Chapter 13: Reformation & Religious Wars (16th century + first half of 17th c.)

the elect

The people that Calvinists believe God chose for salvation

"defenestration of Prague" (1618)

"Defenestration" refers to throwing government officials out of a window. The Czechs (people living in Bohemia) were predominantly Calvinist, and lived fearing that the Catholic king Matthias would deny their religious views. Thus they defenestrated many of Matthias's close associates.

Ninety-five Theses (1517)

Martin Luther's argument that indulgences undermined the seriousness of the sacrament of penance, competed with the preaching of the Gospel, and downplayed the importance of charity in Christian life. May or may not have been nailed to the door of a church

Anabaptists

Means "rebaptizers," adopted the baptism of adult believers and attempted communal ownership of property, simple living, and rejecting any thing they thought unbiblical

Puritans

Members of a sixteenth and seventeenth century reform movement within the Church of England that advocated purifying it of Roman Catholic elements, like bishops, elaborate ceremonials, and wedding rings

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

A German university professor and priest who propelled the Reformation by disagreeing with Catholic church doctrines. He believed that salvation and justification come through faith and not the traditions of the church

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

Decrees laid a solid basis for the spiritual renewal of the Catholic Church by giving equal validity to the Scriptures and tradition as sources of religious truth and authority, reaffirming the seven sacraments and the traditional Catholic teaching on transubstantiation, suppressing pluralism and simony, and forbidding the sale of indulgences

Elizabeth (r. 1558-1603)

Mary's half-sister, Henry's daughter with Anne Boleyn, whose reign inaugurated the beginnings of religious stability. Working through parliament, she ordered church and government officials to give her authority over religion and politics, forced subjects to attend Church of England services or be fined, and encouraged preaching of Protestant ideas

CATHOLIC REFORMATION

PLACEHOLDER

Identify the features of the Catholic and Counter-Reformations, and analyze the extent to which they were successful.

The Catholic and Counterreformations tried to reconcile some of the Catholics that converted to Protestants. The Catholic Pope Paul III was one of the "reformed popes". The Catholic Church reformed its immorality through new doctrines declared in the Council of Trent. They also attempted to evangelize Catholicism throughout Europe, and also trying to limit the spread of Protestantism. They were successful for the most part, but sparked the religious violence throughout Europe. It also resulted in the Thirty Years' War.

Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547)

The English king who wanted to break from Rome for a new wife as well as political, social, and economic reasons. Used Parliament to end authority of the pope and make himself the supreme king of the church in England. Nationalized the church and founded the Church of England because he wanted to divorce his wife.

Johann Tetzel

friar who ran Archbishop Albert of Mainz's sale of indulgences. Really irritated Luther. Lots of advertising for complete forgiveness of own sins + release from purgatory of relatives

United Provinces (est. 1609)

The seven northern provinces, led by Holland, joined by the Union of Utrecht

Elizabethan Settlement

a series of laws which officially established many Protestant doctrines and practices

pluralism

holding multiple positions in the church

absenteeism

holding multiple positions in the church but not really doing all of them -- extensive outsourcing and delegation so officials get paid for having the position but do nothing and pay really little for small local guys to do their job

PROTESTANT REFORMATION

placeholder

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)

Swiss humanist, priest, and admirer of Erasmus who was convinced that Christian life rested on the Scriptures, which were the pure words of God and the sole basis of religious truth. He attacked indulgences, the Mass, monastaries, and clerical celibacy

Counter-Reformation

The Catholic Church's opposition of Protestants intellectually, politically, militarily, and institutionally. The papacy, new religious orders, and the Council of Trent played important roles

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

The Peace of Westphalia reinstated the Peace of Augsburg, and Calvinism became acceptable in Germany. The Edict of Restitution was revoked. Switzerland and Holland made independent from Hapsburg control. France, Sweden, Prussia received territories. German princes made sovereign rulers, limiting power of Holy Roman Emperor and influence of Austrian and Spanish Hapsburgs. Germany's unification was delayed until well into the 19th century.

Assess the impact of the Protestant Reformation on marriage and women. Was the Protestant Reformation good or bad for women?

