Chapter 13 Outline Questions

Location ~ Thomas More:

London, England (born, raised, and lived)

Famous Works - Desiderius Erasmus:

"The Handbook of the Christian Knight" (1503) "The Praise of Folly" (1509)

What was the primary doctrine of Lutheranism? What was the only way one could attain religious truth, according to Luther?:

The primary doctrine of Lutheranism was the doctrine of salvation or justification by grace through faith alone.

What was the Catholic Reformation, or Counter-Reformation?:

•Was the movement for the reform of the Catholic Church in the sixteenth century. •It included a revived papacy; the regeneration of old religious orders and the founding of new ones, most notably the Jesuits; and the reaffirmation of traditional Catholic doctrine at the Council of Trent.

Famous Works ~ Thomas More:

"Utopia" (1516)

What are "laymen" or "laypeople"? How do they differ from the clergy? What are examples of some Catholic orders that called for reform of the corrupt clergy?:

•"Laymen" or "Laypeople" = a group of people belonging to the Catholic church who were distinguished a separate from the clergy. •One Catholic order was to begin preaching to Laypeople and not just Clergy members.

What form did the "family" take in Lutheran's view? What kind of effect did the Protestant Reformation have on women?:

•"family" could be placed at centre of human life, and a new stress on "mutual love between man and wife" could be extolled. •However, while this was sometimes a reality, more often than not, women were expected to follow orders from their husbands whatever it may be, and husbands often acted like rulers in their families. •While family life was often the only future for women because Protestantism removed monasticism as a career option, girls were now educated, at least in the Bible. •But, women were viewed as giving birth and going through the pains and burdens of child bearing and rearing as punishment for Eve's sins, and were no longer viewed as important in controlling religion in the home.

What was the Spanish Armada and how did it end?:

•A fleet of warships that Philip II ordered to rendevous with the army of the Duke of Parma in Flanders and escort his troops across the English Channel for Philip II's planned invasion of England. •Failed because Spanish Armada had neither the ships nor the troops that were planned to be sent. •The Spaniards bet their success on a miracle from God which never came. •Battered by a number of encounters with the English, and tons of storms. •Even though the English and Spanish would keep fighting for sixteen years, the Spanish never won, and the defeat of the Spanish Armada was a huge psychological blow to the over confident Spaniards.

John Calvin was arguably more influential in the spread of Protestantism than Martin Luther. What were his core beliefs? On what areas did he agree with Luther? Where did he disagree with Luther?:

•Believed and adhered to the doctrine of justification by faith alone to explain how humans achieved salvation. Calvin also placed a lot of emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God, and believed in predestination (God predetermines who is going to hell and who is going to heaven). •To Calvin, the church was a diving institution, responsible for preaching the words of God and administering the sacraments. •Calvin kept the same two sacraments as other Protestant Reformers, baptism and the Lord's Supper. •Unlike Luther, Calvin believed that Jesus is only spiritually present in the Lord's Supper, not physically present (consubstantiation).

What was the Act of Supremacy? How did the Queen handle Catholics and radical Protestants (Puritans)?:

•In 1559 the Parliament cooperated with Elizabeth in initiating the Elizabethan religious settlement. •The Catholic legislation of Mary's reign was repealed, and the new Act of Supremacy designated Elizabeth as "the only Supreme governor of this realm, as well as in all spiritual or ecclesiastical things or causes, as temporal." •She used this rather than the title "Supreme head of the Church" so she wouldn't upset Catholics who thought that the title belonged to the Pope, or radical Protestants, who considered Christ the head of the church.

What happened to Zwingli?:

•In October 1521, war erupted between the Swiss Protestants and Catholic Cantons. •Zürich's army was routed, and Zwingli was found wounded on the battlefield. •His enemies killed him, cut his body into pieces, burned the pieces, and scattered the ashes.

Who were the Jesuits? What was their alternative name? Who were they led by? What did they resemble?:

•Jesuits, AKA 'The Society of Jesus' = new religious order that became the chief instrument of the Catholic reformation. •They were founded by and led by a Spanish nobleman, Ignatius of Loyola. •They kind of resembled the first Protestants because of their leader's anguish in regards to religion, but this was the only thing Luther and Ignatius had in common. •The Jesuits were basically super-Catholics

Who held the highest positions among the clergy? What is the bourgeoisie?:

•Nobles and/or wealthy members of the bourgeoisie held the highest positions among the clergy •The bourgeoisie = essentially, (upper) middle class.

