Chapter 14 The Reformation

How was the term "Protestant" coined?

came from a protest from German princes at the Diet of Speyer in 1529. Charles the V came in for Catholicism, and Luther supporters went up and protested. Protestants are followers of Luther, Zwingli, etc

Johann Tetzel

sold indulgences well with "As soon as coin in coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs" This campaign was very successful, and lots of people bought thme

"95 Theses on the Power of Indulgences"

- Luther wrote in Latin "95 Theses on the Power of Indulgences" and discussed -seriousness of penance - indulgences competed with Gospel preaching -downplayed charity *Was said to have nailed it to the door of the church at Wittenberg Castle 10/31/1517. ( All Hallows Eve)

French Religious Wars

• Habsburg Valois wars cause French to increase taxes and borrow a lot • TRENT DOES NOT APPLY IN FRANCE o King Francis I (r. 1515-1547) • Sale of public offices (temporary source; the person who bought the office and his heirs were tax exempt) • Treaty with papacy (lucrative, Concordat of Bologna; French crown can appoint= money and offices!!! Creates a French Catholic Church) • Frech rulers can appoint and have financial interest in Catholicism= no need to revolt against Rome • The church will be worldly and materialistic- opposers will be attracted to Calvinism- Huguenots • Huguenots- French Calvinists. At first from reform minded caltholic clergy, industrious city dwellers, and artisan groups. In Major cities like Paris, Lyons, and Rouen. Perhaps 1/10 of population are Calvinist by henry II's death (1559) They are poor and not problem for upper class. • French monarchy causes civil violence o The three weak sons of Henry II are dominated by mother Catherine de' Medici (the marriage was for money, Valois family needed money) o The nobles will take advantage of the weak kings- use religion- many nobles will become Huguenots- hey are a threat in divisions o The first son Francis II (married Mary queen of Scots) dies quickly o Then his brother Charles 9 is dominated by his mom, doesn't want to be, threated by hugos, and he decides in 1572 that hell make the leading hugunot noble his chief minister. (Colingny) his mother doesn't like that- Henry of Guise comes up with a plan. Charles in gonna marry his sister off to Henry of Navarre- after the wedding- the hugu nobles are drunk- henry of guise sends in troops to kill them. Henry of Navarre escapes- he said that he had converted into Catholicism- reconverts to Calvinism in paris. Henry Navarre becomes leader of Huguno nobles. o Charles dies, brother Henry III comes up o War of the three Henries starts- til 1589. o French nobility springs at chance (they are Protestant; like Lutheran german princes) o Calvinist antimonarchical lords vs. catholic royalist lords o Preachers incite violence; ceremonies like baptisms, marriages trigger it • Images and Iconoclasm o Calvinists break and take down artwork in churches, often inspired by Protestant sermons (iconoclasm- destruction of religious images) o Catholics respond by fighting, both sides killing each other sometimes • Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre, August 24, 1572, Paris o Marriage of king's sister Margaret of Valois to Protestant henry of Navarre (to reconcile Catholics and Huguenots) o Huguenots and other Protestants were massacred o Religious violence spreads to provinces= 15 year civil war o Agriculture destroyed, commercial life decreases, starvation & death • The politiques save France o Politiques- Catholic and Protestant moderates who think that an absolute monarchy (strong) could save France from total collapse. o Favored recognizing Huguenots as an organized group o Death of Catherine de' Medici and murder of King Henry III opens up accession for politique Henry of Navarre/ Henry IV (r. 1589-1610) o Supported religious tolerance- religious wars hurt econ, etc (it would be good if it was all) o Henry the III has Henry guise murdered, Henry III murdered, Henry th Fourth (Navarre)- and hes a Huguenot in a country that's mostly catholic- becomes a catholic- Paris is worth a mass. • Henry's will to sacrifice religious principles= France is saved. Hes pragmatic • Bourbon dynasty o Converts to Catholicism o Issues Edict of Nantes (1598)- grants liberty of conscience and liberty of public worship to Huguenots in (and gave them) 150 fortified towns - Hugunot nobles will take advantage of this to try to secure their independence o Reign of Henry IV and his edict paved way for French absolutism in 1600s by restoring internal peace in France