The Protestant Reformation was generally good for women. In a nutshell, women's status increased. Protestants believed that there were spiritual advantages to opposite genders being together. Priests were allowed to marry. Although the implication that women are subordinate to men remain, men are generally encouraged to treat their wives kindly, as this is following God's plan. Protestantism saw marriage as a contract in which both sides promise each other mutual support.

Union of Utrecht (est. 1581)

The alliance of seven northern provinces (led by Holland) that declared its independence from Spain and formed United Provinces of the Netherlands

Catherine of Aragon

The daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella and widow of Henry's older brother, Arthur. Only had a daughter, so Henry VIII wanted a divorce, but the Church would not let him.

Mary Tudor (r. 1553-1558), "Bloody Mary"

The devoutly Catholic daughter of Catherine of Aragon and Henry VIII, who rescinded the Reformation legislation of her father's reign and restored Roman Catholicism

Spanish Armada (1588)

The fleet sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 against England as a religious crusade against Protestantism. Weather and the smaller, faster, and more maneuverable English fleet defeated it.

politiques

The group of people that argued that France's only way of survival is by accepting each other's differences; they allowed individuals to choose whatever religion they wanted

Charles V (1500-1558)

ruler of both the Spanish Empire from 1516 and the Holy Roman Empire from 1519, as well as of the lands of the former Duchy of Burgundy from 1506. Later gave up the throne and moved to a monastery and transferred power to his son Philip and brother Ferdinand

simony

the buying or selling of ecclesiastical privileges, for example pardons or benefices.

Catholic League (1609)

was a coalition of Catholic states of the Holy Roman Empire formed to make sure that the Protestant Union did not gain more territory or religious power and was supported by the Spanish Habsburgs

Index of Prohibited Books

A catalog of forbidden reading published by the Holy Office that included works by Christian humanists such as Erasmus as well as Protestants

Define the Holy Roman Empire, and explain in whose hands the real authority lay.

A collection of smaller kingdoms officially ruled by the Holy Roman Empire but actually ruled by princes

Anne Boleyn

A court lady in waiting who Henry VIII expected would yield him a son, but she didn't so he charged her with adulterous incest and had her beheaded

Pilgrimage of Grace (1536)

A massive rebellion, the largest in English history, caused by religious changes in the north. The "pilgrims" accepted a truce, but the leaders were arrested, tried, and executed

Concordat of Bologna

A pact signed by French Ruler Louis XI (check this please) that allowed France to run its own Church, and thus financially supported by Rome.

French Religious Wars (1559-1598)

A series of civil wars fought between the French Protestants (Calvinist Huguenots) and the Catholics. It started with the Hapsburg-Valois wars, in which the Catholic leaders taxed the citizens heavily. However, after signing the Concordat of Bologna, France was supported financially by Rome, and thus felt no need to revolt. However, many French nobles were attracted to Protestant religions, more so as a means of covering their desire for independence. Also due to the weakness of the French monarchy, there was much tension in Catholic and Protestant rule. Calvinists often broke into churches and destroyed many religious artifacts, known as iconoclasm. The climax of the conflict was perhaps the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, in which under the supervision of Catholic ruler Catherine d'Medici, Catholics massacred many of the Huguenots. This resulted in a civil war that continued until 1598. France was finally saved by the politiques, who allowed people to choose their religion

Edict of Nantes (1598)

Allowed Huguenots to worship in 150 towns, helped to restore peace in France

Ursulines

Another religious order founded by Angela Merici. This emphasized education of women. She re-Christianized the society by training women to be proper wives and mothers. The Ursulines quickly spread in the New World.

baroque art

Baroque is a term literally translated into "grotesque". Baroque art was considered to be an instrument of the counterreformation. The Church decided to bring back Catholics through art, and Catholic "spiritual" art became a sensation. Baroque artists often depicted tension and suffering in their works. They applied lighting angles and contrasts of light and dark. Baroque music should also be mentioned. J.S. Bach was the ultimate composer. His compositions would shape Western music. Perhaps Bach's most famous composition was the Book for Anna Magdalena Bach. Other Baroque composers included Giorgio Vivaldi and G. F. Handel.

