Chapter 14 Planning Reports & Proposals

Figure 14.8 (2 of 4)

-Here he offers more information about the two themes he discovered as he continues to lay out the reasons for his proposed solution. -At this point, he is ready to shift from "selling the problem" and laying the groundwork to presenting his solution. -This brief overview of employee mentoring programs establishes common ground with his reader, so he can be sure they are thinking about the same thing. (2 of 4)

Figure 14.8 (3 of 4)

-Here he presents the general benefits of mentoring programs in a way that connects them to the two themes he identified earlier. (3 of 4)

Figure 14.5

-In keeping with the direct approach, the report will open with the conclusion that the program is a success. -These two sections will support the conclusion with evidence from two key areas. -This section will complete the story by highlighting areas that still need improvement.

Types of Reports

-Informational reports offer data, facts, feedback, and other types of information, without analysis or recommendations. Analytical reports offer both information and analysis and can also include recommendations. Proposals are a special category of reports that combine information delivery and persuasive communication. -The nature of these reports can vary widely, depending on the circumstances. Some of the reports you write will be voluntary, launched on your own initiative and following whatever structure you find most effective. Other reports will be in response to a manager's or customer's request, and you may or may not receive guidance regarding the organization and content. You may also write certain reports that follow strict, specific guidelines for content and layout. -Your audience will sometimes be internal, which gives you more freedom to discuss sensitive information. Other times your audience might include customers, investors, community members, or news media, any of which can create additional demands as you present company information to such external groups. -No matter what the circumstances, preparing reports requires all the skills and knowledge that you've gained throughout this course and will continue to gain on the job. View every business report as an opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of business challenges and your ability to contribute to your organization's success. -By adapting the three-step writing process, you can reduce the time required to write effective reports and still produce documents that make lasting and positive impressions on your audiences. The concepts are the same as those you explored in Chapters 4 through 6 and applied to shorter messages in Chapters 10 through 12. However, the emphasis on specific tasks can vary considerably. For instance, planning can take days or weeks for a complex report or proposal.

Types of Proposals (1 of 2)

-Internal proposals request decisions from managers within the organization, such as proposals to buy new equipment or launch new research projects. Examples of external proposals include grant proposals, which request funds from government agencies and other sponsoring organizations, and sales proposals, which suggest individualized solutions for potential customers and request purchase decisions. (1 of 2)

Applying the Three-Step Writing Process to Reports and Proposals & Figure 14.1 Common Types of Business Reports and Proposals

-L O 14.1 Adapt the three-step writing process to reports and proposals. -Whether they are routine documents or the unconventional messages that Warby Parker (profiled in the chapter-opening Communication Close-Up) tends to create, reports are written accounts that objectively communicate information about some aspect of a business (see Figure 14.1). To update clients on the progress of the research project (progress report) -To develop goals and objectives for the coming year (strategic plan) -To identify customers and explain how the company will serve them (marketing plan) -To submit monthly sales statistics to management (operating report) -To summarize what occurred at the annual sales conference (personal activity report) -To explain building access procedures (policy implementation report) -To submit required information to the Securities and Exchange Commission (compliance report) Informational reports: Offer data, facts, feedback, and other types of information without analysis or recommendations The informational reports are divided into four categories as listed below: •Reports to Monitor and Control Operations: Provide feedback and other information for decision making (plans, operating reports, personal activity reports) •Reports to Implement Policies and Procedures: Communicate organizational rules and positions (guidelines, position papers) •Reports to Demonstrate Compliance: Provide information to show regulators or other authorities that the company meets formal requirements •Reports to Document Progress: Provide managers or customers with information on project status Analytical reports: Offer information and analysis; can also include recommendations The analytical reports are divided into three categories as listed below: •Reports to Assess Opportunities: Explain the risks and rewards of choosing a course of action (market analysis reports, due diligence reports) •Reports to Solve Problems: Analyze problems and (optionally) suggest solutions (troubleshooting reports, failure analysis reports) •Reports to Support Decisions: Judge the merits of past or future decisions (feasibility reports, justification reports) Proposals: Feature persuasive requests for decisions or action The proposals are divided into two categories as listed below: •Internal Proposals: Request decisions from managers within the organization (funding proposals, general project proposals) •External Proposals: Request decisions from parties outside the organization (investment proposals, grant proposals, sales proposals).