What happened to the Dutch Anabaptists are Munster? What did they rename themselves afterwards?:

•The Dutch Anabaptists and Munster believed the end of the world was coming, and attempted to form a new Jerusalem from Munster. •Kicked everyone else out, burned all books that weren't the Bible, and proclaimed communal ownership of all property. •John of Leiden eventually took control and announced himself the King of New Jerusalem with the goal of taking control of the world and purifying it with his sword so the Earth is nice when Jesus decides to show up. •The Catholic prince-bishop of Munster later showed up and starved out the city, killed the radical Anabaptist leaders, and Dutch Anabaptists became pacifists thanks to Menno Simmons. •They now called themselves Amish/Mennonites

What was the Edict of Nantes? What did it state?:

•The Edict of Nantes = edict issued in 1598, acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France, but guaranteed the Huguenots the right to worship in specific places in every district and let them keep a certain number of fortified towns for their protection. •Pretty much almost equal rights for the Huguenots.

What was the War of the Three Henries? Who were the three? Who ended up becoming King?:

•The War of the Three Henries was the continued fighting between Catholics and Huguenots in France. •The three Henries were: ~Henry, duke of Guise (Catholic) ~the ruling King Henry III (1574 - 1589) {Catholic who was a tolerant/worked with Protestants} ~Henry of Navarre, who was a Huguenot •Henry of Navarre ultimately won, but realized that he would never be accepted by Catholic France, so he converted to Catholicism again.

Who was Ulrich Zwingli? Where was he from? What did he have in common with Luther?:

•Ulrich Zwingli (1484 - 1531) was the son of a prosperous peasant (relatively) and was born in one of the forest cantons of Switzerland. •From a young age, Zwingli eventually obtained a bachelor and masters in arts. During his university education at Vienna and Basel, he was strongly influenced by Christian humanism. •He was ordained as a priest in 1506, accepted a parish post in rural Switzerland, until his appointment as cathedral priest in the Great Minister of Zürich in 1518. •Through his preaching there, Zwingli began the Reformation in Switzerland (like Luther in Germany).

How did the Protestant education differ from the humanist schools that came before?:

•Unlike the humanist schools, which had been mostly for the elite, the sons and daughters of the nobility and and wealthier bourgeoisie, Protestant schools were aimed at a much wider audience. •Public schools •Public and Private schools •(Private/Gymnasium = taught Latin and Greek grammar and literature as well as logic.) •(Public = taught philosophy, Hebrew, Greek, and theology)

Explain what happened when Henry VIII broke away from the Catholic Church.:

•When Henry VIII created the Church of England and broke away from the Catholic Church, Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy in 1534, which declared that the English monarch now controlled the church in all meanings of the word, and in all areas. •Also, the Treason Act was passed, making it punishable by death to deny that the king was the Supreme Head of the Church. •There was a lot of religious conflict in England because many people, including Thomas More, did not like that loyalty to the Pope in Rome was treason against the English King.

Who was Charles V of HRE concerned with in the east? Why?:

•concerned with the Ottomans to the East of his Empire •In the fifteenth century, the Ottoman Turks had taken control of much of South Eastern Europe. •In the sixteenth century, they had taken control of much of the North African coast, overran Hungary, and advanced into Austria as far as Vienna until they were finally repulsed in 1529.

Years Active ~ Thomas More:

Born 1478, died in 1535, first book was published in 1516, so 1510(ish) to 1535 (?)

What was Luther's biggest achievement at Wartburg Castle? Why is it slightly ironic?:

Luther's biggest achievement at Wartburg Castle was the translation of the New Testament into German. This was ironic because while his translation was widely popular, only 4 to 5% of people in Germany were literate, most being in urban areas.

Describe England's foreign policies during this time:

•Elizabeth was fearful of other countries' motives because she realized war could be disastrous for both England and he own rule •However, on the down-low, she supported English piracy and provided aid to French Huguenots and Calvinists in the Netherlands to weaken France and Spain. •But, she acted aloof and avoided alliances that would force her into war with any major powers.