Habsburg-Valois Wars

Battles between France and Spain that ended in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis. Costs of these wars forced the French to increase taxes and borrow heavily, and King Francis I tried to raise revenue by selling public offices and having a treaty with the papacy

consubstantiation

Body and blood are already in the bread & wine of the Eucharist by the divine mystery of God. Don't need the prayer.

transubstantiation

Body and blood of Christ brought to the bread & wine of the Eucharist through a priest's prayer

Calvin/The Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536/1559)

Calvin's formulation of Christian doctrine, which became a systematic theology for Protestantism

Explain the causes and consequences of the great European witch-hunt.

Caused by heightened sense of God's power and divine wrath in the Reformation era and a redefinition of what a witch was. Resulted deaths of a lot of "witches"

Pope Paul III (1534-1549)

Caused the papal court to become the center of the reform movement rather than its chief opponent, and supported improvements in education for the clergy, the end of simony, and stricter control of clerical life

Diet of Worms (1521)

Charles V's assembly of the nobility, clergy, and cities of the Holy Roman Empire in the German city of Worms in which Luther was summoned and shared his reform ideas

Philip II (r. 1556-1598)

Charles V's son who grew up in Spain and supported Catholicism and did not accept the Union of Utrecht's declaration of independence from Spain so went to war

Luther "On Christian Liberty" (1520)

Contains the main themes of Luther's theology: the importance of faith, the relationship between Christian faith and good works, the dual nature of human beings, and the fundamental importance of scripture. Luther writes that Christians were freed from sin and death through Christ, not through their own actions

Iconoclasm

Destruction of (usually Catholic) religious objects

John Knox (1505?-1572) / Presbyterian Church of Scotland

Dominated the reform movement and led the establishment of a state church in Scotland. Helped found the Presbyterian Church of Scotland was strictly Calvinist in doctrine, adopted a simple and dignified service of worship, and laid great emphasis on preaching

Habsburgs

Dynasty that demonstrated the benefits of an advantageous marriage stretched across generations

Mary, Queen of Scots (r. 1542-1567)

Elizabeth's Catholic cousin who was next in line to the English throne but was imprisoned because Elizabeth was worried that she would become the center of Catholic plots to overthrow her. She was later executed for implications of being in a plot to assassinate Elizabeth

Explain who the Habsburgs were, where they held territory, and why they are important in European history.

Emperor Fredrick III (Habsburg) of the HRE married Princess Eleonore of Portugal and arranged for his son Maximilian to marry Mary of Burgundy. Maximilian married his son and daughter to the children of Ferdinand and Isabella. This created two branches of the Habsburg dynasty, one Spanish and one Austrian.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559)

Ended the Habsburg-Valois wars when France and Spain signed. France was pooped and admitted that Spain had dominance in Italy, so they won.

Supremacy Act (1534)

English act of Parliament that recognized Henry VIII as the "Supreme Head of the Church of England." The act also required an oath of loyalty from English subjects that recognized his marriage to Anne Boleyn.

John Calvin (1509-1564)

Experienced a religious crisis and converted to Protestantism, and he believed that God had specifically selected him to reform the church. In Geneva, he worked to establish a well-disciplined Christian society in which the church and state acted together. Believed in predestination

Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)

Founded the Jesuit order by spending a year in seclusion, prayer, and asceticism and published spiritual exercises to develop peoples' spiritual discipline

Huguenots

French Calvinists

Geneva/Genevan Consistory

Geneva was a community based on Calvin's religious principles and the Consistory was a group of laymen and pastors charged with investigating and disciplining deviations from proper doctrine and conduct. Geneva became the model of a Christian community for many Protestant reformers

Charles V (r. 1519-1556)

Habsburg prince who served as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and was able to limit the impact of the Low Countries because he grew up there.

Henry of Navarre / Henry IV (r. 1589-1610)

Henry IV was the unfortunate groom at the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. He was one of the politiques who accepted the Huguenots' religious differences (Edict of Nantes)

Analyze the extent to which Henry VIII was motivated by love, religion, politics, and/or economics.

