Chapter 16

An alternative to Spradley's approach to produce and analyze ethnographic data was developed by whom? A) Leininger B) Van Manen C) Colaizzi D) Giorgi

Ans: A Feedback: Approaches to ethnographic analysis other than Spradley's have also been developed. For example, in their ethnonursing research method, Leininger and McFarland (2006) provided ethnographers with a four-phase ethno nursing data analysis guide. Van Manen, Colaizzi, and Giorgi were all phenomenologists. Phenomenologists from the Utrecht School, such as Van Manen (1997), combine characteristics of descriptive and interpretive phenomenology. Colaizzi's method is the only one that calls for a validation of results by querying study participants. Giorgi's view is that it is inappropriate either to return to participants to validate findings or to use external judges to review the analysis.

Which of the following best describes the purpose of constant comparison? A) To identify commonalities among elements present in one data source with those in another B) To describe the essential nature of an experience C) To find patterns in the behavior and thoughts of participants D) To fit concepts with the incidents they are representing

Ans: A Feedback: Constant comparison is a method that involves comparing elements present in one data source (e.g., in one interview) with those in another. The process continues until the content of all sources has been compared so that commonalities are identified. To describe the essential nature of an experience is the goal of phenomenological analysis. To find patterns in the behavior and thoughts of participants is the goal of ethnographers. To fit concepts with the incidents they are representing (fit) is another element in grounded analysis theory.

Constructivist grounded theory is an approach developed by whom? A) Charmaz B) Glaser C) Strauss D) Corbin

Ans: A Feedback: In Charmaz's constructivist grounded theory, coding can be word by word, line by line, or incident by incident. Initial coding leads to focused coding, which is then followed by theoretical coding. One grounded theory approach is the Glaser and Strauss (Glaserian) method, in which there are two broad types of codes: substantive codes (in which the empirical substance of the topic is conceptualized) and theoretical codes (in which the relationships among the substantive codes are conceptualized). The Strauss and Corbin (2008) approach to grounded theory analysis differs from the original Glaser and Strauss method with regard to method, processes, and outcomes.

Which of the following is the final phase of Leininger and McFarland's (2006) ethnonursing data analysis guide? A) Abstract major themes and present findings B) Identify and categorize descriptors C) Analyze data to discover repetitive patterns in their context D) Collect, describe, and record data

Ans: A Feedback: In their ethnonursing research method, Leininger and McFarland (2006) provided ethnographers with a four-phase ethnonursing data analysis guide. In the first phase ethnographers collect, describe, and record data. The second phase involves identifying and categorizing descriptors. In phase 3, data are analyzed to discover repetitive patterns in their context. The fourth and final phase involves.

Which of the following can best facilitate researchers' search for themes? A) Charting devices B) Detailed coding C) Quasi-statistics D) Computer software

Ans: A Feedback: Researchers' search for themes, regularities, and patterns in the data can sometimes be facilitated by charting devices that enable them to summarize the evolution of behaviors, events, and processes. Detailed coding and computer software are tasks involved in data management and organization, not in the search for themes. Quasi-statistics are used to validate and refine themes, not to facilitate the search for them.

Before the advent of computer software for qualitative analysis, the main procedure for managing qualitative data was the development of which of the following? A) Conceptual files B) Core categories C) Memos D) Themes

Ans: A Feedback: Traditionally, researchers have organized their data by developing conceptual files, which are physical files in which coded excerpts of data for specific categories are placed. Memos, themes, and core categories have not traditionally been used for management of qualitative data; rather they are current methods of analyzing qualitative data. Now, however, computer programs (CAQDAS) are widely used to perform basic indexing functions and to facilitate data analysis.

Spradley's method includes which type of data analysis? Select all that apply. A) Domain analysis B) Taxonomic analysis C) Componential analysis D) Statistical analysis

Ans: A, B, C Feedback: One analytic approach is Spradley's method, which involves four levels of analysis: domain analysis (identifying domains, or units of cultural knowledge); taxonomic analysis (selecting key domains and constructing taxonomies); componential analysis (comparing and contrasting terms in a domain); and a theme analysis (to uncover cultural themes). Statistical analysis is a method used in analyzing quantitative studies and is not included in Spradley's method.