Why did Henry VIII of England want a divorce from Catherine of Aragon? What did Cardinal Wolsey have to do with this?:

•Catherine failed to give him a make heir, was falling in love with Anne Boleyn who promised to give him a male heir if he made her queen, so he wanted a divorce from Catherine. •Henry asked Cardinal Wolsey to ask the pope to annul his marriage to Catherine, but the pope took too long to make it happen, so Henry became impatient and dismissed Cardinal Wolsey in 1529.

There was a brief time in about 1541 when some Catholics had hoped to resolve the religious differences between Catholics and Protestants peacefully. Why didn't this happen?:

•Didn't happen because Cardinal Caraffa accused Cardinal Contarini, who had wanted to resolve the religious differences peacefully, of selling out to heretics. •Then when Cardinal Caraffa was chosen as Pope Paul IV (1555 - 1559) he so increased the power of the Roman Inquisition (that he had convinced the previous Pope to form to ferret out doctrinal errors) that even the liberal Cardinals were silenced.

Spielvogel has often said that changes in Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries led the salvation process to become more mechanical. What does he mean by this? Why did it happen? What are indulgences and how do they fit into this process?:

• Many church officials failing to meet their religious responsibilities + ordinary people grasping for some sort of meaningful religious expression and certainty of salvation = salvation process became almost mechanical •These people found this in the veneration of relics and indulgences. Indulgences were pieces of paper that could reduce a person's time in purgatory by a significant amount of time, and served as a remission, after death, of all or part of the punishment for sins.

Years Active ~ Desiderius Erasmus:

Born 1466, died 1536, first book was published in 1503, so 1503-1536 (?)

Location ~ Desiderius Erasmus:

Born in Holland; wandered to France, England, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland.

Where did Lutheranism spread? To whom was it most appealing?:

Lutheranism spread to both princely and ecclesiastical states in Northern and Central Germany as well as to two-thirds of the free imperial cities, especially those of Southern Germany, where prosperous burghers for both religious and secular reasons, became committed to Luther's cause. He was most appealing to prosperous burghers, and upper class clergy.

What effect, if any, did the spread of Lutheranism have on peasants of the Holy Roman Empire?:

Most peasants did not experience any change through the rise of Lutheranism, and were still abused by their lords, who demanded new taxes and other services, which caused peasants to wish for a return to the 'good old days'. They also became angry because they were not experiencing the beneficial economic reform as a result of Lutheranism that the upper classes were.

How was the Northern Renaissance, in some ways, similar to the Italian Renaissance?:

Similar in regards to the cultivation of knowledge through the classics. Both Italian and Northern Humanists alike also believed in the power of education which would remain an important characteristic of European civilization.

What was the Diet of Worms? What was the conclusion that came from it? What happened to Luther immediately after?:

The Diet of Worms was an event in which Luther was expected to appear before the imperial diet of the Holy Roman Empire in Worms, and was expected to recant the heretical doctrines he had published, but Luther refused. Emperor Charles got mad and by the Edict of Worms, Luther was made an outlaw in the Holy Roman Empire. Luther's prince, the Elector of Saxony, sent him into hiding at the Wartburg Castle where he remained for nearly a year.

What was the German Peasants' Revolt (or War)? Did Luther support the peasants? Why or why not?:

The German Peasants' Revolt (or War) was an outbreak of violence as a result of social and economic discontent that caused peasants to unite against the upper classes. Luther did not support the peasants because he knew the Lutheran movement relied on the support of the wealthy German princes, though he did blame them for creating the discontent through their harsh earlier treatment of the peasants.

What does "when a coin in the coffer rings, a soul from purgatory springs" mean? Who said it? Did Luther like or dislike this idea? Why?:

This means that when a person bought an indulgence, it freed the soul of one of their family members from purgatory and into heaven. This was said by Johann Tetzel. Luther did not like indulgences, and was certain that people who relied on these pieces of paper to assure themselves salvation were guaranteeing their eternal damnation instead.