• Henry VIII and the reformation in England

• Henry the 7th is the first of the Tudors. In the 15th cent, there was a civil war- the war of the roses- york and Lancaster. It ends- Henry is a tudor and wins- but his claim is through the Lancaster- he was illegitimate. His claim to the throne is not very real. Henry wins by conquest- he kills the Yorkist king and takes over. In 1485, no one knew the war was over. No one was expecting Henry to last- but Henry the 7th was a great ruler- starting with nothing and then gains lots of riches. For Henry, he first needs to legitimizes his line- kills Richard the third (York)- marries Elizabeth of York (to establish his claim more effectively). Must take down power of nobles and their military. His degree is like, nobles cant get armies of their own. But Henry doesn't have an army- and he creates a new court in London. So he tries the nobles with armies there. The noble says, no I'm not coming. But Henry is like, I'll give your land to your neighbors because you are breaking your feudal vows. And the noble is like, don't take away my land. So henry only takes some land and makes him pay a fine. So henry does it again and again with other nobles. By the time Henry dies, all the noble armies are gone- most of them. Henry needs money- increases revenues through trade- and don't spend. That's power. (Columbus is like, give me money for exploration, and Henry says no) For kings, war is their biggest expense. So he'll do his best not to go to war. Henry was ruling simultaneously with Louis the Spider King, Ferdinand and Isabella- Henry the 7th only goes to war once----- • His war- he wants to give his dynasty tht trappings of wealth- he has two sons with his marriage- Arthur is the older one (King Arthur- representing unification). He wants to marry Arthur off to the best princess- the richest, most powerful one. Spain or France. Ferdinand and Isabella have a daughter- kid sister Catherine of Aragon. (Joana is already married to Phillip to Burgundy- mother to Charles the 5th) If you marry a Spanish princess, large dowery. Ferdinand wants to attack France, and Henry agrees to be his ally. Catherine comes over and marries Arthur (theyre young, twelve and thirteen). Henry goes to Parliament to get money for war- Ferdinand goes to attack France- and henry doesn't do anything and says that Parliament didn tgive him enough money. So Ferdinand gives him a subsidy. The King of France pays Henry to leave. Ferdinand gets really mad, but he can't go to war with England. As far as the marriage- Arthur and Catherine lived happily, but Arthur died later. • Catherine of Aragon is a widow. What do we do now? Ferdinand and Isabella want her back, amd the dowery has to go with her. And Henry doesn't want that to happen. So Henry can marry Catherine to the other son Henry (younger). Or he can marry her himself. Ferdinand and Isabella probably wouldn't have minded- if Catherine had a child, the child could inherit England> Henry the 7th keeps negotiating forever- so he has control of Spanish diplomacy. You have Catherine, and the parents wont do anything that harms you. And henry keeps negotiating until he dies. • But the son Henry 8th wants to marry her, and she says yes (shes young but an old maid). Henry is very well educated (he was to be archbishop of Canterbury) an athlete.Catherine is a good wife, and everyone loves her. BUT she cant have a son. Only a daughter survived- Mary. And she probably wont produce more children- a male heir is important because (mary could be the ruler, or find a nephew) if the daughter becomes the ruler, it may be challenged. If the nephew does, it's challenged. Matilda was Henry 2's mother and queen between henry 1 and 2, in the anarchy- civil wars, because a nephew challenged her for the crown. In henry 8th's experienve, he doesn't want a war like the Roses. Henry has bastard sons. Catherine doesn't interfere. Anne says shell give him sons only if they marry. o Reformation caused by econ, political, and relig causes as well here, Henry VIII wants a new wife o Why cant he even have a son? God is punishing him because he married Catherine, Arthur;s wife. He fought some wars for glory, glutton, but... He thinks God is unhappy with him because he married his brother's wife. (canon law- you're not supposed to lie with the wife of your brother - Leviticus) and henry understood this law. But he got papal dispensation- pope's permission, dispense with the law. The pope says it's okay. The kings, Ferdinand, Isabella wanted to see it done, and the pope wants to keep them happy with good relations and agrees. Maybe the pope cant do that, Henry thought, then if that's true- God is mad- hes not married to Catherine- hes been living in sin with this woman. Henry wants the pope to agree with his annulment. And Henry has a cardinal called Walsee, and sends Walsee to get the annulment. And it gets done. He appeals to Clement VII, who's incompetent and kind of weak. Hes a Medici. Clement had a problem- he wants to make henry happy, but there is a theological reason- he cant say that the marriage was fake, cuz theyd say, we'd been wrong all along. Lutheranism is here. o Henry VIII was married to Catherine of Aragon (child of Ferdinand and Isabella) and had only a daughter Mary with her. He wanted a son with lady in waiting Anne Bolelyn, so he wanted an annulment. This wouldn't be a problem but Charles V's (catherine's nephew and mary's cousin) troops were in Rome holding pope Clement VII prisoner. Charles and the Battle of Pavia- Charles's army marches to Rome, his soldiers sack rome. It would mean Catherine was a *****, and the Habsburgs would be very upset. If you are Clement, he stalls. That's all he can do. If he stalls, someone could die. Catherine or Henry could die. If Catherine died a few months earlier than when she did, the story may have been very different. He sends a papal legate to England, says to stall. Some stuff gets very crazy. Bastard sons are useless. He demands the papal legate to make a decision. And the papal legate is like, I need to discuss with pope, goes back. Henry is mad at walsee, banishes him to York to be an archbishop, then decides to behead him. Walsee dies when going back to be beheaded. Henry appoints Thomas Cromwell to be new chief minister, who is influenced by Lutheran ideas. Cromwell had offered solutions to problems - Henry VIII spent his treasury built up by dad. Cromwell syas to make yourseld head of curch- so you can announce yourself annulled and be rich again with church property. Henry is like, this is hard for me, but okay. He doesn't issue a decree- he goes to parliament to rally the important people of the country around him. You can make a rule, but you need people to follow you to execute that rule. This is significant- but in Henry VIII's day, the parliament does what henry wants. Henry the VIII doesn't have a big army- some people in the country may have more power. Parliament doesn t cross him- agree with me, or be beheaded. His force of personality. Parliament passes the laws- program carries out. Henry makes himself head of church- most people go along with it though they. Henry makes Thomas Cranmer (archbishop of Canterbury) be archbishop, annulled. Henry isn't officially head. o 1530s- Henry uses Parliament to end pope's authority in England and makes himself head of the church in England. • Opposers. Like chancellor Thomas More, were beheaded • Anne fails to produce a male child, is beheaded. (Elizabeth) Henry gets mad at Anne. Catherine dies right after the child is born. Anne has a son, stillborn. Nobles- behead, normal- hanged. Anne is killed with a sword (French method). He had already impregnated Seymour. • Jane Seymour gives birth to Edward, dies at childbirth- more wives. Henry died later calling for Jane. • Henry dies 1547 o Henry was conservative and kept many Catholic practices (he wrote a paper trying to refute Luther) but between 1535 and 1539,influenced by chief minister Thomas Cromwell (executed because of the fourth wife), dissolves monasteries for wealth Monasteries in England were well run - a few weren't, and they were seen. Sell the monastery property. Better to sell than keep- people who buy it Reformation. o Proceeds enrich treasury, land goes to upper and middle classes (Parliament!)- redistribution of land strengthens upper classes and ties them to Tudors and new Protestant church o Former monastic lands come under Crown's power- reform gov. Cromwell centralizes king's household, the council, the secretariats (permanent office./department, esp governmental) , and the Exchequer (treasury). New departments of state, surplus funds go to deficits. Efficiency= growth of modern centralized bureaucratic state. o Some supported Protestantism, some followed Henry's moves but in reality did not acquiesce- Most People don't convert overnight o 1536- Pilgrimage of Grace (in the north)- largest rebellion in English history- pilgrims had truce, leaders executed. People do oppose him, Henry tells his nobles to crush it. Those nobles were Catholics who didn't like it, but they did it. o Ireland liked Catholicism- they were ruled by English kings since the 1100s but England only firmly controlled Pale (area around Dublin) • Irish Parliament (people of Pale and English landlords) accept the severing from Catholic Church- English ruling class convert • But most Irish don't, and rebellions= English confiscate Catholic property and sell them, profits for England= Roman church driven underground, Catholic clergy national and religious leaders • Henry brought the Chruch of England into life (Episcopol- close to Catholic) • In Ireland, part of great Britain, they had been taken over by English. Anglicans followed Henry, but the ordinary people were still Catholic- because it's part of their nationality. Irish priests have political importance.

Clerical privileges and immunities

Church members were exempt from civic responsibilities (ex. Taxes and military), and city govs wanted a say in this.

Poland-Lithuania

• 1500- Poland-Lithuania were jointy governed by king, senate, and diet (parliament) but retained separate officials, judicial systems, armies, and forms of citizenship. Largest European polity, smaller population though o King elected by nobles- the nobles run everything pretty much. o Some Germans are quick to embrace Lutheranism- the poles don't like Germans though. Nobody realy likes their Lutheran ideas- but a lot will like Calvinism- there is this fragmenting influence that fits here. And Poland was associated with France- and Calvin is French. o also very diverse with Germans, Italians, jews, tartars o some merchants, spoke native language, educated spoke latin o Lutheran ideas embraced in Germanized towns but rejected bu King Sigismund I (r. 1506- 1548) and anti-German Poles. o Mid sixteenth cent- catholic and counter reformation o Calvinism (with power of church elders; and it was French originated, not German) appealed to Polish nobility o Doctrinial differences among Calvinists, Lutherans, etc prevent opposition to Catholicism = counter reformation. o 1650-because of Stanislaus Hosius (1500s) and Jesuits, Poland was roman catholic. At the end, Poland is catholic

Treaty of Cateau Cambresis

• 1559- France and Spain- treaty of CateauCambresis ended Habsburg-Valois wars- Spain won (Habsburgs

Martin Luther (1483- 1546)-

German professor/priest born in Eisleben in Saxony. (central pert of Germany)- Masters in distinction from University of Erfurt - Joined Augustinian friars, got a doct. in theology and ordained a priest 1507 - Referred to his professorship for reforms -after studying Saint Paul's letters in New Testament, proposed "faith alone, grace alone, Scripture alone." Salvation is from faith (which is free), God's word is in scripture

transubstantiation

o Catholicism- transubstantiation- because of priest's words, bread and wine become blood and body

consubstantiation

o Luther- blood and body are wine and bread because of God's mystery, not words of priest (consubstantiation)