Planning Informational Reports & Categories for Informational Reports

-L O 14.2 List the options for organizing informational reports, and identify the key parts of a business plan. -Informational reports provide the information that employees, managers, and others need in order to make decisions and take action. Although dozens of particular formats exist, they can be grouped into four general categories: -Reports to monitor and control operations. Just as doctors rely on medical reports to see how well the various systems in a patient's body are functioning, business managers rely on a wide range of reports to see how well the various systems in their companies are functioning. Plans establish expectations and guidelines to direct future action (see "Creating Successful Business Plans" on page 396). Operating reports provide feedback on a wide variety of an organization's functions, including sales, inventories, expenses, shipments, and other aspects of company operations. Personal activity reports provide information regarding an individual's experiences during sales calls, industry conferences, market research trips, and other activities. -Reports to implement policies and procedures. Policy reports range from brief descriptions of business procedures to manuals that run dozens or hundreds of pages. Position papers, sometimes called white papers or backgrounders, outline an organization's official position on issues that affect the company's success. -Reports to demonstrate compliance. Even the smallest businesses are required to show that they are in compliance with government regulations of one sort or another. Some compliance reports, such as quarterly and annual tax reports, affect all businesses. Others concern particular industries, companies using hazardous materials, specific professional functions, or other special factors. Compliance reports are usually created in specific formats that must be followed exactly. -Reports to document progress. Progress reports range from simple updates to comprehensive reports that include such elements as measured progress toward goals, comparisons of budgeted versus actual expenses, and lists of ongoing concerns and risks. -Informational reports are used to monitor and control operations, to implement policies and procedures, to demonstrate compliance, and to document progress. -Progress reports range from simple, informal updates to comprehensive status reports.

Planning Analytical Reports

-L O 14.3 Discuss three major ways to organize analytical reports. -The purpose of analytical reports is to analyze, to understand, or to explain a problem or an opportunity and figure out how it affects the company and how the company should respond.

Prepare your statement of purpose

-Most useful way to phrase your purpose statement is to begin with an infinitive (to plus a verb). Using an infinitive encourages you to take control and decide where you're going before you begin. When you choose an infinitive (such as to inform, to confirm, to analyze, to persuade, or to recommend), you pin down your general goal in preparing the report. -Consider these examples for informational reports: -To update clients on the progress of the research project (progress report). -To develop goals and objectives for the coming year (strategic plan). -To identify customers and explain how the company will serve them (marketing plan). -To submit monthly sales statistics to management (operating report). -To summarize what occurred at the annual sales conference (personal activity report). -To explain building access procedures (policy implementation report). -To submit required information to the Securities and Exchange Commission (compliance report). -The statement of purpose for an analytical report often needs to be more comprehensive than a statement for an informational report. -If assigned an analytical report rather than an informational report, the writer has to go beyond merely collecting data; she had to draw conclusions and make recommendations. -Proposals must also be guided by a clear and specific statement of purpose to help you focus on crafting a persuasive message.

Figure 14.7 (2 of 2)

-Phan brings the first problem to life by complementing the general description with a specific example. -In discussing the second problem, he simplifies the reader's task by maintaining a parallel structure: a general description followed by a specific example. -He explains how his recommendation (a new organizational structure) will solve both problems. -He acknowledges that the recommended solution does create a temporary compensation problem but expresses confidence that a solution to that can be worked out. -Commission problems are the second "2" in Phan's 2 + 2 = 4 approach. -Phan concludes the 2+2 = 4 approach: organizational problems + commission problems = the need for a new sales structure. -The summary concisely restates both the problem and the recommended solution. (2 of 2)

Figure 14.8 (4 of 4)

-Sharing the positive outcomes that other companies have experienced should heighten his boss's desire to explore the possibility of starting a program. -He is open about the downsides of mentoring programs, which addresses some potential objections and helps maintain his credibility on the subject. -"Next steps" signals his shift to the action phase of the AIDA model. He outlines a brief plan to move forward and concludes by asking for a meeting to get things rolling. (4 of 4)

Figure 14.7 (1 of 2)

-The first paragraph verifies who requested the report, when it was requested, and who wrote it. -This section explains how the information used in the analysis was collected. -Phan describes the first problem and explains how it occurred, without blaming anyone personally. -The second paragraph highlights the serious nature of the problem. -Organizational problems are the first "2" in Phan's 2 + 2 = 4 approach. (1 of 2)