What is the difference between "transubstantiation" and "consubstantiation"? Why was this such a huge sticking point for Luther?:

Transubstantiation = doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church that the bread and wine is miraculously transformed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ. Consubstantiation = the Lutheran doctrine that the substance of the bread and wine coexists with the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist. This was a huge sticking point for Luther because he believed that the bread and wine was both bread and wine and the body and blood, instead of just the body and blood.

What were the major differences of the Northern Renaissance from the Italian Renaissance?:

While Italian Humanists were more interested in secularism, Northern (or Christian) Humanists were more interested in the reform and simplification of the church through education in the sources of Classical and Christian antiquity.

How did the church increase its revenues? What is pluralism?:

• The church increased its revenues often by allowing the high church officials to resort of pluralism • Pluralism = the practice of holding several church offices simultaneously

In what ways did the Protestant reformers change how Christians practiced their religion?:

•Abolishing or curtailing customary practices such as indulgences, the veneration of relics and saints, pilgrimages, monasticism, and clerical celibacy. •Changed community's sense of time and the elimination of saints put an end to the numerous celebrations of religious holy days. •In Protestant communities, religious ceremonies and imagery, such as processions and statues, tended to be replaced with individual private prayer, family worship, and collective prayer and worship at the same time each week on Sunday. •Overall, Protestant practices seemed a bit more strict than before

Aside from religion, what else contributed to the ongoing civil wars in France? What is a politique?:

•Aside from religion, towns, provinces, and also many members of the nobility were resentful of the growing power of monarchical centralization, so they were eager to join a revolt against the monarchy. •Also, because so many of the nobility were Calvinists, they formed an important base of opposition to the crown. •A politique is a group that emerged during the French Wars of Religion in the sixteenth century, placed politics above religion, and believed that no religious truth was worth the ravages of civil war (so basically the Politiques had common sense)

Core Beliefs ~ Desiderius Erasmus:

•Believed that Christianity should be guiding philo. for the direction of daily life •Emphasized inner piety and de-emphasized the external forms of religion •To return to the simplicity of the early church, people needed to understand the original meaning of the scriptures and the early writings of the early church fathers •Moderation and Emphasis on education

Describe the background of Martin Luther. Who was he? Where was he from? What did he grow up believing? When did he live? Upon entering adulthood, what did he become?:

•Born in Germany (11/10/1483) •Was religiously incline and eventually pursued this, but not before enrolling in Law School •Received a Bachelor's and Master's in Liberal Arts •Later became a monk and then a professor of theology •Caused the Protestant Reformation with his 95 theses.

Who was Charles I of Spain? What title did he eventually adopt? What dynasty was he a part of? Who was he related to?:

•Charles I of Spain was the son of Philip of Habsburg and Joanna of Spain. •His paternal grandfather was Maximilian I of Austria, who ruled as Holy Roman Emperor from 1493 to 1519. •His maternal grandparents were Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. •He eventually adopted the title of Holy Roman Emperor (1519 - 1556) as Charles V. •Holy Roman Empire, Spanish King, and Habsburg Dynasty

After the Habsburg-Valois wars cooled off and the attack at Vienna had been repelled, what did Charles V unsuccessfully attempt to do in 1530?:

•Charles V unsuccessfully attempted to basically stop the rise and spread of Lutheranism, and more specifically to settle the Lutheran problem at the diet of Augsburg in 1530.

What were the three primary activities conducted by Jesuits?:

•Established highly disciplined schools (borrowed freely from humanist schools for their educational methods) •The propagation of the Catholic faith among non-Christians (South/Eastern Asia; India, Japan, almost China) •Also determined to carry the Catholic banner and fight Protestantism. Jesuit missionaries succeeded in restoring Catholicism to parts of Germany and Eastern Europe. •Poland was largely won back for the Catholic Church through Jesuit efforts.

Because she had no heirs, who was supposed to succeed the Queen? What happened to this woman?:

•Her Catholic cousin, Mary Queen of Scots, was supposed to be Elizabeth's successor. •But, Mary was involved in many poorly planned plots to kill Elizabeth and replace her with Mary (Catholic plots) •Elizabeth had her beheaded after she became embroiled in a very serious plot to kill Elizabeth. •So, Elizabeth finally put an end to the woman threatening her reign.

