor theory is often called...
shock-frequency reduction theory
Exp: Choice between VI 30 SEC and VI 60 SEC schedule for 1 hour session
should obtain twice as many reinforcers on the VI 40 sec than on VI 60 sec
The process of sending and receiving ________ is known as ________
signals communication
A variety of species are capable of distinguishing between ______ #'s
small
In the sign-tracking experiment with dogs, the light that predicted food seemed to activate the (predatory/consummatory/social) compoentn of the dog's feeding system
social
If you drink five soda pops each day and only one glass of orange juice then the opportunity to drink _____ can be used to reinforcer for drinking ______
soda orange juice
Buzzards and vultures show _______ preference for the weight of rocks they use to crack open their eggs. This shows evidence of a ________ cognitive complexity than simple tool use.
some more
What is a downside of duration schedules
sometimes come with a danger of not being productive as lets say a fixed-interval schedule -getting 150 words for quizlet vs general 45 minute study session where you only study 25 words
______ ______ is the reappearance of an extinguished response following a period of _____ after extinction
spontaneous recovery; rest
______________ ____________ is the reappearance of an extinguished response following a ____ period of extinction
spontaneous recovery; rest
steady-state behavior
stable pattern that emerges once the organism has had considerable exposure to the schedule
Response deprivation hypothesis
states that a behavior can serve as a reinforcer when (1) access to the behavior is restricted and (2) its frequency thereby falls below its preferred level of occurrence
Premack Principle
states that a high-probability behavior can be used to reinforce a low-probability behavior ex: Target behavior Consequence Running in a wheel (LPB) --> Eating food (HPB) R S^R -can switch behaviors if rat is not hungry
Memory is often a matter of _________ _____________ in which one is first exposed to a stimulus and is then required to respond to that stimulus at a later time.
stimulus discrimination
Joe has also purchased a new computer and is trying to access the internet. He watches his friend Daryl as he accesses the internet and notices that he uses a couple applications to do so. Joe opens those applications himself and then plays around with the settings until he figures it out. Joe's behavior is best described as an example of
stimulus enhancement
_________ _________ is the tendency for operant response to be emitted in the presence of stimulus similar to the _____.
stimulus generalization; SD
Discriminative Stimulus for Extinction (S^A(delta))
stimulus that signals absence of reinforcement
Procedure is to _____ as Process is to a _____ in behavior.
stop; decrease
Process: when an animal ______ _____to the previously reinforced stimulus
stops responding
Comparative Cognition
study of information processing across a variety of species , including humans
______ trains an animal to approach and touch particular object, then move the object to desired response
targeting
Animal training uses ______ and ______.
targeting; cues
people; phobias
temperament refers to differences between _____ in how emotionally reactive they are, which in turn affects how easily they can develop a phobia; preparedness (as it relates to phobias) refers to differences between the types of ______ in how easily they can be acquired
stimulus-substitution theory
the CS acts as a substitute for the US
S-R model
the NS becomes directly associated with the UR and therefore comes to elicit the same response as the UR; the purpose of the US is simply to elicit the UR so that it occurs in close proximity to the NS (ex: when bitten by a dog, a child associated the dog (NS) with the pain and fear (UR) that were elicited by the bite (US); she experiences fear (UR) when she encounters the dog (CS))
S-S model
the NS becomes directly associated with the US and comes to elicit a response that is related to the US (ex: a child who is bitten (US) by a dog (NS) associates dog with bite; because of that association, the child comes to fear (UR) the dog (CS); some animals may respond to the CS in the absence of the US)
blocking
the Rescorla-Wagner theory explains _____: if the first CS reaches the max associative value, there will be none left for a new CS
placebo effect
the ____ can be seen as a result of pairing the appearance of the drug (originally an NS) with the active ingredients of the drug (the US); (ex: white pill:acetyl salicylic acid --> headache removal; white pill --> headache removal)
immune
the _____ system can be classically conditioned (ex: hospital:chemotherapy --> immunosuppression; hospital --> immunosuppression)
self-control
the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
Self awareness
the ability to see oneself seperate from others ( in order to understand other minds)
generalize to real stimuli
the drawback of imaginal desensitization is that it must _____
Intensity
the force or magnitude of a behavior Tone: food>salivation tone>salivation and intensity is measured as amount (magnitude) of saliva production
meliorate
to make better
Pattern of responding for VI schedules
usually produce a moderate, steady rate of responses, often with little to no post-reinforcement pauses
Response deprivation hypothesis provides a great explanation for
why contingencies of reinforcement are effective to the extent that they create a condition in which the organism is confronted wit the possibility of a certain response falling below its baseline level
Timeout periods should be _________.
Brief
conditioning trial
Each pairing of the CS and UCS
Typically, one first learns to ________ an aversive stimulus and then to ________ it.
Escape; Avoid
Negative reinforcement is associated with two types of behaviour: _________ behavoiur and ________ behaviour
Escape; Avoidance
peak shift effect
Following discrimination training, the peak of a generalization gradient will shift from the SD to a stimulus that is further removed from the SΔ.
Differences in taste aversion versus traditional forms of classical conditioning
Formation of association over long delays One-trial conditioning Specificity of associations
What are the 3 categories of SSDR?
Freezing, fleeing, fighting
regression
Freud's term for the reappearance of immature behaviors in reaction to frustration or conflict
Self control from a temporal perspective
From a temporal perspective, lack of self-control arises from the fact that our behavior is more heavily influenced by immediate consequences than by delayed consequences
Punishment of an inappropriate behaviour does not directly strengthen the occurrence of appropriate behaviour, and may simply result in a __________________________ of behaviour.
Generalized Suppression
Bandura found in his research that filmed violence was _______ live violence for inducing violent behavior in observers.
Just as effective as
Chameleon Effect
Non-conscious mimicry of the postures, mannerisms, facial expressions, and other behaviors of one's interaction partners
___________ schedules may be an effective means to reduce frequency of maladaptive behavior
Noncontingent ex: nurses at care centers give a lot of attention -> no longer have to injure self bc receive lots of free attention
_____________ punishment consists of the presentation of a certain event following a response, which then leads to a decrease in the future strength of that response.
Positive
Tell a joke > Person Frowns
R > S^P
Lever Press > Food pellet
R > S^R
_________ is the reappearance of other behaviors during extinction that had once been effective in obtaining reinforcement.
REsurgence
How can the Sidman Avoidance task be argued to fit the two factor theory?
The CS is the internal passage of time.
Delayed modeling
The case in which an observer does not display what has been learned from a modeling experience until sometime after the modeling experience has been terminated
Human agency
The conscious planning and intentional execution of actions that influence future events
Mischel's Delay of Gratification Paradigm
The earliest systematic research using a delay-of-gratification procedure was carried out by Walter Mischel. A child was led into a room that contained two items, one of which was clearly preferred. (pretzels and marshmellow) The child was told that he or she could attain the preferred item by simply waiting for the experimenter to return. If the child wished, however, the experimenter could be summoned by sounding a signal, at which point the child received only the smaller, nonpreferred item.
Vicarious extinction
The extinction of a response that comes from observing that a models performance of that response is not reinforced
suppression ratio
# of CS responses / # of CS responses + # of pre-CS responses Stronger conditioning shown by a smaller #
Hernstein suggested several variables that can affect the shape of a delay function" (6)
-there appears to be innate differences in impulsivity between species (few second delays can mean a lot in pigeons but make no difference for humans-humans have generally less deeply scalloped than other animals) -there may be individual differences, with some individuals being more impulsive than others (like those with antisocial personality disorder-deeply scalloped delay functions) -people generally become less impulsive as they grow older -people generally become less impulsive after repeated experience with responding for delayed rewards (gradually shaping ability to delay gratification) -the availability of other sources of reinforcement may also serve to reduce impulsiveness (drinking coffee to satisfy studying to reduce playing games) -we can more easily maintain responding for a distant goal by setting up an explicit series of subgoals
Moving hand from reflex arc (4)
-touch flame= receptors in hand msg sensory neurons -in spinal cord = interneurons pass msg to motor neurons -motor neurons activate muscles in arm that pull hand away from flame -we withdraw before pain occurs (precedes)
I offer to give people a thousand dollars. People are told that they will receive the thousand dollars either in 3 months, 2 months, 1 month, or immediately. Between which conditions are we likely to find the largest difference in level of excitement about receiving the money (3 month vs. 2 month/ 2 months vs. 1 month/ 1 month vs. immediately) Between which conditions would we find the second largest difference in level of excitement?
1 month versus immediately 2 months versus 1 month
What are the two behaviors associated with negative reinforcement?
1) Escape behavior 2) Avoidance behavior
What are the three ways to effectively use punishment?
1) Punishment should be immediate rather than delayed 2)Punishment should follow each occurrence of unwanted behavior 3) Punishment should be intense enough from the outset to suppress target behavior
What are the 3 main benefits of punishment?
1)Punishment can lead to an increased social behavior ex. young child can be more affectionate 2)Punishment can sometimes result in mood improvement ex. child may stop crying 3) Punishment can increase attention of the environment ex. child may show increased eye contact and interest in ongoing activities
Four Temporal NS-US Arrangements
1. Delayed Conditioning 2. Trace Conditioning 3. Simultaneous Conditioning 4. Backward Conditioning
operant behavior
A class of emitted responses that result in certain consequences; these consequences, in turn, affect the future probability or strength of those responses. ex: tell a joke -> person frowns (telling joke is an operant)
Discriminative Stimulus for Punishment ( S^D-P)
A stimulus that signals that a response will be punished Police car : Speed -> Receive ticket S^DP R S^P
The ______________________________ assumes that punishment does not weaken a behaviour but instead produces an emotional response that interferes with the occurrence of the behaviour.
Conditioned Suppression Theory of Punishment
Dependent variable
(usually a behavior); aspect of an experiment that is allowed to vary freely to see if it is affected by changes in the independent variable -changes in dependent variable are dependent on independent variable ex: # of errors made on the rat's way to the goal box dependent on # of food pellets received
stimulus generalization
In operant conditioning, the tendency for an operant response to be emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to an SD. In general, the more similar the stimulus, the stronger the response
Fixed-action patterns
Inherited dispositions' effect on learning (facilitates or debilitates)
___________________ punishment is punishment that is an inherent aspect of that behaviour being punished; the activity itself is punishing.
Intrinsic
In _____________ punishment, the punishment is not an inherent aspect of the behaviour being punished, but simply follows the behaviour.
Extrinsic
Break-and-run pattern (2)
FR produces a break-and-run pattern where each pause is followed by a relatively quick return to a high rate of response -higher ratio requirements produce longer post-reinforcement pauses (read longer chapter -> need longer break likewise FR 200> FR 20)
________ _______: tendency to generalize across different stimuli
Generalization gradient
Tolman's Cognitive Behaviorism
(purposive behaviorism) utilizes intervening variables, usually in the form of hypothesized cognitive processes, to help explain behavior
What is the Sidman Avoidance task?
-First the shock is presented at fixed intervals which results in no response. -Once a response is made, the shock is postponed by a fixed amount of time
What is the premack approach to punishment?
-Low probability behavior can be used to punish a high probability behavior Eating food (HPB)---->Running in a wheel (LPB) -if eating food(HPB) is followed by the consequence of being forced to run in a motorized wheel (LPB), the rat will be less likely to eat
What are some problems with the understanding of OCD?
-People with OCD are usually unable to recall any particular conditioning event that could account for the obsessional anxiety response -selective sensitization and genetic predisposition may play a role in OCD -people with OCD have certain irrational beliefs
What does the activity anorexia model suggest as possible treatment? (3)
-eat several meals a day instead of a single, large meal. -people attempting to increase exercise activity should do so slowly (lowers possibility of sharp decrease in eating) -normal diet that is nutritious and well-balanced (those on low protein diets more likely to develop anorexia)
Vicarious emotional conditioning can take place in two ways"
-expressions of fear in others may act as unconditioned stimuli (USs) that elicit the emotion of fear in ourselves (in other words, because we quickly need to learn which events are dangerous, we may have an inherited tendency to react fearfully whemever we see someone else fearful) -may be form of higher-order conditioning, however, is to construe it as a form of higher-order conditioning. In this case, emotional reactions of others serves as conditioned stimuli (CS) rather than USs
What did researchers note from delay of gratification paradigm?
-extent to which children avoided attending to a reward had an enhanced effect on their resistance to temptation -manner in which children THOUGHT about the rewards made a difference (those told to focus on abstract properties of the reward-marshmellows look like clouds-did better than children who focuses on rewards as concrete objects-a yummy snack)
Sex-differences in taste aversion conditioning
-females are better at detecting odors and discriminating among odors (more reactive to odors associated with nausea) also they tend to be more perceptive in smell in early pregnancy > leads to protective taste aversions
Ainslie-Rachlin Model
-focuses on fact that preference between smaller sooner and larger later rewards can shift over time -- -based on assumption that the value of a reward as "hyperbolic" function of its delay. value increases more sharply as delay decreases and attainment of reward becomes immediate. Preference reversal. ex: young child promised a birthday. when party 3 weeks away, it is likely to be worth little to him. if you ask him about getting candy bar versus birthday, he might prefer chocolate bar. but in a few days, he would reject 5 candy bars for the birthday party. Value of party increased sharply as it became more imminent
Immediate versus delayed reinforcement (3)
-in general, the more immediate the reinforcer, the stronger its effects on behavior -in the case of humans, behaviors that appear to be strengthened by long-delayed reinforcers are often under the control of rules from others -it has been suggested that delayed reinforcers do not function in the same way as immediate reinforcers, rather, the effectiveness of delayed reinforcers in humans is largely dependent on the use of rules or instructions to bridge gap between behavior and delay
Exp: Effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation (3)
-indicated extrinsic rewards had little to no effect on intrinsic motivation -external rewards can occasionally undermine intrinsic motivation, but only when the reward is expected (person told they will receive it), reward is tangible (consists of money rather than praise), reward is given for simply performing the activity (and for how well it is performed)
What is extrinsic punishment?
-is when an activity is followed by a separate event that serves to punish the activity
Is a time-out considered negative or positive punishment?