Genevan Consistory

o Puished smaller misdemeanors (dancing, heavy drinking) o Serious crimes/ heresy handled by civil authorities, sometimes using torture (with Consistory's approval) to extract confessions. o People were banished and executed (Michael Servetus was executed- heresy- rejected the idea of the trinity) o French, Spanish, Scottish, English, and Italian religious refugees visited Geneva. (many from Mary Tudor's England stayed) • So Calvin's "Reformed Church" was model for Scottish Presbyterian Church, French Huguenot church, English and new English Puritan churches. • If you are a Calvinist, you must stand up to ungodly rulers and remove them if need be. So rulers don't like Calvinists. They'll end up killing a kin gof England, etc. Dots- lots of people embrace Calvinism but rulers don't embrace the religion as the relgiosn of the realm. The nobles are in charge, very rarely German princes are attracted to Calvinism- against their own interests. • Calvinism goes to Scotland, that's why Mary is kicked out. • Calvin ethic of "calling"= put religious aspect into work (hard work impresses God) o =more vigorous activism o Calvinism becomes most dynamic force in 16th and 17th cent Protestantism • Calvinism spread in Europe, Scotland- political authority is a decisive influence (weak monarchy, independent nobles compete for power). o King James and daughter Mary (Queen of Scots r.1500s), Catholics, and allies of Catholic France opposed reform- Scottish nobles support it, o John Knox (1500s) dominated reform movement= established state church. He's seious, with lots of Calvinist doctrine. Creates a book of common order. The emphasis, like Calviinsits, is on preaching. • Wanted to structure the church after Geneva (he worked w/ Calvin) • 1560 persuades Scottish parliament to end papal authority and rule by bishops, substituting governance by presbyters, or council of ministers. • Presbyterian church of Scotland is Calvinist in doctrine, had simple, dignified worship, and emphasized preaching

Ulrich Zwingli

• Swiss humanist Ulrich Zwingli relied on Erasmus's New Testament (thought scriptures were words of God) and didn't like the celibacy, indulgence, etc problem. Had support of city authorities when reforming church in zurich. He was influenced by Erasmus. Zwingli and Luther agreed on everything except Communion.

Paul III

• Renaissance popes did not want to reform because they thought it would mean loss of power, prestige, and money, but with Paul III - no one knew he would have done this and reformed- he was a consummate politician and corrupt as anyone (p. 1534-1549), the papal court became center or reform movement rather than its opponent o He appoints his three grandchildren, teenagers, as cardinals in the church- nepotism for people who clearly aren't qualified- church clergy is supposed to be celibate. o But when Paul becomes pope, he becomes influenced by reformers. o The clergy were decorous and pious in contrast to Renaissance popes who liked building churches and enhancing family power. o Paul III and successors supported clergy education, end of simony (selling church offices), and stricter control of clerical life o Holy Office (Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition)- established by Paul III in 1542- It's the Inquisition set up by the pope in central Italy • Power over the Roman Inquisition (6 cardinals w/ power over Catholics, could arrest, imprison, and execute heretics) • Published Index of Prohibited Works (Forbidden books) • Galileo was tried for heresy- he recanted and he was under house arrest • Council of Trent affects central Italy (France?)- and when it spreads, it'll matter • Only had much influence in papal territories o Paul III calls Council of Trent -in northern Italy- (general), which met in times between 1545 and 1563) bunch of meetings o Trent is on the border so Protestants can more easily get there- but this falls apart more quickly bec Calvinists and Lutherans only wanted to discuss the Scripture ideas, so they don't come because they thought it would be useless o Reform Catholic Church and reconcile w/ Protestants (the latter is the initial purpose) o Lutherans and Calvinists were invited but their ideas of Scripture being the sole basis of discussion made reconciliation impossible o Charles V doesn't want to alienate Lutheran nobles, and France wanted the Catholics and Lutherans divided to keep Germany weak - NOT RECONCILIATION o Council of Trent reforms • Equal validity for scriptures and tradition as sources of religious truth (Here are what Protestants say, we reaffirm everything- faith and good works, traditions, we're right and they're wrong!!, a strong statement is required, and it comes out of this) • Reaffirmed 7 secraments, transubstantiation • Bishops remain in their own dioceses, no pluralism or absenteeism, simony, or sla of indulgences (oops we made a mistake about indulgences) • Clerical ignorance- educate them • Clerics could not have concubines- priests have to be celibate, and how do they ensure this? The bishops are required to visit every church institute in their diocese to check up at least every other year. • Bishops were given greater authority • Every diocese (unit administered by bishops) should have a seminary for clergy education and training- educate priests • Seminary professors determine if candidates are suitable • NEW IDEA- parents decide kids' religious careers- weeding out process • Seminary professors decided in this weeding out process in their genuine calling- doing it because you love it- and for entrance into seminary, all things being equal, advantage to people from poorer backgrounds- if you come from a poor family, youre much more willing to make a career in a small parish church- and you can relate to people in your parish more effectively • NEW emphasis on teaching laity, esp uneducated laity • Marriages be done publicly before a priest and witnesses- less denials and etc (not about well being of church- to fix denials and inheritance problems- you have to be a legit spouse or child to inherit- in England this causes problems) • Trent is the basis of Roman Catholic faith, organization, etc through mid 20th cent • COUNTER REFORMATION

Religious War in the Netherlands

• The church reformation becomes a struggle for Dutch independence • The Netherlands likes being controlled by Charles V. Charles was born and raised in the Netherlands- he fits in well- there are business people and nobles governing the provinces- important- wealth of Europe- Charles uses that wealth to finance wars- heavy taxes. • Youd think that Lutheranism would spread into Netherlands- its close to Germany and it appeals to merchants- but they are loyal to Charles. • 1556- Charles abdicates- Philip II takes over- he was raised in Spain and builds for himself a palace- the Escorial (outside of Madrid, its actually a monestary, Philip lives an austere life and see the monks pray). • Philip doesn't fit in the Netherlands • Charles V had inherited 17 provinces (Self governing- they're different from one another) of Netherlands and Belgium- each was self-governing (make own laws, collect taxes) only unified by emperor. Netherland cities made living though trade and industry • Low Countries (Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands)- o Lutheran ideas take root cuz of corrupted Roman Church and Renaissance ideas o Charles V grew up in the Netherlands and was able to limit their impact- but his son Philip II who later controlled the Netherlands had grown up in Spain. Protestant ideas spread o 1560s Protestants in Netherlands were ostly Calvinists. • Calvinism's intellectual seriousness, moral gravity, and emphasis on any form of labor well done appealed to urban merchants, financiers, and artisans. • Lutherans taught respect for powers, but Calvinists tended to encourage opposition to authorities who were ungodly. • Spanish try to suppress Calvinist worship and raise taxes in 1560s= RIOTS • Protestants ideas come in- Calvinism comes in- and it's a different story- and its like, overthrow ungodly people) • Calvinists start in Antwerp (port city), sack Catholic churches and destroy religious images- destroy churches- at natro Dame of Antwerp, and the beautiful art is destroyed, amnuscripts are destroyed. Philip wants to put a dent to this • Philip II sends 20 thou Spanish troops under duke of Alva to pacify Low Countries (Alva exterminates religious and political dissidents)- But troops make you more enemies- will they be effective enough to protect us? Or will you just get people to hate you? • Alva's "Council of Blood" his own tribunal- 3/3/1568 1500 people executed (more shocking- they're not used to lots of people dying)- more people become Calvinist- opposing Habsburgs= CIVIL WAR= Philip sends the Duke of Parma instead of Alva and Parma goes in to pacify one province after another by sieging and controlling them. Siege warfare tactics- successful for a while- they even take • Calvinists think Spanish were ungodly • Spanish kick them out bec kings are centralizing their power and don't want too much power for pope • 1568-78 Civil Wars in Netherlands; Catholics vs Protestants; 17 provinces and Spain o 10 southern provinces (Catholic) come under control of Spanish Habsburg forces (Belgium) o 7 northern provinces (lowlands) (Protestant), led by Holland, form Union of Utrecht and declared their independence from Spain (1581) o William of Orange says that we have mud, and flows it so that siege machinery- Parma's defensive ends. Murdered later by parma;s agents. Elizabeth later starts sending aid to maintain dutch resistance- 1588- Parma- we gotta take out England. o But Philip II continues to fight o England supplies northern provinces, Spain launches an unsuccessful invasion (Spanish Armada) o 1609: Spain recognizes their independence= truce