In the mid 16th century (1500s) the French Wars of Religion broke out. Catholics vs. Huguenots. Who are Huguenots? What members of French society made up the Huguenots? Which side had more supporters?:

•Huguenots = were the French Calvinists, and they came from all levels of society: artisans and shopkeepers, merchants and lawyers, and members of the nobility. •Possibly 40 to 50 percent of the French nobility became Huguenots, but Calvinists constituted only about 10% of the population, though they were a strong-willed and well-organized minority.

Who provided a male heir to Henry VIII? What happened to the heir?:

•King Henry VIII's third wife, Jane Seymour, produced a male heir and died shortly after giving birth. •The boy was named Edward VI (1547 - 1553) who succeeded his father, but as sickly and and died at age 15 after becoming King of England at age nine.

Who was the King of Spain from 1556 to 1598? Of which dynasty was he a part? Who was he related to? What were a few of his major goals?:

•King Philip II of Spain •Son and heir of Charles V. He was a part of the Spanish Dynasty at the time, and grandson of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile. •One of Philip's aims was to make Spain a dominant power in Europe. •He also wanted to consolidate and secure the lands he had inherited from his father. •Lastly, he hoped to strengthen his control in the Netherlands.

Who was Mary I of England? What made her short reign memorable?:

•Mary I of England was King Henry VIII's first daughter and child by Catherine of Aragon. •Her short reign (1553 - 1558) was so memorable because she attempted to restore Catholicism in England, and in order to do so, burned more than three hundred Protestant heretics. •She achieved the opposite of her goals, as Catholicism was never restored in England after that.

Other than many of the kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire, where were some other places around Europe who found the line between Church and State being blurred thanks to the spread of Protestantism?:

•Norway, as well as Sweden. •In general, Scandinavia became a Lutheran stronghold, and like German princes, the Scandinavian monarchs had been the dominant force in establishing state-run churches.

Why was Pope Paul III an important turning point for reforming the papacy?:

•Pope Paul III continued Renaissance papal practices by appointing his nephews as cardinals, involving himself in politics, and patronizing arts and letters on a lavish scale. •Nevertheless, he was also one of the first Popes to actually make reforms in the papacy and Catholic church in order to help fight corruption.

Who succeeded Queen Mary I of England? Who was she the daughter of? What were her religious views?:

•Queen Mary I of England was succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth (who ruled from 1558 - 1603). •She was the daughter of King Henry VIII of House Tudor, and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. •When it came to her religious views, she was basically Protestant, but it was a moderate Protestantism that avoided overly subtle distinctions and extremes (let people of England be Protestant or Catholic, she didn't really care)

Who are the Anabaptists? List some of the beliefs that made them considered so radical. What did both Catholic and Protestants believe about the Anabaptists?:

•The Anabaptists were radical members of a large variety of groups who shared common characteristics. •Anabaptism was especially attractive to the peasants, weavers, miners, and artisans who had been adversely affected by the economic changes of the age. •Some of the beliefs that made them considered to be so radical were the following: ~all Christians are priests ~simple Christian living ~Adult baptism ~Baptism in the (Anabaptist) church to be considered actually Christian ~Would have to suffer for their faith as Jesus suffered ~Attempted to literally return to early Christian practices ~Believed in completed separation of church and state •Both Catholics and Protestants HATED ANABAPTISTS, believed they were dangerous radicals who needed to be stamped out of society

How was marriage and sex viewed by Protestants like Luther and Calvin? What made their view different than those of the Catholic Church?:

•The Catholic church viewed sex as a sacrament and had high regard for abstinence from sex as the surest way to holiness, and this made the celibate state of the clergy preferable to marriage. •Luther said basically that if you can't stay celibate then you have to get married first. Unlike the Catholic Church, Protestants did not view celibacy as a way to ensure holiness.

What was the Council of Trent? What was basically the conclusion at the end of it?:

•The Council of Trent = a meeting of Cardinals, Archbishops, Bishops, Abbots, and Theologians in the city of Trent in March 1545, where Moderate Catholic Reformers hoped that the Council would make Protestants compromises in formulating doctrinal definitions that would encourage them to return to the church. •Conservatives, however, favoured an uncompromising restatement of the Catholic doctrines in strict opposition to Protestant Reformers, and they won. •Meeting just reaffirmed Catholic practices, last met in 1563.