-it is considered negative punishment -in the time out, a child may have a loss of access to positive reinforcers for a brief period of time.
It is important to differentiate between reinforcer/punisher from reinforcement/punishment
-reinforcement/punisher = refers to consequence used to strengthen/weaken behavior -reinforcement/punishment: refers to process or procedure by which a consequence changes strength of a behavior ex: Process of frowning to discourage jokes = punishment frown itself = punisher
Behavioral Definitions (3)
-should be objective and refer to an observable part of behavior (yelling is a better measure of aggression than feelings of anger) -should also be clearly defined: unambiguous: ensures our measurement is consistent over time (yelling= loud vocalizations over 5 sec that can be heard outside) and makes it easier for other researchers to replicate -this is why child rearing is difficult (rules aren't defined or consistent across settings)
Adjunctive behavior and interreinforcement interval
-studies of adjunctive behavior usually emply fixed interval (FI) or fixed time (FT) schedules -on these schedules, the delivery of each reinforcer is followed by a period in time during which another reinforcer is not available -it is during interreinforcement intervals that adjunctive behavior occurs ex: when schedule-induced polydipsia is generated by exposure to an FI schedule of food reinforcement, the rat usually drinks during the post-reinforcement pause that is typical of such schedules
Skinner's view on self-control
-viewed self control-self management as not an issue of willpower but as an issue of conflicting outcomes. -managing this conflict involves two responses: a controlling response that serves to alter the frequency of a controlled response ex: In order to control amount of money you spend, you leave your credit card home. Leaving the card is the controlling response while the amount you spend is the controlled response.
What are Timbergen's four questions or four levels of anaylsis?
1) ultimate cause (evolution within species) - what purpose does this trait serve for survival/reproduction -how is this trait distributed across species? 2) proximate cause (trait within individual) - what biological/environmental events lead to this trait? - how does trait emerge/change in individuals development?
What are the 7 problems with the use of punishment?
1)Punishment of a behavior does not strengthen the occurrence of an appropriate behavior 2)The person delivering punishment could become an SD for punishment 3)Punishment might simply cause avoidance of the person delivering the punishment 4)Punishment is likely to elicit a strong emotional response 5) punishment can lead to aggression 6)use of punishment could teach the person that punishment is an acceptable means of controlling behavior 7)The use of punishment is strongly reinforced for the person delivering the punishment
What are the steps needed to model a human phobia?
1)The reliable establishment of a fear response with only a single, brief pairing of the CS and US 2) Subsequent avoidance of the CS as well as the US 3)The occurrence of successful avoidance on 100% of trials
Disinhibition 3 steps:
1. Metronome (NS): Food (US) > salivation (UR) Metronome (CS) > Salivation (CR) 2. Metronome (CS) > Weak salivation (partial extinction/CR) 3. Unusual humming noise - Metronome (CS) > salivation (CR)
Operant conditioning can be conceptualized into three components:
1. A response that produces a certain consequence (lever and food) 2. The consequence that serves to either increase or decrease the probability of the response that preceded (lever > food pellet > likelihood of again) 3. A discriminative stimulus that precedes the response and signals that a certain consequence is now available (tone that signals that a lever press will now produce food)
A phenomenon known as ____________________ is a decrement in learning ability that results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive events.
Learned Helplessness
Test trial
NS presented by itself
Use of Animals in Behavioral Research (3 pros and 1 con)
Pro: -ability to control their genetic makeup and learning history -can control experimental environment better -some can't be ethincall done in humans con: -limited applicability to humans
What is avoidance theory of punishment?
Punishment involves a type of avoidance conditioning in which avoidance is any behavior other than the behavior being punished -essentially says that punishment replaces the punished behavior with another behavior that is negatively reinforced ex: lever pressing---->shock -anything other than lever pressing is negatively reinforced by the absence of shock
Who proposed the steps to model a human phobia?
Stampfl
Operant Conditioning (def, ex, effect 2)
Strengthening or weaking behavior as a result of its consequences Lever press > food pellet Future effect: likelihood of lever pressing increases -goal directed and voluntary
Actual environment
That portion of a potential environment that is actualized by an organism's behavior
ready the organism; US
The CR not always being the same as the UR suggests that the CR's purpose, rather than merely being a version of the UR, is to _____ for the occurrence of the _____
Attentional processes
Those variables that determine what is attended to during observational learning
stimulus control procedures
___ have been applied to a number of behavior problems, ranging from managing animals in zoos to facilitating the act of studying to treating insomnia
allergies
_____ can be elicited by stimuli associated with the substance that causes them (ex: flowers:pollen --> allergic reaction; flowers --> allergic reaction)
classical conditioning
_____ can be used to strengthen immune system functioning (sweet sherbet:adrenaline --> increased natural killer cell activity; sweet sherbet --> increased natural killer cell activity)
Fixed Action Patterns
a fixed sequence of responses elicited by a specific stimulus ex: V-shaped formation by ducks, web building by spiders
displacement activity
an apparently irrelevant activity sometimes displayed by animals when confronted by conflict or thwarted from attaining a goal -thought adjunctive behavior is a by-product ex: when a bird is unable to reach an insect, it might begin pecking at some twigs. It is unrelated to capturing insect but simply serves as a means of releasing pent up energy
sign tracking
an organism approaches a stimulus that signals the presentation of an appetitive event -seems to be like operant behavior because it appears to be goal directed, yet the procedure that produces it is more closely in line with classical conditioning (overlap) ex: Pavlonian dogs began to lick light that signaled delivery of food. Light becomes so strongly associated with food that it is now a CS that elicits innate food-related behavior patterns
Elicited Behavior (Respondent Behavior) (2)
behavior that is drawn out (elicited) by a preceding stimulus ex: salivating from a lemon, flinching from a firework
In fear conditioning, the expressions of fear in other people may function as (CS/US/both US and CS) that elicit the same emotional response in ourselves
both US and CS
extinction; counterconditioning
both _____ and _____ may be involved in systematic desensitization
Is turning on the heater: escaping the cold (SR-) or obtaining warmth (SR+)
both correct!
Negative contrast effect is when an _______ in rate of reinforcement produces a ______ in rate of response on the other component
increase; decrease
Extinction burst is a temporary _____ in frequency and ______ of responding just after extinction is implemented
increase; intensity
Sensory Preconditioning can be viewed as form of
latent conditioning because it demonstrates that stimuli can become associated with each other in the absence of any identifyable response
_____ to extinction is persistence after extinction procedure
resistance
DRO produces _____ _____ of extinction
side effects
get attention
some people make the assumption that children misbehave/act out in order to ___ when in reality there are many reasons why a child may misbehave and this is only one possibility.
imaginal desensitization
systematic desensitization with imaginary stimuli
Backward conditioning (presenting NS after US (shock then tone) is most effective when
the NS is an innate fear such as a snake -related to predisposition preparedness
overexpectation effect
the decrease in the conditioned response that occurs when two separately conditioned CSs are combined into a compound stimulus for further pairings with the US
Trace Conditioning
the onset and offset of the NS precede the onset of the US (NS occurs before US and two stimuli don't overlap) -time bt. offset of NS and onset of US > trace interval is short
Backward Conditioning
the onset of the NS follows the onset of the US -US presented first and NS later (rat gets shocked then hears a tone) -least effective for excitatory responses
phobia
the process of fear conditioning occasionally becomes exaggerated and becomes an extreme, irrational fear known as a ______
fading
the process of gradually altering the intensity of a stimulus
preparatory-response theory
the purpose of the CR is to prepare the organism for the presentation of the US (ex: dog salivates to tone in preparation for the food)
Coolidge Effect
the sexually arousing power of a new partner (greater than the appeal of a familiar partner) -related to habituation
Extinction
the weakening of a behavior through the nonreinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior ex: A child who whined for candy will eventual cease whining when a behaving that way no longer results in candy -much gentler than punishment but slower too
Why would an animal not shift behavior toward higher reward alternative?
this may result in a substantial reduction in the *total* amount of reinforcement obtained
Timbergen's four questions are related to the ____________ and ______________ cause of a trait
ultimate proximate
Food patches seperated by short distances will produce
undermatching
Best predictor of successful marriages is
when positive outweigh negatives 5:1
directed forgetting
when you have been told something to forget and tells you to forget what you have just been told Results in indeed poorer memory of that detail e.g math teacher - the forget cue /forget trial is labelled as X
30-45
with flooding, the amount of exposure must be sufficient for it to be effective (______ mins)
impulsiveness
with respect to choice between two rewards, selecting a smaller sooner reward over a larger later reward -opposite of self-control
compensatory agitation
withdrawal symptom perceived as cravings
interobserver reliability
# of intervals during which the observers agree divided by total intervals 80% is minimum and 90% is preferred
Does the consequence consist of something being presented or withdrawn? Does the consequence strengthen or weaken behavior?
(+/-) (R/P)
Skinner's Learning Perspective (countercontrol)
Environment > observable behavior >internal thoughts -but they all influence each other although environment causes both
_________ Discrimination Training: ______ memory
Errorless; rote (habitual)
Give an example of notation for escape and avoidance behavior
Escape Shock (SD): Cross barrier(R)-----> Removal of shock (SR-) Avoidance Light (SD): Cross barrier (R)------> Avoidance of shock (SR-)
Negative reinforcement includes (2)
Escape behavior Avoidance behavior
What is escape behavior?
Escape behavior is where performance of the behavior terminates the aversive stimulus. ex. we run indoors after it has started to rain
_________ Behaviour is when performance of the behaviour terminates the aversive stimulus.
Escape behaviour
_____________ and ___________ conditioning involves the strengthening of a behaviour through the removal of an aversive stimulus.
Escape; Avoidance
According to this theory, two processes are involved in learning an avoidance response - classical conditioning of a fear response, and then an operant conditioning procedure.
Two-Process Theory of Avoidance
verbally transmitted information
US revaluation can also occur through _____ (someone telling you that you are lucky to be alive after an incident could inflate your response to the CS/situation)
observational learning; pure observational learning
US revaluation can also occur through ______ (a minor event and anxiety inflates to strong anxiety after witnessing a major event); differs from ______ to the extent that the earlier minor event sets the stage for the later reaction to the major event
A primary punisher is a(n) __________________ punisher.
Unconditioned
Skinner's depriving and satiating controlling response
Utilize the motivating operations of deprivation and satiation to alter the extent to which a certain event can act as a reinforcer ex:If you are trying to diet, you go shopping after eating because you are satiated instead of hungry so you are less tempted to do get off diet
VR Schedules generally produce a __________ rate of response often with ___ ex:?
VR Schedules generally produce a *high and steady rate of response*, often with *little to not post-reinforcement pause* ex: baseball, gambling
Little Albert
Watson & Rayner; attempt to condition a fear response in an 11-month-old; white rat (NS) + loud noise (US) --> fear (UR); fear at objects similar to rat shown in later sessions
Taste aversion in latent inhibition
We are lore likely to associate a relatively novel item, such as unusual liquor, with sickness than we would a more familiar item such as beet
Social cognitive theory
What Bandura called his theory to differentiate it from Miller and Dollard's work.
Perceived self-efficacy
What a person believes he or she is capable of doing; often contrasts with real self-efficacy
Real self-efficacy
What a person is actually capable of accomplishing; may or may not correspond to perceived self-efficacy
Within a chain, completion of each of the early links ends in a(n) ___ reinforcer, which also functions as the ___ for the next link of the chain.
Within a chain, completion of each of the early links ends in a secondary reinforcer, which also functions as the S^D for the next link of the chain.
One of the first artifical languages created was called
Yerkish
schedule-induced polydipsia
Excessive drinking that is observed if animals are given food reinforcers at regular intervals.
Disinhibition Speech
Your anxiety while giving a speech in class gradually fades, it may suddenly recover when a noisy ceiling fan starts up or when someone walks in late.
This is a method of treating OCD that involves prolonged exposure to the anxiety-arousing event while not engaging in the compulsive behaviour patter that reduces anxiety.
Exposure and Response Prevention
_________________ combines the graduated exposure of systematic desensitization with the prolonged exposure of flooding therapy.
Exposure and Response Prevention
What is ERP?
Exposure and Response prevention -A method of treating OCD that involves prolonged exposure to the anxiety-arousing event while not engaging in the compulsion ex. expose someone who is OCD about germs to do things without washing hands
distinctive signal for extinction
Extinction is greatly facilitated when there is a distinctive stimulus that signals the onset of extinction.
Pattern of responding for FI schedules (3)
FI schedules often produce a "scalloped" upwardly-curved pattern of responding, consisting of a post-reinforcement pause followed by a gradually increasing rat of responses as the interval draws to a close ex: for FI-30, at first, rat won't try to press lever but gradually increase lever presses midway through interval until it reaches a high rate of response NOT ALWAYS THE CASE: If we knew to wait to call when business opens in 30 minutes: we would wail til our clock said 30 minutes passed and time would be the discriminate stimulus S^D for the reinforcer available but you might look at phone more towards end of interval in a scalloped way
Comparing the four basic schedules: Response rate: Post Reinforcement pause:
FR VR FI VI RR: HIGH HIGH INCREASING MODERATE PRP: YES NO YES NO
How does FR schedule affect responding?
FR schedule generally produce a high rate of response along with a short pause following the attainement of each reinforder (known as post-reinforcement pause) ex: taking a short break after reading a chapter
Easy way to remember Premack's Principle
First you work (a low probability behavior) then you play (a high probability behavior) -is a handy principle to keep in mind when confronted by a situation in which normal reinforcers seem to have little effect
in vivo
_____ flooding is advantageous because it doesn't require the treatment effect to generalize from an imagined encounter to a real encounter, nor is it dependent on visualization ability
rapid smoking
______, in which the client smokes continuously, results in nicotine-induced nausea and has been used to combat smoking habits (a type of aversion therapy that is very stressful and must be employed cautiously)
A special type of secondary punisher is a _____________ punisher, an event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with many other punishers.