Elizabeth I

• Under Elizabeth (daughter of Anne Boleyn r. 1558- 1603) religious stability. Protestant. She was a very capable ruler, but when she comes to the throne, she has to deal with an empty treasury, the religious split, the important relationship between ruler and Parliament, foreign relations (esp Spain and the Catholics). None of those problems are resolved during her reign. But she does hancdle these problems with some finesse, but later rulers wont be that competent= crumble. She never marries cuz shse doesn't want to share power. o THE MAIN ISSUE right now is the religious problem. Its more complicated now. Some Catholics and Calivinists are unhappy- Calvinists want to purify them. The Calvninists want to get rid of bishops and get rid of the church bishops. But to be a successful ruler in the 1500s, you must control thourhg the church- otherwise itll be like Germany and Switzerland- fragment. o Catholics versus Puritans ("purify them of Catholic ideals") o She went and did something in the middle- she was governor (she does that because she's a woman) of the Church of England (Catholics can be loyal to her w/o dishonoring pope, she's not a "head") • Go to church or risk a fine, but I wont interfere with your private beliefs (You can believe anything you want but you must come to mass at least once a year- to show that you're a good Englishperson- she'll try to make the Anglican church more appealing- services in English, clergy can marry, but the church will remain hierarchal) The Jews have aleready been kicked out (not all gone, but yeah). • Elizabeth tries to broaden the feel. Fines arent that bad. She keeps the puritans under control- but catholics are a problem- so the next person in line is Mary, Queen of Scots (Mary Stewart). Mary had been queen of France, but then went back to Scot (Presbyterian church beginning, Protestants) Mary gunpowders her husband, kill him, Scottish use this as an excuse so Mary can go to England, ask Elizabeth to help her regain power, and she doesnst kill mary for 20 years. As long as Mary is alive, Philip will not come and attack. France (Mary) is political enemy of Spain (France). IF Elizabeth should die- there could be a rebellion though- and Mary is executed 1587. Philip has the next catholic claim- after Mary, so now he can go and attack. • Anglican Church, it was called- kind of Protestant • Services in English, monasteries not re-established, clergyman were grudgingly allowed to marry • But also hierarchal with archb and bishops and elaborate ceremonies o Catholicism wants to emerge again- Phillip wanted to unite England and Catholic Europe with Mary of Tudor (FAIL)- Mary, Queen of Scots, Catholic cousin of Elizabeth o Elizabeth imprisons Mary bec Mary could be center of Catholic attempts to overthrow her o 1587- Mary implicated in plot to kill Elizabeth- w/ Phillip II's full backing- English execute Mary- pope urges Phillip to retaliate o SPANISH ARMADA- sail from Lisbon to Flanders, where there were Spanish troops bec of Netherland religious wars. Spanish were to escort barges carrying troops across English Channel to attack England • May 9, 1588- la felissima armada (the most fortunate fleet) sails from Lisbon w/ more than 130 vessels but meets an English fleet (with smaller, faster, easier to move ships, better firepower) many English were actually bigger • Storms, inadequate food, ammunition problems, and to a lesser extent the English fireships that scattered the Spanish= English victory. Only 65 Spanish ships managed to return home. • 1588- Spanish rebuild their navy (something much better), and the quality of the fleet ameliorates • War between Spain and England drags on for years • Philip II cant reimpose Catholicism on England by force • David and Goliath kind of story enhances English national sentiment • Maybe psychologically it was an important battle.

The Witch Trials

• Witch trials began before Reformation in 1480s, increased 1560, ended 1660 • Middle ages- pretty rare that anyone was executed • Early 16th cent- this changes- Lots of many people will be accused til middle of 1600s o Notions of Devil's powers and insecurity from religious wars o Protestants and Catholics trialed them, w/ clergy and seculars • Reformation's sense of God's power and divine wrath impacted • Later Mid Ages, Christian theologians and canon lawyers said that witchcraft was making a pact with Devil and used by the Devil to do what he wanted o Wild sexual orgies with Devil, fly at night to meetings called sabbats (parodied Christian services), stole communion wafers and unbaptized babies for rituals, maybe conspiring to overthrow Christianity o Ultimate heretics o Trials with this idea began in Switzerland and southern Germany in late 1400s, declined in Reformation cuz of Catholic-Protestant wars, resumed 1560. 1500-1600- 100 to 200 thou people die; 40 to 60 thou executed o Gender balance varies, 75-85 % of those tried were women • Ideas about women and their roles affect • Virulent misogyny (hatred of women), sexual desire (demonic lover), weaker towards Devil • In Christian traditions, associated with disorder, nature, and body (ALL DEMONIC) • More likely to curse or scold than beat up or take to court • Women are there when bad things happen ie, cooking, caring for new moms, children, animals o Legal changes o Rules of courts tend to change o Accusatorial (suspect knows accusers and charges, accuse can be liable for trial if charges not proven) turns legal procedure turns to inquisitorial procedure (legal authorities bring case, questioning, toture to get additional suspects- they thought witches worked together, you don't know who your accuser is). o Why did they change? Its about Protestant reformation. Systems of law may have been developed to accuse people of different beliefs- the extreme increase in witch trials comes with protestant reformations- all societies have religions (what happens after death? Big questions? No objective answers. Religions have answers- but if lots of people shares an answer, people feel better about believing it- but other beliefs will make you feel scared or etc- Lack of religious unity will make people uncomfortable) • People accuse more; they don't have to face consewuences for accusing or face accused person's relatices • Areas that were accusatorial didn't have much trials • Most famous inquisitions in early modern Europe (Spain, Portugal, Italy, papacy) were lenient with cases. It's in small towns where people (uneducated) get under control o Inquisitors were no less misogynist than other judges and often thought cases were just ignorant peasants who needed to be educated; sent with warning and a penance o Most trials started with individuals (often women) who accused someone of doing something (spoiling food, making kids sick, etc) usually cuz of tension(women were also witnesses) o Older women who lived alone were often accused of being witches- no man to guard them from develop o Woman gains econ and social security by "being a good wife" and confronting those who didn't o Charge is made, then questioning, then confession, then execution ex. Walpurga Hausmännin • Many records of witch trials survive o Did people really practice witchcraft and think they were witches? o People confessed, we don't know where to draw the line o We use psychoanalysis or study of more recent victims of torture • After questioning, people who were implicated (5-10 suspects) were hunted down and it often grew into a witch panic (these were common in HRE, Switzerland, and parts of France, where there were small gov units that were jealous of each other, and after Reformation, divided by religion= these rulers felt more threatened than the monarchs of western Europe and persecuted witches to show power and piety and order) o Witch panics occurred after climatic disaster, came in waves • In large scale panics, wealthier people, kids, and men were suspects o The panic ends when legal authorities see that suspects are not what witches are understood to be or scope of accusations was too much • As 1600s brought ideas about science and reason (Sir Isaac Newton; reason), many (including religious and legal authorities who liked to persecute them) questioned whether witches really existed. o Prosecutions declined and were eventually outlawed o Last official execution for witchcraft in England- 1682 o Last one in HRE- 1775

