Chapter 16

absolutism

Absolutism is the political state where one leader posses all the power in a state.

Dutch East India Company

The Dutch East India Company (founded in 1602) was a joint stock company that cut heavily into the Portuguese trading in East Asia. It helped establish Dutch trading posts in the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, and Malacca. This Company helped bring the Dutch the wealth that raised the Dutch standard of living in the seventeenth century.

Dutch Estates General

The Estates General were made up of wealthy merchants who handled domestic affairs. The Estates General mainly handled foreign affairs including war. The Dutch Estates General was a model of the modern constitutional state which was very rare during the seventeenth century. The Dutch were one of the rare republic countries that were economically and socially stable. This success was mainly due to the organization of the Estates General.

Fronde

-Massive noble (Noble of Sword) uprising seige to Paris Louis 14th -this convince Louis XIV to not have heavy handed policies.

Define absolutism. How does it differ from totalitarianism?

-Absolutism is the political state where one leader posses all the power in a state. The absolute leaders believed that they had the divine right and were responsible to God. Basically, the absolute rulers believe that they were the state. For example, Louis the XIV may have said, "L'etat est moi!", which translates into "I am the state!" -Totalitarianism is when there is a centralized government on which a single party rules over the state's political, economical, social, and cultural life without opposition. This means that there is only one political party which rules over a state. With absolutism, the king was the absolute leader and ruled over the state by himself. With totalitarianism, a political party ruled over the state.

What is constitutionalism? How does it differ from a democratic form of government? From absolutism?

-Constitutionalism is when the ruling power has limitations due to set laws creating a balance between power of the government and the rights of the citizens. A constitution is an important part of constitutionalism and gets its power from the government's recognition and serves as the people's protector of their rights, liberties, and property. A constitutional government can either be in the form of a monarch or republic but the electorate has the ultimate power. -It differs from a democracy because a true democracy grants all citizens the right to vote, where constitutionalism gave some men and no women a vote. -Constitutionalism differs from absolutism because an absolutist state has one ruler who claims he has the divine right and controls everything within his state.

What were the causes of the War of the Spanish Succession? What impact did William III of England have on European events after about 1689?

-The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713) was provoked by the territorial disputes of the previous century, and it also involved the question of succession to the Spanish throne. It was supposed to be the grandson of Louis XIV, Philip of Anjou, but the Dutch and English wouldn't accept the French acquisition of the Spanish holdings. If Spain and France were united, the European balance of power would be upset. -William III (William of Orange) impacted European events by joining the League of Augsburg, becoming the leader of his coalition. He also got England and the Netherlands involved in the wars of the 1680s & 1690s, in which Louis XIV tried to take over Germany, and prevented France from winning any decisive victories.

James II of England

In 1685, James II of England succeeded the throne, spurring English Anti-Catholic fears, which eventually caused a rebellion. An acknowledged Catholic, he promised a Roman Catholic dynasty, which Parliament feared and tried to stop with a revoked exclusion bill. Once king, James II violated the Test Act and appointed Roman Catholics as government officials, further trying to gain support by issuing indulgences granting religious freedom. His imprisoning of seven bishops of the Church of England for refusing to grant such indulgences and the birth of a male heir, which promised a continuing Catholic dynasty, led to his dethronement in 1688.

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

In 1685, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, which was instituted by Henry IV. The monarchy had never intended for religious toleration to be permanent, as religious pluralism was not a 17th century ideal. Louis XIV, though tolerant, did not want any religious division in his country. This was also a popular move, as aristocrats had long asked for Louis XIV to crack down on the Huguenots. Tens of thousands of Huguenot soldiers, craftsmen, and businessmen emigrated, taking away their skills, revenues, and influence. Though hatred of the French monarchy was strengthened in other countries, the adverse economic side effects of this move were minimal.

What was the impact of Louis XIV's wars on the French economy and French society?

Louis recruited troops by dragooning [seizing people off the street], conscription, and lottery. This led to an impossible task: funding his enormous army of 200,000 against the coalitions of Europe and the Bank of Amsterdam and England. The minister of finance resorted to the devaluation of the currency and selling offices. This ultimately failed, and the taxation fell on the poor peasants, which led to widespread revolts in the 1690s. Bad harvests between 1688 and 1694 also led to starvation throughout France. Rising grain prices, new taxes for war on top of old ones, a drop in manufacturing, and pillaging troops brought great suffering for the people of France.

Philip II of Spain

Phillip II of Spain caused the collapse of the Spanish economy and the end of Spanish predominance. He paid his armies and foreign debts with silver bullion, thus transmitting Spanish inflation to the rest of Europe. Prices increased throughout Europe between 1560-1600. Wages didn't keep pace with prices that doubled, even quadrupled. Spain was hit the hardest, but all of Europe was affected. The poor and nobility suffered the most, while those in debt prospered, since debts had less value each year with increased prices.