Generalized
features of adjunctive behavior (4)
1. Adjunctive behavior typically occurs in the period immediately following consumption of an intermittent reinforcer. (In polydipsia, rat will quickly eat each food pellet as soon as it is delivered and then immediately move over to the drinking tube for a quick bout of drinking) 2. Adjunctive behavior is affected by the level of deprivation for the scheduled reinforcer. The greater the level of deprivation for the reinforcer, the stronger the adjunctive behavior that emerges as a by-product. (greater food deprivation not only produces a higher rate of lever pressing for food pellets, but also produces higher rate of drinking between food pellets) 3. Adjunctive behaviors can function as reinforcers for other behavior. Premack Principle- HPB can reinforce LHB > rat will not only press lever for food but during interval bt food pellets, will also press lever to drink water 4. There is an optimal interval between reinforcers for the development of adjunctive behavior. (rats may engage in little drinking in first 30 seconds of interreinforcement interval but will drink more toward 120 seconds) Optimal range tends to be 1 to 3 minutes
Three ways an animal might not shift behavior toward higher reward alternative:
1. An alternative way may not require as much responding as one is distributing toward it to obtain all of the available reinforcers (ex: spending too much time studying fun course when they should be studying for harder course more) 2. A second problem with melioration is that overindulgence in a highly reinforcing alternative can often result in long-term habituation to that alternative, thus reducing its value as a reinforcer 3. Melioration is often the result of behavior being too strongly governed by immediate consequences as opposed to delayed consequences
Bandura's evidence on social learning of aggression: (2)
1. Children who observed a model behaving aggressively toward the Bobo doll and other targets tended to precise replications the same behaviors when they were allowed into the same room that the model had previously occupied 2. Although simply witnessing the aggressive adult often resulted in aggressive behavior, the effect was even stronger if the child had observed reinforcement of the adult's aggression. (Those who saw the aggression was punished had a less likely tendency to do so-until again, they were given a reward for the actions-then it was reinforced again)
The importance of high activity levels in the development of anorexia nervosa is supported by several lines of evidence: (2)
1. Even in humans without anorexia, a sudden increase in activity is often followed by a decrease in food intake, a sudden decrease in food intake is often followed by an increase in activity 2. Individuals who engage in high levels of activity appear to be a high risk for anorexia (Ballet dancers more likely to develop than models-who just have to stay thin not thin AND active)
Mechanisms which make it possible for people to depart from moral codes without experiencing self-contempt
1. Moral justification 2. Euphemistic Labeling 3. Advantageous comparison 4. Displacement of responsibility 5. Diffusion of responsibility 6. Disregard or distortion of consequences 7. Dehumanization 8. Attribution of blame
Drawbacks of rule-governed behavior:(3)
1. Rule-governed behavior is often less efficient than behavior that has been directly shaped by natural contingencies (no matter how much you read about golf, you need practice to be good at it) 2. Such behavior is sometimes surprisingly insensitive to the actual contingencies of reinforcement operating in a particular setting (you just do it without realizing there may be a pattern of reinforcement) 3.Inflexible with the instructions given in past and may have difficulty letting go of these notions
Important characteristics of a- and b- process (4)
1. The A-process correlates closely w/ the presence of the emotional event 2. The B-process is slow to increase and slow to decrease 3. With repeated presentations of the emotional event, the b-process increases in both strength and duration -while a-process becomes less extreme 4. The a-process and the b-process tend to be hedonically, opposite of each other (if pleasurable, b is in opposite direction)
Falk proposed that displacement activities serve two purposes:
1. They provide for a more diversified range of behaviors in a particular setting (beneficial) An employee growing restless about an important phone call might do busy work until the call, which is more beneficial than staring at the phone. 2. Helps the animal remain in a situation where a significant reinforcer might eventually become available. Munching on gum allows a student to be busy and reinforced while studying.
Reinforcement and modeling work to reinforce our behavior in three ways:
1. We are more likely (or less likely) to perform a modeled behavior when we have observed the modeled behavior being reinforced (or punished)-vicarious reinforcement/vicarious punishment 2. We are more (or less) likely to perform a modeled behavior when we ourselves will experience reinforcement (or punishment) for performing that behavior 3. Our own history of reinforcement or punishment for performing modeled behavior
In order to acquire an operant response, you must attend the model: What makes us attend the model? (4)
1. We are sensitive to the consequences of the model's behavior. If a model's behavior is reinforced, an observer is more likely to attend to behavior. Tom's wife is happy when he brings home flowers, so now John wants to give flowers to his wife. 2. Does the observer receive reinforcement for the behavior of attending to a model? When a teacher says, "see how I'm doing it, GOOD!" Reinforcing observer attention can greatly increase amount of knowledge than an observer can acquire from a model. 3. Does the observer have sufficient skills to benefit from the modeling? Teaching souffle to someone who has never even made an egg can discourage them from doing behavior.. 4. The personal characteristics of a model can strongly influence the extent to which we will attend to their behavior. We are more likely to attend to models who resemble us.
Imagine: pigeon obtains 119 reinforcers on the VI-30 SEC schedule and 58 reinforcers on the VI 60 sec schedule
119/(119+58) = 0.67 Meaning 67% of reinforcers acquired during the session are obtained from VI 60 SEC schedule
stimulus control
a behavior is said to be under ___ when it is highly likely to occur in the presence of a certain stimulus
flooding therapy
A behavioral treatment for phobias that involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus, thereby providing maximal opportunity for the conditioned fear response to be extinguished.
A child who is often hugged during the coarse of the day, regardless of what he is doing, is in humanistic terms receiving unconditional positive regard. In behavioral terms, he is receiving a form of ___ social reinforcement. As a result, this child may be (more/less) likely to act out in order to receive attention
A child who is often hugged during the coarse of the day, regardless of what he is doing, is in humanistic terms receiving unconditional positive regard. In behavioral terms, he is receiving a form of noncontingent social reinforcement. As a result, this child may be less likely to act out in order to receive attention
multiple schedule
A complex schedule consisting of two or more independent schedules presented in sequence, each resulting in reinforcement and each having a distinctive SD.
Inhibition
A decrease in brain activity; a stimulus that causes inhibition is called a negative stimulus; for Bandura, the reduced probability of performing a previously learned response that results from either direct or vicarious punishment of that response
naturalistic observation (2)
A descriptive research method in which researchers study behavior in its natural context ex: Jane goodall and chimps -great for ethology (inherited behavioral patterns) bc can see how animal copes in natural environment but has lots of variables so functional relationships are nearly impossible
Copying behavior
A kind of imitative behavior studied by Miller and Dollard in which a sophisticated individual guides the behavior of a naïve individual until an appropriate response is made
Matched-dependent behavior
A kind of imitative behavior studied by Miller and Dollard in which the behavior of one person acts as a cue for another person to behave in a similar way.
Same behavior
A kind of imitative behavior studied by Miller and Dollard in which two or more individuals respond the same way to the same stimulus
Diagram of blocking (light, food, metronome, salivation)
A light is first conditioned as a CS for salivation. When the light is then combined with a metronome to form a compound stimulus, and this compound stimulus is paired with food, the metronome does not become a conditioned stimulus. The presence of the already established CS blocks conditioning to the metronome.
What is the significance of Herrnstein and Hineline's experiment?
Herrnstein and Hineline controlled for the CS as the passage of time by lowering the probability of shock from 30-10% They concluded that the one factor theory is sufficient
S-S
If it follows the _____ model, then US revaluation should have an impact (the intensity of the CS is dependent on the animal's most recent experience with the US)
Discrimination Training ex
If we repeatedly present the dog with one type of trial in a 2000 Hz tone is always followed by food and use a 1900 Hz tone never followed by food, the dog will soon learn to salivate in the presence of the 2000 Hz tone but not in the presence of the 1900 Hz tone. -the 2000 Hz tone has become an excitatory CS (CS+) because it predicts the presentation of food and the 1900 Hz tone has become an inhibitory CS (CS-) because it predicts the absence of food -done in random order not counterbalanced bc dog can detect that
Real-life blocking example
Imagine that you had to make an unpopular announcement to your employees. The phenomenon of blocking suggests that you would do well to make it a joint announcement with another manager who is already disliked by employees (aversive CS). The employees might then attribute most or all of the bad news to the unpopular manager.
.Generalized imitation
Imitative behavior which occurs without the person receiving training and reinforcement to imitate the specific behavior modeled -used for developmentally delayed children to be proficient in their ability to learn through observation. By deliberatly reinforcing imitation of some behaviors, therapists can produce a generalized tendency to imitate in these children.
Disinhibition
In classical conditioning, the disruptive effect caused by presenting a novel stimulus along with an established conditioned inhibitor. In observational learning, the removal or reduction of an inhibition to perform a certain response that results from either performing the response without experiencing negative consequences or from seeing a model perform the response without experiencing negative consequences
In the same way that habituation prevents ____, latent inhibition prevents ___
In the same way that habituation prevents the occurrence of unlearned reflexive responses to redundant stimuli, latent inhibition prevents the development of conditioned responses to redundant stimuli that are coincidentally paired with a US
In general, obsessions are associated with a(n) ___________ in anxiety, whereas compulsions are associated with a(n) ____________ in anxiety.
Increase; Decrease
Why does repeated exposure to certain stimulus sometimes result in habituation and sometimes in sensitization? (4)
Intensity of stimulus, -low-intensity stimuli typically results in habituation (ticking); -high intensity stimulus typically results in sensitization (artillery shells); -Stimulus of intermediate intensity often results in initial period of sensitization followed by habituation (shock from shots> don't hear them)
Eysenck's theory of personality (3)
Introverts are individuals who are highly reactive to external stimulation (hence, cannot tolerate large amounts of stimulation and tend to withdraw from such stimulation), condition easily and dvelop anxiety-type reactions to stress. Extroverts are less reactive to external situations (hence, can tolerate, and will even seek out, large amounts of stimulation), condition less easily, and develop physical-like symptoms in reaction to stress). Anti social psychopaths are extremer extroverts that condition poorly. This is why they have little conditioned anxiety when taking advantage of others
Phobias
Involve not only the classical conditioning of fear response but also an overgeneralization of that fear response to inappropriate stimuli ex: abused woman may get fearful around all men , however through repeated interactions with men, this tendency will decrease and she will begin to adaptively discriminate between men who are potentially abusive and those who are not
What is intrinsic punishment?
It is when you do an activity that is punishing in itself. ex. watching an upsetting tv show breaking up with a girlfriend
S-R
It it follows the _____ model, then US revaluation shouldn't matter
What does the shuttle avoidance procedure show us?
It shows that we first learn escape, and then we learn avoidance
It will be impossible for a rat to reach ____________ for these two activities so ______________
It will be impossible for rat to reach behavioral bliss point for these two activities so they might draw as near as possible to its behavioral bliss point
How does autoshaping fit into Pavlov's stimulus substitution theory
Its association with food, the key light appears to be a substitute for food, with the bird attempting to consume it. -attempted to eat key associated with food and drink key associated with water
Fear in oneself and jellyfish vicarious emotional conditioning diagram
Jellyfish (NS): Look of fear in others (US) > Fear in oneself (UR) Jellyfish (CS) > Fear in oneself (CR)
At an early point in time, when both rewards are still distant the _____ is clearly preferred. As time passes, however, and the _______ becomes imminent, its value increases sharply and comes to outweigh the value of the ___.
LLR-Later larger reward SSR-Smaller sooner reward LLR-Later larger reward
Stimulus Response (S-R) Theory
Learning is a connection formed between a specific stimulus and a specific response
higher-order conditioning in vicarious emotional conditioning example (look of fear in others)
Look of fear in others (N) : Frightening events (US) > Fear in oneself (UR) Look of fear in others (CS) > Fear in oneself (CR)
Dehumanize
Make the victim of one's immoral actions appear to be less human in an attempt to escape self-contempt
The ____ intense NSs result in ___ and ___ than ____
More intense NSs result in stronger and more rapid conditioning than do less intense NSs. ex: Loud metronome that has been paired with food produces a stronger response of salivation than a faint metronome that has been paired with food -conditioned fear responses to dogs are more readily acquired if the person is bit by a large dog than by a small dog
_______ Schedules are two or more independent schedules presented in sequence and each resulting in reinforcement having distinctive SD
Multiple
Nativist vs Empirist
Native (Nature) Perseptive vs. Emiricist (nurture)
_________ punishment consists of the removal of a retain event following a response, which then leads to a decrease in the future strength of that response.
Negative
What type of punishment is most preferrable?
Negative punishment is preferable to positive punishment because it is less likely to produce many harmful side effects of punishment
_____________ punishment is generally preferable to __________ punishment.
Negative; Positive
Mirror neurons
Neurons in the motor cortex of primates and humans that are active both when a significant behavior is observed and when it is executed
Superstitious behavior (4)
Noncontingent reinforcement may be responsible for some superstitious behavior when behavior increases in strength --behaviors may accidentally develop because they have been mistakenly reinforced by a reinforcer -superstitious behaviors can sometimes develop as a by-product of contingent reinforcement for some other behavior -superstitious behavior can be seen as an attempt to make an unpredictable situation (VT) more predictable
Contagious-orienting responses
Not only do we orient ourselves toward stimuli we have just sensed but we also orient ourselves in the direction that others have oriented ex: your dog looks toward the wall and tilts head, you will too. (can be cross species)
Whats an easy way to remember three-term contingencies?
Notice something, do something, get something"
The role of avoidance in ______ is virtually the same as in phobic behaviour.
OCD
What are the differences between OCD and Phobia with regards to avoidance?
OCD involves an active avoidance response. ex. washing hands every 5 seconds Phobic behavior involves a passive avoidance response
How do FI and DRL schedules relate?
On FI schedule, responses that occur during the interval have no effect, but on DRL they have an *adverse* effect because they prevent reinforcement from coming
Moral justification
On attempt to escape from self-contempt by attributing one's immoral behavior to a higher cause
Diffusion of responsibility
On attempt to escape self-contempt by saying that the decision to engage in an immoral act has been made by a group
One suggestion for enhancing our behavior in the early part of a long response chain is to make the completion of each link more _____ thereby enhancing its value as a __________ reinforcer
One suggestion for enhancing our behavior in the early part of a long response chain is to make the completion of each link more salient thereby enhancing its value as a secondary reinforcer
According to this theory, the act of avoidance is negatively reinforced simply by the lower rate of aversive stimulation with which is is associated.