What happened at the Marburg Colloquy?:

•The Marburg Colloquy was a meeting with the aim to promote an alliance of the Swiss and German reformed churches to resolve their difference and basically team up against Charles V so he couldn't take advantage of the division between the reformers. •The gathering was able to agree on everything but the interpretation of the Lord's Supper. Luther believed that the bread and wine actually was both bread and wine and the body and blood of Christ at the same time. Zwingli believed that there was no body or blood of Christ in the bread and wine, and that it was purely a symbolic meal of remembrance.

What territory was the most important to Spain? What made them very different from Spain?:

•The Netherlands were the most important territory to Spain. •Unlike Spain, the seven northern provinces were largely Germanic in culture and Dutch speaking. •The other ten French- and Flemish- speaking provinces were closely tied to France. •Some inhabitants had adopted Lutheranism or Anabaptism, and Calvinism was becoming more popular in the Netherlands as well.

What was the Peace of Augsburg? Why was it important?:

•The Peace of Augsburg was an end to religious warfare in Germany in 1555. This marked an important turning point in the history of the Reformation. •The agreement formally acknowledged the division of Christianity, with Lutheranism granted equal legal standing with Catholicism. •More over, the Peace settlement accepted the right of each German ruler to determine the religion of his subjects.

What was the Schmalkaldic League? Who did they ally themselves with? Why was this both somewhat expected but also somewhat surprising?:

•The Schmalkaldic League was a defensive alliance formed by eight princes and eleven imperial cities (all Lutheran and German) in February of 1531. •They were fearful of Charles V's intentions after he demanded that the Lutherans return to the Catholic Church by April 15, 1531. •These Protestant German States vowed to assist each other "whenever any one of us is attacked on account of the word of God and the Doctrine of the Gospel". •It was somewhat expected and somewhat surprising because religion was dividing the empire into two armed camps.

What was the event that caused the wars to erupt? Why did it happen?:

•The wars erupted in 1562 when the powerful duke of Guise massacred a peaceful congregation of Huguenots at Vassy. •The massacre of Huguenots occurred in August 1572 at a time when the Catholic and Calvinist parties had apparently been resolved through the marriage of the sister of the reigning Valois King (Catholic) and the Bourbon ruler of Navarre (Huguenot). •But, the Guise family persuaded the king and his mom that the gathering of Huguenots posed a threat to them, and thus had them killed.

Who were Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell? What did they encourage Henry VIII to do?:

•Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell were the king's new advisors •Cranmer (1489 - 1556) became archbishop of Canterbury in 1532, and Cromwell (1485 - 1540) became the king's principal secretary after the fall of Wolsey. •They both encourage Henry VIII to obtain an annulment of his marriage to Catherine through England's own ecclesiastical courts. •This kind of (yeah pretty much) made the Church of England a concrete thing.

Core Beliefs ~ Thomas More:

•Trained in law, took an interest in Classical learning and because proficient in Latin and Greek. •Very devout religiously and had a strong belief in the universal Catholic Church. •Intolerant of heresy •Concerned with the economic, social, and political problems of his day.

Who was Francis I, and what was his opinion of Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire? Why?:

•Valois King of France from 1515 - 1547 (born 1494, died 1547). •Didn't like Charles V, especially because Francis I found himself surrounded by the possessions and territories of the Habsburg Empire. •Because of this, Francis, got himself caught in a series of conflicts over disputes regarding territories in southern France, the Netherlands, Rhineland, northern Spain, and Italy. These conflicts were known as the Habsburg Valois Wars (1521 - 1544).

How did Philip approach these differences? What did the Duke of Alva have to do with how Philip responded? What did this territory rename itself after seceding from Spain?:

•When Philip II tried to strengthen his control in the Netherlands, regardless of the traditional privileges of the separate provinces, he was strongly opposed by the nobles, towns, and provincial states of the Netherlands. •They also revolted when they realized the taxes they paid supported Spanish interests, and when Philip II attempted to crush Calvinism. •Philip II then sent the Duke of Alva (with 10,000 veteran Spanish and Italian troops) to crush the rebellion in 1556. •The ten southern provinces remained in Spanish possession, but the northern seven soon emerged as the Dutch Republic in 1609.