Zwinglian Eucharist

Christ present in spirit, but not in the bread and wine

Diet of Worms

• Emperor Charles V held a diet (assemble nobles, clergy, and cities of Holy Roman Empire- higher nobles and clergy, the most important one) in Worms, Germany and summoned Luther. Charles is going to be the most important political figure. He has very great ambitions. • His appearance at the Diet of Worms in 1521 and rejection to recanting his ideas sparks more controversy and reforming action. At the diet, Luther says his opinions- and Charles tells him to recant. Luther has a famous quote about it- not burned. Frederick the Wise of Saxony gets him out of there puts him in a castle to save him, and there, translates New Testament into German- creating standardized German.

Problems with priests (poorer priests)

-They don't know Latin. THEY SHOULD BE EDUCATED. -Priests in the 1300s against 1500s.... There;s more reason to thinkthat they should be more educated by now. But there are more complaints. There;s a higher level of education among the laypeople. In the 1300s, they couldn't notice this. -People are better educated in the 1500s. Part of it is humanism- the emphasis of people studying, Laypeople are not necessarily going into Church. People who study Latin will know when the priest is making a mistake. -People are also more literate. The priniting press! More opportunities to study in 15h century. What kind of people are becoming educated? Peasants wont be educated. Nobles kind of. The BUSINESS CLASS mostly! They have to know how to read and write, a bit of math. -And you have businessmen in cities and towns. -And complaints about priests come form cities and towns! They could tell the Church was making mistakes. In the countryside, with all the peasants, they didn't know any better. ➢ They drank too much. Clerical immorality. They probably drank too much. Why did poor priests drink a lot? - A poorer person is more likely to go into drugs. Life is hard- business escape. If you're wealthy, they don't have it as much. - And parish priests ar poor. So we should improve their living conditions. ➢ And lots of parish priests were not celibate. Its usually not about lust. Wealthier clergy is, but not parish. It was usually a woman he'd marry if he wasn't a priest. People marry because they love each other. The idea for marrying for love develops in the mid 19th cent. People married, usually for economics. Poorer people marry to advance their ability to survive. You want a hard worker, etc. • A priest doesn't hae much money. A garden to get by. A WIFE is a great asset. The priest, to survive, needs a helpmate. Also, when things are though, its helpful emotionally to share difficulties. A PRIEST CANT MARRY HER THOUGH. He will live with her, but not marry her. That's the most common situation with parish priests. • To solve this problem, priests need money so they don't need wives, education, alcohol to drown sorrows.

radicals

1520s, some people didn't want church and state to unite and wanted to be separate from state (like New Testament Times). • People will read the Bible and come up with their own ideas. Non Lutheran churches were tiny at first- referred to as Anabaptists. Anabaptists are rebaptized as an adult (make commitment as an adult). You make the decisions yourself. o these groups varied in beliefs but were called radicals for their insistence on a more extensive break with prevailing ideas o Anabaptists (rebaptizers), some lived simply and religiously, some want religious toleration and individualism o Often pacifists with no offices/oaths= social outcasts, hatred • Protestant and Catholics felt threatened by their ideas, especially rejection of state church (= order to them P and Cs) • Were persecuted in Saxony, Strasbourg, and Swiss cities • Community spirit and heroism in face against martyrdom= survival of radical ideas • Although these radical people didn't last. Quakers-pacifist, but George Fox didn't mention Quakerism. Lots of grups talk about inner lights- but Baptists began in 18th cent against sterility of intellectual revolution. There's not really a connection, with Congregationalists either. These people didn't lookback at the fringe radical groups.Ex. Constitution and Indians. These little radical groups wer dead ends. • Baptists, Congregationalists, etc Most notorious were Anabaptists. They pulled out certain things that were horrifying (polygamy- adulterous wives stoned) Munster. These groups were often pacifists- they were small and fragmented- hard to win a war. • Pacifism- rebaptism- separation of church and state (wanted the state to leave them alone)

Hungary

Hungarian students who studied at Wittenberg (lots of Hungarians study here) spread Lutheranism (good influence here) o Royal court of King Louis II likes ideas don't really care much at all o Hungarian diet (1523, catholic hierarchy and nobles) all Lutherans and their supporters have their property confiscated and put to death as heretics o BUT 8/26/1526 Battle of Mohacs on plain of Mohacs in southern Hungary, ottoman (Ottoman turks) sultan Suleiman the Magnificent crushed the Hungarians, kills King Louis II, nobles, many soldiers o The turks win o Hungary splits- Ottoman turks take great plains with capital Buda, Habsburgs rule north and west, Ottoman-supported Janos Zapolya has eastern Hungary and Transylvania • Turks thought Christians were infidels- didn't care- they are religiously tolerant though. The taxes were not that impressive (pretty much everyone has to pay for it). No religious toleration with Habsburg o Christians paid extra taxes o Many Magyar (Hungarian) nobles accepted Lutheranism o Lutheran schools and parishes multiplied o They had Calvinists, Lutherans, etc o Peasants like Lutheranism o Majority was Protestant until late 1600s when Hungarian nobles recognized Habsburg (Catholic) rule and Ottoman Turkish withdrawal led to Catholic restoration o Habsburgs are gonna drive turks out of Hungary, catholics win again

Indulgences

a document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness. Helps out of purgatory, not hell. Weren't there in the beginning, perhaps started Crusades? Crusaders who fight will do bad things- so they need indulgences.In Saxony, the selling of Indulgences was prohibited by Frederick the Wise. But you can just go over the lines and get one. Who would object it? Monks and clergy are undermined. If you sell these things, the laypeople wont want to go to Church. And priests don't make much- their money will be drained. And princes like Frederick- it drains money out of principality. Taxes.

Ursulines

founded by Angela Merici (daughter of a country gentleman, worked for poor, sick, uneducated among her native Brescia in northern Italy) in 1535. First women's religious order based on educating young girls to recatholicize- good catholic wives and mothers- Wife of mother plays more of an important role in families- be good catholic wives o The Ursulines spread- Quebec and all. o receives papal approval in 1565, the Ursulines spread to France and New World.

Archbishop of Wittenberg Albert of Mainz

got profits for debt and became bishops of other areas.