Organizing Your Information

-The length and complexity of most reports and proposals require extra emphasis on clear, reader-oriented organization. Your readers might have the patience to struggle through a short, disorganized email message but not through a poorly organized 200-page report. As Chapter 4 discusses, when an audience is likely to be receptive or at least open-minded, use the direct approach: Lead with a summary of your key findings, conclusions, recommendations, or proposal—whichever is relevant. This "up-front" arrangement is by far the most popular and convenient for business reports. It saves time and makes the rest of the report easier to follow. For those who have questions or want more information, later parts of the report provide complete findings and supporting details. The direct approach also produces a more forceful report. You sound sure of yourself when you state your conclusions confidently at the outset. -Be careful your confidence isn't interpreted as arrogance. If your position is relatively low in the organizational hierarchy, or if your audience is skeptical or hostile use the indirect approach. -Introduce findings & provide supporting evidence & reasoning before conclusions & recommendations. -Use the indirect approach when you need to build support for your main idea or you want to avoid coming across as arrogant. -Although the indirect approach has advantages, some readers will always be in a hurry to get to the answer and will immediately flip to the recommendations anyway, thus defeating your purpose. Therefore, consider length before choosing the direct or indirect approach. In general, the longer the message, the less effective an indirect approach is likely to be. -For long reports: Because both direct and indirect approaches have merit, businesspeople often combine them. They reveal their conclusions and recommendations as they go along rather than put them either first or last. Figure 14.4 on the next page presents the introductions from two reports that follow the same general outline. In the direct version, a series of statements summarizes the conclusion reached in relation to each main topic in the outline. In the indirect version, the same topics are introduced in the same order but without drawing any conclusions about them. Instead, the conclusions appear within the body of the report. -Think how ideas will be subdivided & developed. -Choose the most logical argument structure, one suiting to topics & goals & makes sense to the audience. -As you outline your content, use informative ("talking") headings rather than simple descriptive ("topical") headings (see Table 14.2). Informative headings in a question or summary form force you to think through the content rather than simply identifying the general topic area. Using informative headings also facilitates collaborative writing by reducing ambiguity about what each person needs to write. Figure 14.4 Direct approach: -Summarizes the situation -Immediately introduces one of the report's major conclusions -Reminds the audience why the report was prepared -Presents the report's key recommendation, that the repair service should be discontinued -Emphasizes the benefits of acting on the recommendation and addresses any fears about possible negative consequences -Lists three important conclusions that led to the recommendation to end the service (notice how the indirect approach that follows presents these same three points as questions to be considered) Indirect approach: -Summarizes the situation -Reminds the audience why the report was prepared -Indicates that conclusions and recommendations will be presented later in the report -Introduces the three points that will eventually lead to the conclusions and ultimately to the recommendation -In the direct version of this introduction, the writer quickly presents the report's recommendation, followed by the conclusions that led to that recommendation. In the indirect version, the same topics are introduced in the same order, but no conclusions are drawn about them (the conclusions and the ultimate recommendation appear later, in the body of the report).

Types of Proposals (2 of 2)

-The most significant factor in planning any proposal is whether the intended recipient has asked you to submit a proposal. Solicited proposals are generally prepared at the request of external parties that require a product or a service, but they may also be requested by such internal sources as management or the board of directors. When organizations require complex products, services, or systems, they often prepare a formal invitation to bid on the contract, called a request for proposals (RFP), which includes instructions that specify exactly the type of work to be performed or products to be delivered, along with budgets, deadlines, and other requirements. To attract a large pool of qualified bidders, organizations send RFPs to firms with good records of performance in the field, print them in trade publications, and post them on the web. To write a proposal in response to an RFP: -Begin by reviewing the requirements. -Define the scope of the deliverables. -Determine the methods & procedures to be used. -Estimate time requirements, personnel requirements & costs. -Put it all in writing—exactly as specified in the RFP. -For RFPS:a variety of software products are available to help. Basic features include the ability to automatically personalize the proposal, ensure proper structure, and organize storage of all your boilerplate material (identical sections of text used in every proposal, such as a description of your company). At a more advanced level, semiautomated proposal-writing systems can scan RFPs to identify questions and requirements and fill in potential answers from a centralized knowledge base that contains input from all the relevant experts in your company. -Unsolicited proposals are created by organizations attempting to obtain business or funding without a specific invitation from a potential client. Such proposals may also be initiated by employees or managers who want to convince company insiders to adopt a program, a policy, or an idea. In other words, with an unsolicited proposal, the writer makes the first move. Even so, an unsolicited proposal should not come as a surprise to the recipient, but rather should be the summation of an ongoing conversation between the sender and the recipient. This approach helps ensure acceptance, and it gives you an opportunity to explore the recipient's needs and craft your proposal around them. -Unsolicited proposals differ from solicited proposals in another important respect: Your audience may not be aware of the problem you are addressing, so your proposal must first convince readers that a problem or an opportunity exists before convincing them that you can address it. Thus unsolicited proposals generally spend considerable time explaining why readers should take action and convincing them of the benefits of doing so. (2 of 2)