Henry VIII was motivated by love, religion, politics, and economics. Henry VIII was married to Catherine of Aragon, yet he loved a court lady, Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine, but Rome disagreed. Henry VIII was excommunicated the pope when he appointed Thomas Crammer as the Archbishop of Canterbury, and finally married Anne Boleyn. Another motive for this was the Henry would've been able to govern the Church of England without the Catholic Church controlling his land. Also, the English economy greatly increased when Henry broke away from the Catholic Church, as all the funds from industry flooded into the English monarchy.

Thomas Cromwell

Henry VIII's chief minister and helped persuade Henry VIII to place an English Bible in every church

Religious Violence/Wars

Included riots, wars, and witch-hunts

Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)

It was the first continent-wide war in modern history, fought mostly in Germany, and involved Europe's main powers at the time. It was the culmination of Protestant vs. Catholic religious wars. From a political standpoint, German princes sought independence from the Holy Roman Emperor. France wanted to limit spread of Hapsburg power. Sweden and Denmark wanted to strengthen their control over the Baltic Region. The war was split into 4 phases: 1) Bohemian Phase: Czechs (Bohemians) were largely Calvinist. They feared their Catholic king, Matthias, and defenestrated his representatives and installed a Calvinist king, Frederick V. After Matthias's death, Ferdinand II became Holy Roman Emperor and ruled over Bohemia. They were supported by the Spanish Hapsburgs and defeated the Bohemians in 1620, removing noble power and allowed the Spanish to consolidate their power along the Rhine. 2) Danish Phase: Christian IV (Lutheran) wanted to boost the weakened Protestant position in Germany and annex German Lands for his son. Ferdinand II commissioned Albert of Wallenstein to raise a mercenary army and defeated the Danish (1626). In 1629, emperor issued the Edict of Restitution, which restored the Catholic states in Germany that were secularized by the Peace of Augsburg. Albert of Wallenstein disapproved of this, so Ferdinand dismissed him. 3) Swedish Phase: Cardinal Richelieu, French Catholic regent, was concerned with gains by German Hapsburg emperor. Richelieu encouraged Swedish king Gustavus Aldophus to enter the war. The Swedish king was Lutheran and happy to help with the Protestant cause. After victories over German forces, Adolphus was killed; Wallenstein was assassinated for being disloyal to the emperor, and Protestant states of Germany made separate peace with emperor. 4) French-International Phase: France, Holland, Savoy entered war 1635, allied with Swedish. Spain supported Austrian Hapsburgs. After victories and reversals on both sides, French general Henri Turenne defeated Spanish, and in 1644 there was peace in Westphalia, Germany.

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyala, whose goal was the spread of the Roman Catholic faith. They saw their mission as improving people's spiritual condition rather than altering doctrine

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

Officially recognized Lutheranism and gave territories the political authority to decide where they would be Lutheran or Catholic, and made them respect other territories' religious choices. This ended religious war in Germany for many decades

Analyze the political and economic impact of the Protestant Reformation on the Holy Roman Empire (Germany).

Overall, the Protestant Reformation decreased the supreme power of the Holy Roman Emperor and drastically destroyed Germany's economy. Charles V was busy fighting the Ottoman Turks at the time of the Protestant Reformation and could not suppress the spread of Lutheran ideas. Later, the Thirty Years' War--over religious differences--broke out, deeply hurting Germany's economy. There were many contracts that were signed regarding the power of the Emperor over each individual province. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) was the final contract, reducing the Emperor's power over each province's religion.

indulgence

Paying to get rid of sins instead of actually doing penance. Catholic Church/Pope Leo X used Saint Peter's indulgence for building in Rome. Archbishop in Mainz (Albert) loved it because it allowed him to pay off debt from purchasing a bishop post at several other territories. Substitute for virtuous acts of penance by taking from a "stronghold" of goodness

Explain the appeal of Protestant ideas to various social groups.

Protestant ideas were especially appealing to educated people, ordinary folk that envied the church's wealth, political authorities, nobles, and peasants. Protestantism was helpful to educated folk because it allowed them to read and interpret the Bible in the vernacular (Luther translated the Bible into German). Many people envied the Church's large financial holdings, and hated the church for it; Protestantism reduced their taxation to the Church. Political authorities also resented Church power over their land, and Protestantism appealed to them. Nobles liked Protestantism because it gave them a chance to cloak their freedom from the monarchs under the pretense of religion. Lastly, peasants, seeking freedom from their nobles, conformed to Protestantism scripture; however, the peasants failed, as Luther turned on them.