Peace of Augsburg

o 1555- Charles V accepts Peace of Augsburg, which recognizes Lutheranism (for peace in HRE) • Political authorities decide whether state is Catholic or Lutheran; don't bother other states about it (like Switzerland, exept the princes decide- as long as its Lutheranism or catholicism) - The princes won because Charles is fighting- French hate the Habsburgs, and if Charles unites Europe, that'll weaken French. French is Catholic, helping the Lutheran princes. There are times when pope is against Charles V. Battle of Pavia is significant- takes pope- marches and sacks Rome and takes the pope prisoner. Popes want to establish their independence. French are helping German, pope is, and the Ottoman Turks, a huge empire, are pushing into Europe. Ottomans besiege Vienna in 1520s. Charles has great resources but he has so many enemies. • Northern and central Germany becomes Lutheran, the southern Catholic • No freedom of religion within territories- state churches where everyone belonged. (Convert or leave- religious refugees common- rulers didn't always let subjects leave as easy as treaty stipulated) • Peace of Augusburg ends German religious war for decades • Charles V, unable to unite under Catholicism, abdicates and goes to a monastery • Gives power in Spain and Netherlands , Americas to son Philip II • Imperial power to brother Ferdinand (Austria, HRE emperor)

German Peasant Rebellions of the 1520s

o 16th cent- population recovered, same amount of land. Landlords were trying to regain privileges- like workers needed to work a certain number of days, or common lands that landlord wants back. But theres are crop fail- we don't know why. Back then, you had a subsistent econ- people didn't grow a whole lot of food more than their needs. If it failed for more than a year- they would take it, but a few weaker people die. Two years though, they become weak and succumb to diseases. And the German peasants in Germany rebel. Peasants are like, Luther says there should be no privileged class! Luther is at first sympathetic. But there's a rebellion. So he writes his book. This is the material world where you're supposed to follow your lords. And Luther is encouraging the peasants to be hunted down and killed. And lords win- peasants never win. o Nobles aggrieve peasants by taking common lands, new rents and services, taking animals when head of house died o Peasants make demands they believed conformed to the Scriptures and cited radical thinkers of Luther for what they

Protestantism in Scandinavia

o Denmark-Norway under King Christian III (r. 1500s) o Denmark owns it all- Norway, etc • Danish scholars studied at University of Wittenberg • King C breaks with Catholic Church in 1530s most clergy follow • He breaks because he help himself to more property etc. • Goes smoothly in Denmark, rebels in northern Norway, Iceland o Sweden- Gustavus Vasa (r. 1500s) controlled church personnel and income too. Sweden breaks away- the dynasty he sets up is the Vasa dynasty (Elizabeth is the windsors- since king George the 5th) Family name o When he takes over, he takes all the church property, then the religion follows. o Protestant ideas spread but Lutheran ideas arent accepted by Swedish church until later in the century o Transition to Reformation

The Rise of the Habsburg dynasty through marriage

o Frederick III (Austria) marries Princess Eleanore (Portugal) Lots of $, bit of land 1452 o (They owned a lot of Austria- Vienna- most powerful rulers in Germnay- always Holy Roman emperors (title means very little, but....) The Portuguese have a lot of money because they had been coming down the coast of Africa and found gold in whats today Nigeria and Ghana- trade, gold, slaves- golden age of Lisbon, capital of Portugal) Frederick the III acquired a large dowery- money from the bride for the groom. Men are dominant, we wanna get the women off our hands. Men and weomen perspective. So Fred gets a lot of money) o Son Maximilian marries Mary of Burgundy (makes French and their kings mad cuz Burgubdy was "theirs") (1477) Burgundy (in eastern France) Netherlands, Luxembourg. Habsburg= international power o Maximilan's kids marry Ferdinand and Isabella's kids. His grandson Charles V held many lands and thought he had to protect religious unity of Western Christendom o (Burgundy was Netherlands, Luxembourg, and burgundy in france) Richest area in all of Europe. Things are shifting. Before it had been Italy- Venice and Genoa were good with Mediterr trade. But this trade is 1477- but the second best area of trade was the Rhine River. The center of trade moves form the Mediterr to the Atlantic- and Burgundy becomes the most rich, richer than Italy. And France doesn't like this- France had been the most powerful of all the nationstates. The French King Louis the Eleventh (the Spider king) went to war with this. He locks off French burgundy. The heart of it remains under Habsburg control. It initiates war between Habsburgs and French- great traditional enemies in Europe. They warred for a very long time. So Louis takes some of it, but the Habsburg still has Netherlands- heart. The son of maximilian Philip of Burgundy marries Joanna of Castille. It brought a dowery. Joana's brothers all died- she wasn't supposed to inherit much. Joana becomes the heiress to Spain. When she dies, the son Charles the V inherits Austria, the HRE, the Netherlands (Netherlands, Belgium, Lux), Spain (Mexico, Carribean, South America- SILVER!!!) When Charles becomes ruler, the Incas and Aztecs are defeated- lots of silver. Lots of ambition. And Charles wants to maybe unify the whole world- the ruler of China is the most powerful (all the silver ends up here.) o The Habsburgs are unusual. The way Charles V gets to power is through marriage- not war. They were renowned for marrying well.

anticlericalism

opposition to clergy 1. clerical immorality (gambling, celibacy,etc) 2. clerical ignorance (not knowing Latin) 3. pluralism- holding more than one office at a time 4. and related absenteeism- an official has lots of benefices (offices) and just collected revenues to pay their own salaries. • Italians in papal curia (pope's court) held offices in England, Germany, Spain • Nationalistic resentment at "foreign" upper church hierarchy, esp in Germany (weak central gov to communicate w/church- high revenues)

• Christians think, how do I get there? To salvation?

• Catholics- faith, do good works (doing what the Church expects of you) • Luther- faith alone. Don't mess with anything else. Catholics think, what if you have faith and do bad things- Luther is like, you wont do bad things if you faith. Catholics think you have to do good works as well. In the 2500s, Catholicism emphasizes good works (.e. buy an indulgence! Which has no faith) There is a problem there. Give that edge to Luther. If you get to heaven acoording to Catholics, you are responsible for your own salvation. Lutheran- you get to Heaven through faith - God. God determines if you have faith or not. You cant will yourself to believe something you don't. How can you make yourself believe? Conclusion: if faith gets you to heaven, God chooses. If it's good works, then you choose. Very important. Listening to the Past• Protestants o think salvation, initiated by God (not people), comes from faith o authority rests on Bible alone (not including church teachings.) o the church is a spiritual priesthood of all believers, an invisible fellowship not fixed by any place or person. Catholics- hierarchal clerical institution headed by pope in Rome) o Protestant highest form of Christian life is serving God in a calling- Catholics would be monastic/religious life over secular

Czech Republic and Jan Hus

• Eastern Europe w/ diversity- ethnic o Ex. 15th cent bohemia today the Czech Rep- germans ruled lots of Czechs, who adopted ideas of jan hus= emperor recognizes hussite church. But the Germans here liked Lutheranism in the 1520s and 30s, and nobles liked Lutheranism in response to Catholic habsburgs. • Hus just wanted to bring our reforms in the Roman Church but was burned in 1415. His followers were able to keep on believing- hussite church. • Lutheran ideas start percolating bec there are Germans, but Czechs don't embrace Lutheranism. The Habsburgs are officially ruling here bbut not exercising a lot of authority. Catholicism, too. 1618- Lots of religions here, 30 years war- culmination of religious wars, starts in bohemia, Habsburgs wipe out all oppositions in Bohemia, afterwards until only Catholics left • Catholic Reformation causes some areas in bohemia to reconvert= helps cause 30 years war in 17th cent

Gregory VII

• In the 10th and early 11th centuries, the catholic church was so corrupt the age was called the pornocracy. There will be a reaction from a monestary, called Cluny. This monestary has some spiritual people who tthink that the problem is that bishops, or other higher ups, are appointed by secular people. So, theyre not appointed in terms of faith. In Cluny, they say that they are going to make a monestary with no connection to the corruption to the outside.Cluny is in Fracne. Cluny set such an example that everyone looks to Cluny for leadership. This peaks when someone from Cluny is appointed pope, Gregory 7. He thinks that only church appoints the church officers. • In this way, kings cannot rule affectively. Ex. Henry the Fourth- If I cant appoint people to high church offices, it wont work. Cuz my laws are announced in church. The bishops work for me. This issue is called investiture. • In the conflict, Gregory excommunicates Henry. And its such a blow- because his power is based on the allegiance of his vassals. And if hes excoed, the vassals don't have to serve him, and they rebel. And Henry begs for forgiveness. It turns into fighting. And this lay investiture has huge consequences. Germany and Italy got lots of principalities and were very not unified. • They later decide the pope can choose, and the emperor sees if he can be served. It's a compromise. The king or emperor nominates, the pope invests (does the investiture).