Figure 14.8 (1 of 4)

-The subject line establishes a connection to a topic previously discussed without divulging the main idea of the proposal (which uses the indirect approach). -The opening paragraph serves as a reminder of their previous discussion. the task he was given, and the expectations about how he would approach it. -This single-sentence paragraph is the attention-getter in the AIDA model; it promises a solution that is better than expected. -This section summarizes the previous discussion while laying the groundwork for introducing a key reason for the proposal he is going to make, which is that he has found a couple of common themes in the three areas of concern. -He introduces those two themes, which shape the proposal he is about to make. This works as the interest stage of the AIDA model, since it presents an intriguing and unexplored angle on issues previously discussed. (1 of 4)

Figure 14.6

-These five criteria (standards or rules) that will be used in the evaluation make up the "yardstick" in the yardstick approach. -She'll evaluate the two alternatives by judging them according to the five criteria. -Here she'll give readers important background info about current trends in the marketplace. -She'll recommend in favor of one alternative & against the other, based on how each fared in the "yardstick" measurement.

Problem Factoring and Hypothesis & Table 14.3 Organizational Strategies for Analytical Reports

-What needs to be determined? -Why is this issue important? -Who is involved in the situation? -Where is the trouble located? -How did the situation originate? -When did it start? -One effective way to tackle a complex problem is to divide it into a series of logical, connected questions, a process called problem factoring. You probably subconsciously approach most problems this way. Another effective way to tackle a complex problem is to divide it into a series of logical, connected questions, a process called problem factoring. You probably subconsciously approach most problems this way. -By subdividing a problem and forming hypotheses based on available evidence, you can tackle even the most complex situations. With a clear picture of the problem or opportunity in mind, you're ready to consider the best structure for your report. When preparing an analytical report: -Be clear in your own mind about whether you're advocating one particular line of thought, or objectively exploring all available options. -Advocating one position is appropriate in the circumstances, readers will expect you to have considered the other options so that you can help them understand why your answer is preferred. -The three most common structural approaches for analytical reports are focusing on conclusions (a direct format), focusing on recommendations (another direct format), and focusing on logical arguments (an indirect format).

Chapt 14 Vocab

1. Reports-Written accounts that objectively communicate info about some aspect of a business. 2. Informational Reports-Reports that offer data, facts, feedback & other types of info, without analysis or recommendations. 3. Analytical Reports-Reports that offer both info & analysis; they can also include recommendations. 4. Proposals-Reports that combine info delivery & persuasive communication. 5. Statement of purpose-Planning statement that defines why you are preparing a report. 6. Topical organization-Arrangement of material according to comparisons, importance, sequence, chronology, spatial orientation, geography, or category. 7. Business plan-A comprehensive document that describes a company's mission, structure, objectives, & operations. 8. Problem factoring-Dividing a problem into a series of logical, connected questions. 9. Hypothesis-A potential explanation that needs to be tested. 10. 2+2=4 approach-Logical argumentation approach that convinces readers of your point of view by demonstrating how everything "adds up". 11. Yardstick approach-Logical argumentation approach that uses a number of criteria to evaluate one or more possible solutions. 12. Request for proposals (REP)-A formal invitation to bid on a contract.

Focusing on Conclusions & Focusing on Recommendations

Addressing a receptive audience: -Direct approach -Communicates the main idea quickly -This structure communicates the main idea quickly, but it presents some risks. Even if audiences trust your judgment, they may have questions about your data or the methods you used. Moreover, starting with a conclusion may create the impression that you have oversimplified the situation. You're generally better off taking this direct approach in a report only when your credibility is high—when your readers trust you and are willing to accept your conclusions. -Focusing on conclusions is often the best approach when you're addressing a receptive audience. -A slightly different approach is useful when your readers want to know what they ought to do in a given situation (as opposed to what they ought to conclude). You'll often be asked to solve a problem or assess an opportunity rather than just study it. The actions you want your readers to take become the main subdivisions of your report. When structuring a report around recommendations, use the direct approach as you would for a report that focuses on conclusions. Then unfold your recommendations using a series of five steps: 1. Establish or verify the need for action in the introduction by briefly describing the problem or opportunity 2. Introduce the benefit that can be achieved, without providing any details 3. List the steps (recommendations) required to achieve the benefit, using action verbs for emphasis 4. Explain each step more fully, giving details on procedures, costs, and benefits 5. Summarize your recommendations -If your recommendation carries any risks, be sure to clearly address them. Doing so not only makes your report more ethical but also offers you some protection. Summary of the 5 Steps: -Establish or verify the need for action in the introduction by briefly describing the problem or opportunity -Introduce the benefit that can be achieved, without providing any details -List the steps (recommendations) required to achieve the benefit, using action verbs for emphasis -Explain each step more fully, giving details on procedures, costs, and benefits -Summarize your recommendations