One-Process Theory
Differential Reinforcement of ______ Behavior is reinforcement of any behavior ____ than the _____ behavior that is being extinguished
Other; other; target
Conditioned food preferences with kids
Overtime, you can make foods more appetitive. Over time, you may add less cream and sugar to coffee and only drink it black. Same thing with kids and vegetables, you may add sugar and eventuallly take it out over time.
What is avoidance behavior?
Performance of the behavior prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring ex. we head indoors before it starts to rain
one; John B. Watson; Rosalie Rayner
Phobias and overgeneralization usually require only _____ pairing(s) and get worse over time; this was first noted by _____ and his student ______ in 1920 (Little Albert experiment)
Skinner's types of controlling responses (4)
Physical restraint Depriving and Satiating Doing something else Self-reinforcement and Self-punishment
Biological prepareness seems to play a role in some forms of operant conditioning (ex and why)
Pigeons will quickly learn to fly from one perch to another in order to avoid shcok, but will not learn to peck a response key to avoid shock. These pigeons, like most other animals, seem predisposed by evolution to learn certain types of avoidance responses more easily than others.
Elicited behavior is a function of what (precedes/follows) it ; operant behavior is a function of what (precedes/follows) it
Precedes Follows
The ____________________ of punishment holds that a low-probability behaviour can be used to punish a high-probability behaviour.
Premack Principle
Blocking in food aversion
Presence of a food item that has already has aversive associations can block the development of associations to other food items ex if you already acquired a taste aversion to peas, but force yourself to eat them anyway, then you get sick bc of spoiled fish served at the same meal, you will probably NOT develop an aversion to the fish. The presence of the peas ( already a CS for nausea) will likely block any conditioning occurring for fish
A _______________ punisher is an event that is innately punishing, we were born to dislike such events.
Primary
Pros (3) and Cons (3) of reversal design
Pro: -single subject -easy to understand results -modify based on effectiveness Con: -if behavior doesn't revert what do we do -inapproriate for treatment intended to produce long lasting effectts -may not be appropriate to remove a treatment
Classical Conditioning (Pavlow) (ex)
Process by which inborn behaviors come to be elicited in new circumstances Bell: Food > Salivation Bell > Salivation
Process of shaping requires what kind of schedule?
Process of shaping involves adjusting schedule in so far as the criterion for reinforcement is raised depending on animal's performance
flooding
Prolonged and intensive in vivo or imaginal exposure to highly anxiety-evoking stimuli without the opportunity to avoid or escape from them.
Exp: Operant conditioning chamber/ "Skinner Box"
Rat able to earn food pellets by pressing a lever (bird response key with pecking) -"free operant" procedure bc rat can freely respond with behavior and may do so at any rate ->yield regular behavior patterns
What happens if a noncontingent schedule of reinforcement is superimposed on a regular, contingent schedule of reinforcement?
Rate of response on noncontingent schedule will decrease ex: people on welfare might be less inclined to look for work or athlete with 6 month versus 2 month contract
Taste Aversion conditioning experiment
Rats first given a preferred food (saccharin-flavored water) -animal made to feel sick (either by drug or X-ray exposure) -after recovery , given choice of saccharin water or normal water -indicates that sweet water has become an aversive conditioned stimulus through association with illness Sweet water: X-ray exposure > Nausea NS US UR Sweet water > Nausea CS CR
Intrinsic reinforcement
Reinforcement provided by the mere act of performing the behavior; the performance of the behavior is inherently reinforcing. ex: ice skating bc its fun, partying bc you like your friends
How does concurrent schedules play out for VI schedules?
Reinforcers become available at unpredictable periods of time ->matching law
Natural reinforcers
Reinforcers that are naturally provided for a certain behavior; that is, they are a typical consequence of the behavior within that setting. ex: money for work; gold medal for hard training
differential reinforcement
Reinforcing only those responses within a response class that meet a specific criterion along some dimension(s) and placing all other responses in the class on extinction. -telling a crazy joke might be ok with friends but bad idea around parents
Negative Reinforcement
Removal of stimulus (usually unpleasant) following a response, which leads to an increase in the future of that response Take Aspirin > Alleviate headache R S^R
Pattern of responding for chained schedules
Responding tends to be somewhat weaker in the earlier in the earlier links of the chain than in the later links. Could be because: -terminal reinforcer is more immediate when in early links, terminal reinforcer is distant and less influential (feels less directly associated with reinforcer)
___________________ negative punishment is the removal of a specific reinforcer following the occurrence of a problem behaviour.
Response Cost
Orienting Response
Response in which we automatically position ourselves to facilitate attending to a stimulus (like moving to attend a loud noise)
The person delivering the punishment could become an _____________ for punishment, with the result that the unwanted behaviour is suppresssed only when that person is present.
SD
Whether a tone is S^D or CS depends on response we're referring to
S^D with respect to lever pressing CS with respect to salivation
Traumatic symptoms are more easily induced in animals when the aversive stimulus is delivered in an environment that the animal has long associated with ______________.
Safety
The 3 Categories of imitative behavior, according to Miller and Dollard
Same behavior, copying behavior, and matched-dependent behavior
A ______________ punisher is an event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with some other punisher.
Secondary
Human behaviour is often under the control of ________________ punishers.
Secondary
Self-control and punishement
Self-control can involve choice between a smaller sooner punisher and larger later punisher-only in this instance is the selection of the smaller, sooner alternative most beneficial ex: at the dentist deciding about small discomfort now by a cleaning or risk a large infection in tooth
What does training in circus animals involve?
Shaping and chaining
Short term and long term habituation
Short term habituation: response quickly decreases, quickly recovers Long term habituation: response gradually decreases, gradually recovers
How does operant conditioning relate to Thordike's law of effect
Similar to Thorndike's law of effect but more objective/less mentalistic and emphasized the effect of the consequence on the future probability of the behavior rather than subjective vie of animal -similar to darwin's theory of natural selection
Skinner's Self-reinforcement and Self-punishment controlling response
Simply reinforce your own behavior -weak bc people reward self anyways simply punish yourself with 20 push ups for every cigarrete -you may punish act of punishing instead of actual behavior you want to change
Punishment can sometimes lead to an increase in social behaviour.
Social
According to this theory, many avoidance behaviours are actually elicited behaviours rather than operant behaviours.
Species-specific Defense Reaction Theory
What does the two process theory of avoidance state?
States that two processes are learned in an avoidance response: 1) A classical conditioning process 2) an operant conditioning process
specificity of associations
Strong, inherited tendency to associate a gastrointestinal illness with food or drink rather than any other item (TV, injection etc) -sometimes referred to as CS-US relevance
William Wundt's approach (2)
Structuralism: Assumes that it is possible to determine the structure of the mind by identifying basic elements that compose it -used introspection in which subject in an experiment attempts to accurately describe his or her conscious thoughts, emotions and sensations
high order conditioning vs sensory preconditioning
TIMING sensory preconditioning: the conditioning has already been established
The formation of associations over long delays
Taste aversions can develop when food items are consumed several hours before the sickness develops. -unlike most NS and US which must occur in close temporal proximinity ( no more than a few seconds)
What is the second process of the two process theory?
The CS (light) generates a fear response, and getting away from the CS should reduce the fear Light (SD): Climb over barrier (R)----> Decrease in fear (SR-)
What is the one factor theory?
The act of avoidance is negatively reinforced simply by the lower rate of aversive stimulation
Reciprocal Determinism
The assumption that environmental events, observable behavior, and "person variables" (including internal thoughts and feelings) reciprocally influence each other. -inspired CBT
three-term contingency
The discriminative stimulus, the operant behavior, and the reinforcer/punisher -antecedent, behavior, consequence (ABC) Tone : Lever Press -> Food Pellet S^D R -> S^R A B C
How do you explain the motivation behind escape behaviors?
The dog moves from an aversive situation (Shock) to a non aversive situation (no shock)
Potential environment
The environmental events available to an organism if it acts in ways that actualize them
Direct experience
The events that one experiences as a result of one's own personal interactions with the environment
Law of Effect
The extent to which the consequences of a behavior are satisfying or annoying determine whether the behavior will be repeated -satisfying = strengthened -annoying = weakened
Rate of response (3)
The frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time -best w well defined duration/amounts (number of cigarettes a day) -write time aspect: number of lever presses become number of lever presses per hour
Melioration is often the result of behavior being too strongly governed by immediate consequences as opposed to delayed consequences
The immediate reinforcement available from studying more enjoyable courses tempts one away from working on less enjoyable courses and maximizing's ones overall grade point average at the end of the term (a delayed reinforcer)
Vicarious experience
The impact on one's own learning or behavior that comes from observing the consequences of another person's behavior
Facilitation
The increased probability of making a previously learned response that results from observing another person making the response
Acquisition
The initial stage in classical conditioning; the process of developing and strengthening a conditioned response through repeated pairings of a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US). -occurs rapidly during early conditioning then gradually levels off
Creativity
The innovation that results from either synthesizing the influences of several models or from observing a single model demonstrate unconventional problem-solving strategies
Moral Codes
The internalized criteria that come from direct or vicarious experience used to monitor and evaluate one's own ethical behavior. If one's behavior violates an internalized moral code, one experiences self-contempt
Performance standards
The internalized criteria that come from either direct or vicarious experiences used to monitor, evaluate, and reinforce or punish one's own behavior
Generalized imitation
The learned tendency to imitate the behavior of others in order to be reinforced
Imitative behavior
The learned tendency to mimic the behavior of a model whose behavior has been seen being reinforced. Accordion to Bandura, imitative behavior is only one of many possible results of observational learning
The ____ intense USs produce ___ and ____ conditioning than ____
The more intense US produce stronger and more rapid conditioning than do less intense USs. ex: We obtain stronger conditioning of a salivary response when the US consists of a large amount of food or a highly preferred food than if it consists of a small amount or less preferred food.
Direct modeling
The observation of a live model
Single modeling
The observation of a single model
Symbolic modeling
The observation of something other than a live model, such as a film or television
Multiple modeling
The observation of two or more models
Desensitization therapy
The procedure whereby clients are asked to imagine an anxiety-provoking thought until they are able to ponder the thought without experiencing anxiety
Observational learning
The process whereby information is acquired by attending to events in the environment
What were the results of Stampfl's experiment?
The rats learned quickly to run to the safe area as soon as the conveyor belt started up again.
What is the response cost?
The removal of a specific reinforcer following the occurrence of a problem behavior -receiving a fine for speeding. -taking a child's toys away for misbehaving
What is negative punishment?
The removal of an appetitive event following a response. ex. loss of employment for being obnoxious
Self-contempt
The self-imposed punishment that is administered when an individual's internalized moral code is violated
Under what theory does the Sidman Avoidance fit?
The sidman avoidance task fits under the one factor theory because there is no CS to elicit fear
Modeling-participation
The situation in which a live model guides the behavior of an observer until an appropriate response is made. This is much like the copying behavior studied by Miller and Dollard.
Abstract modeling
The situation in which observers are presented with a variety of modeling experiences for which they extract a common rule or principle. Once extracted, the rule or principle can be applied to new situations
Interreinforcement interval
The time scheduled between reinforcements -adjunctive behavior tends to occur during this period of time where there is a low or zero probability of reinforcement
Performance
The translation of what has been learned into behavior
The two process theory of avoidance is also known as.... Who is it by?
The two factor theory of avoidance by Mowrer
What is punishment?
The weakening of behavior through the application of an aversive stimulus or the removal of an appetitive stimulus.
What is the response to problem 2 of the two factor theory?
There is still some fear, although there is less fear. As long as SOME fear remains, the avoidance response continues.
What is the avoidance paradox?
This paradox asks "How can a non-occurrence of an event serve as a reinforcer for an avoidance response?"
Behavioral production processes
Those variables that determine which aspects of what has been learned and retained cognitively can be produced behaviorally
Motivational processes
Those variables that provide incentives for translating what has been learned and stored cognitively into behavior
Ways to aid those with cancer and taste aversions (2)
Those with cancer associate foods to chemo-nausea and are already at risk to lose weight: Ways to help: 1. serve meals that consist of highly familiar food (latent inhibition) 2. serve highly novel food before chemo > this will prevent the development of taste aversion to essential food items (taste aversion associated with root beer candy rather than meal)
What did Otto Koechler contribute to animal intelligence?
Through Matching to Sample Task 1) some birds could match numbers up to six or 7 (differentiate quantity or quantity from size) 2) bucket and false bottom, guess amount - humans under one year of age will keep searching if they knew 2 items were placed in; beyond 3 dont keep track 3) lemurs can see in proportion. like 50 percent more 4) Large numbers - only humans can understand
_____________ negative punishment involves the loss of access to positive reinforcers for a brief period of time following the occurrence of a problem behaviour.
Timeout
What are the two types of negative punishment?