Describe the spread of Protestantism in the sixteenth century, describing which Christian denomination took hold in each country, and why.

Protestantism spread very quickly in the sixteenth century. Historians attribute the spread of Protestantism to the invention of the printing press. This allowed Protestant ideas to spread to many countries quickly. Many denominations were created. Most of the different denominations of Protestantism were due to acceptance in that area. For example, the Huguenots (French Calvinists) lived in certain areas in France where they were accepted. Also, the Anabaptists were mainly accepted in the Netherlands, and so most of the 16th century Anabaptists resided in the Netherlands. Other times, the denominations are due to what the monarch wants. The Church of England was created because Henry VII wanted to split from the Catholic Church, thus creating his own Anglican Church for the English.

Compare and contrast Catholic and Protestant theology and practice.

Protestants believed that authority resides in only the Bible. Catholics believed in both the Bible and Church teachings as true authorities. Lutherans believed in consubstantiation, Zwingli believed that Christ was only present in spirit, and Catholics believed in transubstantiation. Protestants believed that salvation is only through God, while the Catholics believed that good works can also induce salvation. Catholics argue that the church is a hierarchical clerical institution headed by Pope. Protestants believed in spiritual priesthood, a priesthood of all believers. Protestant priests could marry, while Catholic ones can't.

Edict of Restitution (1629)

Reversed the Peace of Augsburg (1555), returned secularized German provinces back to the control of the Holy Roman Emperor.

Teresa of Ávila (1515-1582)

She was the founder of the Carmelite order in order to bring back stricter standards of asceticism and poverty; she understood this task through a vision that God has given her this mission. She founded many strict covenants about women, often too strict, in which she was investigated by the Spanish Inquisition to certify that her thoughts came from God and not the Devil.

Dutch Revolt (1566-1587)

Spanish authorities, who controlled the Netherlands and were Catholic, attempted to suppress Calvinist worship and raised taxes, and rioting ensued. Calvinists believed that Spanish rule was ungodly and should be overthrown. Eventually the 10 southern provinces came under the control of Spanish forces but the 7 northern provinces, called the Union of Utrecht, declared their independence from Spain and remained Protestant while the south remained Catholic. England supported Protestantism and sent aid to the northern provinces. Spain tried unsuccessfully to invade England in response. Ended when Spain agreed to recognize the independence of the United Provinces

purgatory

Step of the afterlife before heaven to completely amend for sins

German Peasants' War (1525)

Strengthened the authority of lay rulers, and helped the Reformation lose popular appeal as well as moderately improve peasant's economic conditions

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)

The marriage of Catholic Margaret of Valois and Protestant Henry of Navarre was intended to help France's internal dispute. However, this only lead to the massacre of many Huguenot wedding guests. Many Protestants were slaughtered. This resulted in a 15 year French civil war.

Holy Office/Inquisition

The official Roman Catholic agency founded in 1542 to combat international doctrinal heresy. The Roman Inquisition was a committee of six cardinals with judicial authority over all Catholics and the power to arrest, imprison, and execute suspected heretics. Pretty much destroyed heresy in the papal territories but didn't have much influence outside

predestination

The teaching that God has determined the salvation or damnation of individuals based on his will and purpose, not on their merit or works

Augsburg Confession (1530)

Then Lutheran statement of faith that Protestant princes presented to the emperor, who refused to accept it and ordered all Protestants to return to the Catholic Church and give up any confiscated church property

Analyze the causes of the Protestant Reformation and determine which are most important. Consider whether the Reformation was primarily politically, economically, or religiously motivated?

[LEQ question]

Protestant Union (1608)

a coalition of Protestant German states formed by Lutheran princes that was formed in order to defend the rights, lands and people of each member and keep the Catholic League from advancing religiously or territoriality

anti-clericalism

opposition to the clergy because of IGNORANCE, PLURALISM (--> absenteeism), IMMORALITY