Adapting the Three-Step Process to Reports and Proposals

Analyze the situation: -Clearly define your purpose before you start writing. -If you need to accomplish several goals in the report, identify them all in advance. -Prepare a work plan to guide your efforts. Gather information: -Determine whether you need to launch a separate research project to collect the necessary information. -Reuse or adapt existing material whenever possible. Select the best medium: -Base your decision on audience expectations or requirements. -Consider the need for commenting, revising, distributing, and storing. -Remember that the medium you choose also sends a message. Organize your information: -Use the direct approach if your audience is receptive. -Use the indirect approach if your audience is skeptical. -Use the indirect approach when you don't want to risk coming across as arrogant. -Combine approaches if doing so will help build support for your primary message.

Preparing Your Work Plan

Essential Elements: -Statement of Problem or Opportunity -Statement of Purpose and Scope of Investigation Additional Elements: -Discussion of Tasks to Accomplish -Descriptions of Results -Review of Project Assignments -Plans for Following Up -Working Outline If you are preparing a work plan for yourself, it can be relatively informal: a simple list of the steps you plan to take and an estimate of their sequence and timing. For more complicated projects, however, particularly those that involve multiple team members, you'll want to prepare a formal, detailed work plan that can guide the performance of many tasks over a span of time. For consultants and others whose work output is a formal report, the work plan can also become the basis for a contract if the proposal is accepted. A formal work plan might include the following elements (especially the first two): -Statement of the problem or opportunity. This statement clarifies the challenge or opportunity at hand, helps you (and anyone working with you) stay focused on the core issues, and helps everyone avoid the distractions that are likely to arise along the way. -Statement of the purpose and scope of your investigation. The purpose statement describes what you plan to accomplish and therefore also defines the boundaries of your work. Delineating which subjects you will cover and which you won't is especially important for complex investigations. -Discussion of tasks to be accomplished. For simple reports, the list of tasks to be accomplished will be short and probably obvious. However, longer reports and complex investigations require an exhaustive list so that you can reserve time with customers, with executives, or for outside services, such as market researchers or print shops. -Description of any additional products or activities that will result from your investigation. Often the only outcome of your efforts will be the report itself. In other cases you'll need to produce something or perform some task in addition to completing the report. Make such expectations clear at the outset. -Review of project assignments, schedules, and resource requirements. Indicate who will be responsible for what, when tasks will be completed, and how much the investigation will cost. If more than one person will be involved, you may also want to include a brief section on coordinating report writing and production, such as whether you'll use a wiki to develop the report content. If constraints on time, money, personnel, or data are likely to affect the quality of the report, identify these limitations up front. -Plans for following up after delivering the report. Follow-up can be as simple as making sure people received the information they need or as complex as conducting additional research to evaluate the results of proposals included in your report. Even informal follow-up can help you improve your future reports and communicate that you care about your work's effectiveness and its impact on the organization. -Working outline. Some work plans include a tentative outline of the report, as does the plan in Figure 14.2. Figure 14.2 -The problem statement clearly & succinctly defines the problem the writers intend to address. -This section explains how the researchers will find the data and info they need. -The assignments and schedule section clearly lists responsibilities and due dates. -This paragraph identifies exactly what will be covered by the research and addressed in the final report. -The preliminary outline has enough detail to guide the research and set reader expectations.

Defining Your Purpose

Informational Reports: -Address a Predetermined Need -Meet Specific Audience Expectations Analytical Reports: -Written in Response to Perceived Problem or Opportunity -Clear Statement of Purpose -Given the length and complexity of many reports, it's crucial to clearly define your purpose so you don't waste time with avoidable rework. -Informational reports often address a predetermined need and must meet specific audience expectations. For example, you may be asked to write reports that verify your company's compliance with government regulations, that summarize sales, or that monitor a process—all of which have audiences who expect certain information in a certain format. With other informational reports, you will need to uncover audience needs before you can define the optimum purpose. -Analytical reports and proposals are almost always written in response to a perceived problem or a perceived opportunity. A clear statement of this problem or opportunity helps frame the communication challenge by identifying what you're going to write about, but it's insufficient to guide your writing efforts. To plan effectively, address the problem or opportunity with a clear statement of purpose that defines why you are preparing the report (see Table 14.1). -Analytical reports and proposals are almost always written in response to a perceived problem or a perceived opportunity. A clear statement of this problem or opportunity helps frame the communication challenge by identifying what you're going to write about, but it's not enough to guide your writing efforts. To plan effectively, address the problem or opportunity with a clear statement of purpose that defines why you are preparing the report.