Which of the following is an activity involved in qualitative content analysis? Select all that apply. A) Breaking down data into smaller units B) Coding and naming units according to the content they represent C) Collecting information on participants D) Grouping coded material based on shared concepts

Ans: A, B, D Feedback: Qualitative content analysis involves breaking down data into smaller units, coding and naming the units according to the content they represent, and grouping coded material based on shared concepts. Collecting information on participants is not associated with the process of content analysis.

Diekelmann and colleagues proposed a 7-stage process of hermeneutic analysis that includes the identification of which of the following? A) An appropriate metaphor B) A constitutive pattern C) A hermeneutic circle D) An exemplar

Ans: B Feedback: Diekelmann's team method of hermeneutic analysis calls for the discovery of a constitutive pattern that expresses the relationships among themes. Benner's approach consists of three processes: searching for paradigm cases, thematic analysis, and analysis of exemplars. Some qualitative analysts use metaphors or figurative comparisons to evoke a visual and symbolic analogy. Central to analyzing data in a hermeneutic study is the notion of the hermeneutic circle, which signifies a process in which there is continual movement between the parts and the whole of the text under analysis.

Why does a researcher introduce quasi-statistics? A) As an analytic strategy B) To validate and refine themes C) As a taxonomic analysis D) To provide an overall structure

Ans: B Feedback: In validating and refining themes, some researchers introduce quasi-statisticsóa tabulation of the frequency with which certain themes or insights are supported by the data. The use of quasi-statistics does not provide overall structure or taxonomic analysis and it is not an analytic strategy in and of itself.

Validation of themes by conferring with study participants was specifically considered inappropriate by whom? A) Colaizzi B) Giorgi C) Glaser D) Strauss

Ans: B Feedback: Phenomenologists search for common patterns shared by particular instances. There are, however, some important differences among these approaches. Colaizzi's method, for example, is the only one that calls for a validation of results by querying study participants. Giorgi's view is that it is inappropriate either to return to participants to validate findings or to use external judges to review the analysis. The grounded theory method emerged in the 1960s in connection with research that focused on dying in hospitals by two sociologists, Glaser and Strauss. The two co-originators eventually split and developed divergent schools of thought, which have been called the ìGlaserianî and ìStraussianî versions of grounded theory.

In qualitative data analysis, which element can be used as an analytic strategy? A) Management B) Metaphors C) Conceptualization D) Constructivism

Ans: B Feedback: Some qualitative researchers use metaphors as an analytic strategy. A metaphor is a symbolic comparison, using figurative language to evoke a visual analogy. Management, conceptualization and constructivism are all valid components of qualitative analysis, but none constitutes an analytic strategy.

What is the primary outcome of Strauss and Corbin's (2008) approach to grounded theory? A) A theory of how a social problem is processed B) A full conceptual description C) A central category D) A core category

Ans: B Feedback: The outcome of the Strauss and Corbin approach is a full conceptual description. The original grounded theory method, by contrast, generates a theory that explains how a basic social problem that emerged from the data is processed in a social setting. Deciding on the central category (sometimes called the core category), which is the main category of the research, is the first step in integrating the findings in the Strauss and Corbin approach.

Quasi-statistics are essentially a method of which of the following? A) Statistical analysis B) Validation C) Thematic generation D) Constant comparison

Ans: B Feedback: Validation concerns whether the themes accurately represent the perspectives of the participants. In validating and refining themes, some researchers introduce quasi-statisticsóa tabulation of the frequency with which certain themes or insights are supported by the data. Statistical analysis is a method used in analyzing quantitative studies. In a final step of theme generation, analysts try to weave the thematic strands together into an integrated picture of the phenomenon under investigation. Grounded theory uses the constant comparative method of data analysis, a method that involves comparing elements present in one data source (e.g., in one interview) with those in another.

Steps generally employed in the management and analysis of qualitative data include which of the following? Select all that apply. A) Testing hypotheses B) Searching for recurrent themes and patterns C) Validating themes and patterns D) Developing a category scheme

Ans: B, C, D Feedback: Glaser's grounded theory method is concerned with the generation of categories and hypotheses rather than testing them. A first step in analyzing qualitative data is to organize and index the materials for easy retrieval, typically by coding the content of the data according to a category scheme that is developed. The actual analysis of data begins with a search for patterns and themes and continues with the validation of these patterns and themes..