Cardinal Richelieu

Richelieu, a great servant of the state, set in place the cornerstone of French absolutism, and his work served as the basis for France's cultural hegemony of Europe in the later seventeenth century. He used his strong influence over Louis XIII to exalt the French monarchy as the embodiment of the French state. His policy was the total subordination of all groups and institutions to the French monarchy, which even extended to literature. The constructive genius of Cardinal Richelieu is best reflected in the administrative system he established. Richelieu's foreign policy was to destroy the Habsburg territories that surrounded France.

French classicism

Scholars characterize the art and literature of the Age of louis XIV as "French Classicism". The artists and writers of the late 17th century deliberately imitated the subject matter and style of classical antiquity, it resembled Renaissance Italy, and that French art possessed the classical qualities of discipline, balance, and restraint. Nicholas Poussin is considered the finest example of French classicist painting. he believed that the highest aim of painting was to represent noble actions in a logical and orderly, but not realistic, way.

English Bill of Rights

The English Bill of Rights, written by revolutionaries, became a base for the British Constitution. Formulated as direct response to Stuart absolutism, it stated that Parliament made laws unable to be suspended once passed. Parliament needed to be called at least every 3 years, and elections and debate within the sessions should be free of interference from the Crown. It granted judiciary independence and required that no standing army was necessary during peace. Protestants were allowed to bear arms while Catholics could not, but it did grant freedom of worship. However, it required that the English Monarch always be Protestant

Thomas Hobbes

The problem of sovereignty was vigorously debated in the middle years of the seventeenth century. In Leviathan, English philosopher and political theorist Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679) maintains that sovereignty is ultimately derived from the people, who transfer it to the monarchy by implicit contract. The power of the ruler is absolute, but kings do not hold their power by divine right.

Why did James II flee from England in 1688? What happened to the kingship at this point?

-From the beginning James II was unpopular among the English people. He had declared himself to be a Catholic. In a Protestant dominated England, James II aroused the worst English anti-Catholic fears. King Louis XIV of France had already revoked the Edict of Nantes when James II had begun to fill positions in the military, the universities, and the local governments with Roman Catholics. His actions were taken to court, but the Catholic judges he appointed decided in favor of the king. -It looked as if the king was suspending the laws at his consent. He issued a declaration of indulgence that would grant religious freedom to all. However, seven bishops petitioned to the king that the declaration was illegal. They were imprisoned in the Tower of London, but released due to popular demand. James II had apparently received a male heir, ensuring a Catholic dynasty. These events gave the signals for revolutions. James II then fled, leaving his Protestant daughter, Mary, and her Dutch husband, William of Orange, to rule.

1. In what way does the French minister Richelieu symbolized absolutism? What were his achievements?

-Richelieu had a policy of total subordination of all groups and institutions to the French monarchy. The nobility was long considered the biggest threat to the centralizing goals of the crown and a strong national state, so Richelieu sought to restrain their power. In 1624, he re-shuffled the royal council and eliminated any threats to power. He dominated the council, leveling castles, long the symbol of feudal independence, and crushed aristocratic conspiracies quickly. His greatest accomplishment is the administrative system he established, which consisted of royal commissioners, called intendants, that ran the 32 géraliti or districts, France was made up of. They ran special tasks, like financial, judicial, and policing. As intendants' power increased under Richelieu, so did the power of the centralized French state. -achievements: destroyed guilds, taxed the bourgeoisie (merchants), created regional governments (32 different district: improved the economy and made it loyal to the king), created Nobles of the Robe (received title without land by paying for it (had special treatments))

Define mercantilism. What were the mercantilist policies of the French minister Colbert?

-mercantilism: increased role of the state in the economy in order to achieve a favorable balance (exports more than imports) of trade with other countries. -Colbert insisted that the French sell abroad and buy nothing back. He abolished domestic tariffs and enacted high foreign tariffs,. encouraged skilled foreign craftsmen and manufactures to immigrate to France, giving them special privileges. Also, he built roads and canals linking Mediterranean and the Bay if Biscay.

Peace of Utrecht (1713)

-represented the balance of power principle in operation, setting limits on the extent to which any one power (in this case France) could expand -completed the decline of Spain as a great power -vastly expanded the British Empire -it gave European powers experience in international cooperation

Who were the Puritans? Why did they come into conflict with James I?