Warby Parker (www.warbyparker.com) pg 388

Italian company Luxottica Group: -Controls much of the worldwide market for eyeglasses. -Owns well-known brands (Ray-Ban & Oakley). -Manufactures glasses for a host of high-fashion labels (Dolce & Gabbana to Versace). -Operates more than 7,000 retail stores (LensCrafters & Sunglass Hut). -Ever bought prescription glasses or sunglasses, chances are you've done business with Luxottica in some form. -Has some 80% of the global market for glasses. -Much of the remaining 20% of the market belongs to Costco & Walmart (competing on cost more than fashion). Neil Blumenthal & David Gilboa: -Believed an opportunity existed for a company to compete on fashion and price. -With their classmates from University of Pennsylvania Andrew Hunt & Jeffrey Raider, crafted a business model that combines fashion-forward designs & a brand image that appeals to younger consumers with the operational efficiency of online commerce. -Echoing their unconventional aspirations, named the company Warby Parker after two characters from the works of the Beat Generation writer Jack Kerouac. Warby Parker's communication efforts: -Quest to connect with buyers in a market dominated by a handful of major corporations gives Warby Parker's communication efforts a different look and feel. -Won't find supermodels posing on yachts in their promotional campaigns. -More likely to find a blog post about what company employees are reading or a wistful goodbye note to a summer intern heading back to high school. Company reports: -Their "annual reports" are a great example of how unconventional thinking can lead to communications that connect with audiences in fresh ways. -In the US companies that sell stock to the public are required to issue annual reports that disclose a variety of financial details. -Most companies expand on these minimum requirements with glossy, persuasive messages about their operations, products, and prospects. -Since Warby Parker is a privately held company, they aren't required to publish an annual report, but it does so anyway—sort of. -One year, the report was an online calendar of major, minor, and just plain goofy things that happened around the company, from product launches to a survey about how many pairs of pants employees wear in a typical month. -The following year, it was an interactive message generator that created personalized reports for website visitors based on how good or bad their year had been. Finally: -Warby Parker fits the transparent, social, and conversational style of today's younger consumers. -As a different company, one more in touch with those customers and their needs and aspirations. -Warby Parker already carved out a nice chunk of the eyewear market and continues to grow as it heads toward a possible initial public offering in the stock market. -It will have to bend to convention just a little, at least enough to meet government reporting requirements.

Organizational Strategies for Informational Reports & Creating Successful Business Plans

Most informational reports use a topical organization, arranging the material by topic in one of the following ways: -Comparison. Showing similarities and differences (or advantages and disadvantages) between two or more entities -Importance. Building up from the least important item to the most important (or from most important to the least, if you don't think your audience will read the entire report) -Sequence. Organizing the steps or stages in a process or procedure -Spatial orientation. Organizing parts of a physical space by their relative locations -Chronology. Organizing a chain of events in order from oldest to newest or vice versa -Geography. Organizing by region, city, state, country, or other geographic unit -Category. Grouping by topical category, such as sales, profit, cost, or investment -Whichever pattern you choose, use it consistently so that readers can easily follow your discussion from start to finish. Of course, certain reports (such as compliance or monitor-and-control reports) must follow a prescribed flow. Mission, Structure, Objectives, and Operations: -Before the Company is Launched -When Company is Seeking Funding -After Company is Up and Running -A business plan is a comprehensive document that describes a company's mission, structure, objectives, and operations. In general, business plans can be written during three separate phases of a company's life: (1) before the company is launched, when the founders are defining their vision of what the company will be; (2) when the company is seeking funding, in which case the business plan takes on a persuasive tone to convince outsiders that investing in the firm would be a profitable decision; and (3) after the company is up and running and the business plan serves as a monitor-and-control mechanism to make sure operations are staying on track. -At any stage, a comprehensive business plan forces you to think about personnel, marketing, facilities, suppliers, distribution, and a host of other issues vital to a company's success.