Which of the following accurately describes a task that computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software can accomplish? Select all that apply. A) Code interview portions and observational records B) Facilitate examination of relationships between codes C) Inform the researcher of how best to analyze the data D) Allow retrieval of portions of text corresponding to specified codes for analysis

Ans: B, D Feedback: Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) can help to remove some of the work of cutting and pasting pages of narrative material. Dozens of CAQDAS have been developed. These programs permit an entire data set to be entered onto the computer, each portion of an interview or observational record coded, and then portions of the text corresponding to specified codes retrieved for analysis. The software can also be used to examine relationships between codes. Software cannot, however, do the coding, and it cannot tell the researcher how to analyze the data.

Which of the following is the correct order of tasks in organizing and managing narrative data for qualitative analysis? A) 1. Organize the data; 2. develop a category scheme; 3. read and code the data; 4. check the accuracy of transcribed data B) 1. Develop a category scheme; 2. check the accuracy of transcribed data; 3. read and code the data; 4. organize the data C) 1. Check the accuracy of transcribed data; 2. develop a category scheme; 3. read and code the data; 4. organize the data D) 1. Read and code the data; 2. develop a category scheme; 3. check the accuracy of transcribed data; 4. organize the data

Ans: C Feedback: A key first step in qualitative analysis is checking the accuracy of transcribed data. Subsequent steps, in order, include developing a category scheme, reading and coding the data, and organizing the data.

The primary goal of ethnography is which of the following? A) To identify and categorize descriptors B) To abstract major themes C) To find patterns in the behavior and thoughts of participants D) To collect, describe, and record data

Ans: C Feedback: Analysis typically begins the moment ethnographers set foot in the field. Ethnographers are continually looking for patterns in the behavior and thoughts of participants, comparing one pattern against another, and analyzing many patterns simultaneously. Identifying and categorizing descriptors, abstracting major themes, and collecting, describing, and recording data are all phases in the ethnonursing research method, which is one approach to ethnographic analysis.

Which of the following statements is true? A) Narrative materials tend to be linear, which simplifies the coding process. B) Qualitative researchers typically develop a category scheme before they collect their data. C) CAQDAS is available for coding, organizing, and retrieving qualitative data. D) Content analysis is the analytic method used in phenomenologic studies.

Ans: C Feedback: Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) can help to remove some of the work of cutting and pasting pages of narrative material. Software cannot, however, do the coding, and it cannot tell the researcher how to analyze the data.. Narrative materials usually are not linear, a fact that complicates coding. For example, paragraphs from transcribed interviews may contain elements relating to three or four different categories, embedded in a complex fashion. A preliminary category system is sometimes drafted before data collection, but more typically qualitative analysts develop category schemes based on a scrutiny of actual data. Qualitative content analysis involves analyzing the content of narrative data to identify prominent themes and patterns among the themes; this approach is not used in phenomenologic studies, which have alternate analytic methods.

Which of the following is the first stage of Diekelmann, Allen, and Tanner's (1989) process of data analysis in hermeneutics? A) Interpretive summaries of each interview are written. B) A team of researchers analyzes selected transcribed interviews or texts. C) All the interviews or texts are read for an overall understanding. D) Common meanings and shared practices are identified by comparing and contrasting the text.

Ans: C Feedback: Diekelmann and colleagues' stages include the following: 1. All the interviews or texts are read for an overall understanding. 2. Interpretive summaries of each interview are written. 3. A team of researchers analyzes selected transcribed interviews or texts. 4. Any disagreements on interpretation are resolved by going back to the text. 5. Common meanings and shared practices are identified by comparing and contrasting the text. 6. Relationships among themes emerge. 7. A draft of the themes along with exemplars from texts are presented to the team. Responses or suggestions are incorporated into the final draft.

The process referred to as constant comparison involves which of the following? A) Comparing two researchers' interpretation of the data B) Comparing the researchers' interpretation of the data against study participants' interpretation C) Comparing elements present in one data source with those in another D) Comparing data from the study with data and categories from other similar studies

Ans: C Feedback: Grounded theory uses the constant comparative method of data analysis, a method that involves comparing elements present in one data source (e.g., in one interview) with those in another, not comparing two researchers' interpretation of the data, researchers' interpretation of the data against study participants' interpretation, or data from the study with data and categories from other similar studies.