An issue graver than royal extravagance and Parliament's desire to make law also disturbed the English, embittering relations between the king and the House of Commons. That problem was religion. In the early seventeenth century, increasing numbers of English people felt dissatisfied with the Church of England established by Henry VIII and reformed by Elizabeth. The puritans were a group of people that wanted to purify the church, but after the Reformation, they believed that the changes hadn't gone far enough to rid the Anglican Church of Roman Catholic elements. James's ideas began to conflict with the Puritan beliefs. Like when Puritans wanted to abolish bishops in the Church of England, and when James I said, "No bishop, no king," he meant that the bishops were among the chief supporters of the throne. He was no Puritan, but he was Calvinist in doctrine. Yet James gave the impression of being sympathetic to Roman Catholicism.

What were the reasons for the fall of the Spanish Empire?

By the seventeenth century, Spain was declining from their absolutism. The lack of a strong middle class, fiscal disorder, political incompetence, population decline, intellectual isolation, and psychological malaise contributed to such. The state debt and declining revenues caused currency devaluation and declaration of bankruptcy. Spanish kings reacted by canceling the national debt, thus ruining public confidence. They all lacked force of character and left the problems to others. Philip IV's administrator returned to the imperial tradition, reviving the war with the Dutch and creating one with France over Mantua. Spain became embroiled in the Thirty Years' War, while facing revolts in Catalonia and Portugal and defeat from France. The Treaty of Pyrenees of 1659, ended the French-Spanish wars, marked the end of Spain's great power.

Louis XIV of France

In the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715), the longest in European history, the French monarchy reached the peak of absolutist development. In the magnificence of his court (Versailles), in his absolute power, in the brilliance of the culture that he presided of and that permeated all of Europe, and in his remarkably long life, the "Sun King" dominated his age. He introduced significant government innovations such as "the complete domestication of the nobility." Louis's use of spying and terror (through informers and opening letters) foreshadowed some of the devices of the modern state. The money he spent on extravagance and war financially disabled France.

Why is it said that Locke was the spokesman for the liberal English Revolution of 1689 and for representative government?

It is said that Locke was the spokesman for the liberal English Revolution of 1689 and for representative government because he maintained that people set up civil governments to protect life, liberty, and property. A government that oversteps its proper function-protecting the natural rights of life, liberty, and property-becomes a tyranny. Under such a government, the people have the natural rights to rebel. Locke linked economic liberty and private property with political freedom.

What were the attitudes and policies of James I that made him so unpopular with his subjects?

James I wasn't interested in displaying the majesty and mystique of monarchy, he lacked the common touch. He didn't like to wave at the crowds who waited to greet him. He was also a poor judge of character, and in a society already hostile to Scots, his Scottish accent didn't help him. James was devoted to the theory of the divine right of kings and went so far as to lecture the House of Commons. He said that there is nothing that can stand against a king. He was implying total royal jurisdiction over the liberties, persons, and properties of English men and women formed the basis of the Stuart concept of absolutism.

Why can it be said that the palace of Versailles was used as a device to ruin the nobility of France? Was Versailles a palace or a prison?

Louis XIV installed his royal court at Versailles. He required all the great nobility of France, at the peril of social, political, and sometimes economic disaster, to come live at Versailles for at least part of the year. Louis XIV reduced the major threat to his power. He separated power from status and grandeur: secured the nobles' cooperation. Louis XIV required the nobles to live at the palace, so it was basically like a prison because Louis XIV required them to live there for part of the year. In the words of Saint-Simon, "Louis XIV reduced everyone to subjection...it was still a device to ruin the nobles by accustoming them to equality and forcing them to mingle with everyone indiscriminately. "

Discuss the foreign policy goals of Louis XIV. Was he successful?

Louis XIV of France was an aggressive expansionist. He followed in the footsteps of Cardinal Richelieu in that aspect. His foreign policies were mainly against the Habsburg dynasty's power and the ownership of French-speaking territories by nations other than France. Hence, his foreign policies included many wars. He took over the Spanish Netherlands and some of the United Provinces of Holland, and Franche-Comté. However, his aggressive advances caused alliances to be formed against him which included the Habsburg domains of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, England, and Holland in all of their incarnations. Eventually, Louis XIV could not defeat the alliances, and some acquired territories were lost again in treaties, even French colonies.

Oliver Cromwell

Oliver Cromwell rose in the parliamentary army and achieved nationwide fame by infusing the army with his Puritan convictions and molding it into a highly effective military machine, called the "New Model Army," which defeated the royalist forces in England. He kept a military government where he was the absolute ruler, and he enforced the Navigation Act that boosted the development of an English merchant marine and caused a war with the Dutch, which England won.

Describe the Dutch system of government. How was it different from that of other western European states? What was unusual about the Dutch attitudes toward religious beliefs?