Jesuits (Society of Jesus)

• Jesuits (Society of Jesus)- founded by Ignatius Loyola (had a severe battle wound on his leg, read about Christ and decided to become a soldier of Christ). o Spread and strengthened Catholicism o After a year of praying, seclusion, and asceticism, wrote Spiritual Exercises- to study during a period of four weeks strengthening one's will with God. Had a religious experience. Dedicate life to Jesus and pope. Jesuits- soldiers of the pope, of Catholicism. Spiritual Exercises is part of becoming a Jesuit- Jesuits are best of best. o Their job is to convert people and convert protestants. Their vows- obedience is the thing- obey pope. o After a study at universitites at Salamanca and Paris, Loyola had 6 companions (wealthy merchant/professional families) and secured Papal approval in 1540. • The first companions thought the Reformation was a pastoral problem related to people's spiritual condition. • They thought they weren't helping themselves- they "help souls." o A highly centralized, tightly knit organization. o Chastity, poverty, obedience, special obedience to the pope. o Flexibility and the willingness to respond to the needs of time and circumstance formed their tradition- attractive to young men o SUCCESS- spread Christianity to India, Japan before 1550 and Brazil, N America, Congo in 1600s. Saint Fracis Xavier went to India, China, Philippines. Brought back southern Germany and much of eastern Europe back to Catholicism o Humanist methods, educating sons of nobility AND poor. Education is their weapon. Lots of Jesuit schools in the U.S. o As confessors ad spiritual directors to kings, princes, nobles had political influence- convert and maintain o Go to England and that's why Elizabeth kills so many catholics= Jesuits o They are liaisons but are successful in converting people of Germany, etc o Extremely significant o Catholic rulers kick them out eventually, later bring them back. o Jesuit role is controversial- 16th cent no Jesuit popes. Present pope- he is a Jesuit- hes chosen. Jesuits are found in places with poverty- they are politically active.

Marriage and Sexuality during the Reformation

• Luther (married Katharina von Bora) and Zwingli (married Zurich Anna Reinhart) didn't believe in the celibacy rule.• Protestant marriage based on contract, Catholic is a sacrament. A sacrament cant be broken- you can have divorces in the Protestant world. (There are very few.) But a major cause is infertility in divorce. Not good for woman. Maybe being in the Catholic world would be better for women- nunneries. o Pastors' wives represented their husbands' beliefs and were expected to be models of wifely obedience and charity o Marriage was NOT a sacrament BUT • Adam and eve • Cures lust • Companionship/consolation • A good marriage reflects spiritual equality and husbandly authority and wifely obedience • Women were subject to men- they were expected to obey happily, and men should treat them kindly but assert their authority (perhaps by physical force) o Women couldn't be part of the clergy but female monarchs and rulers did have influence • Protestants- marriage is a contract of support,companionship, and the sharing of mutual goods. o Divorce and remarriage remedied a bad marriage, which was considered dangerous (Catholic canon law only allowed separation with no remarriage) o Protestants saw divorce as a last resort though • Prostitution o Marriage remedied lust, so brothels, which were common, were closed in Protestant cities and later Catholic. Prostitution punished o Protestants and Catholics closed down brothels. This is surprising because this doesn't ring true because in Geneva (Switzerland) the brothel was only regulated to keep married men out. o Brothels were probably not closed down- because they were good for taxation. It was good for income. In Rome, the brothels were closed down- loss of business- so they opened it up again. o Immoral- under whoredom-unacceptable sexual activities o *****- also a term for theological opponents • Protestant Reformation had a positive impact on marriage o Nuns started wondering- Reformation brought closing of convents and monasteries , and marriage became the only occupation for upper class Protestant women o Some nuns fought the Reformation or thought they could be Protestants and nuns at the same time; some mysteriously left o Made unmarried people suspect

Against the Murderous, Thieves Hordes of the Peasants

• Luther first supported the peasants- but rebellion. o Luther wanted freedom from R Catholic Church- not opposition to secular leaders o Support peasants- said that Scripture was unassociated with earthly justice or material gain (a position that Zwingli supported) o Wrote Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants (convinced that a rebellion would hasten the end of civilized society) o GERMAN PEASANTS' WAR OF 1525- crushed, many peasants died. • Lay rulers more powerful • Reformation lost appeal, urban rebels and peasants may go radical • Peasant econ conditions improve (land return to common use), still peasants are wiped out • In a spiritual world you're free, but in the material world you're not- maybe what Luther is thnking. Luther wants the nobles (princes) to support him because there would be no Lutheranism without them (ex. Frederick of Saxony)

Religious wars in switzerland

• Luther liked unity and the idea of being German ("we Germans") • Some Germans were really attracted to Luther's ideas but many liked the confiscation of land from the Church (wealth, independence from Emperor) • Charles V wants to defend Catholicism- religious wars- Switzerland (in HRE) with 13 loose autonomous territories (cantons- some Protestant and some Catholic) who warred in 1520s (Zwingli dies in battle 1531)- treaty, decide your own religion, give up foreign alliances- (neutrality today) • Each canton selects their religion. Within a political unit, the religion must be the same in terms of unity. Canotns are not run by princes- people have a vote on the religion. That's the solution. Germany is similar. In Germany, fighting breaks out.

Papacy trying to excommunicate Luther

• Papacy writes a letter trying to refute his opinions, said his books should burn, and that 2 months he would be excommunicated if he didn't recant. • Luther publicly burns the letter • By 1521, he was supposed to be excommunicated, but so much controversy emerged (9/10 Luther! And 1/10 Die, Roman court)

The Appeal of Protestant Ideas

• Pulpits and printing presses spread ideas; mid 1500s converts in all classes • Educated and humanists converted to Luther's ideas o A simpler personal religion based on faith o Return to spirit of early church o Importance of scripture (attracts literate people) o No elaborate ceremonies Catholic priests became protestant Townspeople were happy cuz Protestant church had no special legal privileges • The printing press and Luther's linguistic skill helped with his success • Making reforms permanent through political people and others o Zwingli works with Zurich city council who appoint Protestant pastors for other towns o Luther's territory was ruled by a noble (elector of Saxony) and worked with political authorities • German rulers reform papacy and institution • Said Christians should obey secular rulers (divinely ordained) • A territory became Protestant when its ruler brought a reformer to educate clergy, sponsor public sermons, and confiscate property. (Happened in many states in Holy Roman Empire in 1520s)

Babylonian Captivity

• The papacy itself is going through a crisis. In the 14th cent, Phillip of France wants to tax the Church. Boniface the 8th excommunicates him, but it doesnt matter as much. He is kidnapped, and he dies. The College of Cardinals select a new ruler- move cener to Avignon- Babylonian captivity. Rulers believed that the pope is under influence of French king. So a new pope is selected- Urban- we're moving back. He's like, we need to be more spiritual. If you have a high church position, you're enjoying the corruption and they don't want to clean things up like Urban wants to. They're making money off of this.