Timeout; Response Cost
behavioral contrast
a change in the rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produces an opposite change in the rate of response on another component
Extinction
a conditioned response is weakened or elimated when the controlled stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented in the absence of the US -Decrease in the strength of the CR
Startle Response
a defensive reaction to a sudden, unexpected stimulus, which involves automatic tightening of skeletal muscles and various hormonal and visceral changes
errorless discrimination training
a discrimination training procedure that minimizes the number of errors (nonreinforced responses to the SΔ) and reduces many of the adverse effects associated with discrimination training
taste aversion conditioning
a form of classical conditioning in which a food item that has been paired with gastrointestinal illness becomes a conditioned aversive stimulus -another example of the role of preparedness
Temporal Conditioning
a form of classical conditioning in which the CS is the passage of time -dog given food every 10 minutes, begins to salivate at end of 10 minutes
true imitation
a form of observational learning that involves the close duplication of a novel behavior (or sequence of behaviors) ex: Chelsea is in club line. A woman cuts and flirts with bouncer to get in. If chelsea goes in and flirts HER way, it is not a TRUE imitation. If she uses the exact same approach as the other woman, she will be performing a true imitation
US
a high associative value is a strong predictor of the _____
generalization gradient
a measure of the strength of responding in the presence of stimuli that are similar to the SD and vary along a continuum
Cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
Differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL)
a minimum amount of time must pass between each response before the reinforcer will be delivered-reinforcer is provided for responding at a slow rate ex: brushing teeth
contagious behavior
a more-or-less instinctive or reflexive behavior triggered by the occurrence of the same behavior in another individual ex: you are studying when someone decides to yawn, one by one, each one of your classmates yawn
Occasion setting (def, ex, diagram)
A procedure in which a stimulus (known as an occasion setter) signals that a CS is likely to be followed by the US with which it is associated. ex: An abused child receives his worst beatings from his parents whenever they are drinking alcohol, thus, although the child typically feels a mild amount of anxiety around his parents, the sight or smell of alcohol in the presence of his parents greatly increases his anxiety -girls more fearful of walking at night than during day
reinforcement
a multiple schedule differs from a chained schedule in that a ___ is provided after each component schedule is completed
US Revaluation
A process that involves the postconditioning presentation of the US at a different level of intensity, thereby altering the strength of response to the previously conditioned CS. It is called revaluation because the value/magnititude of the US changes. -an inflation: US increases in strength -a deflation: US decreases in strength
Reflex Arc
A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron, interneuron, and a a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement.
reversal design (ABAB design)
A single subject, applied behavior analysis design which generally involves observing behavior during baseline, treatment, a return to baseline, and treatment reapplied.
Discriminative stimulus (S^D)
A stimulus in the presence of which responses are reinforced and in the absence of which they are not reinforced; that is, a stimulus that signals that a response will be followed by a reinforcer -it does not automatically elicit behavior/response but rather, increases probability it will occur - "organism emits behavior in presence of S^D"
Applied Behavioral Analysis
A technology of behavior in which basic principles of behavior are applied to real-world issues.
What is a generalized punisher?
A type of secondary punisher that has become punishing because in the past it has been associated with many other punishers
classical conditioning; resilient; observational learning; temperament; preparedness; incubation; US revaluation; selective sensitization
Additional Factors in Phobic Conditioning: -Not all phobias are acquired through a direct process of ______ -Most people are surprisingly _____ to extremely frightening events -Additional variables that may be involved in the development of a phobia: ______, _______, ______, ______, ______, and ______
What is problem 2 of the 2 process theory?
After repeated avoidance trials, the animal shows no evidence of fear, but make the response anyways. With no fear how could avoiding the CS (light) have been negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear.
Exp: Hungry cat enclosed in a puzzle box and dish of food placed outside -cat had to learn how to escape box -first time: exited via an accident
After repeated trials, it learned to escape more quickly but no sudden improvements in performance. It turns out, response that worked (stepping on button) was gradually strengthen while responses that didn't work (clawing) gradually weakened -> formed Law of Effect
Punishment can sometimes elicit an ______________ reaction.
Aggressive
Activity anorexia and survival value
An animal that becomes highly active when food supplies are scarce is more likely to travel great distances and encounter new food supplies -in support, research has shown that activity anorexia can be halted by suddenly providing access to a continuous supply of food
Displacement of responsibility
An attempt to escape self-contempt by claiming that a person in a position of authority caused one to act immorally
Attribution of blame
An attempt to escape self-contempt by saying the victim of one's immoral actions caused one to act as one did
preparedness
An innate predisposition to learn certain kinds of associations more easily than others (e.g., to associate snakes with an aversive event).
According to this theory, avoidance responses usually occur so quickly that there is insufficient exposure to the conditioned stimulus for the conditioned fear to fully extinguish - a good deal of the conditioned fear is conserved because exposures to the CS are too brief for extinction to take place.
Anxiety Conservation Hypothesis
Reinforcement theory
Any theory that claims learning cannot occur without reinforcement. Bandura's is not a reinforcement theory
Model
Anything that conveys information to an observer. In Bandura's theory, a model can be a person, film, picture, instructions, description, animal, television, or newspaper
Aristotle
Argued that knowledge is not inborn but acquired through experience
Descartes: Mind-Body Dualism and the Reflex
Argues that some human behaviors are reflexes that are automatically elicited by external stimulation, while other behaviors are freely chosen and controlled by the mind
discrimination training
As applied to operant conditioning, the differential reinforcement of responding in the presence of one stimulus (the SD) and not another.
Functionalism
Assumes that the mind evolved to help us adapt to the world around us and that the focus of psychology should be the study of those adaptive processes -derived from Darwin's theory of evolution
Researchers have generally shown more interest in studying _____________ behaviour.
Avoidance
___________ behaviour is when performance of the behaviour prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring.
Avoidance
________________ appears to be a fundamental process in the development and maintenance of a phobic behaviour.
Avoidance Learning
The ___________________________ holds that punishment actually involves a type of avoidance conditioning in which the avoidance response consists of any behaviour other than the behaviour being punished.
Avoidance Theory of Punishment
What is the anxiety conservation hypothesis?
Avoidance responses occur so quickly that there is not enough exposure to the CS for the conditioned fear to fully extinguish
Reciprocal determinism
Bandura's contention that the environment, the person, and the person's behavior all interact to produce behavior
Tolman's rat experiment
Became a demonstration of latent learning, where learning occurs despite any observable indication of learning and only becomes apparent at a later time -shows learning and performance as two different things, rats learned even if it did not initially show in their performance
Skinner's View of Genetic Factors (2)
Behavior is fundamentally the result of the interaction between genes and the environment. -compared evolution to operant conditioning (adaptive to population/ adaptive to individual)
covert behavior
Behavior that can be subjectively perceived only by the person performing the behavior. Thoughts and feelings are covert behaviors.
Self-regulated behavior
Behavior that is regulated by one's own performance standards, moral codes, or imagination
Pigeons seems to like the red key over and above the amount of responding dictated by the schedule of reinforcement
Bias in matching can be used to indicate degree of preference for different action
In the experiment with the raccoon, the coin became a (CS/S^D) that elicited a (R/CR/UR) of washing and rubbing
CS CR COIN: Food > washing NS US UR Coin > rooting CS CR
Simultaneous Conditioning
CS and US are presented at the same time -results in poor conditioning bc NS is not used a predictor
Taste aversion and wildlife management applications
Can be a solution for keeping animals from eating livestock (those wolves who ate nausea-inducing chemicals after eating ground sheep are less likely to eat them again)
Variable
Characteristic of a person, place or thing that can change (vary) over time or from one situation to another
Behavioral contracting
a person formally arranges to attain certain rewards for resisting temptation or receive certain punishers for yielding to temptation -operates on commitment response -done with therapist
personal process rule
a personal rule that indicates the specific process by which a task is to be accomplished -establish bright boundary between actions that conform to rule and those that do not
Contingency
a predictive (or functional) relationship between two events such that the occurrence of one event predicts the probable occurrence of the other ex: contingency exists between dentists and free floss, receiving floss is contingent upon visiting the dentist
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) -common in advertising
Establishing operation
a procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of a stimulus (like deprivation or satiation) ex: satiating an animal increases an appetitve need for food
What is the first process in the two process theory?
Classical conditioning of a fear response to a CS Ex. Light (NS): Shock (US)---->Fear (UR) Light (CS)---->Fear (CR)
Natural Selection (and its three components)
Concept that individuals or species that are capable of adapting to environmental pressures are more likely to reproduce and pass along their adaptive characteristics than those that cannot adapt Three components: -traits vary -many traits are heritable -organisms must compete for limited resources
A secondary punisher is a(n) ___________________ punisher.
Conditioned
Bolles theory on preparedness and avoidance behavior
Contencds that aversive stimulation elicits a species-specific defense reaction (SSDR) which in the natural environment is often effective in encountering danger
stimulus control
a situation in which the presence of a discriminative stimulus reliably affects the probability of a behavior (or reliably "evokes" the behavior)
Sign Stimulus (releaser) (4)
a specific stimulus that elicits a fixed action pattern (ex: another male (releaser) will cause another to dominate) -typically unique to certain species and sometimes called species-specific behavior -adaptive responses that have evolved to help animals cope w/ aspects of their environment -changes in environment may render fixed-action response useless (some called this instincts but thats too rigid)
weak, strong, strong, weak
a steep gradient indicates ___ generalization and ___ discrimination whereas a flat gradient indicates ___ generalization and ___ discrimination
Classical Conditioning
a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own (respondent condition)
discriminative stimulus
a stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement, thereby increasing the probability that the behavior will occur
Multiple Baseline Design (3)
a treatment is instituted at successive points in time for two or more persons, settings, or behaviors -multiple baseline across settings -mulitple baselines across behaviors
aversive conditioning
a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol), shock or odor
Comparative Design
a type of group design in which different species constitute one of the independent variables -often used in evolutionary hypothesis -ex: see if dogs or cats do better on maze in confined spaces
generalized reinforcer (generalized secondary reinforcer)
a type of secondary reinforcer that has been associated with several other reinforcers ex: money > food, clothing, dates social attn > food, play comfort token economy> treats, TV, fun
rule
a verbal description of a contingency -in other words, it is a statement telling us that in a certain setting, if we perform a certain behavior, then a certain consequence will follow: ex: "if you drive through a red light, you will get a ticket"
Albert Bandura
Current leading researcher and theorist in the area of observational learning. Greatly influenced by Dollard and Miller's book "Social Learning and Imitation." Viewed observational learning as primarily a cognitive process which involves a number of distinctly human attributes, such as language, morality, thinking, and the self-regulation of one's behavior
more effective
DRO procedures tend to be ___ than simple extinction procedures because the target behavior is weakened both by the lack of reinforcement for that behavior and by the reinforcement of alternate behaviors that come to replace it
reduce
DRO tends to ___ many of the side effects of extinction, such as extinction burst because alternative behaviors are being reinforced.
_____ is more effective than _____ extinction procedures
DRO; simple
Just as the observation of a model can influence the development of classically conditioned responses, it can also influence the development of operant responses
Descriptions of this process traditionally emphasize the distinction between acquisition and performance of a behavior ex: you may have watched your parents drive (acquired the basic information needed to drive the car; however until you reach legal driving age, you were not permitted to translate that acquired knowledge into the actual performance of driving)
_________ training is the reinforcement of _____ in the presence of _____ and not another
Discrimination; responding; SD
How to distinguish dishabituation and disinhibition
Dishabituation involves the reappearance of a habituated response; disinhibition involves the recovery of a response that has become partially inhibited due to extinction
Latent Inhibition and Schizophrenia
Display less latent inhibition than is normal-they condition more easily to familar stimuli-indicating that the disorder partly involves an inability to screen out redundant stimuli
A person with OCD will generally ________ something to reduce anxiety, whereas a person with a phobia will generally _________ something to reduce anxiety.
Do; Not Do
What is learned helplessness?
Dogs placed in an inescapable shock condition. After that they are placed in an escapable shock condition. The exposure to the inescapable condition led to an impairment of the dogs' ability to learn to escape the shock.
Punishment is likely to elicit a strong ____________ response.
Emotional
using the same bucket task, lemurs seem to track differences between placed versus found items based on ___________
absolute quantity
cues
according to the compensatory-response model, removing _____ should remove agitation
changeover delay (COD)
act of switching from one alternative to another results in a short period of time that must pass before response can prodcue a reinforcer
Girl winning marathon
amount of time to begin running after pistol: latency amount of time to finish race: speed total time training per day: duration
activity anorexia
an abnormally high level of activity and low level of food intake generated by exposure to a restricted schedule of feeding ex: if rats only have access to food for 1.5 hour meal period and have access to running wheel during 22.5 hour interval between meals, they will begin to spend increasing amounts of time running during that interval but rats given restricted access to food but no wheel, do just fine. they ingest enough food during 1.5 hour minimum to maintain body weight
behavioral systems theory
an animal's behavior is organized into certain innate systems (such as feeding, mating and avoiding predators) with each system becoming activated in certain relevant situations -the brain contains several software systems for handling commonly encountereed situations (some are fixed-action and others are flexible to the consequences of response)
Activity anorexia in rats and anorexia nervosa in humans may be maintained by ___
an endorphin high
Drive reduction theory (2 and ex)
an event is reinforcing to the extent that it is associated with a reduction in some type of physiological drive ex: if a hungry rat in a maze turns left before it finds food in the goal box, the act of turning left in the maze will automatically be reinforced by subsequent reduction in hunger -according to this theory, a secondary reinforcer is one that has been associated, directly or indirectly, with a primary reinforcer
appetitive stimulus
an event that an organism will seek out (food when hungry, water when thirsty)
what is a primary punisher?
an event that is innately punishing ex. shock loud noise
adjunctive behavior/schedule-induced behavior
an excessive pattern of behavior that emerges as a by-product of an intermittent schedule of reinforcement for some other behavior -in other words, as one behavior is being strengthened through intermittent reinforcement, another quite different behavior emerges as a side effect of that procedure
Choice between concurrent VR schedule is easy because ______
an exclusive preference for the richer alternative clearly provides better payoff (less effort for equal pay)
Experimental Neurosis
an experimentally produced disorder in which animals exposed to unpredictable events develop neurotic-like symptoms
negative contrast effect
an increase in the rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produces a decrease in the rate of response on the other component (because the first component in the sequence is more attractive, the second components seems relatively less attractive)
temperament
an individual's level of emotional reactivity, which is largely genetic; seems to affect how easily a CR can be acquired
behavioral bliss point approach
an organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute its behavior in such a way as to maximize overall reinforcement ex: a rat that can freely choose between running a wheel and exploring a maze -> spend 1 hour a day running a wheel and two hour a day exploring a maze Wheel running (1 hour) -> Maze exploration (2 hour) R S^R
Latent Inhibition (diagram w metronome, food , dog)
an unfamiliar stimulus is more readily conditioned than a familiar stimulus
There is a great deal of ________ evidence of misinformation among chimps but further ________ is neccessary to determine whether this behaviour represents intelligence
anecdotal controlled testing
Motivating operations (2)
any procedure that affects the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event two types: establishing operations and abolishing operations
Nativist (Nature) Perspective
assumes a person's ability and tendencies are largely inborn
anthropromorphism
attributing human characteristics to animals
Rewarding correct signs with good tended to produce __________ type behaviour that provided ________ evidence of actually communiating with researchers
automatic strong
covert sensitization
aversion therapy carried out with the use of imaginal stimuli rather than real stimuli (less effective due to reliance on visualization skills and generalization)
What is problem 1 with the two-process theory?
avoidance responses are super persistent, and the two-process theory cannot account for this
"positive"
behavior followed by presentation of something
"negative"
behavior followed by the removal of something
Numbers of Error
behavior in which response is categorized by right or wrong ex: students grade on exam is determinant of how well they know the material
rule-governed behavior
behavior that has been generated through exposure to rules ex: touring Paris in the manner suggested by the guidebook
the cue
by putting a behavior "on cue", the behavior is less likely to occur in the absence of ___
Using the hidden banana task it has been demonstrated that subordinate (less dominant) chimps _______ use information about what dominant chimps know to make safe decisions in a competitive task
can
A response that has been extinguished ___
can be reacquired quite rapidly when the CS (or NS) is once again paired with the US
overt behavior
can potentially be observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior (observable behavior)
Pigeon can choose between VI 30 sec and VI 60sec: -VI 30 has higher value -the shift toward better option will...
cease at point of matching bc that is the point at which the two alternatives have equal value
anxiety; mood disorders; lack of control
city living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans; they lead to an increased risk for _____ and _____ (there is a _____ in these situations)
Mark and Mirror Task
classic test of self awareness (self recognition and self exploration) of primates and human. Seeing themsevles 1) subject marked on face with face paint 2)given access to mirror and behaviour assessed results: - lack of self recongition - reacting as if another individual -chimps (28 months chimps) humans (24 months humans) can demonstrate self recognition before 3 years. - even dolphins and elephants can pass the test, great apes, bobos, organtans, gibbons and gorillas.