Which of the following is a significant challenge in qualitative analysis? A) Mastering the standard procedures for analyzing qualitative data B) Lack of narrative materials to analyze C) Reducing data for reporting purposes D) Deducing particulars from a universal

Ans: C Feedback: Qualitative data analysis is challenging, for several reasons. First, the absence of standard procedures makes it difficult to explain how to do such analyses. A second challenge is that qualitative analysts must organize and make sense of hundreds or even thousands of pages of narrative materials. A third challenge is that doing qualitative analysis well requires creativity, sensitivity, and strong inductive skills (inducing universals from particulars). A good qualitative analyst must be skillful in discerning patterns and weaving them together into an integrated whole. Another challenge comes in reducing data for reporting purposes. Quantitative results can often be summarized in a few tables. Qualitative researchers, by contrast, must balance the need to be concise with the need to maintain the richness and evidentiary value of their data.

In the Strauss and Corbin approach to grounded theory, the initial process of breaking down, categorizing, and coding the data is often referred to as which of the following? A) Axial coding B) Core coding C) Open coding D) Selective coding

Ans: C Feedback: The Strauss and Corbin grounded theory approach involves three types of coding: open (in which categories are generated), axial coding (where categories are linked with subcategories), and selective (in which the findings are integrated and refined). Substantive coding involves open coding to capture what is going on in the data, and then selective coding, in which only variables relating to a core category are coded. There is no core coding.

The Duquesne School of Phenomenology is based on the philosophy of which of the following? A) Colaizzi B) Van Kaam C) Husserl D) Giorgi

Ans: C Feedback: Three frequently used methods for descriptive phenomenology are the methods of Colaizzi (1978), Giorgi (1985), and Van Kaam (1966), all of whom are from the Duquesne School of phenomenology, based on Husserl's philosophy.

The first major step that a researcher must undertake in a qualitative analysis is which of the following? A) A search for major themes B) A search for appropriate metaphors C) The use of quasi-statistics D) Developing a system for organizing and indexing the data

Ans: D Feedback: A first step in analyzing qualitative data is to organize and index the materials for easy retrieval, typically by coding the content of the data according to a category scheme. The actual analysis of data begins with a search for patterns and themes, which involves the discovery not only of commonalities across participants, but also of natural variation in the data. Some qualitative analysts use metaphors or figurative comparisons to evoke a visual and symbolic analogy. Another analytic step involves validation of the thematic analysis. Some researchers use quasi-statistics, a tabulation of the frequency with which certain themes or relations are supported by the data. In a final step, analysts try to weave the thematic strands together into an integrated picture of the phenomenon under investigation.

Level III codes, in the Glaser and Strauss approach to grounded theory, are which of the following? A) Axial codes B) In vivo codes C) Open codes D) Theoretical constructs

Ans: D Feedback: In the Glaserian method, open codes begin with level I (in vivo) codes, which are collapsed into a higher level of abstraction in level II codes. Level II codes are then used to formulate level III codes, which are theoretical constructs. Axial coding is one of the three types of coding used in the Strauss and Corbin grounded theory method, not in the Glaser and Strauss method.

Selective coding in Glaserian approach to grounded theory studies begins when which of the following occurs? A) Constant comparison has ended B) Data saturation has occurred C) Memos have been prepared D) A core category has been identified

Ans: D Feedback: Open coding ends when the core category is discovered, and then selective coding begins, not when data saturation has occurred or when memos have been prepared. Grounded theory uses the constant comparative method of data analysis, a method that involves comparing elements present in one data source (e.g., in one interview) with those in another.

Phenomenology most fundamentally involves a search for which of the following? A) A core category from open coding B) Intersubjective agreement among judges C) Thematic descriptions from artistic sources D) Common patterns shared by particular instances

Ans: D Feedback: The basic outcome of all three methods of phenomenology is the description of the essential nature of an experience, often through the identification of essential themes. Phenomenologists search for common patterns shared by particular instances. Van Manen, a phenomenologist from the Utrecht School, called for gleaning thematic descriptions from artistic sources, such as literature, painting, and other art forms, claiming that they can provide rich experiential data that can increase insights into the essential meaning of the experience being studied. This, however, is not the fundamental goal of phenomenology. Discovery of a core category as a result of open coding is part of constant comparison, a method used in grounded theory research, not phenomenology. Intersubjective agreement among judges is a requirement of the method of Van Kaam, a phenomenologist of the Duquesne School; again, this is not the fundamental object of search in phenomenology.