Gathering Information & Selecting the Right Combination of Media and Channels

Planning Your Research: -Prioritize Information -Focus on the Most Important Question -Adapt Existing Information -The amount of information needed in many reports and proposals requires careful planning—and perhaps even a separate research project just to get the data and information you need. As Chapter 13 emphasizes, you should prioritize your information needs before you start and focus on the most important questions. Whenever possible, try to reuse or adapt existing information to save time. -Some reports require formal research projects in order to gather all the necessary information. -Observe Media Requirements -Consider How Audience Wants to Provide Feedback -Does the Document Need to be Searchable or Editable? -Observe the Message the Media Selection is Sending -In addition to the general media selection criteria discussed in Chapter 4, consider several points for reports and proposals. First, audiences may have specific media requirements, and you might not have a choice. For instance, executives in many corporations now expect to review many reports via their in-house intranets, sometimes in conjunction with an executive dashboard, a customized online presentation of highly summarized business information. Executive dashboards are particularly helpful for accessing report content on mobile devices (see Figure 14.3). -Second, consider how your audience members want to provide feedback on your report or proposal. Do they prefer to write comments on a printed document or edit a wiki article? Third, will people need to search through your document or update it in the future? Fourth, bear in mind that your choice of medium sends a message. For instance, a routine sales report dressed up in expensive multimedia could look like a waste of valuable company resources.

Organizational Strategies for Proposals

Solicited Proposal: -Direct Approach -Receptive Audience -Focus on Recommendations Unsolicited Proposal: -Indirect Approach -Skeptical Audience -Establish Credibility -Convince Audience that Problem Exists -Your choice of structure for proposals depends on whether the proposal is solicited and, if so, whether you expect readers to be receptive to your specific recommendation. In general, your audience is likely to be more receptive to solicited proposals because the problem and the solution have already been identified. Submit your proposal for the solution specified in the RFP, and structure the proposal using the direct approach to focus on your recommendation. As soon as possible within the constraints of the RFP requirements, identify why your solution is unique and deserves close consideration. -Depending on the circumstances and your relationship with the recipient, the indirect approach is often better for unsolicited proposals. When writing unsolicited proposals, you must first convince the audience that a problem exists and establish your credibility if you are unknown to the reader. At the same time, you need to give the reader a compelling reason to keep reading a document that he or she didn't request. Follow the AIDA model or a similar approach to grab the reader's attention quickly. For an external proposal, for instance, you might start off with an attention-getter such as "In working with other companies in your industry, our productivity specialists were able to reduce their operating costs by as much as 15%." Then, to convince the reader that you can back up that claim, present your solution in a logical fashion, with solid evidence, leading up to a request for a decision (see "Ethics Detective: Solving the Case of the Overblown Proposal").

Focusing on Logical Arguments & Planning Proposals

The Indirect Approach: -When readers are likely to be skeptical or hostile to the conclusion or recommendation you plan to make, use an indirect approach. If you guide people along a logical path toward the answer, they are more likely to accept it when they encounter it. The two most common logical approaches are known as the 2 + 2 = 4 approach and the yardstick approach. -The 2 + 2 = 4 Approach. The 2 + 2 = 4 approach is so named because it convinces readers of your point of view by demonstrating that everything adds up. The main points in your outline are the main reasons behind your conclusions and recommendations. You support each reason with the evidence you collected during your analysis. Because of its natural feel and versatility, the 2 + 2 = 4 approach is generally the most persuasive and efficient way to develop an analytical report for skeptical readers. When organizing your own reports, try this structure first. You'll find that many business situations lend themselves nicely to this pattern of logical argumentation. -The Yardstick Approach. The yardstick approach is useful when you need to use a number of criteria to evaluate one or more possible solutions. These criteria become the "yardstick" by which you measure the various alternatives. With this approach, you begin by discussing the problem or opportunity and then list the criteria that will guide the decision. The body of the report then evaluates the alternatives against those criteria. The main points of the outline are either the criteria themselves or the alternatives. Is particularly useful for proposals when the audience has provided a list of criteria the solution must meet. Two potential drawbacks: -First, your audience members need to agree with the criteria you're using in your analysis. If they don't, they won't agree with the results of the evaluation. If you have any doubt about their agreement, build consensus before you start your report, if possible, or take extra care to explain why the criteria you're using are the best ones in this particular case. -Second, the yardstick approach can get tedious when you have many options to consider or many criteria to compare them against. One way to minimize repetition is to compare the options in tables and then highlight the most unusual or important aspects of each alternative in the text so that you get the best of both worlds. This approach allows you to compare all the alternatives against the same yardstick while calling attention to the most significant differences among them. -L O 14.4 Explain how to choose an organizational strategy when writing a proposal. -Proposals are written for both internal and external audiences.