Observational learning is often involved in the development of _______ responses
classically conditioned -in such cases, the stimuli involved is usually emotional in nature
overexpectation
combining two CS's, you would expect to have even stronger conditioning than either CS alone; but, since US's have a max level of conditioning, this expectation is an _____ that can't be fulfilled, therefore leading to a decrease in expectation and loss in associative value for each CS
Multiple schedules differ from chained schedules in that a chained schedule requires that all of the component schedules be ______ before reinforcer in a particular _____.
completed; order
Inhibitory Conditioning
conditioning procedure in which the NS is associated with the absence or removal of a US -CS inhibits the occurrence of a certain response ex: dog's fear response is inhibited around its owner, therefore the owner is an inhibitory CS for fear and your fear of the dog will be suppressed when the owner is present
excitatory conditioning
conditioning procedure in which the NS is associated with the presentation of a US -CS elicits a certain response -ex: dog gets barks at another dog when you take it on a walk
appetitive conditioning
conditioning procedure in which the US is an event that an organism approaches or seeks out ex: sexy boots
Delayed Conditioning
conditioning procedure in which the onset of the NS precedes the onset of the US, and the two stimuli overlap -most effective NS-US arrangement -ex: first present a tone then shock during tone to associate tone w shock
Reinforcers
consequences that strengthen behavior
punishers
consequences that weaken behavior
Compound stimulus
consists of the simultaneous presentation of two or more individual stimuli ex: the sound of a metronome is presented at the same time as a light
Suppose you post a reminder on your refrigerator about a long-distance phone call you should make this weekend. Posting the reminder is _______ response, while making the call on the weekend is the ___________ response.
controlling controlled
In the rope task, two animals must ___________ by pulling at the same time in order to get food
cooperate
in ____ __________experinements apes are raised in human environments
cross fostering
delay of gratification
declining a pleasant activity now in order to get greater pleasure later
A sharp increase in activity is often associated with a (decrease/increase) in food intake, which in turn can result in an (decrease/increase) activity
decrease increase
Positive contrast effect is when a ______ in rate of reinforcement _____ the rate of response on the other component
decrease; increase
example of positive contrast effect: VI 120 _____ while VI 60 _______
decreases; increases
In terms of behavioral systems theory, Bolle's notion of SSDR is concerned with responses that would be driven byt the
defence-against-predators sysstem
A useful procedure for studying memory is a ________ ________ ______ _________ __________. In it, the animal is first shown a _________ task following a ___________ interval is required to select the stimulus out of alternative stimuli.
delayed matching to sample task sample delay
Schedules in which the reinforcer is easily obtained are said to be _____ and ____ while reinforcers difficult to obtain are said to be _____
dense, rich lean
Early attempts to teach chimpanzees to speak ________ because chimps ________ the verbal apparatus to produce speech
did not do not
binge-eating type of anorexia
dieting combined with episodes of binging and purging
Biological dispositions to taste aversion conditioning
different species have different stimuli they associate with bad outcome
CR; natural response to danger
difficulty of stimulus-substitution theory: _____ is not always the same as the UR (ex: a rat that receives a foot shock (US) will probably jump (UR), but if it sees a light (CS) that has been paired with a foot shock, it will often freeze (CR); this is due to the rat's ______--jumping may cause a predator to miss, while freezing will minimize detection possibility)
aversive; some fears
disadvantages of in vivo flooding: can be highly _____, can't be used with _____ (like fires)
Stimulus _________ is the tendency for operant response to be emitted more in the presence of one stimulus than another
discrimination
Herrnstein trained pigeons to peck at pictures of trees and not at non trees. This is a ________ __________ procedure.
discrimination training
Maximization (Optimization) Theory
distributing across various alternatives in a choice selection because it somehow maximizes one's overall level of reinforcement
Operant conditioing (does/does not) involve innate patterns of behavior and follows a S-R-S sequence
does not
example of targeting
dolphin touching nose to stick
Aside from primates, other species that show evidence of self awareness include
dolphins elephants magpies
Pro of multiple baseline design
don't have to worry about withdrawing treatment more permanent
small-but-cumulative effects model
each individual choice on a self-control task has only a small but cumulative effect on our likelihood of obtaining the desired long-term outcome ex: following healthy eating program, but you find yourself choosing between greasy burger or healthy less-appetizing turkey burger -ONE greasy burger isn't bad but it is the small,cumulative effect of these choices over time can affect health
adjunctive processes may play a particularly important role in the development of an addiction during its (early/later) stages.
early
In errorless discrimination training, the S is introduced ______ in training, soon after the animal learns to respond _______ to the SD
early; appropriately
Stimulus enhancement is particularly effective for increasing the probability of a behavior associated with
eating drinking or mating -have strong instinctive components; stimulus enhancement simply allows the triggers of these things to be notice
DRO is more _______ and ______ side effects
effective; lessens
Operants are ______ by an organism and more ______ than classical conditioning
emitted flexible
Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)
emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli, such as a fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person
Skinner's Radical Behaviorism
emphasizes the influence of the environment on observable (overt) behavior, rejects the use of internal events to explain behavior, new thoughts and feelings as behaviors themselves that need to be explain
Certain behavior patterns in humans, such as smoking and nail biting, are often associated with periods of (extreme activity/enforced waiting), which (agress/conflicts) the notion that these may be adjunctive behavior
enforced waiting agrees with
less
errorless discrimination training is likely to produce ___ emotional behavior compared to the standard form of discrimination training
difficult
errorless discrimination training is likely to produce behavioral patterns that are ___ to modify at a later point in time
learned industriousness theory
even hard work can become a secondary reinforcer
secondary reinforcer (conditioned reinforcer)
event that is reinforcing bc it had been associated with some other reinforcer -events we learn to like bc associated with other things we like -ex: nice clothes, nice car -conditioned stimulus (Cs) that has been classically conditioned using appetitve unconditioned stimuli (UCS) can also be a secondary reinforcer
The Evolutionary (Adaptive) Significance of a Stimulus can influence habituation vs sensitization
ex: smell of strong garlic vs smell of strong rotten food
Events strongly associated with drive reduction can be affected by incentive motivation
ex: spiciness of food plays no role in reduction of hunger; just a form of sensory stimulation you find reinforcing
factoral design
examines the effects of two or more independent variables (or factors) across groups of subjects ex: summer resesarch (exposure and perception on response)
The simplest form of a tool is an _____________ like a stick or rock
existing item
Punishment is most effective when accompanied by an ________________
explanation. This way, it is easier to avoid punishment in the future
US revaluation
exposure to a US of a different intensity than that used during conditioning can alter the strength of the response to a previously conditioned CS (a skateboarder feels slight anxiety after a minor injury; after a care accident results in a severe injury, they now experience strong anxiety; it is as though the skateboarder finally realized just how painful an injury can be and now anything associated with being injured elicits strong anxiety)
Side effects of extinction include:
extinction burst increase in variability resurgence emotional behavior aggression depression
Side effects of extinction include ____ ____, an _____ in variability, and ______.
extinction burst; increase; resurgence
depression
extinction can also lead to ___-like symptoms. (in rats this is shown by a decrease in activity)
emotional
extinction is often accompanied by ___ behavior (ex. agitation, frustration)
variability
extinction often results in the increase of the ___ of a behavior. for example, when confronted with a candy machine that has just stolen our money, we will likely vary the manner in which we push the button or try pressing other buttons instead of just walking away.
In a directed forgetting task, the pigeon is shown a cue during the _______ period, which signals whether the ___________ stimulus should be remembered or forgotten
forgetting sample
Increase in variability of responses can lead to ______,______, and ______
frustration, aggression, depression
Errorless Discrimination training is _____ training procedure that minimizes errors and reduces ______ effects of disrimination training
gradual; adverse
BALL FETCH BASKET means the opposite from BASKET FETCH BALL to language trained dolphins. This suggests taht unlike many of the language trained chimps, these dolphins can understand ___________ or __________ rules of language
grammar semantic
Due to Peak shift effect, the strongest response will be _______ than S+
greater
Greater magnitude= ______ resistance
greater
Herrnstein's study revealed that pigeons could ____________ their discrimination to novel pictures of trees, which suggests that they had learned the _____________ of tree
group category
pigeons can __________ similiar items together and than apply a ___________ of an item to items they never seen before
group category
Bandura believes that self-reinforcement and self-punishment can work for people who are likely to feel _____ if they violate standards they have set for themselves.
guilty
Dishabituation
habituated responses can also reappear following the presentation of a seemingly irrelevant novel stimulus -married couple sleeping in a hotel
Henry, a salesman, might spend too much time courting clients who are relatively easy sales (in reality, he only needs to call on such clients once a month to make sale), and too little time on retailers who are relatively difficult sales (who need to be intensely courted before a sale can be made). Unfortunately if he spends too much time with easy clients
he is not shifting behavior toward higher reward because the alternative here, easy clients, does not require as much effort as it would to obtain all available clients
Why are social hierarchies important to understand and what role do they play in transitive inference
helps to lead an evolution of cognitive skills that would facilitate living socially transitive inference: form of reasoning in which the relationship between two objects can be inferred by knowing the relationship of each third subject A>B B>C so A>C
the __________ is an area of the brain that is important for spatial memory and food storing birds tend to have ___________ volume in this area
hippocampus greater
Matching Law
holds that the proportion of responses emitted on a particular schedule matches the proportion of reinforcers obtained on that schedule -note: proportion of responses and reinforcers and not NUMBER of responses and reinforcers
instruction
if a rule says something about how we should respond with respect to a contingency ex: "Don't drive through a red light, or you will get a ticket"
Personal process rules have also been called
implementation intentions
more, less
in a generalization gradient, a flat gradient indicates ___ generalization while a steep gradient indicates ___ generalization
drug tolerance; greater tolerance; normal/decreased tolerance
in addition to its implications in drug abuse and addiction, the compensatory-response model has implications for ______; various cues in a setting initiate compensatory physiological reactions leader to ______; new setting=______
early, weak
in errorless discrimination training, the SΔ is presented ___ in the training procedure and at very ___ intensity to begin with
weaker, quickly
in general, each time spontaneous recovery occurs, the behavior is ___ than before and extinguishes more ___. eventually, you will reach the point where spontaneous recovery does not occur and the behavior will have essentially been eliminated
greater, greater
in general, the ___ the level of deprivation, the ___ the resistance to extinction (a direct relationship between resistance to extinction and the organism's level of deprivation for the reinforcer)
greater
in general, the more reinforcers an individual has received for a behavior, the ___ the resistance to extinction. this means it is much easier to extinguish an unwanted behavior when it first becomes evident
systematic desensitization; flooding
in vivo exposure therapy is similar to _____ in that it's somewhat gradual, and similar to _____ in that the client is encouraged to endure a fairly intense level of anxiety each step of the way
Research has shown that hungry rats will perform more effectively when reinforcer is several small pellets versus large pellets. Consistent with notion of
incentive motivation
Goal-gradient effect
increase in the strength and/or efficiency of responding as one draws near to the goal ex: student writing essay will take less breaks and work more intensely as she nears the end
Sensitization (2)
increase in the strength of an elicited behavior following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus -ex: startle reactions grow stronger in the presence of gunshots around soldiers
Multiple schedules are two or more ______ schedules presented in ______ and each resulting in reinforcement having _____ SD
independent; sequence; distinctive
Pavlov's perspective on spontaneous recovery
indicated that extinction is not a process of unlearning the conditioning that has taken place, but rather, extinction involves learning something new, namely, to inhibit the occurence of the CR in the presence of the CS ( -spontaneous recovery is just a partial weakining of inhibition during rest periods between extinction sessions
control group design
individuals are randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control group; experimental group is exposed to the manipulation and control group is not
comparative cognition is the study of _______ __________ across a variety of species
information processing
preparedness
innate tendency for an organism to more easily learn certain types of behaviors or to associate certain types of events with each other
In order for tool use to start, researchers have speculated that there may be some form of ________ involved when an item is used in a new way for the first time.