The Dutch system of government was a confederation of seven provinces with each having an oligarchy of wealthy merchants called regents. The regents handled the local domestic affairs and the provincial estate held most of the power. There was also a states general which took care of wars and foreign issues but it didn't have much power in local matters. The Dutch were different from that of Western European States because of its tolerance of all religion. The Dutch attitudes towards religious belief was unusual because at the time, patriotism was closely related with religious uniformity, but Dutch sacrificed this idea for the sake of business which paid off and attracted a great deal of foreign capitals and investments.

What were the immediate and the long-range causes of the English Civil War of 1642-1649? What were the results?

The English Civil War could have been predicted from the start of the rule of James I. Both James I and Charles I believed in their divine right and refused to share any power or decision making with the Parliament or the House of Commons. Also religion became a conflict between the monarchy and the people. The people wanted further reform in the Church of England but the kings refused. Immediate causes of the war included the Scottish invasion and the Irish rebellion. Parliament's refusal to provide Charles I with an army caused Charles to gather his own army against the Parliament. In result, Charles I was executed and England entered a period of military dictatorship.

English Civil War of 1642-1649

The English civil war lasted eight years, from 1642 to 1649. Its importance was the fact that it was waged because of the debate between whether power rests in a representative form of government (Parliament), or in a sovereign ruler given power by God (divine-right monarchy). The result of the war was that Oliver Cromwell, controller of the army, became the military ruler of England. He ruled as a dictatorial figure, which was not popular and led to the restoration of the monarchy. Once again, the English were faced with the dilemma of where power should be held.

Glorious Revolution

The Glorious Revolution included events in England from 1688 to 1689. What happened was that kingship was passed on without bloody wars, and kingship was presented by Parliament. William and Mary, recognizing Parliament's supremacy, indirectly put an end to the idea of divine-right monarchy. The Glorious Revolution also established the division of sovereignty between the monarchy and Parliament, and that the king ruled with the approval of those under him. Those who brought about the revolution set out to make it permanent with the Bill of Rights, which was the basis for the modern British constitution.

Puritans

The Puritans were English people who believed that the Reformation had not gone far enough. The total population of Puritans in the English populous was difficult to establish, since the Puritans were the more zealous of the dominant Calvinists. They wanted to "purify" the Anglican Church of Roman Catholic elements like various vestments, ceremonial items, the position of the altar and the giving and wearing of wedding rings. The Puritans also wanted to abolish Bishops in the Church of England but like many of their calls for reformation it was passed over.

Were the events of 1688-1689 a victory for English democracy? Explain.

The events of 1688-1689 were not a victory for the English democracy because the revolution placed sovereignty in Parliament, and Parliament represented the upper classes. The great majority of English people had no say in their government. Even though the men who brought the revolution set up a Bill of Rights it didn't really pertain to the people but more to a wealthy and educated group of society. The new rules set up were mainly benefiting Parliament and not the people like a democracy should. The English revolution established a constitutional monarchy; it also inaugurated an age of aristocratic government, which lasted at least until 1832 and in many ways until 1914.

War of Spanish Succession

This war, provoked by territorial disputes, also involved the question of Spanish succession. Since Charles II was sexually impotent, European powers agreed by treaty to partition Spanish possessions to Charles' brother-in-laws. However, Charles left Spain to Louis XIV's grandson. The will rejected the union of France and Spain, but Louis controlled France. He reneged on the treaty. An alliance formed to prevent France's dominance and check France's commercial power. The war concluded at Utrecht in 1713, where the partition's principle was applied. The war had international consequences, due to the balance-of-power principle applied. It also gave European powers cooperation experience.

Was the revocation of the Edict of Nantes an error on the part of Louis XIV?

Though it is highly debatable that King Louis XIV made the correct decision in revoking the Edict of Nantes, he had many reasons for doing so. The French monarchy did not intend for religious toleration to be permanent, as religious pluralism was not regarded as a 17th century virtue. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes was also very popular, as aristocrats had wanted Louis XIV to crack down on the Protestants for a long time. Tens of thousands of Huguenot craftsmen, soldiers, and businessmen were emigrated, taking away their skills, revenues, and bitterness to Holland, England, Prussia, and Cape Town. However, modern scholars found that the revocation only caused a minor effect in the French economical development.

Versailles

Versailles was a hunting lodge built by French King Louis XIII which was transformed into a palace by Louis XIV. He added wings to make it U-shaped and furnished it with inlaid tables, marble statues, tapestries, silver ewers, and beautiful furniture. -The grandeur was used to awe his subjects and foreigners. - means of controlling the nobility. Louis brought many nobles to his Versailles court, excluding them from councils and having them spend their time on operas, fetes, balls, and gossip instead of politics. By giving them high status but little power, he reduced their threat.

mercantilism

mercantilism: increased role of the state in the economy in order to achieve a favorable balance (exports more than imports) of trade with other countries.