A Typical Business Plan

The specific elements to include in a business plan can vary based on the situation; here are the sections typically included in a plan written to attract outside investors: -Summary. In one or two paragraphs, summarize your business concept, particularly the business model, which defines how the company will generate revenue and produce a profit. The summary must be compelling, catching the investor's attention and giving him or her reasons to keep reading. Describe your product or service and its market potential. Highlight some things about your company and its leaders that will distinguish your firm from the competition. Summarize your financial projections and indicate how much money you will need from investors or lenders and where it will be spent. -Mission and objectives. Explain the purpose of your business and what you hope to accomplish. -Company and industry. Give full background information on the origins and structure of your venture and the characteristics of the industry in which you plan to compete. -Products or services. Concisely describe your products or services, focusing on their unique attributes and their appeal to customers. -Market and competition. Provide data that will persuade investors that you understand your target market and can achieve your sales goals. Be sure to identify the strengths and weaknesses of your competitors. -Management. Summarize the background and qualifications of the key management personnel in your company. Include résumés in an appendix. -Marketing strategy. Provide projections of sales volume and market share; outline a strategy for identifying and reaching potential customers, setting prices, providing customer support, and physically delivering your products or services. Whenever possible, include evidence of customer acceptance, such as advance product orders. -Design and development plans. If your product requires design or development, describe the nature and extent of what needs to be done, including costs and possible problems. For new or unusual products, you may want to explain how the product will be manufactured. -Operations plan. Provide information on facilities, equipment, and personnel requirements. -Overall schedule. Forecast important milestones in the company's growth and development, including when you need to be fully staffed and when your products will be ready for the market. -Critical risks and problems. Identify significant negative factors and discuss them honestly. -Financial projections and requirements. Include a detailed budget of start-up and operating costs, as well as projections for income, expenses, and cash flow for the first few years of business. Identify the company's financing needs and potential sources, if appropriate. -Exit strategy. Explain how investors will be able to profit from their investment, such as through a public stock offering, sale of the company, or a buyback of the investors' interest. -As Chapter 13's Communication Close-Up on page 363 notes, not everyone believes a conventional business plan is the right approach for every start-up company. If a company still needs to prove the viability of its business model or key product, the time it would take to write a full business plan might be better spent on getting the product or service operational and in front of customers in order to prove its viability. A regular business plan would make more sense after that, when the company needs to transition from start-up to ongoing operations. -Formal business plans, particularly those used to solicit outside investment, must meet a specific set of reader expectations.

Types of Analytical Reports

Three Basic Categories: In many cases you'll also be expected to make a recommendation based on your analysis. As you saw in Figure 14.1, analytical reports fall into three basic categories: -Reports to assess opportunities. Every business opportunity carries some degree of risk and requires a variety of decisions and actions in order to capitalize on the opportunity. For instance, market analysis reports are used to judge the likelihood of success for new products or sales initiatives by identifying potential opportunities as well as competitive threats and other risks. Due diligence reports examine the financial aspects of a proposed decision, such as acquiring another company. -Reports to solve problems. Managers often assign troubleshooting reports when they need to understand why something isn't working properly and what can be done to fix the situation. A variation, the failure analysis report, studies events that happened in the past, with the hope of learning how to avoid similar failures in the future. -Reports to support decisions. Feasibility reports are called for when managers need to explore the ramifications of a decision they're about to make (such as replacing an advertising agency or switching materials used in a manufacturing process). Justification reports justify a decision that has already been made. Writing analytical reports, greater challenge vs informational reports: 1.Doing more than simply delivering information; also analyzing a problem or an opportunity and presenting conclusions. The best writing in the world can't compensate for flawed analysis. 2.When analysis is complete, you need to present your thinking in a credible manner. 3.Analytical reports often convince other people to make significant financial and personnel decisions, so reports carry the added responsibility of the consequences of these decisions. Some situations: -Problem or opportunity addressed may be defined by the person who authorizes the report. -Other times you define them. -Don't confuse a simple topic (quarterly profits) with a problem (the decline in profits over the past six quarters). -If only you think its a problem then readers will hold no interest unless you can convince them the problem exists. -Comparable to marketing & sales messages, sometimes you need to "sell the problem", prior to selling a solution. Summary: -Clarify the problem in an analytical report by determining what you need to analyze, why the issue is important, who is involved, where the trouble is located, and how and when it started.