insight
Anecdotal evidence suggests that, as with anorexia in humans, rats suffering from activity nervosa are often quite (interested/uninterested) in food
interested
Language
is a special category of communication which has some key features - symbols - cue to represent an experience or object also includes reference where you can associate arbitrary symbols with objects or events syntax - structure of language (grammar rules) semantics - overall meaning
commitment response (precommitment response)
is an action carried out at an early point in time that serves either to eliminate or greatly reduce the value of an upcoming temptation ex: giving little brother $20 in morning and tell him he can keep it if I do not study at all at night
instinctive drift
is an instance of classical conditioning in which genetically based, fixed action pattern gradually emerges and displaces the behavior being operantly conditioned ex: Raccoon began washing coin as if it were food because as the conditioned response increased in strength, it eventually overrode the operantly conditioned response of depositing the coin at the bank
Preferred level of occurrence
is level of occurance when animal can freely engage in that activity
A major problem with drive reduction theory
is that some reinforcers do not seem to be associate with drive reduction ex: a rat will press lever for access to wheel
imaginal
it might be wise to use _____ desensitization in severely phobic people
Latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Latency
length of time required for a behavior to begin ex: how soon dog begins salivating after tone
A person is likely to be (more/less) impulsive in a pleasant environment as opposed to an unpleasant environment.
less
Distinctive signal for extinction = _____ resistance
less
Richer= _____ resistance
less
in animal training, by putting a behavior "on cue", the behavior is _____ likely to occur in the absence of cue
less
previous experience with extinction = _____ resistance
less
Less-scalloped curve
less impulsive
Melioration is the
leveling-out process in which behavior shifts until the two alternatives have about equal value in terms of costs versus benefits
history of control
living in an environment where you have some degree of control over important events seems to effectively immunize you against the traumatic effects of encountering frightening events
In a test comparing chickadees to juncos, it was found that chickadees who store food, may spend more attention to ________ of an item
location
Food storing birds recall ___________which correlates to the size of __________ and ______ may die off if it not utlized for food storing
location hippocampus neurons
observational learning
many phobias are acquired when observing fearful reactions in others; tendency may be inherited (display of fear in others (US) --> fear in oneself (UR)); can also occur through higher-order conditioning
Koehler used a direct _______ _______ _______ _________ in order to determine whether the parrots could match cards with different numbers or items on them.
measure to sample task
Shona spends a lot of time cleaning her apartment, which she quite enjoys, and little time studying, which she does not enjoy. Chances are that this distribution of behavior, which results from the tendency to ____, (will/will not) maximize the amount of reinforcement in her life
meliorate will not
Researchers found that _______ was the easiest way to teach sign language to chimpanzees. They also found _________ which involves physical placement of the apes hands in the correct position to be an effective method
modeling molding
Leaner= _____ resistance
more
More HIstory of reinforcement= ______ resistance
more
On directed forgetting tasks, pigeons are ___________ likely to select the correct stimulus following exposure to the forget cue.
more
Spontaneous recovery= _____ resistance
more
These studies allowed researchers to systematically assess the language abilities of chimps in a _______ controlled setting than was the case with cross fostering experiments
more
A problem with the use of self-reinforcement is really a way of making the completion of a behavior (more/less) salient, thereby enhancing its value as a s___ reinforcer
more secondary
Bonobos are _________ successful at cooperative tasks than chimps, which is likely related to bonobos being ________ competitive over food.
more less
The delay functions for a pigeon will likely be _ deeply scalloped than those for a human, which means that the pigeon is relatively (less/more) impulsive.
more more
Natural contingencies produce _____________ behavior patterns than contrived reinforcres
more efficient
less, more
more generalization means ___ discrimination and less generalization means ___ discrimination
Group design pros
more possible to make functional relationships
Reflexes
most basic form of elicited behavior; relatively simple and automatic response to a stimulus
therapist; physically contact
most in vivo exposure therapy clients are accompanied by a _____ who models how to interact with the feared object and helps the client _____ the fear object (participant modeling/contact desensitization)
Incentive motivation
motivation that is derived from some property of the reinforcer, as opposed to an internal drive state ex: attending concert because you enjoy the music
possible explanation of peak shift effect: SD has acquired _______ properties of S-delta
negative
Behavior contrast: ________ and ________
negative; positive
In autoshaping, a pigeon will begin to peck a lit response key that is presented for 8 seconds before the _______ delivery of food. The peck in this situation appears to be functioning as an (elicited/operant) behavior. Later, when the peck is required to be delivered, the peck becomes a ___ behavior
noncontingent elicited operant
Using a bucket with a false bottom, researchers have determined that human infants will __________ to search if 3 items were placed in the bucket but only two items can be seen
not continue
confirmation bias
notice evidence that supports our strategy and ignore evidence that contridicts it even though contractictory evidence is presented.
Avoidance behavior
occurs before the aversive stimulus is presented and therefore prevents its delivery ex: pretending to be sick > avoid exam
bias from matching
occurs when one response alternative attracts a higher proportion of responses than would be predicted by matching, regardless of whether that alternative contains the richer or poorer schedule of reinforcement
Julie knows that someone placed Billy's teddy bear in a box, but Billy doesn't know. When asked where billy would look, Julie says he will look in the box. Julie is likely ________ than 4 years of age
older
Exp: Pigeon will emit twice as many responses on the VI-30 sec schedule as on the VI-60 sec schedule because rate of reinforcement on the former will be twice as great as on the latter (avg. of two reinforcers per minute)
on the VI 30 sec schedule versus one reinforcer per minute on VI 60-sec
Experimental research (2)
one or more independent variables are systematically varied to determine their effect on dependent variable -include group design and single-subject designs
extinction burst
one side effect of extinction, a temporary increase in the frequency and intensity of responding when extinction is first implemented
aggression
one type of emotional behavior that is particularly common during an extinction procedure is ___. (ex. uncooperative vending machines may be hit, a pigeon whose key pecking for food is placed on extinction will attack another pigeon)
discover
one way to think about the partial reinforcement effect is that the less frequent the reinforcer, the longer it takes the person or animal to ___ the reinforcer is no longer available
intermittent (or partial) reinforcement schedule
only SOME responses are reinforced -characterizes much of everyday life ex: we don't enjoy every date or meal
If matching law predicts 0.67 on richer VI 30 SEC and 0.33 on pooerer VVI 60 sec, then we find 0.80 and 0.20 respectively, then
overmatching has occurred
implementation intentions
people's specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal -result in better adherence to goal
Learning
permanent change in behavior that results from some type of experience
Resistance is the extent of which responding ______ after extinction _____ and can be either ____ or _____.
persists; begins; high;low
overgeneralization
phobias represent a process of ______, in which a conditioned fear response to one event has become overgeneralized to other harmless events
Molding
place the observers hands in the correct position to help associate that position with what is talked about
Children learn to follow instructions because they are often (praised/ignored) for following instructions. As well, they learn that following instructions is usually a (good/poor) way to actually accomplish a task.
praised good
What is positive punishment?
presentation of an aversive event following a response. -leads to a decrease in the future strength or probability of that response.
decrease
previous experience with extinction, as well as a distinctive signal for extinction tends to produce a ___ in resistance to extinction
Communication
process of sending and receiving a signal of somesort
Flexion Response
protective reflexes; quickly jerking your hand away from contact with an open flame. Perception of pain generally follows the response.
anorexia nervosa
psychiatric disorder in which patients refuse to eat adequate amounts of food as an extreme result to lose lots of weight
spontaneous recovery
reappearance of a conditioned response to a CS following a rest period of extinction -each time a response recovers it is usually weaker and extinguishes more quickly than before
Example of previous experience with extinction
recovery from breakups
Almost all apes that have been trained in ASL can demonstrate
reference
Results of the artificial language experiments strongly suggest that many of the chimps mastered ________ but there is less evidence that they mastered________
reference grammar
Variable Interval Schedule (VI)
reinforcement contingent upon the first response after a varying, unpredictable period of time -still based on average, but instead of VR, it is average time of reinforcement
Duration schedules
reinforcement is contingent on performing a behavior continuously throughout a period of time
variable ratio schedule (VR)
reinforcement is contingent upon a varying, unpredictable number of responses EX: VR-5 : rat has to emit an AVERAGE of 5 lever presses for each food pellet
Differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP)
reinforcement is contingent upon emitting a series of responding a a set-rate; reinforcement is provided for responding neither too fast or too slow ex: dancing to choreography requires relevant actions to be carried out at a specific pace
Differential Reinforcement of High rates (DRH)
reinforcement is contingent upon emitting at least a certain number of responses in a certain period of time-or more generally-reinforcement is provided for responding at a high rate -ex: worker must assemble minimum of 20 cans per hour to keep positions; athletic events (run/swim)
Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)
reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed, predictable period of time ex: in FR-30 sec, the first lever press after 30 second interval has result of a food pellet
Response-rate schedule
reinforcement is directly contingent upon the organism's rate of response ex: diff reinforcement of high, low paced responding
Fixed ratio schedule (FR)
reinforcement is upon a fixed, predictable number of responses ex: FR5 rat must press lever 5 times to obtain pellet
differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)
reinforcement of any behavior other than a target behavior that is being extinguished (giving a dog a treat whenever it does something other than jump on visitors as they enter the house)
Extrinsic Reinforcement
reinforcement provided by some consequence that is external to the behavior ex: reading book only bc of upcoming exam, passing exam is extrinsic consequence motivation behavior
Behavioral Contrast occurs when change in rate of ________ on one component of multiple schedules produces ______ change in the rate of _____ on another component
reinforcement; opposite; response
Variable-time (VT ) Schedule
reinforcer delivered following a varying, unpredictable period of time, regardless of organisms behavior ex: you may run into old best friend about every 3 months on average (VT 3-month)
contrived (artificial) reinforcers
reinforcers that have been deliberately arranged to modify a behavior; they are not a typical consequence of the behavior in that setting ex: Turning TV for behavior of accomplishing study
Behavioral approaches largely (accept/reject) the concept of willpower as an explanation for self control
reject
Single subject design
require only one or a few subjects to conduct an entire experiment
Schedules of Reinforcement
response required that must be met to obtain reinforcement (schedule that indicates what exactly has to be done for the reinforcer to be delivered_ -ex: did your mom give you a cookie everytime you asked?
delayed matching to sample
sample stimulus presented followed by delay required to select that stimulus out of alternate stimulus. So the extent of the correct stimulus selected; showing ability to remember e.g multiple choice test in pigeons present sample stimulus delay interval (choice covered up) test phase (multiple selections; only one correct and must match sample stimulus)
When studying, "Crossing off" may serve as
secondary reinforcer that helps motivate us
The mark and mirror task is a classic test of ________ ________ that has been used with a variety of species including humans
self awareness
If you change the word happy to unhappy you have altered the _______ of the content
semantics
Sharing or concealing information requires you to understand that you are _______________ from others and that the content of your mind is _______________ from other
seperate different
In s____ t___, an organism approaches a stimulus that signals the availability of food. In such circumstances, the stimulus is best defined as (CS/US/S^D), while the approach behavior is best defined as (CR/UR/operant)
sign tracking CS CR
negative automaintenance
sign tracking persists despite the resultant loss of a reinforcer -in autshaping when behavior exerts such a strong control over the behavior that it essentially overrides the negative punishment (loss of food)
single-comparison design (AB) (3)
single subject; behavior in a baseline condition is compared to behavior in a treatment condition -A phase: Baseline B phase: treatement -not super reliable because something else could;ve happened in that B phase that changed behavior
The problem with the media giving equal airtime to those who are (convinced/skeptical) about the effects of media violence on violent behavior is that the public is then misled into thinking that the evidence for such effects is (stronger/weaker) than it actually is
skeptical weaker
Partial reinforcement effect: partially reinforced animals extinguish more _____ than ______ reinforced animals
slowly; continuously
Dolphins gorilla's and parrots are all _______ species that have relatively ________ brains which make good candiates for studying language acquistion
social complex
It appears that chimps learn to crack nuts through a long gradual process of ________ _________
social learning
When comparing Clark's nut crackers to other corvids, the nutcracker has better ______ memory which is important for food storing
spatial
training in relaxation; creation of a hierarchy; pairing; relaxation
stages of systematic desensitization: 1) ______ 2) ______ of imaginary scenes that elicit progressively intense levels of fear 3) ______ of each item in the hierarchy with _____
Discriminative stimulus may also signal an extinction:
stimulus signals nonavailability of a stimulus Tone: Lever Press -> Food Pellet S^D R S^R Buzzer: Lever Press -> No Food S^A R --
PRocedure of extinction is when there is a _____ in presenting a reward following response to stimulus
stop
one-trial conditioning
strong conditioned taste aversions can usually be achieved with only a single pairing of food with illness, particularly when the food item is novel -minimizes repeated and possibly fatal experience with substance
In classic experiment by Garcia and Koelling, the rats that had been made ill avoided the (sweet water/bright, noisy water) while the rats that had been shocked avoided the ____ water
sweet water bright, noisy water
shelly sees a sign with a stick figure and skirt. This picture is an example of a
symbol
Dolphins have been taught to communciate acousitically as well as gesturally, which is evidence that they have _______ language
symbolic
the phrase the dog bit the man differs in _________ from the phrase the man bit the dog
syntax
social phobias
systematic desensitization is not for people who suffer from _____, which tend to be general in nature
relatively few; highly specific
systematic desensitization tends to be very effective with patients who have ______ phobias that are _____ in nature
in vivo desensitization
systematic desensitization with real stimuli
Theory of Mind
tendency to attribute mental states to other individuals. Seeing oneself as seperate from others and recognizing that the content of anothers mind is different from ones own - You can ask questions on information you don't have OR -someone lacks information that you have (You can share or conceal this information)
mathematical
the Rescorla-Wagner Theory puts conditioning into _____ terms (quantifying conditioning)
stronger; conditioning; weaker; associative value
the Rescorla-Wagner theory assumes _____ stimuli (USs and CSs) support more ______ than do ______ stimuli (aka they have a higher ______)
Fixed-duration schedule (FD)
the behavior must be performed continuously for a fixed, predictable period of time ex: FD: 30 sec interval- rat must run up to 30 seconds to earn one pellet of food
variable-duration schedule (VD)
the behavior must be performed continuously for a varying, unpredictable period of time EX: rat must run for an average of 60 seconds to earn one pellet of food with varying required time being 2 second and 120 seconds
Observational Learning (social learning)
the behavior of a model is witnessed by an observer and the observer's behavior is subsequently changed
Countercontrol (Skinner)-3
the deliberate manipulation of environmental events to alter their impact on our behavior -minimize punishment and maximize positive reinforcement -environment ultimately causes both but all influence each other
Melioration theory
the distribution of behavior in a choice situation shifts toward those alternatives that have higher value regardless of the long-term effect on the overall amount of reinforcement -this shifting will cease at a point where the two outcomes are approximately equal in terms of costs versus benefits
Changing Criterion Design (3)
the effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered -making a limit and gradually reducing or increasing allowable/unallowable behavior over time -can be strengthened by allowing a few days where you go the opposite direction
Spatial contiguity
the extent to which events are situated close to each other in space ex: takes a puppy longer to indicate that a doorbell, as opposed to a knock, indicates that someone is at the front door
temporal contiguity
the extent to which events occur close together in time ex: thunder + lightening or if rat receives food for pulling lever, it will be more readily able to learn association
resistance to extinction
the extent to which responding persists after an extinction procedure has been implemented. a response that is very persistent is said to have a high resistance to extinction while a response that disappears quickly is said to have a low resistance to extinction.