Edward VI

• Under Edward VI (r. 1547-1553) Henry dies in 1547. He was very conservative- mainly Catholic church but with an English translation. Edward 6 is only 11. This happens pretty frequently- a regent is needed, who will make the decisions. The regent will rule in the king's stead until the king is old enough to rule. But Henry 8 establishes a council to run the country- scared of one regent, but one person WILL emerge as head of the council. Later there will be two councils- and Henyr appointed a council more Protestant than he is- Maybe he didn't trust Chatolics with his son. The liturgy of the ANglican church will be rewritten- Book of Common Prayer. • Thomas was kind of Protestand- priests can marry, etc. Edward never really ruled, and Mary continued (he was sick) o Archbishop Thomas Cranmer prepares first Book of Common Prayer (Church of England's prayers and services), simplifies liturgy, invites Protestant theologians to England

Great Schism

Urban the 6th is not the only pope, and there;s also a pope in France. Excommunicate each other. Great Schism. Three popes. They finally select one pope, Martin 5th , who goes back to Rome. 15th cent- You have corrupt popes, etc, ones who are interested in art, etc. Not lots of spirituality.

Imperial Diet

o Lutherans (princes) present their statement of faith the Augsburg Confession (Lutheran beliefs) but Charles refuses and tells them to join Catholic Church again, give land back. The princes get mad- fighting- warfare between princes and Charles. Fighting that'll go on for decades. And the princes win- 1555- a peace will drawn. o Protestants form a military alliance, and the emperor cant respond with military because of the Habsburg-Valois wars o 1530s-early40s. War is inevitable. Charles the V is protecting religion AND state (the empire) o 1546- Fighting starts, Charles V is successful, but pope and King of France are alarmed at his power, so pope withdraws papal troops, and King of France sends money to Lutheran princes.

Leo X

sold indulgences to finance building of Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome

John Calvin

• John Calvin (1509-1564) was born in Noyon in northwestern Frace. Studied law, experience a religious crisis in 1533= becomes Protestant. Writing in French- significant. • Calvin thought he was selected by God to reform the Church, so he accepts an invitation to assist in the reformation of the city of Geneva (he's eloquent and understands religion well) • Calvin'slogic is more rigorous than Luther's. o There (1541) Calvin works to establish a Christian society ruled by God through civil magistrates and reformed ministers o Geneva became a model for reforms • The Institutes of the Christian Religion, written by Calvin (published 1536 and in its final form 1559) lays out Calvinist ideas. • Most Christian religions are about what is takes to achieve salvation. o He believed in absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and the total weakness of humanity. The nature of God- comes down to the 3 omni- omnipresent- omnipotent (all powerful), omniscient (all knowing). Compared to God, man is insignificant. o Based on this, we cant do anything about our salvation- it's predestined. The idea of faith from Luther sort of suggested it- But Clavin taks it to the conclusion. God would have to know the future, and if he knows the future, the future has been determined. But if the future has been determined, it doesn't mean you can go around doing whatever, cuz God knows what you're gonna do- so its all been decided. o Paradise Lost- Adam and Eve- Eve has been tricked by the serpent to eat fruit, convinces Adam, and the archangel comes in and asks where are you. Why did you do it. Eve did it! NO, it was your job to protect her- shes a woman. It's God's fault- he sent satan into the garden- it's a setup. THE ANSWER IS that it doesn't matter. Angel says its like, you have sinned! It was your choice, and you sinned. o Humans did not have free will cuz of God's sovereignty - God in his infinite wisdom decided at the beginning of time who would be saved and who would be damned- predestination o Calvinists believed in the redemptive work of Christ and was confident that God had elected (saved) him/her. Helps hardships. The elect are the people who will be saved. Very few are going to be saved. It's grim- but all Calvinists believe that they are part of the elect- and if you are an elect, what signs are there? What qualities would make you part of the elect? Don't sin at all- don't do what God doesn't want you to do (obedient). Have faith- don't do it just cuz of heaven but have to believe. But even if you have these things, it's not guaranteed- so you need something else. If the king is not doing something sinful, you have to stand up to him (unlike Lutheranism, do nothing) CREATE GOD"S WORLD HERE ON EARTH. You can see that in Geneva. o In his reform of Geneva, Calvin. Calvinism is about activism- based the third belief. • So the consequences- in Geneva- there will be a consistory that will punish sinners- that means no dancing, singing, card playing. Life is a serious business; you need to be focused. In church, no art or music- sit on hard benches and no AC. The service is the minister preaching for hours and hours. Presbyterianism comes out of Calivinism (but they have art and music- they came out of Calvinism but they arent like it anymore, there are still Calvinist churches here; in America, not much Calvinism cuz it goes against our ideas) • Calvinists try to convince non believers, or burn them at the stake -had eloquence -mastery of Scriptures -established Genevan Consistory (laymen and pastors to decrease sin)

Johann Eck

• Luther was ordered to come to Rome but because of political situations in the empire he debated against church rep Johann Eck in Leipzig (1519). Johann is a very brilliant man- he can push people into a corner. Luther is like, Why are indulgences okay? The pope says its okay, and if Luther says the pope is wrong, and he does, it's heresy. He's a heretic. An open one. It takes awhile for the papacy to respond. Not until 1521 until his exco is final.

Mary Tudor

• Under Mary Tudor (r. 1553-58) She was treated as a bastard by her dad for a long time, and she comes to the throne, and she's vigorous- wants to resturn England to Catholicism. So she marries Philip, to try to establish a Catholic dynasty, but now she cant have kids, so Phillip abandons her, and she'll die 1558, sadly. She does persecute, burned, etc several Protestants and becomes Bloody Mary. (Elizabeth "Good Queen Bess" actually killed more Protestants) Heresy. Mary killed Thomas Cranmer- arrested for heresy, and told his life would be sared if he recanted. And he recanted, but they still killed him- you'll reach salvation. A lot of people like this go to Geneva and become Calvinists. And when they comeback, they'll want to do things extreme in the eyes fo the royal family. o Catholic daughter of Catherine of Aragon- restores Catholicism o Marries cousin Philip II of Spain (Charles V's son) -unpopular in England- and protestants flee from England o Executes many protestants- alienates subjects even more

Problems with the wealthier clergy

• You might hold more than one position because -money -its possible because of wealth, bring in a gift, and the Church agrees because its good for the church.. -BIGGEST REASON for absenteeism and pluralism- development of nation states in England, france, and spain. Centralized enough. If you are a bishopin France, you migh be tapped for work by the king. The king wants educated people in order to administer his country. And he needs to pay these people. And the bishop will be paid by the church, and the bishop has to hire someone else for a lower pay. Since this is being handled, he has another job. Same thing. He'll work for the king. You see this in western Europe a lot. Very lucrative.