Acquisition
the gaining of new information from one's observations
Semantic Generalization
the generalization of a conditioned response to verbal stimuli that are similar in meaning to the CS ex: if humans are exposed to a conditioning procedure which the sight of the word car is paired with a shock, that word eventually becomes a CS that elicits a fear response. When participants are shown other words, generalization of the fear response is more likey to occur to those words similar in meaning to car like automobile or truck.
shaping
the gradual creation of new operant behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations to that behavior -benefit of using sounds as a reinforcer is that it can be presented immediately upon the occurence of the behavior, even if the animal is some distance away --by using a second reinforcement like a click instead of food, satiation will take longer to occur, allowing for longer training sessions
What is conditioned suppression theory?
the idea that punishment does not weaken a behavior, but instead produces an emotional response that interferes with the occurrence of behavior ex. rat is shocked, and is then too upset to press the lever
speed
the length of time it takes for an episode of the behavior to occur from start to finish ex: length of time for cat to complete maze from beginning to end
Duration
the length of time that an individual repeatedly or continuously performs a certain behavior ex: increasing study time each week and decreasing screen time
asymptote of conditioning
the maximum amount of conditioning that can take place in a particular situation
Interval recording
the measurement of whether or not a behavior occurs within a series of continuous intervals ex: how many 10 minute intervals of class time sessions did an agressive event occur> not how many events occured> how many intervals
time sample recording
the measurement of whether or not a behavior occurs within a series of discontinuous intervals -more random that interval recording
There is some evidence that self-reinforcement is best when
the person perceives other people are aware of the contingency, suggesting that the social consequence for attaining or not attaining the intended goal are often an important aspect of self-reinforcement and self-punishment
Overshadowing
the phenomenon whereby the most salient member of a compound stimulus is more readily conditioned as a CS and thereby interferes with conditioning of the least salient member -lead singer of rock band, principal instead of leadership
Topography
the physical form or shape of a behavior ex: instead of measuring lever rate?measure how the lever is pushed
different
the preparatory-response theory allows for situations in which the CR and UR are ______
Blocking
the presence of an established CS interferes with conditioning of a new CS -different from overshadowing because the compound stimuli consists of a neutral stimulus and a CS rather than two neutral stimuli that differ in salience
stimulus enhancement
the probability of a behavior is changed because an individual's attention is drawn to a particular item or location by the behavior of another individual ex:you notice a girl giggling in delight and running towards candy bowl you didn't notice earlier. You later help yourself toward candy, not because she did earlier, but because her behavior made you aware the candy was there
"stretching the ratio"
the procedure of gradually increasing the number of responses required for reinforcement -if not done well could result in ratio strain
partial reinforcement effect
the process whereby behavior that has been maintained on an intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement extinguishes more slowly than a behavior that has been maintained on a continuous schedule. (lever pressing that has been reinforced on an FR 10 schedule will take longer to extinguish that lever pressing that has been reinforced on a CRF (FR 1) schedule)
anticipatory contrast
the process whereby the rate of response varies inversely with an upcoming ("anticipated") change in the rate of reinforcement (the things we're about to lose often seem to increase in value)
undermatching
the proportion of responses on the richer schedule versus the poorer schedule is less different than would be predicted by matching -think of undermatching as less different
Overmatching
the proportion of responses on the richer schedule versus the poorer schedule is more different than would be predicted by matching
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of an extinguished response following a rest period after extinction
Extinction
the reinforcement of a previously reinforced response, the result of which is a decrease in the strength of that response
Fixed-time (FT) schedule
the reinforcer is delivered following a fixed, predictable period of time, regardless of the organism's behavior -involve a "free reinforcer" following a predictable period of time ex: FT-6 hour: pet receives their meals every 6 hours regardless of what its doing ex: presents at christmas
Noncontingent schedules
the reinforcer is delivered independently of any response; a response is not required for the reinforcer to be obtained -also called response-independent schedules -two types: fixed time and variable time
Functional Relationships
the relationship between changes in an independent variable and changes in a dependent variable -can be thought of a cause-effect relationship (independent causes dependent)
Adjusting schedule
the response requirement changes as a function of the organism's performance while responding for the previous reinforcer ex: When Tara showed excellent ability in mastering violin lessons, she and her parents decided to increase amount she learned each week -> failing so you decrease amount of material per study session
incubation
the strengthening of a conditioned fear response as a result of brief exposures to the aversive CS; may even result in a conditioned fear that is stronger than the unconditioned fear
Disinhibition
the sudden recovery of a conditioned response during an extinction procedure when a novel stimulus is introduced ex: if we are in the process of extinguishing conditioning to a metronome but then present an unusual humming noise in the background, the sound of the metronome may again elicit a considerable amount of salivation
Stimulus Generalization (#)
the tendency for a CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the CS -the more similar the CS, the stronger the response ex: If a dog has been conditioned to salivate for 200 Hz, it will salivate more strongly to 190 Hz than to a 50 Hz.
Stimulus Discrimination
the tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another stimulus ex: if a dog salivates in the presence of 2000 Hz but not in the presence of a 1900 Hz tone, then we say it is able to discrimate or formed a discrimination between two stimuli. -trained via discrimination training
reciprocal inhibition
the underlying process in counterconditioning is _____, in which the occurrence of one response can be inhibited by the occurrence of an incompatible response
Delayed consequences often suffer from a double whammy:
their value is weakened both because they are delayed and because they are less certain -add this to the especially powerful effects of immediate punishers and it is easy to understand how delayed consequences (such as future health) can have such weak effects on behavior compared to immediate consequences
Camilla sees a spider near her sister Rory. Camilla knows that Rory is afraid of spiders. So she intentionally steps on the spider before Rory sees it. This suggests that Camillias behaviour is attributed to _____ _____ _______
theory of mind
Intentional cooperation or deception requires a________ _______ _______
theory of mind
False belief task
to help understand the contents of another mind. certain information provided to subject and the subject questioned/observed to see if that information is used correctly to infer what an individual knows. Story with props, eg. bear in room. Children under 4 will say that sally will look under bed. Over 4, will look in toy box based on story Hidden banana task - works for chimpanzees with a social hiarchy - dominant chimp, obaque barrier and subordinate chimp
How can you demonstrative higher cognitive function in animals?
tool use by species because it is evidence of understanding relationships between objects and their EFECTS
targeting
training a dog to touch the end of a stick with its nose is an example of a behavior management technique called ___
trevor is taller than leah and leah is taller than jeff. If you know that trevor is talled tahn Jess, then you have successfully made a _______ ____________. Species of lemurs with rigid social hierarcheies are_________ skilled at this task than less social species
transitive inference more
aversion therapy
treatment procedure that reduces the attractiveness of a desired event by associating it with an aversive stimulus
If Jessica uses the exact same actions as Jill, she is using
true imitation
In Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, the children demonstrated ______ of model's aggressive behavior
true imitation
Copying a new behavior to achieve a particular result is _____; having one's attention drawn to a particular place or thing is _______.
true imitation stimulus enhancement
imaginal and in vivo
two types of flooding:
restricting type of anorexia nervosa
type of anorexia nervosa in which weight gain is prevented by refusal to eat
Conjunctive schdule
type of complex schedule in which the requirements of two or more simple schedules must be met before a reinforer is delivered ex: FI-2 min FR-200 reinforcement contingent upon 200 lever presses and 2-minute interval ex:j must do work AND complete assignment to be paid
When a bear obtains 70% of its food from a nearby stream, it spends 80% of its time at the stream; when it obtains 30% of its food from the stream, it spends 25% of its time at the stream. When a cougar obtains 20% of its food in a particular canyon, it spends 35% of its time in that canyon; it spends 80% of its time in the canyon. Among the three types of deviation from matching the bear shows evidence of ___ while the cougar shows evidence of ______
undermatching bias from matching
If matching law predicts responses should be about 0.67 on the richer VI 30 sec schedule and 0.33 on the poorer VI 60 sec schedule. If we then instead find proportions of 0.60 and 0.40 respectively then
undermatching has occurred
numerosity
understanding of quantity
Chimps can learn to point toward an empty container when interacting with an ___________ . This evidence confirms that chimps are capable of deception.
unethical
The Effects of Habituation and Sensitization
usually disappear when the stimulus (loud music) is not presented for a period of time. Loud music used to bother you and eventually you got used to it. When is not presented for a long time, you hear loud music a gain after 2 weeks, it starts to bother you ( your response goes back to normal) EX: you might habituate to the sound of a neighbor's stereo one evening, only to be once more bothered by it when he first turns it on the next morning
Hull's Neobehaviorism
utilizes intervening variables, in the form of hypothesized physiological processes, to help explain behavior -also uses S-R theory
There is considerable _________ within a species for many high level cognitive abilities. This means that ________ individuals within a species will show evidence of such abilities
variance not all
the alarm of the vervet monkey's which _______ according to predator, provide evidence that they are ________ of __________
vary capable reference
personal rules (self-instructions)
verbal descriptions of contingencies that we present to ourselves to influence our behavior ex: I should workout each day if I want to remain fit and healthy
Overmatching can occur when the cost of moving from one alternative to another is ____--
very high -more time spent on richer alternative
FI30 is to _____ as FR30 is to ______
wait; work
overshadowing in taste aversion
we are more likely to develop an aversion to a stronger-tasting food item, such as onions, than to a milder-tasting item, such as potatoes that was consumed in the same meal
In errorless discrimination training, S-delta is presented in _____ form and gradually ________.
weak; strengthened
continuous reinforcement schedule
when EACH specified response is reinforced -CRF is useful when a behavior is first being shaped or strengthened to target behavior
reinforcer
when applying an extinction process, its important to ensure that the consequence being withheld is in fact the ___ that is maintaining the behavior
Extinguishing taste aversion
when aversive food item is repeatedly ingested without further illness
sensory preconditioning
when one stimulus is conditioned as a CS, another stimulus with which it was previously associated can also become a CS -if you previously associated the toolshed with wasps then acquired a fear of wasps as a result of being stung, you might also feel anxious when walking near the toolshed (although never directly paired with a sting) but this fear will likely be weaker than the fear from the wasps themself
Contagious behavior is common with behaviors such as
yawning, threat avoidance, laughter, orienting responses
What is PTSD and what are the symptoms?
-disorder resulting from exposure to unpredictable life threatening events -symptoms: trouble sleeping, exaggerated startle response, intrusive trauma recollections, phobias of trauma associated stimuli, and numbing of responsiveness
How can learned helplessness be prevented?
-A history of successfully overcoming minor adversities might immunize a person against depression when the person is later confronted by more serious difficulties
Research on video games and violence found: (5)
-The amount of violent media viewed in childhood is significantly correlated with aggressive and antisocial behavior 10 years later, even after controlling for initial aggressiveness, social class, and education -males are more likely to express the effects of exposure to violent video games -Girls learn violence just as well as boys do, but have a greater tendency to inhibit violence unless there is an incentive for violence -girls more likely to demonstrate aggressive acts when aggressive model is female as opposed to males -may desensitize women to violence which makes them more susceptible to becoming victims
When children watched a film with adults that involved fighting (2)
-children who had heard the disapproving comments from adult produced far fewer aggressive behaviors upon testing ' -in the absence of disapproving adult or an adult who responded approvingly, the children exhibited an increase in aggression
Opponent-Process Theory of Emotion (2)
Proposes that an emotional event elicits two competing processes: 1. An a-process (or primary process) that is directly elicited by the event 2. b-process (or opponent process) that is elicited by the a-process and serves to counteract the a-process Is good at explaining the aftereffects of strong emotional responses EX: You purchase a lottery ticket and your mom tells you that you own $50,000. You become elated. (a-process) After a week, she calls you again and says she mad a mistake and you only own $50... you become very disappointed (b-process). Within a day, your disappointment wears off and you carry on with your impoverished lifestyle as usual EX: A dog is exposed to electric shock. During the shock, the dog's heart rate quickly rises to a peak, (a-process) decreases slightly, and then stabilizes at a relatively high level. Now, when the shock is turned off, the dog heart rate does not turn to normal When the shock is removed, the dog's heart rate plunges to below normal and then after a few minutes moves back up to normal The a-process increases heart rate in the dog and the b-process decreases the heart rate. the purpose of b-process is to counter the sudden increase in heart rate, thereby maintaining a state of internal balance (homeostasis). The b-process tries to prevent the increase in heart rate from becoming too extreme
_________________ involves the weakening of a behaviour through the application of an aversive stimulus or the removal of an appetitive stimulus.
Punishment
When is punishment effective?
Punishment is often successful in immediately getting someone to stop a behavior, that success reinforces over tendency to use that punishment in the future
Who put forward Species- Specific Defense reaction theory? What does it state?
Put forward by Bolles -states that avoidance behaviors are elicited behaviors rather than operant behavior Operant behavior- controlled by consequence elicited behavior-controlled by stimuli that precede them
